ajote: international connections and teacher preparation ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 3 no. 2 (summer 2013) ajote editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) summer 2013 issue. this issue continues to reflect the diverse expertise of africa’s education experts. ajote: international connections and teacher preparation, summer 2013 issue includes educational studies across a range of nations. the first two articles demonstrate curriculum connection between african national curriculums and united states curriculum. kelly and cordileone open this issue with reflections on the experiences of a ugandan and united states teacher partnership program set in uganda. in the next article stabler and owusu review ghana’s and a u.s. social studies curriculum to discuss the need to revise curriculum on the trans-atlantic slave trade to better represent african and diaspora roles and results in this crucial historical period. majiuni uses a case study in nigeria to discuss the need to include indigenous knowledge, i.e. oral histories and perspectives, in order to both develop accurate feminist based research in african education. she points out in using oral histories as a way to improve gender representation in social studies that this method also helps educators learn through indigenous education. the next two articles also focus on teachers’ roles in the curriculum, as mabagala focuses on the sometimes ethical and moral dilemmas faced by physical education teachers in tanzania due to their necessarily physically close and often emotionally close relationship with students as they coach and mentor them. on another important topic, konyana and konyana discuss the role of computers or lack thereof in rural zimbabwe’s curriculum and the need to provide adequate infrastructure to support teacher training and student development in computer education. the final three articles wrestle with issues in teacher education and the need to maintain quality training. anane discusses issues of high stakes testing in ghana’s teacher education program and the issue of whether such testing works for or against effective teacher preparation. newman’s article moves this discussion one step further, as he discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the recent change in ghana to transition teacher training institutions to part of the tertiary system as colleges of education. the many changes in curriculum and testing that this represents are discussed in his article. the last article in this issue by kaphesi also highlights the difficulty in providing valid teacher training through the analysis of student teacher assessments by comparing graded assessments with supervision comments. the upcoming ajote fall 2013 is already underway thanks to the many valuable contributions of our readers and the professional reviews from our editorial board. please remember to share this issue and others with your colleagues and encourage them to submit professional papers for the winter 2014 issue. the summer 2014 issue is scheduled as a special issue on indigenous education. articles in this issue will address indigenous education structures and practices and its continued role within african societies including the ways it contributes to the national formal and informal education curricula. please watch for this special issue call for papers. your support of ajote as helped us to expand our coverage in african education and reach more readers in our effort to increase awareness of african education. we encourage and welcome submissions on african education in all fields and from all regions of the continent. http://gir.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/issue/current ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 3 no. 2 (summer 2013) as always a sincere thank you to ajote’s outstanding editorial board, who consistently provide thorough peer review of paper submissions. if you are interested in becoming an editorial board member, please e-mail your request, along with your cv, to ajote at ajote2011@gmail.com. sincerely, dr. jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo mailto:ajote2011@gmail.com ajote: science, technology, and mathematics education: status review and reflection ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) spring 2012 issue. thank you for your patience during ajote’s transition to a new setting under a new editor-in-chief. as many of you may know during the past year spread corporation publications moved into its new academic home at the university of guelph in ontario, canada. management of the journal remained under dr. femi kolapo as the executive director of spread cooperation and managing editor of spread corporation’s journals of education and recreation. also during the past year, dr. w.e. obiozor stepped down as editor-in-chief to accept an appointment at nnamdi azikiwe university in awka, nigeria. his contribution to ajote is greatly appreciated as he oversaw the publication of ajote’s maiden issue. i hope to fill his shoes in maintaining ajote as a quality publication that is responsive to the needs of its readers and contributors. wayne johnston, head of research enterprise and scholarly communication at university of guelph, is providing excellent technical support through his oversight of the open journal system. these transitions in location and staff took some time, but it was all in an effort to guarantee that ajote maintains its high standards and continues to represent the best of african education research and scholarly thought from across the continent. ajote’s spring 2012 issue focuses on science, technology, and mathematics from a range of perspectives. the interdisciplinary nature of education is represented across this issue’s articles as authors look at the interrelatedness of mathematics and chemistry, mathematics performance and teacher workloads, science and indigenous knowledge, as well as research on the related aspects of technology education and resource and personnel issues, and the important role of technology in peace studies. while each author addresses a specific content area, he or she also locates the content area within the broader context of curriculum theory and design. whether you are a content area specialist or a foundations expert, each article provides some important insight to your field. finally, a sincere thank you is offered to ajote’s outstanding editorial board members, who remain committed to providing thorough and timely peer reviews. ajote encourages contributions on education in africa. on behalf of the editorial board and me, we thank you for your interest and support and welcome your paper submissions. sincerely, dr. jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo microsoft word offiah.docx the effect of timing of teaching relevant mathematics principles on achievement in chemistry franca offiah nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria naomi samuel nnamdi azikiwe university high school, nigeria abstract this study is on the influence of a prior knowledge of mathematics principles on achievement in chemistry. the researcher investigated whether or not students’ achievement in chemistry could be improved by teaching them selected mathematical principles before teaching chemistry or teaching them selected mathematical principles simultaneously with chemistry. the study was carried out in anambra state nigeria. the design is quasi-experimental involving 300 secondary 2 students from six secondary schools distributed into three groups. group one was taught mathematics before chemistry, group two, was taught mathematics simultaneously with chemistry, while group three received no special mathematics lesson. the groups were pre-tested with an instrument comprised of 50 multiple choice questions in chemistry and post-tested with a reshuffled edition of the pre-test after experiment. the researchers used ancova to analyze the results, which revealed that the students taught mathematics before chemistry outperformed other groups. 2 the effect of timing of teaching relevant mathematics principles on achievement in chemistry ___________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) introduction with the advancement of science and technology, the focus of chemical research has changed thereby affecting topics covered in modern chemistry courses. the interaction between different science subjects has increased. the need of knowing related subjects is enhanced due to the many applications of chemistry. chemistry is sister to all the natural science subjects and is also an important subject in medical and engineering sciences. due to its widespread applications and complexity of problems, it involves mathematics as a main partner in achieving its goals. mathematics is used widely in chemistry as well as other sciences. mathematical calculations are absolutely necessary to explore important concepts in chemistry. without some basic mathematical skills, these calculations and therefore chemistry will be extremely difficult. taking mathematics as a tool, many complicated problems are solved and the results are obtained in a simple but logical way which otherwise would prove very difficult. according to etukodo and nnaobi (2002), the place of mathematical skill in teaching chemistry for sustainable development should be emphasized as the lack of requisite mathematical skills makes it impossible to produce chemistry graduates from diverse educational programs that can fit effectively into the world of work or accurately apply what they have learned to real life problems. statement of problem inadequate mathematics education is one of the problems identified that militates against students’ progress in chemistry (webb 1973, ali 1983, akpan 1988). some mathematical tasks and principles are frequently taught in secondary school chemistry. knowledge of such tasks and principles is essential for understanding secondary school chemistry. the problem addressed in this study is the question of when is it most appropriate to teach a student the mathematical principles essential for understanding chemistry. purpose of study the researchers want to determine if students’ achievement in chemistry can be improved by teaching them selected mathematical principles (smps) before chemistry is taught or by teaching them smps simultaneously with chemistry. significance of study this study’s findings will aid the curriculum planning experts in determining the stage at which relevant mathematical concepts important for particular topics in chemistry should be studied. it will motivate mathematics and chemistry teachers to engage in team teaching. scope of study chemistry requires a number of mathematics principles and concepts for easy comprehension. in this work, the following mathematical concepts were considered: significant digits scientific notations unit analysis structured problem solving approach. students were taught the above mathematical concepts under the following mathematics topics: significant figures 3 franca offiah and naomi samuel ___________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) simple equations statistical treatment of data change of subject formula mensuration (measurement) the chemistry topics covered in this study include: electrolysis energy and chemical reaction gas laws. research questions in order to carry out an effective study, the researchers formulated the following questions:  to what extent do students who receive prior lessons on smps before receiving chemistry lessons and those who receive lessons on smps and chemistry simultaneously differ in their achievement in chemistry?  to what extent do students who were taught smps and chemistry simultaneously and those who received lessons in chemistry only differ in their achievement in chemistry?  to what extent do students who received lessons on smps prior to lessons in chemistry and those who received lessons in chemistry only differ in their achievement in chemistry? hypotheses the following hypotheses were formulated at 0.05 level of significance:  there is no significant difference in the chemistry achievement level between students who received prior lessons on smps before chemistry lessons and those who received lessons on smps and chemistry simultaneously using their post-test scores.  there is no significant difference in the chemistry achievement level between students who received only chemistry lessons and those who received smps and chemistry simultaneously using their post-tests. research design the design was quasi-experimental and used intact classes of students. pre-tests and post-tests were incorporated in the design. there were two experimental groups and one control group. group i: students who were taught smps before they were taught chemistry. group ii: students who were taught smps and chemistry simultaneously. group iii: students who were taught only chemistry with no special mathematical principles. area of study this study was conducted in the awka education zone of anambra state, nigeria which includes the following five local government areas:  awka south local government area  awka north local government area  anaocha local government area  dunukofia local government area 4 the effect of timing of teaching relevant mathematics principles on achievement in chemistry ___________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012)  njikoka local government area. all five local government areas participated in the study. population the study population encompassed all senior secondary, form 2 (ssii) students studying chemistry among other sciences in all state government-owned secondary schools in awka education zone. sample and sampling technique this study involved 300 ssii students from six secondary schools in awka education zone. intact classes of 50 students each were selected. the selection of schools and classes used was by random sampling with replacement. instrument used for data collection the instrument utilized for data collection was the chemistry achievement test (cat). all questions in the cat were based on chemistry concepts and principles taught to the ssii students. the cat comprised 50 objective test items. the multiple-choice questions were designed for validity and clarity of expressions. each question had plausible destructors. a minimum of four options were used for all questions because the larger the number of plausible destructors the greater the reliability of the test items. listed below are the item specifications for the cat. table 1 item specifications for chemistry achievement test course knowled ge compre hension application analysis synthesis evaluati on total electrolysis 20% 1(2%) 2(4%) 2(4%) 2(4%) 2(4%) 1(2%) 10(20%) energy chemical reaction 58% 3(6%) 2(8%) 6(12%) 6(12%) 5(10%) 5(10%) 29(58%) gas laws 22% 2(4%) 2(4%) 2(4%) 2(4%) 2(4%) 1(2%) 11(22%) total 100% 6(12%) 8(16%) 10(20%) 10(20%) 9(18%) 7(14%) 50(100%) a raw possible score of 100 (2 points per item) was allotted to the objective test. the validity of the cat was further ensured by subjecting the cat to a panel of experts for a critique of content coverage, clarity, and level appropriateness. treatment procedure the three groups used in the study were found to be academically equivalent before commencement of the treatments. two major treatments were implemented. the first was the mathematics teaching referred to as the smps that included significant digits, scientific notation, unit analysis, equation transposing, and a structured problem solving approach. these concepts were taught under the following topics: significant figures, simple equations, statistical treatment of data, change of subject formula, and mensuration (measurement). the second teaching treatment was chemistry teaching. the following topics, part of the ssii curriculum for senior 5 franca offiah and naomi samuel ___________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) school chemistry, were covered: electrolysis, energy and chemical reaction, and calculation on gas laws. the three groups were all given a pre-test of the cat before commencing the experiment. the study lasted for six weeks. group i: during the first two weeks this group was taught smps by mathematics teachers using two double periods per week (i.e. 4 periods per week) totaling eight periods of 40 minutes each for these two weeks. from the third to the sixth weeks, chemistry was taught to the students by their chemistry teacher using two double periods per week for a total of 16 periods of 40 minutes each for these four weeks. group ii: this group was also taught smps by their mathematics teacher. however, the mathematics lesson preceded the chemistry lesson each day. at the end of the mathematics lesson, the chemistry teacher started the chemistry lesson. one mathematics period was taught per week for the first four weeks of the study and two periods per week in the last two weeks (fifth and the sixth weeks). chemistry was taught from the beginning of the first week to the last week of the study. thus chemistry was taught along side mathematics. a total of eight periods of mathematics and 16 periods of chemistry were taught to this group as with group i. the difference for group ii was that three periods of chemistry were taught per week for the first four weeks; then for the last two weeks two periods of chemistry were taught per week. group iii: this was the control group. they were not taught smps. from the third week, this group was taught chemistry at the rate of four periods per week. at the end of six weeks, all members of the three groups were given three days for review. the post-test was then administered to each group. data analysis table 2 groups i and ii pre and post-test mean scores source of variation pre-test mean post-test mean mean gain group i (n=100) 10.22 66.52 56.30 group ii (n=100) 11.32 52.36 41.04 table 2 lists pre and post-test mean score for group i and group ii. group i received lessons on smps before they received chemistry lessons. group ii received lessons on smps and chemistry lessons simultaneously. table 3 groups ii and iii pre and post-test mean scores source of variation pre-test mean post-test mean mean gain group ii (n=100) 11.32 52.36 41.04 group iii (n=100) 11.49 43.50 32.01 table 3 lists pre and post-test mean scores of group ii students who received lessons on smps and chemistry lessons simultaneously and group iii pre and post-test mean scores who received only chemistry lessons. table 4 groups i and iii pre and post-test mean scores 6 the effect of timing of teaching relevant mathematics principles on achievement in chemistry ___________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) source of variation pre-test mean post-test mean mean gain group i (n=100) 10.22 66.52 56.30 group iii (n=100) 11.49 43.50 32.01 table 4 lists pre and post-test mean scores of group 1 students who received lessons on smps prior to chemistry lessons and group iii pre and post-test mean scores who received only chemistry lessons. ancova comparison was used on the post-test mean scores of all three groups. this was used to test hypotheses 1 and 2. table 5 ancova of the mean scores for all three groups’ cat post-tests source of variation sum of squares df mean square cal. f crit. f p >0.5 corrected models 38368.90 6 6394.82 intercept 170985.53 1 9714.75 experimental group 29397.37 2 14698.68 207.93 3.00 0.05 error residual 20712.29 293 70.69 total 937990.00 300 table 5 lists the ancova of the mean scores from the cat post-test for all students in chemistry after receiving the treatments as previously described. it indicates that at 0.05 level of significance, 2 df numerator and 299 df denominator, the calculated f, 207.93 is greater than the critical f, 3.00. the researchers then concluded that there is a significant difference in the achievement level among chemistry students after receiving treatment in their various groups. summary of findings the analysis produced the following major findings:  chemistry students who were taught mathematical principles prior to chemistry lessons performed better than those who received smps and chemistry lessons simultaneously.  students who received lessons on smps and chemistry simultaneously performed better than those who were taught only chemistry.  students who received lessons on smps prior to chemistry lessons performed better than those who were taught only chemistry. discussion and conclusion the study has revealed that giving students prior lessons on smps before they are taught chemistry has a significant effect on achievement in chemistry. looking at the achievement of the two experimental groups, it is clear that the group which was taught smps for the six weeks prior to when chemistry was taught performed better than the group taught smps and chemistry at the same time. the researchers concluded that the timing of teaching the smps was the main factor contributing to the variation in achievement. the result of this investigation shows that teaching mathematics before chemistry ensures higher student achievement than teaching the 7 franca offiah and naomi samuel ___________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) essential mathematics and chemistry simultaneously. thus for maximum student performance and academic success in chemistry at senior secondary school, essential mathematic principles should be a prerequisite for students who wish to study chemistry. recommendations in the senior secondary school system, teachers in the science and mathematics departments should work as a team. the teachers should certify that all required mathematic principles essential for chemistry, physics, etc., are taught in senior secondary, form 1 and ensure that students master these concepts before they are begin chemistry coursework. finally, the chemistry teacher should ensure that all essential mathematic principles for chemistry taught by the mathematics teacher are reviewed with students by the chemistry teacher before they begin teaching chemistry. references ali, a. (1983). the performance of nigeria secondary school ordinary level science students’ mathematical task essential for secondary school science. journal of science teachers association of nigeria, 22(2), 60-62. akpan, a.a. (1988). role of mathematics in science education circular. journal of citadel, 2(5), 121-123. etukodo, u.e., & nnaobi, a.f. (2002). chemistry for sustainable development. 43rd annual conference proceeding of science teachers association of nigeria, 254-258. orton, t., & roper, t. (2000). science/mathematics a relationship in need of counseling? studies in science education, 35, 123-154. webb, n.g.g. (1973). developing good relationship between mathematics and science. school science review, 54 (188), 441-449. okonze&olaitan competency improvement needs of women in agriculture in processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security in south eastern nigeria. j. a. ukonze, ph.d. & s. o. olaitan, ph.d. department of vocational teacher education university of nigeria, nsukka. jadimonye@gmail.com   abstract this study focused on the identification of competency improvement needs of women in agriculture (wia) in processing cocoyam into flour and chips. to achieve these objectives, four research questions guided the study. descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study. the study was conducted in south-eastern nigeria made up of abia, anambra, ebonyi, enugu and imostate the target population for this study was 362 women processors. it was found out that women processors required improvement in cocoyam processing enterprise as follows: planning competencies (12 competency items), processing cocoyam into flour (13 competency items), processing cocoyam into chips (13 competency items) and marketing (7 competency items). it was therefore recommended that co-operatives, government agencies, and relevant ngos should help use the findings of this study to improve acquisition of competencies of women in cocoyam processing for food security in south-eastern nigeria. introduction cocoyam varieties (xanthosoma sagittifolium) called tannia and (colocasia esculenta) called taro are important staple food crop grown extensively in south-eastern nigeria. edet and nsukka (2000) stated that cocoyam is a member of araceae family and in the group of monocot plant. cocoyam is one of the most valuable root crops in nigeria, second in west africa. ugulu (1996) explained that cocoyam has broad leaves with long stem attached to a corm which grows into the soil with cormels. it is the cormels that are of great economic, social and nutritional importance to the people of the south-eastern nigeria. iwuoha and kalu (2000) emphasized that cocoyam can be processed into cocoyam flour, chips and poi a processed form of taro which is popular in hawaiian and polynesian. the author further stated that cocoyam flour is highly digestible and therefore suitable for feeding invalids, for making confectionaries and baby food. in south eastern nigerian , the flour from cocoyam can be made into fufu as food, or backed into biscuits or pellets for feeding livestock as concentrates while cocoyam chips can be mixed with other beans such as "fiofio" (kajanus kajan) as food to form a complete diet. in the area of the study, cocoyam production involved, growing of cocoyam till maturity, harvesting, processing and marketing. ihekoronye in akwaji (2006) defined processing as activities designed to alter the shape and size of a product, with a view of improving its handling and quality. also hornby (2006) define processing as a series of things that are carried out in order to achieve a particular result. in the context of this paper, cocoyam processing involves different activities designed to alter the shape and size of cocoyam into flour and chips in order to improve its keeping quality for use in future. cocoyam are grown, processed and consumed by women in agriculture in south eastern nigeria. these women are regarded as mature females who convert cocoyam cormels into flour and chips to improve their keeping quality for food security for the future. food security in the views of bill clinton (2008) is when all people have enough to eat at all time to be healthy and active, and do not have the fear that the situation will change in the future. anderson (2009) defined food security as access by all people at all time to enough food for active healthy life. also in the submission of world food summit (1996), food security exist when every person has physical and economic access to all times to healthy and nutritional food in sufficient quantity to cover the needs of their daily national and food preferences in order to live a healthy and active life. cocoyam production is seasonal; it is mainly available between the month of august and november. this is the period when women processors processed cocoyam into flour and chips for food security. these women though working hard on the job but are still very poor economically, because they have not been able to development requisite entrepreneurial competences in processing cocoyam beyond the traditional subsistent level as a result of the following reasons. i. absence of simplified processing technologies that could be managed by the women themselves to improve their income from the crops due to contracts ii. absence of well qualified trainers that could impact these competencies to the women without much infringement on their traditional house schedules encompassed in agriculture.. iii. absence of well developed competencies based crop production programme for training women in agriculture including cocoyam. competency in the view of olaitan (2003) is the knowledge, skill, attitudes and judgement which one required in order to perform successful at a specified proficiency programme. encarta (2009) defined competency as the ability to do something well, measured against a standard especially ability acquired through experience or training. in the context of this study, competency is knowledge, skills and attitude required for success in cocoyam processing by women in south eastern nigeria. entrepreneurial competency, therefore, are those special competencies a person should possess in order to go into self employment and succeed. in cocoyam processing enterprise, women in agriculture require competencies in planning, processing and marketing in order to manage resources available effectively, for economic profit. to improve the present standard of women in cocoyam processing for food security, there is therefore need to improve these women entrepreneurially in cocoyam processing in order to retain them economically in the business and attract others into the enterprise. improvement in the view of encarta (2009) is the process of making something better. therefore improvement in processing cocoyam into flour and chips by women involves the following a. making the quality of flour and chips better than they use to be. b. economy of time in processing. c. processing enough for sell and for food security. d. involving simple technology in processing, preservation and storage of cocoyam flour and chips. e. improving marketing strategies through information and communication technology (ict). f. ensuring improved exportation of processed cocoyam into other countries for increase foreign exchange earnings. the purpose of this study therefore, is to identify competency improvement needs of women in agriculture in processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security in south eastern nigeria. specifically the study sought to: 1. identify competency improvement in planning needed by women in agriculture for success in cocoyam processing enterprise. 2. identify competency improvement in processing cocoyam into flour/chips required by women in agriculture. 3. identify competency improvement in marketing needed by women in agriculture for success in cocoyam processing enterprise. (source: olaitan and ndomi 2000) methodology four research questions guided this study. descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. olaitan and ali (2000) explained survey research design as one which studies large or small population by selecting and analysing data, collected from the group through the use of questionnaire. the design was used to collect data from women processors. the study was conducted in south eastern nigeria, made up of abia, anambra, ebonyi, enugu and imo state. the population for the study was three hundred and sixty-two (362) women processors. the population was small and therefore the entire population constituted the respondents. a forty five (45) structured questionnaire developed from the literature review was used for data collection. the questionnaire was divided into two categories of needed and performance. the needed category was assigned a four point response scale of highly needed (4), averagely needed (3), slightly needed (2), and not needed (1) while the performance category was assigned a four point response scale of high performance (hp), average performance (ap), low performance (lp), and no performance (np) with a corresponding value of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. three experts from the department of crop science and vocational teacher education (agricultural education) university of nigeria face validated the questionnaire items. their suggestions were used to improve the final version of the questionnaire. split half techniques and cronbach alpha reliability method were involved in determining the internet consistency of the instrument. a reliability of 0.88 was obtained. five trained research assistance at one assistant per state helped to administer 362 copies of the questionnaire to the respondent. all the three hundred and sixty-two (362) copies of the questionnaire were retrieved and analysed using weighted mean and improvement needed index (ini) to answer the research questions. to determine the performance gap or improvement needed by women in agriculture in cocoyam processing enterprise, the following steps were taken: the weighted mean of each item under the needed category which is xn was calculated. xp was also calculated. the weighted mean of each item under the performance category which is the difference between the two weighted means for each item (xn xp) was determined. a. where the difference was zero (0) for each item, there was no need for improvement, because the level at which the item was needed as indicated by the weighted mean was equal to the level at which the women will perform that particular competency b. where the difference was positive (+) for any item, there was need for improvement because the level of needs was higher than the level of performance. c. where the difference is negative (-) for any item, there was no need for improvement because the level of performance was greater than the level of needed, meaning that the respondent could perform the competencies above the level it was needed. the difference between the means was used to determine the improvement required through the improvement needed index (ini) of 0, 1, 2, 3, where 0 means no improvement needed and three means very high improvement needed. results the results of the study were obtained from the research questions answered (table 1-4) research question 1. what were the competency improvements in planning needed by women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security? table 1 performance gap analysis of the mean ratings of the responses of women in agriculture in planning needed for processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security. n-362 s/n planning competency items xn xp (pg) xn-xp remarks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12 formulate objective for food processing enterprise. review the objectives with change in demand and supply situation. source for fund for the enterprise obtain suitable site for the enterprise identify relevant faculties for the enterprise source for the faculties for the enterprise identify quality personnel for the enterprise employ qualified persons at affordable cost to the enterprise identify appropriate records to be kept by the enterprise budget for various activities for the enterprise survey market for acceptance for flour/chips make provision for miscellaneous needed for the enterprise 3.66 3.05 3.51 3.52 3.88 3.80 3.56 3.73 3.62 3.96 3.78 3.59 2.10 1.11 2.30 2.00 2.78 2.44 2.64 3.41 2.05 3.10 2.44 3.01 1.56 1.94 1.21 1.52 1.10 1.36 0.92 0.32 1.57 0.86 1.34 0.58 in in in in in in in in in in in in xn=mean needed, xp = mean performance in =improvement needed. the data presented in table 1 revealed that the performance gap values of all the twelve (12) items ranged from 0.32 1.94 and were positive. this performance gap value indicated that improvements were needed in planning by women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security, research question 2 what were the competency improvements needed by women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security? table 2: performance gap analysis of the mean ratings of the responses of women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into flour for food security n-362. s/n item statements xn xp (pg) xn-xp remarks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. determine the cocoyam variety that is most suitable for flour purchase the variety of cocoyam for flour peel the cormel for quality flour slice the peeled cocoyam into flakes soak the flakes overnight in water wash the flakes the next day to reduce offensive odour add a few drops of 0.25% of sulphuric acid into the water containing the flakes blanch the flakes in boiling water for 4-5mins drain off the water oven dry the flakes at 57-60◦c to convenience mill into flour when thoroughly dried pack into bags, polythene bags of different sizes store the bags in dry cool place for security or marketing 3.80 3.93 3.43 3.84 3.62 3.87 3.91 3.48 3.43 3.77 3.41 2.98 3.70 2.56 2.72 2.99 2.71 2.59 3.50 2.52 2.10 2.85 3.16 2.09 3.36 2.66 1.24 1.21 0.44 1.13 1.03 0.37 1.39 1.38 0.58 0.61 1.32 -0.38 1.04 in in in in in in in in in in in inn in xn =mean needed, xp = mean performance, in= improvement needed, inn=improvement not needed the data presented in table two revealed that performance gap values of 12 out of 13 items ranged from 0.37 1.39 and were positive. this performance gap values indicated that improvement is needed in them by women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into flour for food security. however table 3 further revealed that one of the items had its performance gap value as -0.38. this performance gap value indicated that women in agriculture did not need improvement in the competency item research question 3 what were the competency improvements needed by women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into chips for food security? table 3 performance gap analysis of the mean ratings of the responses of women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into chips for food security. n= 362 s/n item statements xn xp (pg) xn-xp remarks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. determine the cocoyam variety that is most suitable for chips purchase the variety of cocoyam for chips remove hairs and dirt from cocoyam cormels with knife wash with clean water put in drum or big container and boil long enough to change colour spread on a raised platform for cooling peel the back slice the cormel to 1mm thick into chips with knife/slicing machine separate individual slice of cormel with separator smoke the chips under the chimney for 4days until crispy turn the chips under the chimney regularly for uniform drying pack in air tight drums after drying store the drums for use when required 3.33 3.86 3.90 3.68 3.72 3.68 3.39 3.83 3.75 3.76 3.47 3.90 3.78 2.14 2.36 3.40 3.05 2.17 2.44 2.43 2.69 3.23 2.34 2.39 2.77 3.67 1.19 1.50 0.50 0.63 1.55 1.24 0.96 1.14 0.52 1.42 1.08 1.13 0.11 in in in in in in in in in in in in in xn = mean needed, xp = mean performance, in = improvement needed . the data presented in table 3 revealed that the performance gap values of all the items range from 0.11 1.55 and were positive. this performance gap values indicated that improvement were needed by women in processing cocoyam into chips for food security. research question 4 what were the competency improvements in marketing needed by women in agriculture for processing cocoyam into flour and chips for food security? table 4 performance gap analysis of the mean ratings of the responses of women in agriculture in marketing needed for marketing flour and chips for food security. n-362 s/n item statements xn xp (pg) xn-xp remarks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. grade the products according to quality determine price for different grades of flour/chips advertise for flour/chips produced for sale determine means of supplying to the buyers for profit maximization transport to the market for sale or deliver to buyers maintain good public relationship reconcile sales with production cost to ascertain profit or loss 3.31 3.89 3.88 3.76 3.70 2.98 2.88 2.66 3.11 2.43 2.22 3.01 2.11 2.10 0.65 0.78 1.45 1.54 0.69 0.87 0.78 in in in in in in in xn = mean needed, xp = mean performance, in = improvement need the data presented in table 4 revealed that the performance gap values of all the seven items ranged from 0.65 1.54 and were positive. this performance gap values indicated that improvement were needed in marketing by women in agriculture for marketing flour and chips for food security. discussion of result the result of this study on competency improvement needs of women in agriculture in processing cocoyam into flour and chips were in consonance with the findings of miller (2006) in a study on professional improvement needs of metalwork teachers in colleges of education in south western nigeria. the author found out that metalwork teachers needed improvement in 128 professional skills for better performance in teaching metalwork to students in colleges of education in the study area. the result of this study were also in conformity with the findings of abu (2008) who in a study on competency improvement needs of farmers in soil conservation found out that farmers required improvement in 316 competencies in soil conservation in kogi state. in agreement with the result of this study were the findings of dibio (2008) in a study on requisite skills required by teachers of agriculture for improving the teaching of yam production to secondary school students in enugu state. the author found out that 5 requisite skill modules with their corresponding 69 skill items were areas in yam production where teachers of agriculture required improvement for effective teaching in secondary schools in enugu state. conclusion/recommendation this study has provided information on the areas in cocoyam processing into flour and chips where women in agriculture in south eastern nigeria needed improvement. these competency areas included 12 in planning, 13 in processing cocoyam into flour, 13 in processing cocoyam into chips and 7 in marketing flour and chips. it was therefore recommended that the identified competencies in cocoyam processing where women in agriculture indicated need for improvement be packaged into training programme to be utilized in training women in agriculture through workshops and seminars. co-operatives, government agencies, and relevant ngos should help use the findings of this study to improve acquisition of competencies of women in cocoyam processing for food security in south-eastern nigeria the competencies identified could also be packaged and integrated into the agricultural development programme (adp) women unit for training women in agriculture with adequate facilities and affordable technologies. references ali, a & olaitan, s. (2000) writing a research article for publication. in s. o. olaitan, a. ali, e. o. eyoh & g. sowande (eds) research skills in education and social sciences. o nitsha cape publishing international ltd. anderson, m (2009) 'world food supply'' microsoft ® encarta ® 2009 [dvd]. redmond, wa: microsoft corporation. clinton, b (2008). speech at united nations world food day. retrieved may 27, 2009 from http://www.answers.com /topic/bill-clinton. edet, j. u. & nsukka (2000). cocoyam farms in akwa ibom state nigeria. a stochastic production frontier approach 2006 online document. encarta, (2009). microsoft r student 2009 dvd. redmondwa: microso ft corporation.retrieved may 27, 2009 from http//www.microsoft.com/encarta encarta world english dictionary (1998-2008). definitions. microsoft corporation. developed for microsoft by bloomsburg publishing plc. retrieved may 27, 2009 from http//www.microsoft.com/encarta hornby, a. s. (2006). oxford advanced learner dictionary. oxforduniversity press, new york .p 928. iwuoha, c. & kalu, f (2000). processing cocoyam into flour department of food science and technology. federaluniversity of technology, owerri, nigeria. retrieved may 27, 2009 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science. olaitan, s (2003). understanding curriculum. nsukka. ndudim printing & publishing company. ugulu, micheal. 1996. crop production: tools and techniques and practice. nsukka. full article publishing company. world food summit (1996). towards a prioritised outcome based: approach to implementing africa's food security commitments. dec. 4-7. abuja, nigeria. retrieved may 27, 2009 from www.google.com/foodsecurity. unpublished materials abu, m. 2008. competency improvement needs of farmers in soil conservation in kogi state. unpublished masters thesis for the department of vocational teacher education, university of nigeria, nsukka. akwaji, i (2006). work skills required by secondary school graduates for success in cassava processing enterprises in crossriverstate. unpublished masters thesis for the department of vocational teacher education, university of nigeria, nsukka. dibio, e (2008). requisite skills required by teachers of agriculture for improving the teaching of yam production to secondary school students in enugu state. unpublished m.ed thesis vocational teacher education, university of nigeria nsukka. miller, i (2006). professional improvement needs of metal work teachers in colleges of education in south western nigeria. unpublished m. ed thesis, vocational teacher education, university of nigeria nsukka. saadum the relevance of science, technology and mathematics education (stme) in developing skills for self reliance: the nigerian experience suleiman sa'adu matazu department of science and vocational education, faculty of education and extension services, usmanu danfodiyouniversity, sokoto-nigeria. justmatazu@yahoo.com, ssmatazu@yahoo.com. abstract science, technology and mathematics education (stme) has been proved to be an indispensable factor in the economic development of any country; and for nigeria, it has a more circuital role to play. this paper examined the relevance of science, technology and mathematics education (stme) for national development and self-reliance of nigerian citizens. a historical overview of the interconnectivity of science, technology and mathematics education (stme) and self reliance was highlighted. the current situation and challenges facing stme in nigeria were also highlighted to bring out the theoretical relevance of (stme) for self reliance which actually has not been practically realized. the author's recommendations, include, the call for training and re-training of stme teachers to update their knowledge, long vocation/weekend programmes for out of school individuals, among others. introduction relevance simply means to be directly connected with the subject being discussed or considered. this implies that, the paper attempts to bring out the direct connection between science, technology and mathematics education (stme) for self-reliance. although nigeria is rich in human and natural resources, it is still one of the poorest and underdeveloped countries of the world. the climax is that there are so many graduates of the nation's education system who are roaming about the streets as unemployed and job-seekers (nwachukwu, 2009). this situation is contrary to the aims and objectives of nigerian education stipulated in the national policy on education (frn 2004), which stresses the development of a self-reliant nation. this shows that the policies and the practices in the schools have some yawning gaps (offorma, 2005). in reality, products from good stm education ought to have acquired sufficient skills that would make them self reliant, prepare them to enter into jobs and make progress in them. stme should prepare individuals to be self employed in various enterprises. the delivery of science, technology and mathematics education should be practical oriented, but it is theorized because of lack of competent teachers or lack of equipment to enable that. hence, students graduate without any hands-on skills, and minds-on experience (offorma, 2005). this trend tends to obscure the relevance of stm education in the development of skills necessary for self reliance. such constructs as, curiosity, open mindedness, creativity, aptitude among others, which are often used in connection with science, technology and mathematics education are also relevant and applicable for the development of skills for self reliance. it is against this background that this paper examines the relevance of science technology and mathematics education for effectively developing skills for self reliance in nigeria. theoretical framework science, technology and mathematics education (stme) have been called a meta discipline, the creation of a discipline based on the integration of other disciplinary knowledge into a new whole. this interdisciplinary knowledge bridging among discrete disciplines is now treated as an entity known as stm education (morrison, 2006). thus, stm education offers students one of the best opportunities to make sense of the world holistically, rather than in bits and pieces. it should be noted, however, that stm education is an interdisciplinary approach to learning; where rigorous academic concepts are coupled with real world lessons as students apply stm in the context that make connections between schools, community, work and the global enterprises enabling the development of stm literacy and self reliance skills, and with it, the ability to compete in the new economy (tsupros et al, 2009). historical overview science and technology have been instrumental in shaping and improving the life of mankind. while science tries to explain things, technology is what has enabled mankind to improve his standard of living, not only to build houses, supply food, health, travel and communications but arts, sculpture, music and literature (mutasa in nwachuku, 2009). thus, the purpose of technology is the application of human knowledge for the betterment of human life. hence, technology, therefore, seems to be a cultural activity and every society is technological and scientific in varying degrees and mathematics is the vehicle for doing science and a tool for technologies (wasagu, 2009). past researchers revealed that africans developed arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and other advanced mathematical science (diop, 1974). they employed these concepts in the construction of pyramid, mathematical calculations relating to the flooding of nile, and in the division of land along the nile valley. the egyptians also possessed considerable knowledge of chemistry, and the use of metallic oxides is evident from the nature of colors applied to their glass and porcelain. they were even acquainted with the influence of acids upon color. hence, they were able in the process of dyeing/staining cloth, to bring out certain changes in the hues by the same method adopted in our own cotton works (sweeting and edmond, 1989). amongst a host of technological inventions were tools-copper and iron and latter steel, boat and ship design. the sale of sails was one of egypt's industries. also, there existed the art of shaving, use of wigs, wearing of kilts and sandals, musical instruments, chairs, beds, cushions and jewelry. there was smelting of iron for producing good quality carbon steel. with this enterprise, they were self employed and become self reliant. analysts have argued tremendous improvement recorded in science and technology over the years have been met with a corresponding decrease in the technological skills possessed by individuals and their communities which make them self reliant. this could be witnessed in many developed societies where the science and technological discoveries and inventions have been applied in different human development fields for national development. in our national context, several strides have been made by many people in the rural and urban nigerian where skilled men had produced the needed farming implements, local guns for hunting animals in the forests, machetes and hoes for clearing the land for agricultural activities, and many other locally-made tools that would earn them a living; women were able to brew local beverages and wine, weave and dye cloths, utilize clay materials for earthenware bowls, pots, among others. nowadays, it is difficult to find individuals with such self reliant skills in the community (nwachukwu, 2009) due to the non-commitment of the system to the development of local human potentials and resources in the environment. this means, technology now belongs to large corporations and people have increasingly become jobless, job seekers and indeed marginalized in the industrial development, production and employment sector. thus, if the interconnectivity of these different disciplines science, technology and mathematics education are wisely utilized, it is of great advantage for the development of necessary skills for self-reliance. current situation of stm education in nigeria oriafo (2002) argued that science, technology and mathematics education in nigeria are grossly characterized by inadequacy of content and ineffective methodology by teachers, paucity of facilities, equipment and materials in our laboratories, as well as dominated socio-cultural lapses. these lapses have to be properly tackled for our stm education to produce individuals with sufficient skills capable for self-reliant life activities. the present trend of mass unemployment in nigeria shows that the stm being taught in schools do not prepare nigerian graduates to function well in the nation undergoing transition from rural economy to modern economy (nwachukwu, 2009). the courses which should be taught as hands-on and minds-on practical courses are basically taught theoretically; this makes the learners not to benefit maximally from their education. hence, development of useful skills necessary for self reliant living is lacking. self reliance as it relates to stm education one of the main objectives of national policy on education (npe) is the "acquisition of appropriate skills for self-reliant nation". self-reliance is an expression which has become conceptually and practically attractive, particularly in developing countries, wrestling with the economic forces of meeting numerous needs with limited resources (jimo, 2009). even though there is no nation that is completely self sufficient, but the craze to bring out the best that is possible in a nation's human and materials endowments informs self reliance. self-reliance is one of those euphemistic terms bandied about, like bridging the gap; meeting basic needs; and eco-development in the international effort to reduce hunger, disease, unemployment and general poverty. with the apparent failure of regional and international governments, multinational corporations and even humanitarian organizations to achieve these goals, there is a resort to an inward looking tendency of self-help as a way out, after all, self-reliance as a form of social behavior has existed throughout phases of human development (oxfam, 2002). jimo (2009) opined that stm education should prepare individuals for self-reliance. this can be achieved by delivering stm education practically in such away that it enables individuals acquire necessary and vital skills for self employment. it should be noted, however, that alleviating poverty and resuscitating self-reliance which is a prelude to self sufficiency and employment generation can best be achieve in nigeria when stm education is taught as hands-on and minds-on practical activities in our public schools. challenges facing stm education in nigeria that affect its expected outcomes nwachuku (2009) enumerated some of the problems confronting stm education in nigeria to include, lack of funds to purchase equipment/materials, lack of adequate textbooks, overcrowded classrooms/laboratories, poor time table, lack of cooperation from administrator, the pressure of external certificate examinations, etc. other challenges, include, lack of proper monitoring and feedback mechanisms, poor preparations of teachers who teach the new programs, lack of motivation among teachers, the rapid rate in which teachers are transferred from one school to another or out of the profession, the use of archaic/traditional teaching methods which ultimately hinders internalization of learned materials other problems facing stm education in nigeria includes the absence of efforts to bring about meaningful self-reliance programs and projects to the communities. there are lack of planning in different sectors of nigerian economy; including, poor policy implementation procedures, shortage of qualified stm teachers/educators, over whelming number of activities demanded by the new curricula, lack of clear-cut goals, scarcity of resources and non-usage of research reports on the performance of the programs (evaluation). these are clear challenges facing nigeria stm education, and unless these challenges are tackled, the dying relevance of stm education skills for self-reliance in nigeria can not be resuscitated. the teacher and the curriculum the meaningful implementation and success of any stme curriculum for self reliance rests heavily on the availability of sufficient number and right caliber of teachers. (wasagu, 2009). nigeria has great human resource potentials for all sectors, and many of them could be encouraged to embrace education/the teaching field, trained, and equipped with practical skills and resource materials that would facilitate youth development training in various communities. such are positive ways to begin imparting the spirit of self reliance and nationalism among the citizens. furthermore, since the teacher is the translator, interpreter and trusted executor of the school curriculum in the classroom, then nigerian stme teachers are the central figures in the meaningful realization of the program, as enshrined in the public school curriculum. the actualization of the goals and benefits of stm education for self-reliance is a heavy task, highly demanding on the teacher (the implementer) and the school system. this is because, the teacher as the implementer of the curriculum, mediates between the curriculum aims and objectives, contents and materials, and the learner (nwachukwu, 2009). the teacher is responsible for selecting the content, materials, strategies and pedagogies, preparation and presentation of the content to learners, evaluation and feedback. in addition, the teacher is faced with the task of constantly motivating and reinforcing the learners, as well as provision of suitable socio-emotional atmosphere that is conducive for learning in order to achieve the desired goals (nwachukwu, 2009). for effective and efficient execution of these laudable tasks by the teacher, morrison (2006) advised that the teacher be properly trained, and must acquire a mastery of vast arrays of skills and competences. examples of such skills are knowledge of the subject content, practical competence, minds-on and hands-on, pedagogical competencies, etc. furthermore, teachers should view the learners as beginners; hence, they need to adopt practical approaches, such as, use of concrete examples and improvisations. since the acquisition of skills necessary for self-reliance are all embracing, practical activities should be extended to simulations, games, etc. since no educational system or curriculum could rise above the quality of its teachers, it is pertinent that teachers should be trained with variety of pedagogical approaches which will facilitate acquisition of skills needed for self employment and the corresponding effect would be self reliance. recommendations based on the discussions in this paper, the following recommendations are made; a) stme teachers should be properly trained, provided with adequate knowledge on the subject content, various creative skills, pedagogies and practical approaches of teaching and learning stm education. this will enhance effective and efficient stm education capable of producing individuals that are ready for self-reliance. b) serving stme teachers also should be retrained, through in-service, workshops, seminars, conferences, and study tours. this will enable them acquire reasonable knowledge capable of producing individuals with enough self reliance skills. c) children and young individuals should be given proper value and attitudinal orientation by parents and adults. they should be encouraged to be versatile as white collar jobs are no longer plenty where available. d) long vocation/weekend programmes can be organized for out-of-school individuals, this will help in equipping them with skills they need for self-reliance. e) there is need for shift of emphasis from certificate acquisition to the acquisition of practical skills and attitude needed for self-reliant life. f) government should be ready to invest heavily in stm education. good salaries/allowances should be paid to stm teachers, all the necessary materials/equipments and infrastructure needed should be made available, conducive atmosphere for teaching and learning should be provided. with this, the corresponding effect would be performance according to expectations. nigerian graduates would be properly equipped with all the necessary skills they need for self-reliant life. hence, the dilemma of seeing uncountable number of unemployed graduates roaming on the street seeking for jobs will drastically reduce. conclusion this paper has stressed that in the past, acquisition of skills for self-reliance was the target of stm education. it now shows that a well-planned and implemented science, technology and mathematics education today would play a great role in the development of vital skills to individuals that will enable them to be self employed, self-reliant, hence the ugly situation of massive unemployment of graduate is tackled. references diop, c.a. (1974). "the african origin of civilization". new york lawrence hill and company. federal republic of nigeria (2004) national policy on education. nerdc lagos. jimbo, b.o (2009). self reliance as an impetus for eradicating poverty in nigeria. journal of humanities, science and technology; nigerstate polytechnic zungeru. 124-130. morrison, j. (2006). ties stm education monograph series: attributes of science, technology and mathematics education. wadsworth publishing company belmont. u.k. nwachukwu, c. (2009). the relevance of the science, technology and mathematics education (stme) to development of entrepreneurial skills. proceedings of the 50th annual conferences of science teacher association of nigeria 312-324. offorma, g.c (2005). curriculum for wealth creation. paper presented at the seminar of the world council for curriculum and instruction held at kano, oct, 25. oriafo, s.o. (2002). refocusing science, technology and mathematics (stm) education in nigeria: a book of readings. agbor: kmensuo educational publishers. oxfam, k.w (2002). the global gap between the rich and the poor is getting wider. london: the brookings institution. sweeting, e and edmond, l. (1989). "african history: an illustrated handbook". islington council, london. tsupros, n.r., hallinen, j. (2009). stm education: a project to identify the missing icon. kmensuo educational publishers. wasagu, m.a. (2009). rethinking science education for changing times: the writing on the wall. eight inaugural lecture of usmanu danfodiyo university sokoto. march 26. obiyo improving achievements of pupils with learning and behavior problems with co-operative teaching strategy in aboh, delta state ngozi obiyo, ph.d. department of educational foundations university of nigeria obiyo.ngozi@unn.edu.ng abstract the purpose of the study was to determine the effects of cooperative teaching on children with learning and behavioral problems. determining the most effective intervention for children with learning and behavioral problems has continued to challenge educators. for this the study sought to find out how co-operative teaching will improve the achievements of pupils with learning and behavior problems in aboh, delta state, nigeria. a research question and a hypothesis tested at 0.05 level of significance was used to guide the study. the research design was true experimental. two groups of children were used for the study .the sample consisted of 64 primaries four and five pupils .from the study, it was found out that experimental group had higher mean of 76.06 against control group with mean of 53.84 and standard deviation of 19.2. the hypothesis was tested using t-test and showed that the performance of the experimental group was significantly higher than that of the control group. it is therefore recommended that this strategy should be included in the school curriculum for children with learning and behavior problems. introduction the nigerian education like that of most developing countries is being questioned about the educational standards it is currently operating(junard,2008)and policies especially with regard to children with special needs(okeke-oti,2010).one of the components of democracy is "fundamental human rights" and its attendant right of every child to basic education under the universal basic education (ube) scheme .in line with these, the nigerians with disabilities decree of 1993, section 5, stated that, government should ensure adequate training and development of the disabled in educational institutions, as well as "protection and security for nigerians with disability…enforcement of the rights and privileges guaranteed…under law."for this, children with special needs should be catered for in an inclusive educational setting as stated in the national policy on education (2004)as citizens of nigeria. children with behavior problems that affect their learning are the focus of this study. teachers who are interested in improving the achievements of pupils in their classroom cannot afford to ignore learning and classroom behavior of their pupils. observant teachers know when a learner's behavior becomes disruptive and interferes with classroom activities (sharp and smith, 1991).their behavior is so different from appropriate age, cultural or ethnic norms that they adversely affect educational achievements (forness and knitzer, 1992;ayres and hedeen,1996).such behavior problems include bullying, hitting others or things, name calling ,sleeping in the class, prolonged chattering, excessive and unexcused lateness from class, verbal or physical threat to a teacher or student, and eating in class (amadi,1991). the behaviors may affect their achievements. their behaviors are usually disturbing to others and affect learning in the classroom. classmates may be tolerant of these people at first, but over time, they and their teachers become frustrated and unsure of how to respond. their behaviors affect their interactional patterns in the classroom, entire school and the whole environment where the children come from. at worst, they will not learn. if they do not learn, they may drop out of school and may grow into adults who may have high incidence of psychiatric illnesses. they may show antisocial and criminal behaviors which will adversely affect the whole environment. they may have difficulty making stable marriages and thus put the next generation at risk (hedeen, 1996). teachers may use a lot of valuable time to control these behaviors and such would negatively affect the children's achievement .presently, teachers have neglected these children and have been teaching them as other children. they have used corporal punishment to no avail. determining the most effective educational setting and intervention for pupils with learning and behavioral problems has continued to challenge educators. curriculum adaptation for effective interventions has become an integral part of daily teaching if pupils' learning or behavioral needs are to be addressed at the classroom level. due to these reasons, children with learning and behavior problems require intervention strategies to improve their achievements and reduce environmental problems. teachers have used several strategies to manage these children's behavior so that they do not affect their learning and achievement levels in life. among the strategies used to help these pupils is co-operative learning .the study was geared towards improving the achievements of pupils with learning and behavior problems in aboh, delta state of nigeria with co-operative teaching strategy. the strategy was adopted because it improves higher achievement in pupils and increases retention.it gives greater ability to view situations from others' perspectives. it enhances greater collaborative skills and attitudes necessary for working effectively with others. it also increases more positive, accepting and supportive relationships with peers regardless of ethnic, sex, ability, social class difference or handicapping conditions among others (rief,2002). several researchers have written extensively on the topic of cooperative learning (johnson &johnson ,1990,2001 ;kagan,1990,2001;1994;slavin,1991).according to johnson and johnson (1990),cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that pupils work together to maximize their own and one another's learning. co-operative learning teams may be composed of a small group of pupils or a pair of pupils working together. also, kagan (2010) and rotterdam (1995), noted that it is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of various levels of abilities, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it. in some situations (e.g., general education) where many pupils with learning problems are educated, the use of pairs may represent the best initial structure (hoover & patton, 1997; wikipedia encyclopedia,2010). even if in pairs or small groups, the principles of co-operative learning may easily be incorporated into the classroom. to implement co-operative learning, {roy 1990; kagan,2010) identified the following: positive interdependence, individual accountability, and opportunities for interactions, interpersonal training and group processing(rotterdam,1995). these will improve greater use of higherlevel reasoning strategies and critical reasoning competencies .there will be greater opportunities to view situations from other's perspectives. more positive psychological adjustment and health will be increased. pupils perceive that their goals were achieved through shared work with their peers. a co-operative learning environment in the classroom requires emphasis on each of the five elements identified above. once teachers have ensured that pupils posses a minimum level of skills necessary for group (that is, interpersonal training), co-operative learning may begin (hoover & patton, 1999;howard community college's teaching resources,2001).the structure of activities, lessons, room arrangement, and evaluation of performance will vary across co-operative learning groups. the groups will be heterogeneously and randomly assigned (rotterdam,1995). in implementing cooperative learning, the teacher should follow these guidelines-the group or pair produces one product; team members assist one another and seek assistance when necessary from other team members. team members discuss ideas prior to changing any previously agreed upon ideas or issues. each member accepts responsibility for the completed project or task and participates in the group's activities. each member provides input into the group's processing aspect of the team's activities and individual accountability for learning the task or concept prevails, along with expectations of group interactions. research in the area of co-operative learning provides evidence of its effectiveness with pupils. according to slavin (1991), it is effective in enhancing pupil achievement in all major subject areas in elementary and secondary grades, and for low, average and high achieving students.he further stated that the strategy usually supplements the teachers interaction by giving pupils an opportunity to discuss information or practice skills originally presented by the teachers. in support, johnson and johnson (1990) wrote that co-operative learning is effective in helping pupils to learn basic facts, understand concepts, solve problems and use higher-level thinking skills. co-operative learning strategies have been found to be effective for pupils with disabilities (johnson &johnson, 1986; salend, 1994; rotterdam,1996). it has been found to be effective in various subject areas with a variety of pupils who posses varying skill levels. it facilitates effective implementation and adaptation of curricula in special and inclusive class setting (hoover & patton, 1999). the study was geared to see its effect in improving achievements of pupils with learning and behavior problems in aboh, delta state. co-operative teaching strategy had been noted above to be effective in teaching learning and behavior problems as seen above in foreign countries. there is the need to see the effect of such strategy in nigeria. on such premise, the researcher went ahead to see how the achievements of pupils with learning and behavior problems could be enhanced with co-operative learning in a town in nigeria. hence, the problem of the study posed as a question therefore was: what is the effect of co-operative learning on achievements of pupils with learning and behavior problems in schools? also, a hypothesis was formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. it stated that there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of pupils taught with co-operative learning and the mean scores of pupils taught with conventional teaching methods. methods the research design was true experimental. one group of pupils (experimental) was taught using co-operative learning strategy, while the other (control) group was taught with conventional teaching methods in schools .this study was carried out in aboh, delta state. this is in south-west geo-political zone of nigeria. pupils identified by the teachers as having learning and behavior problems were used. most of the pupils were identified by records of their yearly academic performance in their school and the ones that had behavior problems in the school. experimental procedure thirty-two pupils were in primary five and thirty-two were in primary four. the same teacher taught the experimental and control groups for two terms.the experimental group was taught with cooperative learning while the control group was taught with the conventional teaching method. each group had at least two pupils. there were higher and lower achievers for pair's .for trio, there were high, middle and low achievers .children that were talkative, boisterous and withdrawn were mixed .random groupings were done. they were paired or tripled with persons next to them. the children moved quickly and quietly into their groups. they were randomly assigned to experimental group and control group. the researcher had many sessions of how to implement cooperative learning with the teacher. the teacher was taught first while he in turn taught the pupils. questions and answers followed the explanations. more clarifications were made as the questions were answered. the procedures were written down and handed over to the teacher. primary five pupils were taught in the first term and primary four pupils were taught in the second term. they were examined in these subjects-english, mathematics, science, social studies, igbo language, health education, christian religious knowledge, arts, agriculture, french language, home economics, computer, comprehension, composition, spelling ,reading ,and writing. the overall scores of the pupils in their various subjects were used and computed. the means and standard deviations of the two groups of pupils were used. the collected scores were used to test the formulated hypothesis using t-test. findings and discussions research question: what is the effect of co-operative learning on achievement of pupils with learning and behavior problems in schools? table 1 mean and standard deviation showing achievement of pupils with co-operative learning n mean std deviation result; control group experimental group 32 32 53.8438 76.0656 19.26002 13.40786 table1 shows the means and standard deviations of the two groups used for the study. the results showed that experimental group had higher mean of 76.06 and standard deviation of 13.4 while control group had lower mean of 53.84 and standard deviation of 19.2 .this showed that pupils in experimental group with higher mean performed better than pupils in control group .this showed that the strategy adopted was successful. hypothesis: there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of pupils taught with co-operative learning and the mean scores of pupils taught with conventional methods of teaching. table 2: ttest analysis of pupils' achievements on the use of cooperative teaching strategy t-test for equality of means t d f sig.(2-tailed) mean differences result :control group -5.357 62 .000 -22.22187 experimental group -5.357 55.332 .000 -22.22187 discussion the results showed that pupils who were taught with co-operative teaching strategy had a significant higher achievement than the control group. this implies that the instructional approach used is effective. the experimental group achieved more than the control group .it is important to note that the strategy made it possible for pupils to interact with themselves and even learn among themselves .they know that they win or sink together. it would help them to develop good working relationship among their peers. the control group had lower mean of 53.84 and standard deviation of19.2.experimental group had a higher mean of 76.6 and standard deviation of 13.4(see table 1). there is a significant difference in the mean scores in favor of the experimental group. this is in line with the findings of johnson and johnson (1986),slavin,(1991),rief(2002),rotterdam,(1995),which found co-operative learning strategies to be effective for students with disabilities. from the findings, it could be deduced that the performance of the control group was significantly lower than the experimental group. the level of significance was at 0.05. for this, the null hypothesis was rejected .moreover, the behaviors of the pupils were greatly improved which allowed them to learn and achieve. conclusion the following conclusions were made based on the results of the study. achievement of pupils was greatly improved with co-operative teaching strategy for pupils with learning and behavior problems in aboh, delta state. there was a significant difference in the mean scores of pupils taught with the strategy. this study has further shown that co-operative teaching strategy can be used for pupils with learning and behavior problems. recommendations based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: 1. teachers in primary schools should use co-operative teaching on pupils but most especially on pupils with learning and behavior problems. 2. co-operative teaching strategy should be inculcated in primary school curriculum. this can be through the recommendations of the head teacher to curriculum planners, 3. in-service training shall be given to primary school teachers concerning the use of co-operative teaching strategy. references ayres,b.j.&hedeen,d.l.(1996).been there done that, didn't work-alternative solutions to behavior problems. educational ledership(4)48-50 forness,s.r.(1992).school characteristics of children and adolescents with depression. in r.b. rutherford jnr; c.m.nelson(eds) . basics of severe disorder in children and youth.boston:little brown. hoover, j. j. & patton, j. r. (1991). curriculum adaptations for students with learning and behavior problems: principles and practices(2nd ed). austin, texas:pro-ed. howard community college's teaching resources.(2001)."ideas on co-operative learning and the use of small groups". retrieved on 15th march,2010, from http://www.howardcc.edu/profdev/resources/learninggroups/htm johnson, d. w. & johnson, r. t. (1990).what is co-operative learning? in m. brubacher,r.payne,& k.rickett(eds), perspectives on small group learning. oakville ,ontario, canada: rubicon. johnson, d.w. & johnson r.t (1986).mainstreaming and co-operative learning strategies. exceptional children, 52(4). johnson, d.w. & johnson, r.t. (2001)."co-operative learning "retrieved on 3rd february 2010, from http://www.clcic.com/pages/cl.htm johnson, d.w.& johnson,r.t.(2001).an overview of co-operative learning" retrieved on 3rd february 2010, from http:www.clcic com/pages/cl.htm/ junaid, m.i. (2008) reforming education: the nigerian experience.in eze u & onyegegbu,n.(eds)education reforms in nigeria.institute of education:timex. kagan, s. (1990).co-operative learning workshop for teahers. san juan capistrano, ca:resources for teachers. kagan, s. (1994).co-operative learning.san clemente.ca:kagan publishing. kagan, s. (2001).structures for emotional intelligence.15th march, 2010 from http://www.kaganonline.com/newsletter/index.htm/ kagan, s. (2010).kagan structures; kagan publishing and professional development retrieved on 20th march 2010, from http://www.kaganonline.com okeke-oti, b.a. (2010).they have dignity and worth and therefore need restoration. an inaugural lecture of the university of nigeria nsukka. delivered on april 29th 2010. rotterdam,h.(1995).cooperative learning and special education. new york city special education training and resource center-new york state united teachers effective teaching programmed. roy, p.a. (1990).co-operative learning: students learn together.richfield,m.n.:patricia roy. salend, s. j. (1994).effective mainstreaming. new york: macmillan. sharp, s. & smith, p. (1991). bullying in u.k,schools .early child development and care. in u.n. eze & umaru. y(2007)teacher's perceived strategies for managing classroom disruptive behavior in secondary schools. review of education. institute of education journal, university of nigeria, nsukka. slavin, r. e. (1991).synthesis of research on co-operative learning . in r. e. slavin (ed),co-operative learning and the collaborative school. alexandria, v.a; association for supervision and curriculum development. wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(2010).wikipedia foundations,inc retrieved 20th april, 2010 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/co-operative learning dimelu responsibilities of homemakers in processing, storage and preservation of pepper (capsicum specie) in southern nigeria i.n. dimelu department of vocational teacher education university of nigeria, nsukka indimelu@yahoo.com. this study is directed towards the identification of activities to be conducted by women in processing, storage and preservation of pepper (capsicum species) in southern nigeria. three (3) research questions and three (3) hypotheses guided the study. this study adopted survey research design, with 39 structured questionnaire items used for data collection. the questionnaire was faced validated by five experts in food science and technology and vocational teachers' education (agric); three were knowledgeable in pepper processing. cronbach alpha method was used to determine the internal consistency of the items with a co-efficient of 0.90. the sample was 700, made up of 630 home economists, 30 home economic teachers and 40 female teachers of agriculture. the data was analyzed using weighted mean, standard deviation to answer research questions analysis of variance (anova) to test the hypothesis. it was discovered that 39 items were identified as responsibilities (duties) of homemakers in planning, processing, storing and preserving and marketing processed pepper in southern nigerian. recommendations for effectiveness towards processing and preserving pepper for food security was made; among others. introduction pepper (capsicum specie) is a fruit vegetable consumed either fresh or dehydrated. uguru in obieri (2008) explained that capsicum specie belongs to the family, solanaceae; capsicum genus; capsicum frutscens and capsicum annum; two species widely grown in the tropics. capsicum specie is grown in most countries of the world, such as china, turkey, mexico, spain, u.s.a, among which, nigeria is ranked third top producer of pepper in the world. food agricultural organization (f.a.o.) (2007), report, stated that pepper is grown for domestic and economic purposes, and primarily for its pungency and utilization as spice commodity. bosland and votava (2000), noted that pepper is widely grown primarily for its pungency due to the concentration of the alkaloid, capsoicinoid that makes pepper an important ingredient used for spice commodity in the world. in many households, pepper provides variety needs, such as enhancing intake of dull diets; storing grains and as mild drugs. bosland and votava (2000), itemized wide variety uses of pepper to include flavouring and adding taste in food manufacturing industries; colouring cosmetics; imparting heat to medicine; ornamental plants; using dried red powdered pepper for colouring flamingos in the zoo and koi in aquarium. brinker (2009) stressed that pepper is used as pepper spray and tier gas for weapons while, baluk (2009) explained that pepper fruits vary in sizes, shapes; colour; flavour and pungency. this variation reflected in their nutritional composition. pepper is a rich source of vitamin c (ascorbic acid). bernster (2009), said that pepper contain high amount of pro vitamins a, c and b and citrin; b1 (thiamine); b2 (riboflavin) and b3 (niacin), in addition to vitamins, pepper acts as therapeutic agent for cancer. abdel (2008) explained that pepper stimulates the flow of saliva and gastric juice; raise body temperature; relieve cramps; improve complexion and sooth gout. pepper is a very important ingredient used in most nigerian households. homemakers use pepper as one of the food ingredients in soup, sauces and other meals, in addition to some areas in southern nigeria where individuals use pepper served with kola for entertainment. homemaker is defined by wikipedia (2009), as a person in the family, especially, a woman whose responsibility is to take care of the family members and their menu. in the context of this study, responsibility is the activity to be carried out by homemakers while a homemaker can be any of the following; a.) a married woman with a diploma certificate and above, in home economics and related subject but not teaching; b.) a married woman with diploma certificate and above in home economics and teaching in the secondary schools or colleges; c.) a married woman with a diploma certificate and above in general agriculture and teaching the subject in secondary schools or colleges. observation in the area of this study revealed that large amount of pepper is wasted through spoilage when in season. the reason is because pepper do not store well for a long time when fresh and exposed to the environment. much of the nutrients are lost to inclement weather such as, heat, sunshine and rainfall when fresh. women, especially, the homemakers who are in contact with fresh pepper have limited knowledge and skills in processing, storing and preserving pepper beyond their immediate uses. therefore, these women will benefit from varieties of values of pepper, if they are equipped with the skills in processing, storing and preserving pepper in their local environment. it is the purpose of this study to identify these responsibilities of women or homemakers in processing, storing and preserving pepper as a means of food security for future use in the environment, and for sale to boost their economy by obtaining income from none oil generated income. to achieve the above purpose the study seeks to; 1. identify responsibilities needed by home makers in planning for processing, storing and preserving pepper (capsicum specie). 2. strategies for processing pepper into dry pods, flakes and powder for storage and preservation. 3. marketing processed and preserved pepper. methodology three (3) research questions are developed and answered by the study while three (3) hypotheses are formulated and tested at p<0.05 level of significant. descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. ali and olaitan (2000), explained survey research design as one which studies large or small population by selecting and analysing data collected from the groups through the use of structured questionnaire. the design is, therefore, appropriate for the study, since it obtained data from home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture through the use of structured questionnaire on responsibilities needed by homemakers for processing, storing and preserving pepper (capsicum specie) for food security. the study is conducted in southern nigeria, made up of ekiti, edo, delta, anambra, ogun, imo and akwa ibom states. the population for the study is 700. a sample of 90 families was selected from each state. the sample is made up of 630 home economists, 30 home economics teachers and 40 female teachers of agriculture, therefore, making a total of 700 respondents. a 39 item structured questionnaire was developed from review of related literature and used for collecting data. each item questionnaire was assigning a four point response scale, of highly needed (4), averagely needed (3), slightly needed (2) and not needed (1). five experts from the department of food science and technology and vocational teacher education (agriculture) face validated the questionnaire items. their suggestions were utilized for developing the final version of the questionnaire for collecting data from the respondents. split half technique was used while cronbach alpha method was involved in determining the internal consistency of the questionnaire with a co-efficient of 0.90. seven hundred (700) copies of questionnaire were administered on the respondents with the help of seven research assistants. six hundred and eighty (680) copies were duly answered, retrieved and analyzed. weighted mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while analysis of variance (anova) statistics of no significant difference is used to test the hypotheses. the value of arithmetic mean of the response scale was 2.50. this mean (2.50) is used as a cut off point for decision making on the weighted mean. any item whose weighted mean was 2.50 and above is regarded as responsibilities needed for processing, storing and preserving pepper for food security. item with a weighted mean less than 2.50 is not regarded as responsibilities of homemakers for processing, storing and preserving pepper for food security. the standard deviation of 1.96 is used to determine the closeness or otherwise of the opinion of the respondents from the mean. any item with a standard deviation less than 1.96 showed that the respondents are not too far from the mean or one another in their opinion. the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean rating of the responses of the three groups of the respondents (home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture) are accepted for any item whose f-cal value is less than f-table value. it is rejected for any item whose f-cal value is greater than f-table value. correlation ratio (e2) is used to test the relationship between explained and non-explained variables to enhance the reliability of the findings. results the results of the study are obtained from the research questions answered and the hypothesis tested. they are presented in tables 1-3 research question 1: what are the planning responsibilities of homemakers in processing, storing and preserving pepper for food security? hypothesis 1: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture on planning responsibilities for processing pepper for food security. n-700 (630 home economists, 30 home economists teachers and 40 female teachers of agriculture) s/n item statement (planning responsibilities of homemakers) x sd residual tss f-cal f-tab e2 remark 1 formulate objectives for pepper processing enterprise 3.08 0.79 216.50 237.07 0.70 3.650 0.02 ns 2 review the objectives with changes in demand and supply situation 3.53 0.65 58.46 79.92 1.63 3.650 0.27 ns 3 source for finance for the enterprise 2.67 0.54 99.60 130.08 1.64 3.650 0.25 ns 4 obtain suitable price for the enterprise 3.63 1.78 136.75 203.92 1.78 3.650 0.29 ns 5 identify relevant facilities for the enterprise 3.48 0.77 118.00 147.41 2.00 3.650 0.26 ns 6 source for facilities for the enterprise 3.00 0.89 78.53 129.92 3.43 3.650 0.43 ns 7 identify qualified personnel for the enterprise 3.41 0.58 86.46 106.92 1.20 3.650 0.20 ns 8 employ qualified personnel at an affordable cost to the enterprise 3.04 0.89 70.00 103.21 3.06 3.650 0.34 ns 9 identify appropriate records to be kept 3.41 0.58 78.42 138.84 0.70 3.650 0.02 ns 10 budget for various activities for the enterprise 3.24 0.52 148.08 180.10 0.76 3.650 0.81 ns 11 carry out market survey for acceptance of goods 3.21 0.48 98.67 131.10 0.016 3.650 0.01 ns 12 make provision for the miscellaneous 2.64 0.56 125.48 152.10 0.75 3.650 0.81 ns ns=not significant table 1, revealed that all the 12 items on planning responsibilities of homemakers in processing pepper for food security had their means ranged from 2.64-3.63. this showed that the means are above the cut off point of 2.50, indicating that all the 12 items are planning responsibilities of homemakers for processing pepper for food security. the table also showed that standard deviation of the items ranged from 0.48-1.78 indicating that the respondents are not too far from the mean and from one another in their opinion. the table further revealed that the 12 items had their f-cal value less than f-tab value. this indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture on planning responsibilities on processing pepper for food security. the correlation ratio (e2) for the 12 items ranged from 0.02-0.81, showing that the relationships between the explained and non-explained variables are low. therefore, the hypothesis of no significant difference is upheld for the 12 items. research question 2: what are the responsibilities of homemakers in processing, storing and preserving pepper for food security? hypothesis 2 there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture on responsibilities for processing and preserving pepper for food security. table 2: mean ratings, standard deviation and analysis of variance (anova) of the responses of home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture on responsibilities for processing pepper for food security. n-700 (630 home economists, 30 home economics teachers and 40 female teachers of agriculture) s/n item statement x sd residual tss f-cal f-tab e2 remark 1 purchase matured ripe pepper fruits 3.12 0.49 65.94 107.17 2.47 3.650 0.36 ns 2 sort the purchase pepper fruits into big and small sizes and bruised 2.73 0.53 104.46 125.82 0.91 3.650 0.17 ns 3 wash selected pepper fruits in clean water 3.07 0.49 49.40 97.20 3.69 3.650 0.491 ns 4 turn the washed pepper fruits in boiled water for one minute 2.91 0.60 44.29 95.18 3.89 3.650 0.149 ns 5 add half tea full salt to 1kg pepper when turning in boiled water 3.75 0.47 179.41 222.18 1.04 3.650 0.22 ns 6 drain out the water 3.42 0.47 81.416 168.27 2.85 3.650 0.42 ns 7 spread on mat, clean roofs or on clean concrete floor to dry in the sun 2.89 0.60 27.71 57.08 4.27 3.650 0.41 ns 8 flame dry the pepper 3.13 0.62 123.47 147.92 0.76 3.650 0.15 ns 9 turn with soft broom or hard brush while drying for uniformity for four days 3.60 0.58 167.13 181.00 0.24 3.650 0.05 ns 10 oven dry to further reduce moisture content 2.51 0.59 74.00 149.56 3.19 3.650 0.51 ns 11 air dry for another one day to cool before packaging 2.70 1.08 182.42 228.18 1.03 3.650 0.25 ns 12 test for moisture content at room temperature 2.70 1.18 103.93 93.75 0.82 3.650 0.56 ns 13 test for colour with a colour tester (comparator) 3.64 1.06 63.42 81.92 1.51 3.650 0.23 ns 14 keep of birds and rodents during processing 3.75 1.83 63.82 121.08 1.77 3.650 0.24 ns 15 store dried whole pepper pods in suitable containers (bags, jerry cans etc) 2.68 0.93 123.32 157.10 0.69 3.650 0.18 ns 16 grind into pepper flakes and store in air tight containers 3.32 0.57 65.538 128.14 1.18 3.650 0.49 ns 17 grind into pepper powder to be stored 2.52 1.42 230.20 233.4 2.22 3.650 0.42 ns 18 protect your face or mask during grinding to avoid choking 3.19 1.61 217.51 317.75 0.33 3.650 0.53 ns 19 spread the ground pepper powder in the sun to reduce moisture to an optimal level for four hours before storage in air tight containers 3.01 0.86 251.43 355.44 1.11 3.650 0.091 ns 20 preserve and check from time to time 3.32 0.57 65.538 128.14 1.18 3.650 0.49 ns ns=not significant table 2, revealed that all the 20 items on processing, storing and preserving pepper for food security had their mean ranged from 2.51-3.75. this showed that the means were above the cut off point of 2.50, indicating that all the 20 items are responsibilities of homemakers in processing and preserving pepper for food security. the table also showed that standard deviation of the items ranged from 0.47-1.83, indicating that the respondents are not too far from the mean and from one another in their opinion. this helps to add validity to the mean. the table further revealed that the 20 items had their f-cal value less than f-table value. this indicated that there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the three groups of respondents. the correlation ratio (e2) for the 20 items ranged from 0.05-0.57, showing that the relationships between the explained and non-explained variables are low. therefore the hypothesis of no significant difference is upheld for the 20 items. research question 3: what are the responsibilities of homemakers in marketing processed and preserved pepper? hypothesis 3 there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture on marketing processed pepper. table 3 mean ratings, standards deviation and analysis of variance (anova) of the responses of home economists, home economics teachers and female teachers of agriculture on responsibilities for marketing processed pepper. n-700(630 home economists, 30 home economics teachers and 40 female teachers of agriculture) s/n item statement x sd residual tss f-cal f-tab e2 remark 1 grade the products according to quality 3.07 0.48 125.42 152.10 1.79 3.650 0.18 ns 2 determine prices for different grades of pepper 2.75 0.89 90.67 123.08 0.75 3.650 0.01 ns 3 advertise the different grades produced for sale 3.17 0.53 137.78 138.10 1.52 3.650 0.31 ns 4 determine means of supplying the buyers for profit maximization 3.24 1.13 148.08 180.10 0.26 3.650 0.26 ns 5 transport to the market for sales or deliver to buyers 2.84 0.69 152.13 162.18 1.64 3.650 0.25 ns 6 maintain good public relationship 3.51 0.96 68.80 99.08 0.016 3.650 0.06 ns 7 reconcile sales cost to profit or lose 2.54 1.01 98.67 131.10 0.76 3.650 0.26 ns ns-not significant table 3, revealed that 7 items on marketing processed pepper had their mean value ranged from 2.54-3.51. this showed that the means are above the cutoff point of 2.50, indicating that all the items are responsibilities of homemakers in marketing processed and preserved pepper. the table also showed that standard deviation of the items ranged from 0.48-1.13 indicating that the respondents are not too far from one another in their opinion. the table further revealed that the 7 items had their f-cal value less than f-table value. this indicates that there is no significant difference in the mean ratings in the responses of the three groups of respondents and therefore the hypothesis of no significant difference is accepted for the 7 items. the correlation ratio (e2) for 7 items ranged from 0.01-0.25, showing that the relationships between the explained and non-explained variables are low. discussion the results on the planning responsibilities of homemakers in processing pepper for food security were in consonance with the findings of ibrahim (2007), in his study on entrepreneurship skills required by secondary school graduates for success in rice production enterprise in kwarastate. the author found out that growing rice enterprise required the following competencies below in planning; formulating specific objectives for growing rice; review of the objectives for growing rice periodically; identify sources of finance for growing rice among others. the results were also in conformity with the findings of mgbeahurike (2001), in a study on skill improvement needs of agricultural science teachers for effective management of school farms in secondary schools in imo state. the author found out that agricultural science teachers needed the following skills below in planning; stating realizable objectives; preparing budgets for the enterprise among others. in the view of bosland and votava (2000), processing pepper into whole dried pods, flakes and powder involve spreading pepper on roofs and ground (clean concrete) to dry, flame roasting, ground dried pepper and dehydrate (drying) to 8-11% moisture, an optimal level for storage among others. the results on marketing processed pepper by homemakers were in line with the findings of akwaji (2006), in a study on work-skills required by secondary school graduates for success in cassava processing enterprise in crossriver states. the author found out that in marketing processed chips and flour the following skills were needed; advertisement for chips and flour sales; determine when and how to supply goods for profits maximization among others. the results were also in agreement with the findings of ibrahim(2007), in a study entrepreneurship skills required by secondary school graduates for success in rice production enterprise in kwarastate. the author found out that marketing processed products required the following skills; advertise for marketing paddy rice; grading and sorting paddy rice according to the quality, among others. the views, findings and statements of authors cited above supported and added to the validity of the results on planning, processing, preserving and marketing processed pepper. conclusion pepper is very important in meals of families in southern nigeria. this important ingredient spoils and got wasted in most homes in nigeria when they are in abundance because they are not processed and preserved appropriately. therefore, this study had provided information on the methods and techniques of preventing wastage in pepper when they are in season or harvested from the farms or purchased from the market; the application of processing skills in preserving pepper by homemakers cannot be overemphasized. homemakers have the responsibilities of processing and preserving pepper for food security in their homes and environment. it is, therefore, recommended that the 39 processing skills identified by this study be utilized to train homemakers and sellers of pepper in the market, for effectiveness in discharging their responsibilities towards processing, storing and preserving pepper for food security. references abel, s (2009). 'effect of intragastric capsaicin on gastric ulcer and protacyclin-induced cytoprotection in rats. 25 (5): httpi//wwwiibismedical.com/. akwaji, i (2006). work-skill required by secondary school graduates for success in cassava processing enterprise in cross river state, 78-80'. phd dissertation, university of nigeria, nsukka. ali, olaitan, eyo, and sowland. (2000). research skills in education and social sciences. onitsha. cape publishers international limited balu, e. 2009. 'uses of pepper. usage of pepper. 25(5): mhtm/ifilei//f: uses of pepper. usage of pepper. mht. bernster, i.e. (2009), effects of tropically applied capsaicin on moderate and severe psoriasis vulgans. 25(5): herb/nutrient affecting drug toxicity! bosland, and votava. (2000). peppers; vegetable and spice capsicums. department of agronomy and horticulture. new mexicostateuniversity las cruses, u.s.a. cabi publishing. brinker, f 2009. inhalation of capsaicin has been reported to cause allergic alveolitis 25(5): herb/nutrient affecting drug toxicity: acetylsalicylic acid. ibrahim, m (2007). entrepreneurship skills required by secondary school graduates for success in rice production enterprise in kwarastate, 86-94'. m.ed dissertations, university of nigeria, nsukka. mgbeahurike, m (2001). skill improvement needs of agricultural science teachers, for effective management of school farms in secondary schools in imo state, 84-86'. m.ed dissertation, university of nigeria, nsukka. obieri, u (2008). household sustenance potentials of women through blanching/salting techniques of processing and preservation of nsukka yellow pepper (capsicum annum), 1'. phd dissertation, university of nigeria, nsukka. wikipeadia (2009). 'free encyclopaedia, retrieved on april 30, 2010 from www.wikipedia.com (5). reforms in mathematics education programme: a panacea for meeting the personnel needs of industrial sectors in anambra state meeting the personnel needs of anambra state industrialists in nigeria: a call for mathematics education reforms by ebele c. okigbo nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria amarachukwu n. nwoye nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria abstract the study examined that extent the mathematics education graduates meet the personnel needs of the industrialists in anambra state. ninety-four (94) out of 198 managers (employers) from the three private industrial zones in anambra state, nigeria were included in the investigation. a descriptive survey instrument was constructed by the researchers based on professional and ict competencies which incorporated 25 items. analysis of results showed that: a. mathematics education graduates posses all the needed professional competencies as identified by industrialists, b. 41.7% of the needed ict competencies were acquired by the graduates while 58.3% were not, c. there is a significant difference in the mean ratings of the industrialists on the expected versus acquired ict competencies of mathematics education graduates. the findings of the study suggest that nigeria’s mathematics education program should be revised to reflect the acquisition of ict skills within the mathematics contents. 2 meeting the personnel needs of anambra state industrialists in nigeria: a call for mathematics education reforms ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) introduction “the scientific and technological break through of various nations has a tremendous impact in revolutionizing many of the industrial and social activities of mankind,” (jayeola-omoyeni, 1995:56). if this is true then one equally admits that there will be no scientific and technological development without proper mathematics education. since mathematics is the backbone of science and technology, the level of mathematics understanding among nigerians becomes a serious concern for scientific and technological literacy. this is due to the fact that if the level of mathematics education among the nigerian populace remains low, the substance the scientific and technological developments so far attained may not hold. the scientific and technological literacy entails a functional understanding of the nature of science and technology. the major problem of scientific and technological literacy in nigeria today is how to adequately link scientific and technological knowledge of the citizenry with their every day life. iji (2002) noted that a scientifically and technologically illiterate person is considerably circumscribed in playing his/her full role in the socio-economic development of his/her community. according to him, mathematics education should qualify the students in mathematical skills and abilities so that they can apply mathematics appropriately and correctly to the concrete problems they may encounter in their lives and work. ukeje in ogum (2007: 10) supports iji, stating “without good teachers, we cannot have good education and without good education, we cannot meet successfully the challenges of the ever changing nigerian world…without good teachers and good education we cannot achieve satisfactory national development”. every employer expects his employee to give his best performance in the execution his duties. the performance of such duties must conform to the required standard so that his contribution in the industry will be felt. the danish ministry of education (2001) stressed that knowledge and skills are the key factors of production in the 21 st century. this justified the major reason why the nigerian government embarked on series of education reforms and policies geared toward meeting societal needs especially in information and communication technology (ict). a reform according to ogoamaka (2007:1), “is a change (that may be planned, perceived, conceived, spontaneously realized, induced, or deduced) to bring about improvement.” it also implies bringing about a departure from the usual, status quo or established trend. in this article, the concern is reforms in university and college of education mathematics education programs. information and communication technology (ict) focus on the use of technological tools for managing and disseminating information. in the education industry, ict is integrated technologies for gathering, processing, delivering, and storing information. uzoigwe (2001) pointed out that ict involves all the technologies employed in order to facilitate the collection, storage, retrieval and communication by the fastest means. the individual‘s ability to search and obtain needed information makes him an educated person. this means that for one to gather enough information in the present technology age in the society and secure better employment in the competitive employment context, the individual must acquire and manipulate electronic equipment like computer system, internet system, cdrom, etc. this is important because employers now emphasize competencies and skills in these areas as pre requisites for employment (ogbonna, 2003). the benefits of ict are well documented by many researchers 3 ebele c. okigbo and amarachukwu n. nwoye ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) such as ejeh (2003), ittigson and zewe (2003), clarke (2006), duffy (2006), akudolu and olibie (2007) among others. the benefits of ict as presented by these researchers include the fact that it promotes learners empowerment, enhances learning performance, promotes staff development, increases instructional resources, improves human welfare and makes it possible for people to satisfy their basic needs. it is expected that science education program should help its graduates to acquire competencies which are very crucial for gainful employment in many fields of work because the program provides knowledge, attitudes, skills and understanding needed to perform certain jobs. okigbo and okeke (2008) posited that graduates of science education are useful in various professional fields available in the labor market. in addition, science education graduates acquire practical and verbal competencies which enable them to work as teachers, bankers, marketers, industrial workers, computer operators, contractors and other related fields where scientific knowledge could be applied. in particular, mathematics education graduates are versatile because they can establish their schools, businesses and companies which make them employers of labor instead of job seekers. notwithstanding the competencies and skills acquired by mathematics education graduates, schoepp (2005), akudolu and olibie (2007), and omenka (2007) noted that one of the major reforms needed in teacher education in nigeria is the area of teacher education ict competencies. also, agbalogun (2006) found that some teachers have a negative attitude toward the integration of computer education into the secondary school curriculum because of their lack of competencies and skills in computers. computers are a very important tool in almost every work place, school, and in life of individuals. the recent introduction of the current ict standards into mainstream schooling was widely expected to penetrate and transform teaching and learning across the curriculum. the international society for technology in education (iste) and other organizations recommended that students learn to use generic tools. the generic tools here represent the ict tools useful in many disciplines for teaching most students. researchers indicate that relatively few teachers are integrating ict into subject teaching which motivates students and enriches learning or stimulates higher-level thinking and reasoning (goodson & mangan, 1995; pickersgill, 2003). in addition, much importance is attached to ict in nigeria, so that the national university commission (nuc) and national commission for colleges of education (ncce) made this knowledge a prerequisite for employment and job retention. also, the national policy on education and teachers registration council of nigeria (trcn) law emphasized the acquisition of ict skills as a necessary condition for registration and professional practice (olakulehin, 2007). moreover, competencies and skills in manual office work are gradually giving way to modern office technology (okolocha & ile, 2007). other researchers (newhouse, 2002; lewis, 2003; olakulehin, 2007) also showed that ict can be used to support a variety of teaching and learning approaches so that teachers do not need to change their methods. implementation of ict calls for the update of mathematics education programs and their training of students. the mathematics education programs therefore should form part of this new training arena. science and mathematics education are noted as important and indispensable tools in achieving sustainable development for any nation. by this, it becomes obvious that science and mathematics education and ict are two sides of the same coin. mathematics education involves training in skills and competencies which are very important for gainful employment, yet the unemployment rate is on the increase. the universities and colleges of education continue to 4 meeting the personnel needs of anambra state industrialists in nigeria: a call for mathematics education reforms ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) produce graduates who join the queue of the unemployed. in view of this, the research seeks to discover whether these graduates actually meet the personnel needs of the industrial sectors where they will be gainfully employed. this study is conducted with the goal to suggest some reforms on the program that may help correct this anomaly. research questions the study was guided by four research questions: 1. what are the professional competencies expected of mathematics education graduates by industrialists in anambra state? 2. what are the ict competencies expected of mathematics education graduates by the industrialists in anambra state? 3. what are the mean ratings of the industrialists on the ict competences acquired by mathematics education graduates while in school? 4. is there any significant difference in the mean ratings of the industrialists on the expected and acquired ict competencies of mathematics education graduates. method the research adopted a descriptive survey design because it sought the opinions of industrialists managers (industrialists) in private industries in anambra state, nigeria, regarding the professional and ict competencies expected of mathematics education graduates. ninety-four (94) industrialists were selected from a total population of 198 industrialists of awka, nnewi, and onitsha industrial zones. the researchers constructed a 25 item questionnaire based on the professional and ict skills required of mathematics education graduates from the industrialists. the instrument consisted of a scale using five options of highly expected (he), often expected (oe), sometimes expected (se), rarely expected (re), and not expected (ne) with points 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 assigned respectively. six experts, three in mathematics education and three in computer science education, validated the instrument. any item accepted by 2/3 of these experts was included in the final production of the instrument. the data collected were analyzed using mean, percentage, and t-test statistics. any item with a mean (x) score of 2.50 and above was regarded as an expected competency to be possessed by mathematics education graduates. conversely, any item with a mean below 2.50 was regarded as an unexpected competency. results the analysis of the research results are presented in tables one through four. table 1: professional competencies expected of mathematics education graduates by the industrialists in anambra state s/n professional competencies mean remark 1 ability to teach mathematics 4.52 highly expected 2 numerate skill 4.76 highly expected 3 ability to get along with others 2.91 sometimes expected 4 creative skill 3.08 sometimes expected 5 ability to manipulate industrial equipment 2.81 sometimes expected 5 ebele c. okigbo and amarachukwu n. nwoye ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 6 ability to keep accurate records 4.62 highly expected 7 problem solving skill 1.35 not expected 8 leadership/managerial skill 2.61 sometimes expected 9 ability to communicate effectively 3.85 often expected 10 critical thinking/enquiry skill 1.98 rarely expected table one shows that the industrialists highly expected the mathematics education graduates to teach mathematics, keep accurate records, and posses numerate skill. however, they rarely expected them to possess critical thinking skill. table 2: ict competencies expected of mathematics education graduates by the industrialists in anambra state s/n ict competencies mean remark ability to: 1 start up, log off or shut down a computer system and its peripherals 4.82 highly expected 2 create a document 4.55 highly expected 3 edit typed work, add or delete data using different function keys 3.56 often expected 4 copy, cut, paste or insert in another location 4.15 often expected 5 use icon menu effectively 4.76 highly expected 6 key in user password and connect to internet 3.22 sometimes expected 7 open a website and download important information from it 3.28 sometimes expected 8 use desktop video conferencing 4.06 often expected 9 access different computer packages 3.80 often expected 10 dictate viruses in computer and other electronic devices 2.08 rarely expected 11 use computer for mathematical calculations and drawings 4.86 highly expected 12 use file compression utility and linear multimedia presentation 3.02 sometimes expected 13 use borders and different colors in designing, decorating, and producing 1.25 not expected 14 identify, open, and use a spreadsheet environment 3.38 sometimes expected 15 use scanner 1.12 not expected out of 15 ict competencies used in the study, table 2 reveals that anambra state industrialists highly expected the mathematics education graduates to posses four (start up and log off, create a document, use icon menu and computer for mathematical calculations and drawings). they rarely expected them to dictate viruses in computer and other electronic devices. however, 6 meeting the personnel needs of anambra state industrialists in nigeria: a call for mathematics education reforms ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) graduates of mathematics education were not expected to use scanner, borders and different colors in designing. table 3: mean ratings of the industrialists on the ict competencies expected and acquired by the mathematics education graduates s/n ict competencies needed acquired remark ability to: 1 start up, log off or shut down a computer system and its peripherals 4.82 4.02 needed /acquired 2 edit typed work, add or delete data using different function keys 3.56 3.96 needed/acquired 3 create a document 4.55 4.02 needed /acquired 4 copy, cut, paste or insert in another location 4.15 3.96 needed /acquired 5 use icon menu effectively 4.76 3.52 needed /acquired 6 key in user password and connect to internet 3.22 2.05 needed/ not acquired 7 open a website and download important information from it 3.28 2.05 needed/ not acquired 8 use desktop video conferencing 4.06 2.00 needed/ not acquired 9 access different computer packages 3.80 1.16 needed/ not acquired 10 dictate viruses in computer and other electronic devices 2.08 1.04 not needed/ not acquired 11 use computer for mathematical calculations and drawings 4.86 2.25 needed/ not acquired 12 use file compression utility and linear multimedia presentation 3.02 1.32 needed/ not acquired 13 use borders and different colors in designing, decorating, and producing 1.25 1.04 not needed/ not acquired 14 identify, open, and use a spreadsheet environment 3.38 1.52 needed / not acquired 15 use scanner 1.12 1.01 not needed/ not acquired table three reveals that most of the ict competencies were needed but not acquired by the graduates of mathematics education., they include: key in user password and connect the internet, open a website and download, use of desk top video conferencing, access computer packages, use computer for calculation, drawing, file compression, and use of spreadsheet environment. also, all the acquired competencies of the graduates is needed by the industrialists table 4: the t-test comparison of the expected and acquired ict competencies responses (subjects) n mean standard deviation  df t-cal t-crit expected 15 3.46 1.16 0.05 13 2.861 2.160 acquired 15 2.33 1.18 table four shows that the calculatedt (2.861) is greater than the tcritical value (2.160). therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the industrialists on the expected and acquired ict competencies of mathematics education graduates is rejected. the study thus concludes that there is a significant difference in the mean ratings on the expected compared to the acquired ict competencies. 7 ebele c. okigbo and amarachukwu n. nwoye ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) discussion the results of this study demonstrated all the expected professional ict competencies as identified by the industrialists in anambra state that mathematics education graduates should possess for employment. also, the findings from tables 2 and 3 revealed that 41.7% of the expected ict competencies were acquired by the mathematics education graduates, while 58.3% of these expected competencies were not acquired. to find out if there is any significant difference in the mean rating of the industrialists on the expected versus acquired ict competencies of the graduates, the null hypothesis was tested. the results from the test exposed a significant difference in their mean ratings on the expected compared to the acquired ict competencies. that is to say that not all the expected ict competencies were acquired by the mathematics education graduates. the findings from this study gave credence to the following findings of agbatogun (2006), schoepp (2005), akudolu and olibie (2007), and omenka (2007). agbalogun found that some teachers have negative attitudes towards the integration of computer education into secondary school curriculum because of their lack of competencies and skills in computers. schoepp (2005), akudolu and olibie (2007), and omenka (2007) reported that one of the major reforms needed in teacher education in any developing country is in the area of teacher ict competencies. however, the findings of this study deviated from the results of okolocha & ile (2007) and okigbo & okeke (2008). okolocha and ile (2007) reported that business education graduates acquired sufficient computer operation and desktop publishing competencies while in school. also, it deviated from okigbo and okeke (2008), who found that employers agreed that graduates of science and mathematics education possess all the competencies required to meet their job demands, and were competent and efficient workers that effectively utilized these competencies in the workplace. the results of this study have some educational implications for mathematics educators, university and college of education administrators, and government officials. this is because when students are equipped with the requisite computer skills, they will be in a better position to perform their tasks using fast and accurate communication networks like ict. by implication, universities and colleges of education have to modify mathematics education programs to meet the ever-changing ict trends in the country. conclusion and recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. mathematics education graduates should possess all the expected professional competencies identified by the industrialists. 2. 41.7% of the expected ict competencies were acquired by the mathematics education graduates while 58.3% of these competencies were not acquired. 3. there is a significant difference in the mean ratings of the industrialists on the expected and acquired ict competencies of mathematics education graduates. 4. not all the expected ict competencies were acquired by the mathematics education graduates. from the findings of study, the following recommendations were made: 8 meeting the personnel needs of anambra state industrialists in nigeria: a call for mathematics education reforms ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 1. efforts should be made by mathematics educators in tracking new ict technological trends. this requires that mathematics educators update their knowledge in the area of ict. 2. mathematics education programs should be reviewed and revised to reflect the acquisition of ict skills together with mathematics content. that is to say that ict education should be properly integrated within the existing mathematics education programs in nigeria’s universities and colleges of education. 3. mathematics educators should expose the students to the rudiments of ict education by giving them assignments and projects that involve the use of computers and internets. 4. mathematics educators and their graduates should be encouraged to attend ict workshops and conferences to update their knowledge in ict competencies and skills. references agbatogun, o.a. (2006). attitude of teachers towards the integration of computer education into secondary school curriculum. journal of research in curriculum and teaching 1(10), 20-29. akudolu, l-r. & olibie, e. (2007). seeking appropriate ict teaching approach for developing teacherict competencies: views from europeans union. unizik orient journal of education 3(1), 33-38. clarke, a. (2006). teaching adults ict skills. glasgow: learning matters ltd. danish ministry of education (2001). the development of education. denmark: the danish research and development centre for adult education. the 46th international conference on education, geneva, 5 th – 8 th september. duffy, o. (2006). extending knowledge in practice: primary ict. glasgow: learning matter ltd. ejeh, b.j. (2003). domesticating stm education in nigeria. paper presented at the 3 rd conference of the school of sciences kogi state college of education, anyigba. goodson, i.f. & mangan, j.m. (1995). subject cultures and the introduction of classroom computers. british educational research journal, 21(5), 613-628. iji, c.o. (2002). mathematics education for sustainable development in nigeria; political and social implication for scientific and technological literacy. the 43 rd proceedings of the stan annual conference and inaugural conference of castme africa, 337341. 9 ebele c. okigbo and amarachukwu n. nwoye ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) ittigson, r.j. & zewe, j.g. (2003). technology in the mathematics classroom. in l.a. tomei (ed). challenges of teaching with technology across the curriculum: issues and solution (p.114-133). hershey: information science publishing. jayeola-omoyeni, m.s. (1995). the place of science education in adult literacy programme in nigeria: a note to the stan. journal of science teachers association of nigeria (jstan) 30 (1&2), 55-63. lewis, s. (2003). enhancing teaching and learning of science through use of ict: methods and materials. school science review, 84 (309), 41-51. newhouse, p. (2002). literature review: the impact of ict on learning and teaching. perth, western australia: department of education. ogbonna, i.m. (2003). academic libraries in nigeria: challenges of ict in the 21 st century. the nigerian library link: journal of library and information science, 11. ogoamaka, p.m.c. (2007). some reforms in pre-primary and primary education in nigeria. orient journal of education 3(1), 1-8. ogum, g.e.o. (2007). reforms in the education industry: challenges and the way forward. a keynote address at the annual conference of faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria, 11 th – 15 th october. okigbo, e.c. & okeke s.o.c (2008). competencies expected of university graduates of science education in the labour market: implication for science and mathematics teachers preparation. orient journal of education 4(2), 46-52. okolocha, c.c. & ile m.c. (2007). meeting the personnel needs of the industrial sectors through business education: the views of private industrialists. orient journal of education 3(1), 39-48. olakulehin, f.k. (2007). information communication technologies in teachers’ training and professional development in nigeria. turkish journal of distance education, 133142. omenka, c. (2007). current status and problems facing the implementation of computer education programme in nigeria. journal of research development, 8(2). pickersgill, d. (2003). effective use of the internet in science teaching. school science review, 84 (309), 77-86. 10 meeting the personnel needs of anambra state industrialists in nigeria: a call for mathematics education reforms ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) schoepp, k. (2005). barriers to technology integration in a technology-rich environment. learning and teaching in higher education: gulf perspectives, 2(1), 1-24. uzoigwe, c.u. (2001). information technologies libraries: the nigerian case. a conference paper presented to the nigeria library association, state central library, enugu, november, 20. q-njamanze ict in participatory development of teaching/learning english as a global language in nigeria: a discourse queen ugochinyere njamanze federal university of technology, owerri. ugonje@yahoo.com abstract information communication technology (ict) has become a major issue in many language discourses today. english language is widely used in communication, education and diverse human endeavors. in nigeria, it is the official language as well as the language of everyday use. based on this, there is need to sustain and attain global proficiency and mastery. being one of the parameters for measuring a nation's development, this paper emphasizes the need for the inclusion of ict as a partner for national development. the researcher examines english as a global language, the place of ict in nigeria and the various technological applications and programs used in carrying out this growth, and development of english language teaching/learning in nigeria. the paper concludes by reaffirming the need for increased digital access and awareness in nigeria introduction the need for technological innovation has brought about communication revolution and rapid development of technological application in language teaching and learning. this has contributed to the development of improved language communication in nigeria. technological innovations have gone hand-in-hand with the growth of english and re-changing the way which we communicate and learn. this is because; language education encapsulates the medium and message of the communicative process. educators are fast realizing that the use of computer assisted language teaching and learning could be convenient for the users. english as a language has spread to almost all parts of the world, hence the universal adoption of english as a world language. thus, brumfit (1995) asserts; certainly, it is now true that the english language is no longer the exclusive property of speakers of english as mother-tongue or first language. the ownership of english rests with the people who use it, however multilingual they are or however monolingual they are. the growth of english language around the globe is actually based on the issues of bilingualism, multilingualism, colonialism, trade, communication, etc. based on this spread and development, the need for the use of information communication technologies (ict's) in language teaching/learning programme is indispensable. it is important to note that this spread and development is paramount when computers are no longer the exclusive domains of the privileged few, rather. it is being made available to many. ict provides the basic technology for assisting language teaching/learners to acquire important communication skills in english language. this will facilitates the integration of relevant technologies in the development of nigeria's language education system. through ict, computer-based resources such as the internet are used to deliver, equip and assess learning and teaching materials. it is a known fact that language is dynamic, the english language, like any other language has spread to all parts of the globe, it is on this basis that this paper examines the language from a global perspective. english as a global language: the english language is the most prevalent language in the world. it is spoken by people in over 115 countries. this shows its importance and relevance in our society. this has contributed to the loss of the status of most mother-tongues in nigeria. linguists like graddol (2000) believe that english is no longer the exclusive cultural property of "nature english speakers", but rather it is a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow." because the english language has the status of a global language, it has large impact on other languages which makes them to either shift or extinct. this massive spread has equally resulted in the realization of variants of english language. a good example is the language of the short message services 'sms' in the nigerian environment. borrowing is a significant factor in language change and dynamism. the english language has loan words which emanated from trade, commerce, colonialism, missionary activities and more. these contribute to the spread of english and also affirms banjo's (1996) stance that english is now the "language of the younger generation". this is an indication that it could have both positive and retarding effects on the nigerian nation. this, notwithstanding, english language in nigeria must be both nationally and internationally intelligible and acceptable to contribute to its digital growth and development. this paper therefore examines ict incursion as a catalyst for new developments in english language teaching/learning in nigeria. ict in nigeria the emergence of ict use in teaching/learning of english in nigeria came on board as a result of the need to create; while adapting to the new dimensions of communication in the 21st century. this aims at changing the attitudes, values and aspiration of the language learner in line with the current global benefits of modernization. the adoption of ict on english language teaching/learning, thus, becomes appropriate for the development of the individual in the nigerian nation. ict has transformed education in nigeria and made it more interactive. it has empowered teachers/students practically and theoretically in the use of technological facilities. ict enhances efficiency in a work place, it increases the speed of communication around the globe and it is helping teachers and students to keep up-to-date academic communication in nigeria. some pertinent issues are yet to be resolved in the use of ict in language teaching/learning in nigeria. they include; poor infrastructural support, lack of basic ict knowledge, ignorance about its importance, · lack of governmental support in funding technology programmes in tertiary institutions in nigeria, among others. it is also important to state that the emergence of ict in the educational sector in nigeria has altered some roles of english language in nigeria; hence, not everyone is overly captivated about this incursion. nonetheless, this paper takes a peep into the application of technology in language teaching and learning. the application of technology in language teaching: the application of technology in language teaching has become an indispensable tool in the contemporary world as a powerful means for communication and education. technology has come of age as a language teaching resource as a result of which, communication revolution is having tremendous impact on language education. in as much as the use of technology in language education dates back into history; technology has significantly revolutionized language education both in theory and practice over the years across the globe. the application of technology in language teaching over the years is yet to be widely adopted in the nigerian environment. the outcomes had been few lasting effects because there are more non-native than native users of the language. the introduction of technology in language is, therefore, seen as a contributory factor in shifting away from a communicative approach towards a context-based approach to language teaching pedagogy. the range of new information technologies is diverse and includes micro computer, the satellite, and telematique (the merging of computer and telecommunications). its major achievement has been the provision of communicative experience, i.e., communication by humans -to machine. the english language teacher must, therefore, be conversant with new technologies of information and communication to attain a good level of efficiency. there are fundamental set of skills and knowledge required for this attainment. according to the international ict literacy panel (2001), they include; cognitive proficiency technical proficiency ict proficiency cognitive proficiency refers to the fundamental skills of daily school, home and work needs. they include such skills as numeracy, problem solving and visual/spatial literacy. the english language teacher requires these skills so as to achieve his desired proficiency needed in knowledge transfer. technical proficiency is the basic component of digital literacy. the teacher is expected to have the fundamental knowledge of computer ware application, installation, maintenance, networking, shooting, and so on, in order to operate the necessary facilities freely. ict proficiency is the integration and application of cognitive and technical skills. this will help the language teacher to maximize his technological capabilities. technological proficiency aid innovation, individual transformation and society change. it gives the language teacher (especially english) access to know what data to collect, how to collect or retrieve it. it also helps him plan his language program. he is able to interpret and represent information, and as well make his evaluations. he can transfer, download or upload information. the benefits of technological facilities to the language teacher are enormous. this has led to development of current trends in technological applications in language teaching. current trends on technological application in language teaching in nigeria there are some current developments in technological applications in language teaching in nigerian schools. these recent developments emphasize achievement on central and peripheral learning processes. this facilitates person-to-person interaction (i.e. teacher/learner, peers, families etc), through telecommunications and computer networks at various parts of their location in the country and beyond. it aids fast and comprehensive language acquisition and communication. it provides bridges to the target language and culture. the uses of technological facilities in language teaching fill the gap in internal and external delivery, and it could be used within the immediate environment or by distance education. it grants access to learners from various social backgrounds, as well as provides autonomy to the teacher/learner. it has some other classified modes of use which includes; teacher /learner physically present in the same environment. teacher / learner in different locations and time. teacher / learner standalone use, usually for learning purpose. the use of technological facilities in language teaching/learning has really revolutionalized the existence and activities of language facilitators in nigeria, especially in the face of globalization and new knowledge society. hence, this paper seeks to answer these questions in the course of this research; what technological skill attainment will be required of the teacher/learner? which technologies are suitable for teaching and learning of the english language in nigeria? what are the implications of emerging technologies in english language teaching and learning? the strategy we adopt in integrating technology into the teaching and learning of language can have huge impact on the success and failure of technologically driven classroom expected in our nation. in recent times, the use of the internet has become so wide spread in achieving this goal. a review of the internet while evaluating computer uses in language teaching in nigeria, forms part of this section indicates that technologies in language teaching has the capacity to create new opportunities for teaching and learning. bransford and brown (2000) were of the opinion that it creates this new opportunities by bringing real-world problems into the classroom for teachers and students to explore and solve. in other words, using technology as an instructional resource has increased and encouraged teachers' awareness and ability to create both independent and collaborative learning environments that enable learners acquire and practice new language (tswanya, 2006, p.45-46). technological innovations have gone hand-in-hand with the growth of language teaching especially english, thus, re-changing the way in which we communicate and learn. the growth of the internet has facilitated the growth of the english language especially when computers were widely available to many users. graddol (2000) observes that over 80% of information stored on the internet is in english. this implies that in the recent future number of internet users must have doubled the number at present. in another opinion, jarvis and atsilarat (2004) suggest that the internet may be a contributory factor in shifting away from a communicative-base approach towards a context-based approach to language teaching. the internet changes the language partly because it gives rise to new vocabulary; we now have technologies like text messaging on mobile phones, the use of ipods and computer online chat rooms. there is also the computer-assisted language learning which helps the learner to understand what constitutes the english language and how it works. these issues are among the present experiences of ict usage in the nigerian environment. in our language learning/teaching field, emphasis is now placed on online learning and interactions amongst students and teachers. this is achieved through the internet in various web settings. the internet refers to the telecommunication and computer systems linked together which comprise of online gadgets, software, files, documents, audio files, and graphics, etc, which are requested and utilized around the globe. english language teachers and learners in nigeria interact freely on the internet. they write and submit their stories, articles, reports, seminars online and were also able to communicate with colleagues around the globe. it is pertinent to note that there is a widespread availability of digital divide but its application requires some qualifications to achieve 'technology literacy' amongst the nigerian population. this paper, therefore, examines the types of technologies used in language teaching and learning in nigeria. technologies used in language teaching /learning in nigeria there are many ways of analyzing the various forms of technologies used in teaching/learning. this analysis centers on the relevance of the nations educational needs rather than the physical component of either hardware or software. as rodney (1996) rightly observed in his report, his team identified two broad categories of technologies in (lundin and sandery, 1993, p.9) to be as follows: a. distributive and b. interactive distributive technologies are generally associated with transmission learning models. a material is prepared in a predetermined manner and sequence which does not encourage interaction between teachers and learners. the distributive technologies include; a. electronic publishing (online or physical media such as magnetic and optic disks). b. conventional print publishing. c. postal and courier services d. radio / television broad cast e. audio /video services. these technologies are not often used in language teaching in nigeria. an interactive technology involves educational communication which is carried out between a higher person (teacher) and a lower person (learner). this is the widely adopted technique used in our environment. good teaching requires that teacher has extensive knowledge of the; a. level of understanding of the learner b. context of the instruction c. barriers to a learners progress and d. strategies to use and overcome the barriers. the preferred technology in nigeria is based on the intended purpose. the nature of technologies used in any case determines the teaching and learning models for that particular educational service. in other words, technologies cannot be used to replace a teacher rather a teacher is needed to achieve educational outcomes and this is possible with technological support in the classroom. the teacher helps to provide meaningful feedback to the learner which helps him or her to achieve progress in some learning goals. the use of interactive technologies, thus, aims at assisting the learner in linking his or her new knowledge to an existing one. interactive technologies used in teaching are thus seen as; synchronous: this allows all involved users to engage in activity at the same time, using the technology to bridge the spatial separation. such technologies are; video conferencing audio conferencing interactive television · audio graphics (combination of audio conferencing, fax and transfer of information between computers). · internet chat and multiple user environments (muds, moos, mustts). it could be asynchronous when it allows users to communicate with time delays between massages, as well as bridges time and space in communication. some technologies used by most nigerians for effective communication are; computer mediated communication (email, bulletin boards, discussion lists) audio message systems text based computer conferencing interactive technologies could also be described as stand alone which are generally intended for use without the need to connect to a communications system. the interaction here is largely between the user and a set of material. these materials include those technologies used to support, interactive multimedia and · other computer based teaching courseware that has the attainment of a set of educational goals as its purpose; (tutorial programs, drills and practice and computer assisted instruction). the emergence of technological applications in language teaching has been contributing to the realization of the goal of the digital age. its emphasizes a task-based approach to language learning (i.e. learning through doing), young and bush (2004:54) suggest that there is need to maximize the benefits of technology use in the classroom through; a. recognizing the complexity of technology integration and its status in the field. b. recognizing and understanding the evolving and continuous effect computer information and internet has on literacy. c. recognizing the importance of creating relevant contexts for effective technology integration. these could be further achieved according to these writers by; a. developing pedagogical framework b. asking the important question c. establishing working guidelines d. implementing these strategies while integrating teaching. reflecting on these strategies and practicing them regularly has enhanced technology application on language teaching and learning in nigeria. in a similar opinion, macro (2002 p.20-24) outlines the advantages of web quest, to include; fostering cooperative learning, using authentic online materials, promoting learner motivation as well as problem solving skills. this paper thus gives a clear focus to what ict use in language teaching and learning set to achieve in nigeria. conclusion · the application of technologies in language teaching and learning has upgraded language education to a new phase in nigeria. there is improvement in the quality of language teaching through the diversification of contents, methods, and as well promoting experimentation, innovation and obtaining and sharing of information. there is wide-range of language learning reforms, hence the need to; increase access to teachers knowledge and development through interactive technology increase the peoples awareness on the importance of technology increase access to instructional resources increase flexibility in what to learn, how to learn and when to learn. train teacher to improve his competence in using the new technologies in his instructional activities increase governmental support in technological programmes and funding in the tertiary institutions. adherence to these needs will help us realize more positive results in the application of technology in language teaching and learning in nigeria. references banjo, a. (1996) making a virtue of necessity: an overview of the english language nigeria . ibadan, university of ibadan pressbransford, j and brown, a (2000) technology to support learning. in bransford, j.d. and cocking r.r. (eds.) how people learn: brain, mind, experience and school. washingtond.c.nationalacademy press brumfit, c. (1995) english as a second language and english language teaching:retrospect in prospect. in bamgbose a, banjo a, and thomas a, (eds) new englishes. ibadan: mosuro. graddol, d (2000) the future of english: a guide to forecasting the popularity of the english language in the 21st century (2nd edition) the british council u.k. international ict literacy panel (2001) "digital transformation: a framework for ict literacy". retrieved february 2, 2006, from http://www.est.org/media/test...(20/2/06). jarvis, h and atsilarat, s. (2007) shifting paradigm: from a communicative to a context-based approach". asian efl journal 6.(4). macro, m. (2002) internet content-based activities for esp english teaching forum 40. (3) rodney, c. (1996) implications of technology for language teaching. australia. australian language and literacy council report. 52. tswanya, s. (2006) "towards a technology enhanced curriculum. infusing technology into english as a second language". esl teaching knowledge review (a multidisciplinary journal) 12 (3) adequacy of material resources required for effective adequacy of material resources required for implementation of upper basic education business studies curriculum in ebonyi state, nigeria okoli b. ekwutosi ebonyi state university, nigeria okorie o. ogbonnaya ebonyi state college of education, nigeria abstract this work is a descriptive survey of the adequacy of the material resources required for effective implementation of upper basic education business studies curriculum in ebonyi state. two research questions and two hypotheses guided this study. two hundred and forty-one (241) business studies teachers participated in this study. a four point structured questionnaire, with reliability coefficient of 0.81 was administered to the 241 respondents. the research question responses were sorted to find the mean and standard deviation with a t-test run to test the hypotheses. the two null hypotheses were accepted at 0.05 significance. the results showed that business studies facilities are of low adequacy and business studies curriculum textbook provisions are of low adequacy. there was no significant difference between the adequacy of business studies facilities in public and private junior secondary schools; and there is no significant difference between the adequacy of business studies curriculum textbook provision in urban and rural junior secondary schools. the study recommended that government and other stakeholders pool their resources to ensure that business studies facilities and textbooks are adequately provided since education for all is the responsibility of all. keywords: basic education, business studies education, upper basic school nigeria. introduction universal basic education (ube) is an educational reform program of the nigerian government that provides free, compulsory, and continuous 9 years education in two levels: 6 years of primary and 3 years of junior secondary education for all school aged children. according to the universal basic education commission (ubec, 2006), the legal framework of ube was signed into law in may, 2004 in order to address section 18(1) and (3) of the 1999 federal republic of nigeria constitution that stimulates: 2 adequacy of material resources required upper basic education business studies ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) 1. government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels. 2. government shall eradicate illiteracy; and to this end, government shall as and when practicable provide: (a) free, compulsory and universal primary education; (b) free secondary education; (c) free university education; and (d) free adult literacy programme. the ube program constitutes: early child care development education (eccde) for children aged 3-5 years; primary education for children for 6 years, aged 6-11 years; and junior secondary school (jss) education for children for 3 years, aged 12-14 + . the eccde is not compulsory, but the 6 years of primary and 3 years of jss education are compulsory. the 9 year continuous basic education became necessary because, according to ubec (2006), completion of primary school does not equip a child with the necessary life skills to become self reliant. from the introduction of the ube, it became imperative that the existing curricula for primary school and jss be reviewed, restructured, and realigned to fit into a 9 year education program. then the national council on education (nce) approved a new curriculum structure that included: lower basic education curriculum (primary 1-3), middle basic education curriculum (primary 4-6) and upper basic education curriculum (jss 1-3). the national planning commission (2007) established the upper basic education business studies curriculum on which this study is based as adapted from by the comparative education and adaptation centre’s (cesa) study which was presented to the joint consultative committee on education in 1982. the design and content of this curriculum is focused on providing students with the skills to be gainfully employed upon completion of their program as it prepares them for setting up small businesses as entrepreneurs. nweze (2008) applauds this curriculum when he points out that one of the national education goals is the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competencies as equipment to live in and contribute to the development of one’s society. he believes that acquisition of appropriate business skills is necessary at this level because, after junior secondary education, one may continue full-time studies, combine work with study, or embark on full time employment. the business studies curriculum could not be implemented in a vacuum, hence, the national planning commission (2007) explained that it is crucial that adequate provision of human and material resources be made for the implementation of upper basic education business studies curriculum in order to promote saleable skills acquisition and employment generation possibilities. in line with this mandate, saba (2007) sees school facilities and equipment as a pillar in support for effective teaching and learning to take place in an ideal environment. okpanku and uchechi (2008) believe that facilities and equipment help to stimulate interest and also enhance retention of ideas. 3 okoli b. ekwutosi and okorie o. ogbonnaya ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) hamza (2000) and nwagwu (2007) regret that the short supply of instructional materials in nigerian secondary schools hinder effective teaching and learning. igu (2007) notes that school libraries, where available, are filled with old and obsolete books that are irrelevant. mustapha (2011) complains that majority of the teachers in the south-east zone are still battling to catch a glimpse of the new curriculum. okoroma (2006) affirms that inadequate laboratories, libraries and other teaching and learning materials, among others, constitute the major constraints to effective implementation of the ube program. nwakpa (2007) affirms that material resources are not evenly distributed. he asserts that these resources are more adequate in private secondary schools than in public secondary schools. similarly, egwu (2009) asserts that there are significant differences in the management of schools in urban and rural areas. ani (2005) and strong (2006) note that these differences exist in the provision of educational materials, adequacy of staff, and conducive learning environment. starr and white (2008) specifically affirm that rural areas get little support and inadequate personnel in contrast with their urban counterparts. ulifun (1986) describes availability, maintenance and adequacy of teaching facilities as sine qua non for the attainment of educational goals. odigbo (2005) agrees that adequate facilities ensure meaningful teaching and learning. against this backdrop, it is crucial that adequate provision of material resources be made in order to effectively implement the upper basic education business studies curriculum in ebonyi state. policy implementation and curriculum implementation is not accomplished in a vacuum. adequacy of material resources is a condition par excellence for the implementation of the curriculum under study. inadequate teaching and learning facilities which osadolor (2007) identifies as a major cause of the failure of all free education programs attempted in edo state, has been identified by okoroma (2006) as a major constraint of ube in rivers state as well. the upper basic education business studies curriculum is deep, appropriate and interrelated in content. it is expected to produce the best learning outcome if supported by adequate provision of human and material resources. for ebonyi state which okike (2006) described as the least literate south eastern state and an educational disadvantaged state, needs to grow its education system to develop appropriate business skills in its students. this is possible if adequate teaching and learning resources are provided. this work, therefore, tries to establish the adequacy of material resources required for effective implementation of this curriculum in ebonyi state. purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to determine the adequacy of material resources required for effective implementation of upper basic education business studies curriculum in ebonyi state. specifically, the study intends to: 1. determine the adequacy of business studies facilities at the upper basic education (jss) level in ebonyi state; 2. determine the level of business studies curriculum textbook provision at the upper basic education level in ebonyi state. 4 adequacy of material resources required upper basic education business studies ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) research questions these following research questions guided the study: 1. what is the level of adequacy of business studies’ facilities in junior secondary schools (jss) in ebonyi state? 2. what is the level of adequacy of the provision of business studies curriculum textbooks in jss in ebonyi state? hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: ho1: there is no significant difference between the adequacy of business studies facilities in public and private jss. ho2: there is no significant difference between the level of adequacy of business studies curriculum textbook provision in urban and rural jss. methodology the population of this study was comprised of two hundred and forty-one (241) business studies teachers in ebonyi state. the researchers considered the population accessible and decided to use the entire 241 business studies teachers for the study. the researchers distributed 241 copies of the questionnaire, but only 228 were correctly completed and returned for use in this study. a structured questionnaire developed by the researcher and validated by three (3) experts was used for data collection. the reliability of the instrument was tested using cronbach alpha and it yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.81 and was assessed as reliable for the study. data collected were analyzed using mean (x), standard deviation, and t-test. while mean and standard deviation were used to assess the research question responses, t-test was used to test the null hypotheses. any item that had a mean score between 0.1 and 1.0 was interpreted as very low adequacy, 1.1 to 2.0 was interpreted as low adequacy, 2.1 to 3.0 was highly adequate while 3.1 to 4.0 was very highly adequate. the decision rule of benchmark was to interpret any grand mean greater than or equal to 2.1 (x>2.1) as adequate and any grand mean less than or equal to 2.0(x < 2.0) as inadequate. the study was carried out in ebonyi state, nigeria. data analysis the findings of this study are presented in tables 1 to 4 below. table 1. mean and standard deviation results level of adequacy of school facilities s/ n item vha ha la vla x s.d interpret 1 typing room 14 45 72 97 1.89 0.93 la 2 dom well desk 8 16 28 176 1.37 0.77 la 3 swivel typing chair 4 23 33 168 1.39 0.74 la 4 electric typewriter 11 33 54 130 1.67 0.89 la 5 manual typewriter 10 76 82 60 2.16 0.87 ha 6 ink duplicating machine 4 50 86 88 1.87 0.81 la 7 carbon paper 15 65 99 49 2.20 0.85 ha 5 okoli b. ekwutosi and okorie o. ogbonnaya ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) 8 a4 typing sheet 12 73 84 59 2.17 0.88 ha 9 a5 typing sheet 9 53 89 77 1.97 0.86 la 10 a4 headed typing sheet 10 61 85 72 2.04 0.87 la 11 a5 headed typing sheet 7 45 77 99 1.83 0.85 la 12 headed memo pad 8 33 77 110 1.73 0.84 la 13 a4 duplicating paper 14 68 67 79 2.08 0.94 la 14 stencil 7 42 110 69 1.94 0.78 la 15 typewriter eraser 8 35 103 82 1.86 0.79 la 16 tipex 16 55 98 59 2.12 0.88 ha 17 tape recorder 6 28 52 142 1.58 1.01 la 18 sound tapes/ cassette 5 22 53 148 1.49 0.76 la 19 shorthand pen 10 18 60 140 1.55 0.82 la 20 unrulled chalkboard 65 96 26 41 2.81 1.04 ha 21 ruled chalkboard 17 20 37 154 1.56 0.93 la 22 shorthand note book 13 67 65 83 2.04 0.92 la 23 photocopier 17 36 65 110 1.83 0.96 la 24 filing cabinet 15 39 58 116 1.79 0.95 la 25 perforator 16 55 103 54 2.15 0.86 ha 26 stapling machine 17 73 92 46 2.27 0.87 ha 27 guillotine 8 14 58 148 1.48 0.77 la 28 stop watch 12 21 90 105 1.74 0.84 la 29 alarm clock 14 39 82 93 1.89 0.90 la 30 single hole punch 7 66 92 63 2.07 0.83 la 31 double hole punch 7 27 100 94 1.77 0.78 la 32 incoming register 24 60 96 48 2.26 0.91 ha 33 dispatch book 24 62 88 54 2.25 0.94 ha 34 visitor’s book 36 63 92 37 2.43 0.94 ha 35 file jacket 47 73 68 40 2.56 1.01 ha 36 file tags 54 69 64 41 2.59 1.04 ha 37 bulletin board 11 22 47 148 1.54 0.86 la 38 telephone message pad 8 27 39 154 1.51 0.84 la 39 request form booklet 10 35 57 126 1.69 0.89 la 40 business documents specimen 13 34 57 124 1.72 0.92 la 41 postage book 16 29 61 122 1.73 0.94 la 42 adding/listing machine 9 29 56 134 1.62 0.86 la 43 ruled ledger sheet 5 44 92 87 1.86 0.80 la 44 analysis sheet for trial balance 7 39 79 103 1.78 0.84 la 45 store record book 15 38 74 101 1.86 0.93 la grand mean 1.90 0.88 inadequate vha= very highly adequate, ha = highly adequate, la= low adequacy, vla = very low adequacy. table 1 shows that thirty-three (33) out of the forty five facilities required for the implementation of upper basic education curriculum on business studies were of low adequacy. the low adequacy facilities are those with serial numbers 1-4, 6, 9-15, 17-19, 21-24, 27-31 and 37-45 whose mean scores fell between 1.1 and 2.0. twelve facilities with serial number 5, 7, 8, 16, 20, 25, 26, and 32-36, whose mean scores fell between 2.1 and 3.0, were highly adequate. none of the faculties was either very highly adequate or of very low adequacy. the grand mean is 1.90 which implies that the facilities are inadequate. the standard deviations show that the individual mean scores do not vary widely from the grand mean. 6 adequacy of material resources required upper basic education business studies ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) table 2. mean and standard deviation results level of adequacy of business studies curriculum textbooks provision s/n item vha ha la vla x sd interpret 46 provision of the basic education curriculum on business studies 8 37 98 85 1.86 0.81 la 47 level of compliance of existing business studies textbook with the new curriculum 11 57 112 48 2.14 0.79 ha 48 revision of business textbooks in compliance with the new curriculum 15 45 121 47 2.12 0.81 ha 49 new business studies textbooks written in line with the new curriculum 19 68 89 52 2.24 0.89 ha 50 availability of business studies textbooks in the school library 15 21 68 124 1.68 0.89 la 51 accessibility of library copies to business studies teachers 16 24 67 121 1.72 0.92 la 52 accessibility of library copies to business studies students 11 23 54 140 1.58 0.86 la 53 possession / ownership of business studies textbook by students 10 46 59 113 1.79 0.91 la grand mean 1.89 0.86 inadequate table 2 shows that five of the eight items meant to determine the adequacy of the provision of business studies curriculum textbooks (serial numbers 46, 50-53) had mean scores between 1.1 and 2.0 and were interpreted as of low adequacy. three of the items (serial numbers 47-49) obtained mean scores between 2.1 and 3.0 and were interpreted as highly adequate. no item was either very highly adequate or of very low adequacy. the grand mean of 1.89 implies that the provision of business studies curriculum textbooks is inadequate. the standard deviations show that the individual mean scores do not vary significantly from the grand mean. table 3: t-test results on adequacy of business studies facilities s/n variable no x s.d df t. cal t crit decision 1 private public 121 107 1.78 2.01 0.91 0.94 226 1.91 1.960 accept h0 2 private public 121 107 1.32 1.42 0.71 0.82 226 0.97 1.960 accept h0 3 private public 121 107 1.39 1.40 0.76 0.71 226 0.05 1.960 accept h0 4 private public 121 107 1.63 1.71 0.87 0.92 226 0.62 1.960 accept h0 5 private public 121 107 2.15 2.15 0.88 0.84 226 0.02 1.960 accept h0 6 private public 121 107 1.80 1.93 0.75 0.87 226 1.16 1.960 accept h0 7 private public 121 107 2.09 2.31 0.81 0.88 226 1.95 1.960 accept h0 8 private public 121 107 2.09 2.25 0.86 0.88 226 1.39 1.960 accept h0 7 okoli b. ekwutosi and okorie o. ogbonnaya ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) 9 private public 121 107 1.93 2.01 0.78 0.93 226 0.75 1.960 accept h0 10 private public 121 107 1.95 2.14 0.78 0.95 226 1.65 1.960 accept h0 11 private public 121 107 1.78 1.86 0.78 0.92 226 0.74 1.960 accept h0 12 private public 121 107 1.75 1.71 0.78 0.89 226 0.38 1.960 accept h0 13 private public 121 107 2.01 2.14 0.91 0.97 226 0.99 1.960 accept h0 14 private public 121 107 1.91 1.97 0.80 0.75 226 0.53 1.960 accept h0 15 private public 121 107 1.85 1.87 0.80 0.79 226 0.26 1.960 accept h0 16 private public 121 107 2.04 2.20 0.85 0.89 226 1.34 1.960 accept h0 17 private public 121 107 1.53 1.63 0.78 1.21 226 0.73 1.960 accept h0 18 private public 121 107 1.49 1.48 0.75 0.76 226 0.10 1.960 accept h0 19 private public 121 107 1.53 1.57 0.82 0.81 226 0.30 1.960 accept h0 20 private public 121 107 2.71 2.91 1.06 1.01 226 1.43 1.960 accept h0 21 private public 121 107 1.56 1.56 0.96 0.90 226 0.01 1.960 accept h0 22 private public 121 107 1.95 2.14 0.90 0.97 226 1.46 1.960 accept h0 23 private public 121 107 1.68 1.98 0.91 0.98 226 2.35 1.960 reject h0 24 private public 121 107 1.74 1.85 0.93 0.96 226 0.84 1.960 accept h0 25 private public 121 107 2.01 2.28 0.88 0.81 226 2.42 1.960 reject h0 26 private public 121 107 2.20 2.33 0.86 0.86 226 1.13 1.960 accept h0 27 private public 121 107 1.41 1.56 0.69 0.83 226 1.46 1.960 accept h0 28 private public 121 107 1.71 1.76 0.81 0.86 226 0.50 1.960 accept h0 29 private public 121 107 1.88 1.88 0.85 0.95 226 0.03 1.960 accept h0 30 private public 121 107 1.95 2.20 0.82 0.82 226 2.27 1.960 reject h0 31 private public 121 107 1.71 1.83 0.73 0.81 226 1.18 1.960 accept h0 32 private public 121 107 2.16 2.37 0.87 0.93 226 1.73 1.960 accept h0 33 private public 121 107 2.13 2.37 0.90 0.95 226 1.95 1.960 accept h0 34 private public 121 107 2.29 2.57 0.88 0.99 226 2.27 1.960 reject h0 35 private public 121 107 2.42 2.70 1.05 0.93 226 2.04 1.960 reject h0 36 private 121 2.44 1.05 226 2.35 1.960 reject h0 8 adequacy of material resources required upper basic education business studies ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) public 107 2.76 0.99 37 private public 121 107 1.46 1.63 0.74 0.96 226 1.52 1.960 accept h0 38 private public 121 107 1.42 1.60 0.72 0.93 226 1.61 1.960 accept h0 39 private public 121 107 1.62 1.75 0.83 0.94 226 1.09 1.960 accept h0 40 private public 121 107 1.59 1.85 0.82 1.00 226 2.19 1.960 reject h0 41 private public 121 107 1.64 1.83 0.85 1.01 226 1.51 1.960 accept h0 42 private public 121 107 1.54 1.70 0.80 0.90 226 1.37 1.960 accept h0 43 private public 121 107 1.76 1.95 0.79 0.80 226 1.74 1.960 accept h0 44 private public 121 107 1.68 1.88 0.80 0.86 226 1.83 1.960 accept h0 45 private public 121 107 1.77 1.94 0.89 0.96 226 1.36 1.960 accept h0 t-test value 1.23 1.960 accept h01 table 3 shows that thirty eight of the forty five items were accepted because their tcalculated values were less than the t-critical value of 1.960. the seven remaining items were rejected because their t-calculated values were greater than the t-critical value. the t-test value shows that t-calculated value is 1.23 which is lees than the t-critical value. this implies that there is no significant difference between the level of adequacy of business studies facilities in public and private junior secondary schools in ebonyi state. the null hypothesis 1(h01) is therefore accepted. table 4. t-test result on adequacy of provision business curriculum textbooks s/n variable no x s.d df t. cal t crit decision 46 urban rural 85 143 1.82 1.88 0.78 0.82 226 0.52 1.960 accept h0 47 urban rural 85 143 2.17 2.11 0.80 0.79 226 0.59 1.960 accept h0 48 urban rural 85 143 2.15 2.10 0.76 0.83 226 0.43 1.960 accept h0 49 urban rural 85 143 2.34 2.17 0.95 0.85 226 1.35 1.960 accept h0 50 urban rural 85 143 1.68 1.67 0.90 0.89 226 0.03 1.960 accept h0 51 urban rural 85 143 1.72 1.70 0.95 0.89 226 0.18 1.960 accept h0 52 urban rural 85 143 1.57 1.58 0.83 0.87 226 0.09 1.960 accept h0 53 urban rural 85 143 1.74 1.82 0.88 0.92 226 0.67 1.960 accept h0 t-test value 0.48 1.960 accept h02 table 4 shows that all the items (46-53) on the provision of business studies curriculum compliant textbooks were accepted because their tcalculated values were less than the t9 okoli b. ekwutosi and okorie o. ogbonnaya ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) critical. similarly, the t-test value shows that the t-calculated value of 0.48 is less than the t-critical. hence, the null hypothesis 2 (h02) is accepted; implying that there is no significant difference between the level of adequacy of the provision of business studies curriculum complaint textbooks in urban and rural junior secondary schools in ebonyi state. discussion of findings this study finds that business studies facilities are inadequate in jss in ebonyi state. this finding agrees with the findings of okoroma (2006) and nwagwu (2007) that instructional materials are in short supply in nigerian junior secondary schools. the study finds that the provision of business studies textbooks is inadequate in jss in ebonyi state. this finding agrees with that of lgu (2007) that school libraries are filled with old and obsolete books that are irrelevant and therefore inadequate. the study reveals that there is no significant difference in the adequacy of business studies facilities in public and private jss. this finding disagrees with the finding of nwakpa (2007) that instructional materials are more adequate in private junior secondary schools than in public junior secondary schools. the study shows that there is no significant difference in the adequacy of the provision of business studies curriculum textbooks in urban and rural jss in ebonyi state. this finding disagrees with the findings of ani (2005) and strong (2008) that rural areas receive inadequate educational materials in comparison to their urban counterparts. conclusion material resources required for the implementation of upper basic education (jss) business studies curriculum are inadequate in ebonyi state. both facilities and the provision of business curriculum textbooks are inadequate. this trend may not only incapacitate the teachers but also serve to miseducate them and their students. therefore measures should be taken to improve the facilities and provide business curriculum textbooks for all jss students. recommendations the following recommendations are made based on the findings of this study: 1. government and other proprietors of schools should equip schools with adequate facilities required for the implementation of the upper basic education business studies curriculum. 2. functional and qualified librarians should be employed to handle textbook and allied matters in junior secondary schools. 3. business studies programs, at this level, should be subjected to accreditation and reaccredidation based on the adequacy of facilities, textbooks and other curricula elements. 4. government and other stakeholders should pool their resources to ensure that business studies materials are adequately provided, since education for all is the responsibility of all. 10 adequacy of material resources required upper basic education business studies ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) references ani, c.i. 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(2006). a position in transition. national association of school principals, 67(5): 32-23. the national planning commission (2007). nigeria millennium development goals 2006 report. abuja: federal republic of nigeria. ulifun, e.e. (1986). business education: a utility education in a developing economy. business journal, 1(1): 135-142. universal basic education commission (2006). 40 frequently asked questions (faqs) on universal basic education (ube) programme. abuja: office of ubec executive secretary. usability of computers in teaching and learning usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda nakintu rukia neema-abooki makerere university, uganda peter a. neema-abooki makerere university, uganda abstract since a computer-enriched learning environment is positively correlated with users’ attitudes towards computers in general, the rationale of this study was to investigate the extent to which computers were applied in the teaching and learning at tertiary-level institutions; specifically at the core primary teachers’ colleges (ptcs). the study accordingly set out to examine this duofold ideal at shimoni and kibuli core ptcs; both in kampala district in uganda. the specific objectives were to find out the level to which computers have been integrated in teaching and leaning at ptcs and to determine the competency of both the tutors and the students in the use of information and communication technology (ict). both categories served as respondents to whom a questionnaire was subjected. findings indicated that although computers were generally being integrated in the teaching process, there was need for more guidance and support to ensure expertise of both tutors and students in the use of ict. this article is cognizant that integration of technology requires a move from the traditional model of teacher presentation to a learning model whereby students draw information relevant to their future profession. keywords: computer science, connect-ed, core ptc, higher education, ict, tertiary education, uganda primary teacher college. introduction teacher education in uganda as of 2000 provided both pre-service and in-service training through not less than 539 primary school centres and tutors radiating from 23 primary teacher colleges serving all schools in the country (ministry of education and sports, 2000). accordingly, the connectivity for educators (connect-ed) project established computer-assisted teacher training laboratories and internet connectivity in four pilot primary teacher colleges in 2 usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) gulu, bushenyi and kampala. the project aimed at providing computer skills training to student teachers, as well as establishing computer laboratories and internet connectivity to the eight core primary teachers’ colleges (ptcs) around the country; of which shimoni and kibuli were accorded first priority. in an interview with professor lutalo-bbosa, the former vice chancellor of kyambogo university, the objective of connect-ed was to introduce integration of computers into the teaching methods employed in primary schools and to provide capacity building to administrators, tutors, and pre-service and in-service teachers within the ptcs. connect-ed activity, funded by the education for development and democracy initiative (eddi), therefore aimed at enriching primary education through the use of new information technologies in the education system. this included providing computer skills training to student teachers, establishing computer laboratories, and internet connectivity to the eight core primary teacher training colleges around the country. connect-ed was a multi-faceted strategy to increase the access and use of internet connectivity by education stakeholders in rural uganda. this article posits that technology integration requires a move from the traditional model of teacher presentation, student practice and student application to a learning model where students use reasoning skills to generate rich, complex, and meaningful understanding of information relevant to their future profession (simpson, payne, munro, and hughes, 1999). students who experience this newer model come to see that teachers learn as they teach and they are more likely to interact with their own students in the same way. according to murphy and greenwood (1998), although teachers do aspire to the learner-centered approach they employed limited use of multimedia and they only minimally encouraged students to use ict. based on these observations, it is necessary to probe the extent of usability of computers in the teaching and learning process at the tertiary-level institutions in uganda. the term tertiary education is used in uganda as synonymous with higher education (education review commission report, 1989 and government white paper, 1992) and refers to the level of education offered beyond full secondary education including universities (tiberondwa, 1999). suffice to note that the two terms are used similarly in the united states. method relevant literature to the study was reviewed and was incorporated into the discussion of findings. the study adopted a cross-sectional research design with the use of a close-ended questionnaire. respondents were randomly sampled with some instances of convenient sampling technique. data was obtained from a total of twenty (20) tutors and fifty (50) students; each of the two institution being represented by a half of each category of respondents. the content validity index (cvi) of the questionnaire was computed using the formula: cvi = number of items rated as relevant total number of items in the questionnaire = 20 = 0.714 n. rukia neema-abooki and p. neema-abooki 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) cronbach’s alpha coefficient test indicated that the instrument used was reliable. an observation list and casual interactions with people at the colleges also helped corroborate the findings. results the study utilized, as respondents, the academic staff and the students at two tertiary institutions; namely shimoni core ptc and kibuli core ptc. on the side of the staff, characteristics that were considered relevant for the study were: gender, age, highest level of education, experience in teaching service, and experience in computer and incorporation of computer facilities in teaching as depicted in tables 1 through 6. tables 7 through 10 present students’ responses that include their level of study at the respective colleges, previous knowledge about computers, and utilization of computer applications. table 1 shows that at shimoni ptc, the male tutors participated in the study with a frequency of 7 (63.6%) while at kibuli ptc the female gender was represented by a frequency of 6 (66.7%). table 2: staff age of respondents 4 40.0% 3 7 30.0% 70.0% 3 3 30.0% 30.0% frequency percentage 20-35 frequency percentage 36-55 frequency percentage above 55 age shimoni kibuli college table 1: staff gender of respondents 7 4 63.6% 33.3% 3 6 36.4% 66.7% frequency percentage male frequency percentage female sex shimoni kibuli college 4 usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) in table 2, conspicuous is the outstanding age bracket of 36-55 where the tutors in kibuli were represented by 70%, while shimoni was represented a majority between the ages of 20 to 35 (40%) though this age group was below average percentage. table 3 reveals that the diploma holders lead in shimoni ptc with a frequency of 5 (50%), while kibuli ptc had a majority of degree holders at 5 (50%). according to table 4 tutors whose experience in the teaching service measured above four years were only 5 (50%) for kibuli and only 4 (40%) for shimoni. table 4: staff respondents experience in teaching service 2 20.0% 2 20.0% 3 30.0% 1 10.0% 3 30.0% 4 40.0% 5 50.0% 2 years 3 years 4 years >4 years experience in the teaching service shimoni kibuli college percentage frequency percentage frequency table 3: staff respondents highest level of education 5 2 50.0% 20.0% 2 5 20.0% 50.0% 3 3 30.0% 30.0% frequency percentage diploma frequency percentage degree frequency percentage post graduate highest level of education shimoni kibuli college n. rukia neema-abooki and p. neema-abooki 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) table 5 depicts respondents who had prior experience in computers with a frequency of 6 (66.7%) for kibuli ptc and only 3 (36.7) for shimoni ptc. according to table 6 (63.6%) tutors from shimoni strongly agreed that facilities were appropriate. this position was affirmed to by 4 tutors (33.3%) at kibuli. table 7 lists 25 (50.0%) students as sampled from each of the two ptcs for a total of 50 students. table 7: student respondents' college 25 50.0 25 50.0 50 100.0 shimoni kibuli total frequency percentage table 6: staff responses computer facilities 7 4 63.6% 33.3% 3 6 36.4% 66.7% frequency percentage strongly agree frequency percentage agree computer facilities are appropriate for tutors and students shimoni kibuli college table 5: staff respondents computer experience 3 6 36.4% 66.7% 7 4 63.6% 33.3% frequency percentage yes frequency percentage no have you had any experience with computers before training? shimoni kibuli college 6 usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) table 8 registers that the majority of the respondents (84.0%) were in their second year at shimoni ptc, while kibuli ptc’s students were an above average percentage (56.0%) in their first year. in table 9 students with previous experience in using computers were represented by a frequency of 14 (56.0%) for shimoni ptc and 18 (72.0%) for kibuli ptc. these high percentages may be due to the fact that the tutors were involved in a task at the time to integrate computers into the teaching and learning process. table 9: students' previous knowledge about computers 14 18 56.0% 72.0% 11 7 44.0% 28.0% frequency percentage yes frequency percentage no do you have any previous knowledge about using computers? shimoni kibuli college table 8: students' level of study at ptc 4 14 16.0% 56.0% 21 11 84.0% 44.0%% frequency percentage 1st year frequency percentage 2nd year what is your level of study at the college? shimoni kibuli college n. rukia neema-abooki and p. neema-abooki 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) according to table 10 kibuli had 10 (40.0%) student respondents who had used computers for more than 2 years compared to only 1 (4.0%) student respondent from shimoni. it was found that the respondents were only familiar with microsoft applications and the internet. casual interactions revealed as well that the respondents rated themselves as beginners in the use of computers. in fact all expressed the need for extra training and assistance in using computers. they confessed to being highly motivated to what may be called the existential ict craze. observations observation confirmed that the two tertiary institutions possessed computers, ranging from 10 to 15 in number for each institution. both had local area network (lan) and wide area network (wan). the quality of digitalized learning materials and interactivity in learning materials was commendable for both colleges. in fact, these institutions had received a donation from connected that included overhead projectors, heavy duty photocopiers, printers, internet, computers, educational software, and online tools. interactivity in learning materials was also observed. students were seen using programs like microsoft office package, internet services, and computer games. workshops and training in ict were rated medium in kibuli and high in shimoni. the latter college carried out such schedules during holidays while at kibuli’s workshops and training took place once at the end of every academic year. this article proposes the above implementation of ict for all colleges, and indeed all tertiary institutions, since digitalized technology makes informational content easier to find, access, manipulate, remix, and even to disseminate throughout the teaching and learning process. discussion gibson (2001) observes that most teachers use a variation of the teacher-centered model, where the emphasis is upon the presentation of a body of knowledge or a set of skills that students are to learn. accordingly, this study found out that to integrate technology into classroom practice, teachers must make two radical changes. they must they learn how to use technology; and they table 10: use of computer applications 19 5 76.0% 20.0% 5 10 20.0% 40.0% 1 10 4.0% 40.0% frequency percentage less than 1 year frequency percentage 1year frequency percentage more than 2 years how long have you been using computers (i.e. word, excel, internet) shimoni kibuli college 8 usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) must also fundamentally change how they teach. hence, teacher anxiety about computers and overall attitude toward technology can influence the use of computers in the classroom, and, thus, the success of technology integration into the curriculum. teachers can be expected to have the same traits as adult learners in general: (a) their past experiences serve as a resource to support new learning, (b) they are ready to learn when there is an identified need to know, and (c) they also learn what they perceive to have importance in helping them deal with problems they confront in life (knowles, 1990). the findings as well corroborated the studies by storck and hill (2000) regarding the use of multimedia as a teaching tool that indicated teachers need to move through different stages of ict proficiency and need to understand that the introduction of ict into the classroom changes the dynamics of the classroom and impacts classroom management. this suggests a definite paradigm shift in approach to teaching and teacher attitudes towards the use of ict in the classroom. in addition the use of the internet for teaching and learning purposes has received increasing attention over the recent years. mitra and stefensmeier (2000) concluded that a networked learning institution where students have easy access to computers could foster positive attitudes toward the use of computers in teaching and learning. they found that a computer-enriched learning environment was positively correlated with students’ attitudes towards computers in general, and the role of computers in facilitating teaching and learning. liu, macmillan, and timmons (1998) perceived integrating computers into a learning system as a complex instructional system in which student learning is impacted by lecturers, students, administrative and technical staff, computer hardware and software resources, and the computer laboratory and classroom settings. they reported that students’ with positive attitudes toward using computers also have positive attitudes toward using computers for their learning. this article advances the perception of coombs (1999) that new educational tools, which drive multimedia presentations, offer educators a unique opportunity to design ict focused learning environments using multimedia to encourage synergy between ict skills and learning outcomes through studentcentred multimedia projects. such multimedia environments can lead to greater interest that can lead to greater understanding and ultimately to greater success in defining and developing ict strategies to the benefit of the learner. moreover, successful integration takes place when technology becomes transparent and both the teacher and students can concentrate on the content of the course and makes it possible for students to use computers in the natural flow of classroom activities (brunner, 1990; rieber, 1994; partee, 1996). accordingly, the impact of the computer depends on the developmental level of the school in the due regard. the findings further revealed that there was urgency for teachers to be adequately knowledgeable in ict if they are to have any competitive edge in the world of education today. to this end a new syllabus on computer science was recently developed for primary schools in uganda. for this syllabus to be effectively implemented the teachers involved must have knowledge and experience in computers. one way of achieving this is by integrating computers in the dual process of teaching and learning. this, as a matter of course, has a lot of financial and management implications for all distance educators, but it ought to be a priority. n. rukia neema-abooki and p. neema-abooki 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) based on the study, the respondents did vary in relation to skills and experience in computer usage. regarding such a scenario morrison (1989) emphasised the use of computers dependent on the level of experience for both tutors and students. but as fate always has it, tutors with the greater experience in teaching also proved to be the most vehemently opposed to any new changes being introduced in the system. as such the authors of this study believe that the status quo is likely to change over time. for, as according to phelps (2004) if too limited a period is allowed to implement change it can lead to confidence constraints that will inhibit resource use, as in this case the use of computer technology. the study found out that there were other obstacles towards usability of computers in ptcs. for instance, the computers were very few in number compared to the number of users. in addition to problems with intermittent power shortages, the speeds at which internet facilities operated tended to be one of the factors that negatively affected both tutors and students in their usage of computers. and, in justification of the lament of smerdon, cronen, lanahan, anderson, lannotti, & angeles (2000), printing problems and scanning were at times inaccessible due to bureaucracy and congestion in computer labs and offices. inadequacy of resources and materials created a conspicuous mismatch in the teaching and learning process at these ptc institutions. conclusion wider connectivity and the efficient deployment of icts within developing countries, according to adam (1996) would improve the overall information infrastructure and thereby promote positive changes in socio-economic development. the foregoing is a truism in the case of uganda. as subscribed to by neema-abooki (2009), ict is apt to being utilized in several ways to improve people’s health and wealth as it enables organisations to provide better services to the benefit of the entire society. while the transformation of education is a major issue among the many practical revolutions engineered by computer technology, the challenge is for all levels of education, tertiary or otherwise, to integrate new ict approaches in science and technology and across other disciplines. this ict “techno-science” is indispensable for the integral development of the people and the country. acknowledgements the authors pay profound tribute to the staff and student respondents for their indispensable contributions. references adam, l. (1996). electronic commerce technology and development of internet in africa. information technology for development, 7:133-144. baxter, g.p. (1995). using computer simulations to assess hands on science learning. journal of science education and technology, 4:21-27. brunner, c. (1990). what it really means to ‘integrate” technology. technology & learning, 14: 2 – 14. chronbach, l.j. (1951). coefficient of alpha and the internal structure of tests. psychometrica, 10 usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) 16: 197-234. combs, a.w. (1999). myths in education: beliefs that hinder progress and their alternatives. boston, ma: allyn and bacon. gibson, i.w. 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(2009). policy initiatives on science and technology education in uganda: extent of implementation at the post-basic level. in holbrook, j. & eniayeju, p. (eds.). meeting challenges to sustainable development in africa through science and technology education. abuja, nigeria: icase. oslon, r.k. & wise, b.w. (1992). reading on computer with orthographic and speech feedback. n. rukia neema-abooki and p. neema-abooki 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) reading and writing, 4:107-144. partee, m. (1996). using e-mail, websites and newsgroups to enhance traditional classroom instruction. t.h.e. journal, 23: 79-82. phelps, r. (2004). capability versus competency in information technology education: challenging the learning context for life long technological literacy. conference paper. 8th international literacy and education research network conference on learning. spetses, greece. rieiber, l.p. (1994). computers, graphics and learning. madison, wi: wcb brown and benchmark. simpson, m., payne, f., munro, r. & hughes, s. (1999). using information and communications technology: who educates the educators? journal of education for teaching, 25: 247 262. smerdon, b., cronen, s., lanahan, l., anderson, j., lannotti, n. & angeles, j. (2000). teachers’ tools for the 21 st century: a report on teachers’ use of technology. washington, dc: national center for education statistics. smith, d.w. (1995). fundamental physical limits on computation: technical report. neci. storck, j. & hill, p.a. (2000). knowledge diffusion through strategic communities. sloan management review, 41: 63-74. tiberondwa, a. (1999). quality and quantity in higher education: a conference paper. in odada, a (ed.) report of the uganda teachers’ association. 48 th anniversary delegate conference, june 4-6, 1999. mukono, kampala: uta. towards utilising new digital media technologies for the promotion of peace education in nigeria towards utilizing new digital media technologies for the promotion of peace education in nigeria james okolie-osemene institute of african studies, university of ibadan, nigeria abstract recent events in nigeria have shown that the country cannot move forward without considering peace education in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. to make this realistic, it is crucial, if a wider audience is to be reached, that new digital media technologies are utilized in the processes of peace education teaching and learning. this article examines the possibilities of utilizing digital media technologies in promoting peace education in nigeria based on primary and secondary sources of literature relevant to the issues. with the help of new digital media technologies, peace education will improve public sense of security in nigeria. the study advocates for immediate use of new digital media in peace education teaching and learning. the argument this article presents is that peace education using new digital media must be seen as a core national project and therefore taken seriously by stakeholders because peace is synonymous with development. keywords: peace education, development, new digital media, education, nigeria 2 towards utilizing new digital media technologies for the promotion of peace education in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) introduction peace education is the process of acquiring the skills, values and knowledge that promote harmonious relationships among people in the society. peace education could be formal or informal. prasad (2012) asserts that peace education views the world as one whole, a single community, a fellowship of human beings who have the same instincts of hunger and sex, the same aspirations of generosity and fellow-feeling, and helps people to feel more for other people, enable them to change the exploitative and oppressive society, and to create a non-violent and just society. the new wave of threats to national peace and stability in nigeria has taken an unusual dimension to the extent that people who were rarely frightened are now forced to abandon their places of work and business in the name of bomb scares. the spate of kidnapping and other forms of criminal activities including festering ethno-religious and identity-based conflicts in various parts of the country make it very necessary for stakeholders to give adequate attention to peace education. new digital media technologies have become significant in addressing the increasing wave of internal security threat which undermines flow of economic activities. new digital technology refers to computer mediated systems which are enhanced by the internet and satellite technology. recent events in the country have made it crucial for nigeria to move towards utilizing the great benefits of new digital media in peace education considering the increased threat to peace and security in the country. according to unesco, “greater access to information and improved communication among different sectors of the population are vital for building a culture of peace in africa” (akibu, 2010, p. 108). an important tool for business growth, social activities and research in nigeria is the internet, including the use of new digital media. this interest is well integrated into education, business, and social activities in developed countries, so nigeria, it may be said, is attempting giant strides in embracing its usefulness and applications (achimugu, et al, 2009, p. 40). an area that is yet to explore the use of new media technology is peace education. the level of interest in the use of new digital media technologies in peace education has not yet increased, because the opportunities to maximize the advantages of these new media technologies are yet to percolate into various institutions in nigeria. the internet has revolutionized access to information for the business world, libraries, education and individuals. small or large, a computer network exists in these areas to provide computer users with the means of communicating and transferring information electronically (ogunsola, 2005). utilizing new digital media in peace education offers great opportunities for sustainable peace in nigeria because through this media it becomes easier to reshape the mindset of youth. in recent studies for instance, as part of its mission to educate key audiences about peacebuilding and conflict management, the united states institute for peace (usip) in february 2012 activated a virtual global peacebuilding center that provided younger audiences and educators with substantial peacebuilding resources and activities, including educational materials, a virtual passport experience, and many ways for young people to learn about the importance of peacebuilding (usip, 2012). the three tiers of government in nigeria have the resources to take such steps to ensure that institutions are empowered to make peace education effective with new digital media. in this article, the benefits of utilizing new digital media to promote peace education in nigeria are examined, as well as institutional responsibility for using new digital media to promote peace education. the concept of education 3 james okolie-osemene _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) okolo (2009, p. 374) sees the link between education and development in contemporary society as essential in the preparation of everyone (children, youth, adults, women and men) both for their self sustenance and for functional participation in grappling effectively with the challenges of social, economic, political, scientific and technological development of their respective societies. accordingly, education is the “articulation of informal opportunities for selfimprovement, non-formal structures for the inoculation and sustenance of basic and post basic life skills, and formal systems for the awakening and continuous development of the human potential” (obanya, 2004 as cited in okolo 2009, p. 374). the use of new digital media technologies in peace education is also crucial for both development and stability which are synonymous with peace in the society. olarinde and onifade (2010, p. 82) on the other hand see education as “a dynamic instrument of social change that can bring about rapid development of a nation’s total resources, hence the need for constant evaluation of the educational system to ensure its adequacy and continued relevance to national needs and objectives.” even (urevbu, 1984, p. 1) is of the view that education “describes the total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained and skills developed.” leadership and the quality of education have significant implications for sustainable development in the country. peace when we talk of peace we mean a political condition that ensures justice and social stability through formal and informal institutions, practices, and norms. several conditions must be met for peace to be reached and maintained:  balance of political power among the various groups within a society, region, or, most ambitiously, the world;  legitimacy for decision makers and implementers of decisions in the eyes of their respective group, as well as those of external parties, duly supported through transparency and accountability;  recognised and valued interdependent relationships among groups fostering long-term cooperation during periods of agreement, disagreement, normality, and crisis;  reliable and trusted institutions for resolving conflicts;  sense of equality and respect, in sentiment and in practice, within and without groups and in accordance with international standards;  mutual understanding of rights, interests, intents, and flexibility despite incompatibilities (miller, 2005, p. 55). in addition, nwodo (2010, p. 117) admirably points out that, “the alluring nature of peace that makes investors establish businesses in peaceful environments thereby contributing immensely towards the development of such country.” this means that peace education is the medium through which sustainable peace and development are connected; considering the fact that tranquility attracts foreign investors and development partnerships. conceptualizing peace education peace is very important in every community or society. it is a key ingredient for sustainable development. according to the coalition of nigerian ngos on health, population and development (connohpd), “the lack of intellectual development as well as the lack of trust and respect for one another also contribute to the distabilisation of the peace in a community” 4 towards utilizing new digital media technologies for the promotion of peace education in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) (1997, p. 34). therefore, utilizing new digital media in peace education will further promote intellectual development, trust, and mutual respect for one another as it embraces a wider audience. peace education is the cultivation of proper conflict resolution knowledge and skill applications that promote peace and social justice. peace education creates awareness and enlightens people on the right attitudes towards handling situations that could lead to conflict. it also helps individuals to be conflict sensitive, know the ingredients of conflict and avoid them. gumut (2006, p. 165) sees peace education as, “the deliberate attempt to educate children and adults in the dynamics of conflict and the promotion of peacemaking skills in homes, schools, and communities throughout the world, using all the channels and instruments of socialization.” he maintains that it provides education for global security and focuses on direct, organized violence, especially the institutions of war and armed conflicts, while employing a framework based on recent theories of human security. peace education also includes human and social dimensions of peace. the concept stands for all processes involved in inculcating the culture of peaceful coexistence in individual or groups formally or informally (lawal, 2005). on the other hand, akpuru-aja (2007, p. 26) posits that peace education is “the process of proactive enlightenment on the knowledge and skills of observing and responding to early warning indicators.” new digital media is very relevant here especially when its early warning indicators are involved. peace education stimulates attitudinal and behavioral changes. it also promotes transformational leadership. it is right to point out here that peace education makes it possible for individuals and groups to appreciate peace and get to know that peace is synonymous with development. knowing this truism motivates groups to adopt principles of conflict resolution and properly manage conflicts so that they do not escalate. peace education makes it possible for people from all walks of life to be enlightened on issues that concern peace, conflict, violence and even crisis as well as their connection. this will make it possible for them to appreciate peace which connotes more than a mere absence of hostilities, but rather an absence of conflict as possible. with the help of new digital media technologies, the state of peace would be distinguished from various techniques that simply avoid conflicts or employ violent or coercive approaches to engage in, manage, or resolve conflict. the benefits of new digital media to promote peace education the applications of new digital media to communication, facilitated by transmission hardware, are very significant to information sharing and circulation (osazee-odia, 2008, p. 347) especially in peace education. examples of new media technologies include digital satellite television, global satellite telephones, internet websites, mobile telephony, short message service facilities, and multimedia equipment, such as video, audio, and pod cast facilities, among others. some of these products consist of user-generated content, while others depend on service providers. new digital media technologies are veritable tools in improving the effectiveness of peace education. akpan-ita (2008, p. 44) posited that, “modern conflict no longer respects the line between the military and the civilians.” this is why policy makers in nigeria need to consider giving peace education adequate attention and embark on peace advocacy projects through new digital media to serve as a preventive measure. peace education need not always be formal; it can be carried out in an informal manner in most communities. using new digital media in evaluating peace education is an imminent need in nigeria as continuing to improve it, wherever it is available, is important. to predict the likely results of utilizing new digital media in peace education there are few areas to address. these 5 james okolie-osemene _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) include, but are not limited to the following: visible reduction in social conflict, shaping perceptions, promoting integration, sharing case studies, peace and conflict awareness, as well as a wider reach to different groups in the society. this expanded reach would make it easier to learn from conflict indicators and trends in other parts of the world, train students and lecturers to acquire skills in the use of new digital media, reduce campus and societal violence, increase in societal harmony and cooperation, and increase positive activities in the society. new digital media technologies offer great opportunities to make the teaching and learning of peace more effective. effective use of new digital media in teaching and learning of peace education will provide adequate information which according to umunadi (2009, p. 117) is recognized as a catalyst for both personal and national development. the essence of using new digital media is to communicate peace. it will be relevant in the monitoring and evaluation of peace education projects especially among youth in rural areas of the country. the rationale for utilizing new digital media technologies in promoting peace education considering the benefits of globalisation, is building in people the universal values and behaviors on which a culture of peace is predicated, including the development of non-violent conflict resolution skills and a commitment to working together to realize a shared and preferred future (kester, 2009). though it is gradually becoming part of the people, this should be highly encouraged considering the percentage of nigerians that have access to new digital media technologies. it could be formal or informal in terms of delivery. formal terms of delivery are concerned with direct teaching and making training materials available, while informal involves peace building at the community level through the advocacy of various markets and groups. strategies to adopt new digital media in primary and secondary schools in an attempt to utilize digital media technologies for peace education, it is important that the enlightenment of people on the relevance of peace education is carried out. it is pertinent for stakeholders to adopt a holistic strategy to ensure that new digital media becomes effective in shaping the mindsets of youth and adults on issues of peace, especially conflict management, conflict transformation, peacemaking, and negotiation skills. the focus should be on primary and secondary schools. there is a need for peace education evaluation with new digital media, especially among youth, to monitor and evaluate peace projects. schools could partner with non-governmental organizations (ngo) and other institutions that carry out advocacy projects. with the help of new digital media, nigerians may improve on the following peace education skills, knowledge, and attitudes, including: skills, such as critical thinking, problem solving, assertiveness, reading, self-control, sensitivity, cooperation; knowledge content, such as self-awareness, peace and conflict issues, human rights, justice and power, gender issues, and social justice; and appropriate attitude dispositions regarding self-respect, honesty, obedience, open-mindedness, gender equity, tolerance, and adaptation to change, (alimba, 2010, p. 190). some ways of utilizing new digital media in schools are as follows: bringing different digital technologies into peace and conflict studies teaching and learning, capacity building and training of trainers, using digital technology to source information on peace studies, and also creating peace blogs accessible through digital mediums. institutional responsibility regarding new digital media 6 towards utilizing new digital media technologies for the promotion of peace education in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) it is the responsibility of the federal governments, including the ministries of education, information, internal affairs, and commerce, and their associated state government level agencies, as well as ngos, research institutions, the west africa network for peacebuilding (wanep), women in peace building program (wipnet), multi-national corporations (especially those engaged in business in the niger delta) to initiate programs that include peace education. the purpose of peace education concerns education that facilitates achievement of peace and related sets of social values, through learning to recognize, confront, and practice alternatives to the multiple forms of violence (gumut, 2006, p. 166). government agencies should ensure that this purpose it actualised because peace is a process that has to be developed. rather than being part of the problem as observed by best (2006, p. 111), governments should reinvigorate the teaching and learning of peace education by providing an enabling environment and resources through the various ministries. to make this achievable there is a need for collaboration between the ministries of education, information, communications, and defense with police departments, science and technology institutions, youth and social development organizations, as well as with culture and tourism government and business representatives. proper use of new digital media in peace education keeps people engaged and is proven to be a useful tool for academic activities in peace education. it also serves to increase positive social interactions. with the help of churches, mosques, and other religious institutions, schools may embark on public peace campaigns utilizing new digital media technologies in the country. disaster and conflict prevention and management may be made possible at the grassroots through the adoption of new digital technology. when such technology is available, it is possible to put effective early warning systems in place against natural disasters such as flooding, erosions, crop failures, epidemic diseases, landslides and other natural or manmade disasters. this technology may positively impact the lives of the people at the grassroots. with the help of new digital media, people may easily assess the level of success in rural and urban areas. challenges of utilizing new digital media some of the challenges that face the utilization of new media in peace education are worth mentioning. for instance, some financial and institutional constraints hinder the progress of using new digital media in peace education, political education, and democratic participation. these areas could be expanded with increased availability and accessibility to new digital media at the grassroots level. since access to information and information exchange is enhanced through the technology, it is expected that political participation also increases. one of the major problems militating against the adoption of new digital media in teaching and learning peace education is power supply problem. umeadi (2009, p.121) sees electricity as a major problem in nigeria. therefore, stakeholders should be able to harness these energy resources to ensure that the problem of inadequate power supply is resolved. the way forward to implement the use of new digital media technologies, there should be immediate training for teachers and lecturers in the promotion of peace education in nigerian institutions. the curricular should be updated so that the teaching of peace education is part of mainstream teaching and learning, including how to use new digital media. for example, they need training on peace education presentation skills and computer projector uses for peace advocates or 7 james okolie-osemene _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) practitioners. institutions should embark on teaching of peace education with an up-to-date peace education curriculum that is mainstreamed. one of the most dramatic advances in communication potential is that of computer data communications systems. computers are available in many formats for use in industries, businesses, hospitals, schools, universities, transport networks, and individual homes. with new digital media, the gap between the rich and poor should be addressed through peace education. this will ensure attitudinal change and transformation. new digital media technologies are relevant to improved peace education teaching and learning in the country. this author’s opinion is that peace education which must start at the family level to promote harmony in the society. with the help of new digital media in the schools and communities, peace education will have a positive impact. conclusion with the support of new digital media, peace education may be promoted to address social justice, conflict drivers in nigeria may be redirected toward peace, and restless youth may be transformed. the issue of attitudinal change in governance and leadership electoral processes may benefit the war against corruption, reduce ethnic conflict, maintain constructive social controls, promote interpersonal relations, and encourage joint problem solving. through peace education, people may envision commitment to leadership based on the core values of peace and integrity, and respect for diversity. peace education has demonstrated that it contributes to the social growth of all children, especially as it helps them develop characteristics essential for the attainment of peace, that includes a sense of dignity and self-worth, a confidence to question their values, improve their communication skills, acquire an ethical awareness, and practice empathy for others (harris as cited in chertok 2007, p. 35). only paying lip service to the adoption of new digital media technologies in schools undermines the successful teaching and learning of peace education in nigerian schools. utilizing new digital media is necessary because utilizing the benefits of the new media is one of the most effective channels to reach and teach the public. finally, making use of new digital media in peace education should be a national project that is taken seriously by stakeholders because peace is synonymous with development. references achimugu, p. oluwagbemi, o. oluwaranti, a, and afolabi, b. (2009). adoption of information & communication technologies in developing countries: an impact analysis. journal of information technology impact, 9 (1), 37-46. akibu, h. o. (2010). sustaining peace through strategic communication. in i.o. albert and o. n. oloyede (eds.), dynamics of peace processes. ibadan: john archers publishers ltd. akpan-ita, n. (2008), mainstreaming gender into training for peace support operations. a journal of women in peacebuilding, 1 (3). wipnet. 8 towards utilizing new digital media technologies for the promotion of peace education in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) akpuru-aja, a. (2007) basic concepts, issues and strategies of peace and conflict resolution. enugu: keny & brothers enterprises. alimba, c. n. (2010). peace education: an untapped pathway to managing ethno-religious conflicts in nigeria. in i. o. albert and o.n. olarinde (eds.), trends in managing conflicts. ibadan: john archers publishers ltd. best, g. s. (2006). the methods of conflict resolution and transformation. in s.g. best (ed.), introduction to peace and conflict studies in west africa: a reader. ibadan: spectrum books ltd. chertok, v. (2007). peace education in the 21st century: the benefits of teaching conflict transformation skills to vermont students in a k-6 public school. capstone collection. paper 3. retrieved from http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/3. coalition of nigerian ngos on health, population and development (1997). social integration and development in nigeria: voices from below. lagos: fadec publishers. gumut, v. 2006. peace education and peer mediation. in s.g. best (ed.), introduction to peace and conflict studies in west africa: a reader. ibadan: spectrum books limited. kester, k. ( 2009). education for peace: content, form, and structure: mobilising youth for civic engagement. peace & conflict review, 4 (2), 1-9. lawal, s. m. (2005). peace education in nigeria: the imperative of moral and historical studies for nation building. paper presented at niger state college of education national conference, minna, nigeria. miller, c. e (2005). a glossary of terms and concepts in peace and conflict studies. addis ababa: university for peace. nwodo, e. c. (2010). viewing peacebuilding through literature: a thematic analysis of olu obafemi’s wheels. in i.o. albert and o.n. oloyede (eds.), dynamics of peace processes. ibadan: john archers publishers ltd. ogunsola, l. a. and aboyade, w. a. (2005). information and communication technology in nigeria: revolution or evolution. journal of social science, 11(1), 7-14. ogunlade, f.o. and onifade, a. (2010). the influence of social studies education on students’ response to ethnic and religious crisis in nigeria. in i.o. albert and o.n. olarinde (eds.), trends in managing conflicts. ibadan: john archers publishers ltd. okolo, i. a. (2009). education, social transformation and development vision in nigeria. in i.o. albert (ed.), praxis of political concepts & cliches in nigeria’s fourth republic: essays in honour of dr. mu’azu babangida aliyu. ibadan: bookcraft. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/3 9 james okolie-osemene _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) osazee-odia, o. u. (2008). assessing the relevance of new media technology in globalisation of broadcasting. in e.m. mojaye, o.o. oyewo, r. m’bayo, and i.a. sobowale (eds.), globalisation and development communication in africa. ibadan: ibadan university press. prasad, s. n. (2012). global man (human) as the vision for the third millennium: the role of peace education. peace & conflict monitor, university for peace. retrieved from http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=871. umunadi, e. k. (2009). ict vocational and technical education programmes in nigerian tertiary institutions: issues and challenges. journal of communication and culture, 1 (1/2). urevbu, a. (1984). new principles and practice of education in nigeria. london: juland publishers. united states institute of peace (2012). usip extends its engagement of teachers and students with new online resources. retrieved from http://www.usip.org/publications/usip-extendsits-engagement-teachers-and-students-new-online-resources. http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=871 http://www.usip.org/publications/usip-extends-its-engagement-teachers-and-students-new-online-resources http://www.usip.org/publications/usip-extends-its-engagement-teachers-and-students-new-online-resources ajote: educational studies in status, language, gender, culture and society ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 2. no. 2 (summer 2012) editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) summer 2012 issue. we are pleased with the interesting and diverse range of articles found in this issue. ajote: educational studies in status, language, gender, culture and society, summer 2012 issue reflects a broad range of expertise and experience. this issue includes studies from several african countries and education fields. the opening article by oluniyi oyeleke provides an historical comparison of teachers’ status within nigeria that resonates across several other articles. the societal status of education also appears in dickson o. igwe’s discussion of information and communication technologies (icts) and open university systems, as well as in ebele okigbo’s and amarachukwu nwoye’s article on the role and status of mathematics education in relationship to society’s personnel needs. society and language are the focus of thomas walsh’s article on english programs in tanzania and sibonokuhle ndlovu’s study on dual language use in a zimbabwe school. language and education status are also analyzed through cultural and gender paradigms as maureen mweru describes the role of children’s play toys and teacher instruction in gender socialization within kenyan pre-schools and kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga explore the use of tuseme, “lets speak out,” in kenyan center of excellence schools as a social justice theatre based methodology to empower girls and improve their societal and academic status. each author paints a vivid picture of african education within his or her country across a range of education issues. they bring forward important and necessary conversations on the role of education and how to meet the various needs of its constituents, i.e. students, faculty, and the larger community. upcoming ajote fall 2012 and winter 2013 issues also promise to engage and entice readers to more fully explore african education. the fall 2012 issue is scheduled for release in december 2012 and the winter 2013 is scheduled for march 2013. please share ajote with colleagues and friends as part of your commitment to increased awareness in african education. we encourage and welcome submissions on african education in all fields and from all regions of the continent. a sincere thank you to ajote’s outstanding editorial board, whose members diligently provide thorough and timely peer reviews. as we encourage authors from all education fields to submit papers for review, we also work to increase the range of education expertise on ajote’s editorial board. if you are interested in becoming an editorial board member, please e-mail your request, along with your cv, to ajote at ajote2011@gmail.com. sincerely, dr. jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo mailto:ajote2011@gmail.com microsoft word nkamigbo volume 1 no. 1 * pages 48 63 * october 2010 phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example linda chinelo nkamigbo nnamdi azikiwe university awka nigeria linkamigbo@yahoo.com abstract the goals of education cannot be achieved without language. language is actively involved in the production of qualified teachers who will teach at various levels of the educational system. furthermore, linguistics is the area of study that is concerned with objective and empirical study of language, and phonology undoubtedly is a crucial aspect of this set up. this paper addresses the issues of phonological facilitation and interference in both teacher training and general education in sub-saharan africa. these phonological phenomena are critically examined as they feature in igbo, one of the major african languages, spoken predominantly in south-eastern nigeria. the sound system of igbo influences that of the english of the native igbo speakers. therefore, this paper recommends that the language instructor should focus on the variations in the english of the native igbo speakers in order to achieve a near standard english by the igbo speakers of english. linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 49 phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example introduction education cannot take place without language. language is a formalized code used by a group of people to communicate with one another. all languages consist of a set of abstract symbols – sounds, letters, numbers, elements of sign language – and a system for rules combining those symbols into larger units (hulit & howard, 2006; owens, 2008, heward, 2009). according to heward (2009), the symbols and rules governing language are essentially arbitrary no matter what language is spoken. the arbitrariness of language means there is usually no logical, natural, or required relationship between a set of sounds and the object, concept, or action it represents. languages are not static; they grow and develop as tools for communication as the cultures and communities of which they are part of change (pence & justice, 2008). nearly 7,000 living languages are spoken in the world (gordon, 2005). it is estimated that 60%-75% of the world’s population speak more than one language (baker, 2000). linguistics is the scientific study of language. phonology is an aspect of linguistics that studies the sound level of language. this paper, therefore, sets out to investigate the relevance of phonology in the instruction and learning of english by native igbo speakers in nigeria. our emphasis here is on the sound level of english as used by native igbo speakers. speakers’ sound level is of great importance to the language instructor because it is the first aspect of language to be presented to the learner and to be acquired by the individual. it provides the teacher with an inventory of sounds (phonemes to be precise) and also with a detailed description of their productions (roach, 1991:39). following williamson and blench’s (2000) classification, igbo belongs to the west benue-congo sub family of the proto benue-congo language family. the igbo people occupy what is politically known as the south-eastern part of nigeria. the igbo language is spoken in the core igbo states – abia, anambra, ebonyi, enugu and imo – as well as in some parts of bayelsa, delta and rivers states all in the southern region of nigeria. going by the 2006 nigerian population census, there are about fifteen million native speakers of igbo. the author identified certain phonemes of the various members of igbo dialect clusters, with an assumption that the different dialect speakers have their peculiar characteristics in spoken english. the greatest influence on the pronunciation of english by native igbo speakers is from the sound systems. on this note, bamgbos�e (1971) asserts that most of the phonetic characteristics in the english of nigerians can be traced to the transfer of features from their local languages. idowu (n.d) also asserts that igbo speakers of english tend to transfer the vowel system of their language into english. instances are taken from the pronunciations of the following words: igbo realization english gloss [folo] instead of /fɒlə�/ ‘follow’ [problem] instead of /prɒbləm/ ‘problem’ phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 50 in affirmation to the above notion, igboanusi (2002) observes that the differences which lie with the vowels, consonants and supra-segmental elements of english and igbo often interfere in the pronunciation of english sounds. similarly, ubahakwe (1979) claims that a great deal of similarity has been observed not only in the english accents of all the southern nigerian ethnic groups like edo, efik, tiv, igbo and yoruba, but all along the west coast of africa. in this regard, it is pertinent to note that several attempts have been made to ascertain the influence of igbo on the instruction and learning of english using the standard variety of igbo. this study sets out to examine the different igbo dialect clusters according to ikekeonwu’s (1987) classification in order to determine the exact situation of phonological facilitation and interference. the results of this study will be of interest to igbo language instructors and learners. methodology the research design employed in this study was a general descriptive approach. random sampling was used to select ten teachers and five hundred students in some public secondary schools in the igbo-speaking states of nigeria (abia, anambra, ebonyi, enugu and imo). this selection is based on the dialect clusters of ikekeonwu’s (1987) classification of igbo dialects. structured interviews were employed to elicit information from the participants or informants, using a sony cassette recorder. the informants were unaware of the tape-recording, though they were given prior notice that their speeches may be recorded. that notwithstanding, they did not know when the actual recording began. this resulted in the collection of their original speech forms. the tone-marking convention employed in this paper is the one which leaves high tones unmarked, uses the grave accent (‘) for low tones and the raised macron ( ‚) for the step tone. the set of symbols used is that of the international phonetic association’s alphabet (the letters ipa are used to refer to the association and also to its alphabet) revised to 2005. the english language instruction and learning in igboland the british colonial administration left english as a heritage in nigeria, including the igbo. to this effect, english is now the general language of education, government, internal and external communication, of literature, the media, business and commerce in nigeria. the country has a total number of 527 languages (514= living languages; 2= second languages without mother tongue speakers; 11= no known speakers) (lewis, 2009). the speakers of these indigenous languages pass their speech peculiarities to english which result in varieties of nigerian english. a concerned igbo writer on kwenu.com, chinedum maduabum argued that there is no doubt about english being a great medium of communication, but worried about the fast disappearing igbo language among the igbo. the igbo language is widely spoken in almost all the countries of this world by the igbo diaspora; and the sound system influences the pronunciation of english, and this often results in non-standard pronunciation features (see igboanusi, 2002 for similar argument). segmentals in language instruction and learning the english and igbo phonemic inventories are discussed here. english phonemic inventory the phonemic inventory of a language involves a selection of significant speech sounds from an infinite range of speech sounds which the human speech organs can produce. the english linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 51 language has twenty-four consonantal sounds and twenty vocalic sounds. the vocalic sounds are further divided into twelve monophthongs and eight diphthongs. the english phonemic inventory /p b t d k g ʧ  m n ŋ f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h l r j w i i e æ α ɒ ɔ ʊ u ʌ ə ɜ ei ai aʊ ɔ� iə əʊ εə ʊə/ standard igbo phonemic inventory standard igbo phonemic inventory has thirty-six phonemes. these comprise twenty-eight consonants and eight vowels. the inventory /p b t d k g ʧ  m n ŋ ŋw ɲ f v s z ∫ ɦ l r j w kp gb kw gw ɣ i � e a ɔ o ʊ u/ phonemic inventories of igbo dialect clusters igbo is a language that has many dialects. ikekeonwu (1987) presents a classification of the igbo dialects into clusters using both phonological and grammatical criteria. on the basis of these criteria, she grouped igbo dialects into five clusters namely: 1. the niger igbo 2. inland west igbo 3. inland east igbo 4. waawa igbo / northern igbo 5. riverain igbo the niger igbo (ni) the niger igbo cluster, notes ikekeonwu (1987), is found in areas on the west of river niger in what is currently known as delta state. niger igbo has two main dialects (mds) namely ika igbo and aniocha igbo. ika igbo has agbor, ukwali etc. as satellite dialects. aniocha has asaba, ibusa etc. as satellite dialects. most dialects of this cluster have twenty-eight consonants just like the standard igbo except asaba and ika. asaba has twenty-six consonants while ika has twentyseven consonants. ni phonemic inventory /p b t d k g kp gb kw gw m n ɲ ŋ ŋw f v s z ∫ ɣ ɦ ʧ  r l j w i � e ε a ɔ o ʊ u ə/. the inland west igbo (iwi) this group is found in areas situated to the east of the river niger. ikekeonwu (1987) points out that the title ‘west’ may then seem contradictory. these dialects, however, lie to the west of the group spoken further inland in owerri, umuahia, etc. and this is the basis for their classification as inland west. iwi has three mds namely onitsha, awka and aguata. onitsha satellite dialects include enu-onitsha dialect, general onitsha dialects (nkpor, obosi, umuoji, etc.) and otu-onitsha dialects. awka has enugwu-ukwu and amawbia as satellite dialects. aguata’s satellite dialects include amaiyi and orumba dialects. iwi phonemic inventory / p b t d k g kw gw kp gb tw dw m n ɲ ŋ ŋw s z ∫ ɣ ɦ ts ʧ  j w l β f v kwh r ṽ  z ̃ h̃ lw ph th dh kh gh fw h i � e ε o ʊ u a ɔ ə/. phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 52 the phonemes of this group range from twenty-six consonants to forty-five consonants and between eight to ten vowel phonemes. awka and enugwu-ukwu dialects have twenty-eight consonants and nine vowel phonemes. they have the voiced bilabial fricative / β /. amaiyi has thirty-nine consonants and eight vowels while orumba has thirty-six consonants and nine vowels. onitsha has twenty-six consonants and eight vowels. the voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ and the velar nasal / ŋ / do not exist. /f/ is replaced with /v/ while / ŋ / is replaced with / ŋw/. the inland east igbo (iei) this group includes those dialects spoken to the east and south-east of the iwi dialects. it comprises five main dialects namely central iei, orlu, owerri, ngwa and aro. the central iei satellite dialects include umuahia, ubakala, etiti, ohafia, ehugbo, okigwe, oriagu and nsu. orlu satellite dialects include awomama, oguta, aba nkwerre, isu nkwerre, dikenafia etc. the satellite dialects of owerri are uratta, emekuku, ikeduru, mbaise, aboh, mbieri, ogwa etc. the satellite dialects of ngwa include isiala, osisioma, obioma, enyimba central. arochukwu, ajali, arondizuogu etc. are satellite dialects of aro (ikekeonwu, 1987). dialects of this group have between forty and fifty-seven consonants and eight vowels. iei phonemic inventory / p b t d k g ʡ ph bh th dh kh gh pj bj tj dj kj gj ̃p ̃b ̃t ̃d ̃k ̃g kw gw ɗ kp gb ̃kp f (v) s z ∫ ɦ ̃s z̃ ɦ̃ ɦj ʧ  ʧh h ʧ̃ ̃ m n ɲ ŋ ŋw r ̃r rj l w i � e ε u ʊ ɔ o a/. waawa / northern igbo waawa igbo is spoken in the northern part of igboland. the region is bound to the north by idoma and tiv speakers, while the southern fringes are occupied by the inland west igbo speakers, and the inland east igbo speakers to the east. west of the waawa igbos we have the igalas. waawa igbo has six mds – achi, enugu, nsukka, awgu, udi, abakaliki (ikekeonwu, 1987:194). the satellite dialects of achi include isikwe and elugu-agu. enugu’s satellite dialects include nara and awkunanaw. obukpa, aku and enugwu-ezike are satellite dialects of nsukka. the satellite dialects of awgu include mgbowo and maku. udi’s satellite dialects are ezeagu, umuaga, umuabi, oghe. izii and ezza are satellite dialects of abakaliki. most dialects here have nine vowel sounds of which the schwa /ə/ is one of them. others have ten vowels when /ə/ and /ε/ are added to the standard igbo /si/ vowels. nsukka has no less than thirty-three consonant phonemes. enugu-ezike has twenty-seven consonants. it is fascinating to note that ezeagu has two phonemes which are rarely associated with the igbo language and its dialects. these phonemes are the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives /ð/ and /θ/. these two phonemes bring ezeagu’s consonant phonemes to a total of forty-one. waawa igbo phonemic inventory /p b t d k g kw gw kp gb m n ɲ ŋw θ ð f v s z ∫ h sw ∫w hw bv pf bj tf dv ts dz ʧ  ʧw l lw r rw j w i i u ʊ e ε ə o ɔ a/. linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 53 riverain igbo (ri) this group, according to ikekeonwu (1987), includes the varieties of igbo spoken in riverain areas like rivers and cross-river states. ri has two mds namely ikwerre and cross-river. diobu and ahoada are statellite dialects of ikwerre while itu-mbauzo is the satellite dialect of cross-river. this group has as many as forty-two consonants and eight vowels. ri phonemic inventory /p b t d k g ̃p ̃b ̃t ̃d kp gb f v s z ∫ ʒ ɣ h hw ̃f ̃v ̃s ̃z ∫̃ ̃ʒ ̃h ʧ  ̃ʧ ̃ m n ɲ ŋ ŋw l r ̃r j w i � e (ε) a ɔ u o ʊ/. a good look at the phonemic inventories presented above shows that igbo lacks some speech sounds which exist in english. it also demonstrates that there are some speech sounds in igbo dialects which english does not have. our emphasis is on the english speech sounds that are lacking in igbo since this study focuses on the igbo learners of english and not vice-versa. it is noteworthy that these similarities between english and igbo phonemic inventories will make the learning of english easy, and they give rise to the term ‘facilitation’. conversely, the differences in the phonemic inventories give rise to the term ‘interference’. this paper, therefore, presents the ways igbo learners realize the english phonemes which are lacking in igbo. consonants: the dental fricatives / θ / and / ð / these fricatives are the most problematic consonants for igbo learners of english. they are realized as [t] and [d] respectively. so, igbo learners will not make any contrast between / θ / and / ð /, and /t/ and /d/. for instance: ‘thin’ /θ�n / and ‘tin’ /t�n/ will be realized as [t�n] ‘thought’ /θɔt/ and ‘taught’ /tɔt/ will be realized as [tɔt] ‘through’ /θru/ and ‘true’ /tru/ will be realized as [tru] ‘then’ /ðεn/ and ‘den’ /dεn/ will be realized as [dεn] ‘with’ /w�ð/ and ‘wit’ /w�t/ will be realized as [wit] ‘they’ /ðe�/ and ‘day’ /de�/ will be realized as [de:] however, since / θ / and / ð / are found in the ezeagu dialect, it will be deemed necessary to get a language teacher from this area who will teach other dialect speakers the correct articulation of these phonemes. the voiced palatal fricative /ʒ/ this sound also creates problems. it is realized as either its voiceless counterpart [∫] or voiced palatal affricate [].thus, igbo learners will have the following: [mεɔ] or [mε∫ɔ] instead of [mεʒə] ‘measure’ [liɔ] or [li∫ɔ] instead of [liʒə] ‘leisure’ phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 54 however, a language teacher from riverain igbo may be needed to teach the pronunciation of /ʒ/ to other igbo dialect speakers. suprasegmentals in language instruction and learning suprasegmentals refer to those features as length and pitch in utterances. agbedo (2000:57) observes that “such features which may extend beyond the limits of the sound segment and embrace much higher units of utterance are referred to as prosodic features or suprasegments”. he goes on to say that pitch is the acoustic result of the speed of the vibration of the vocal folds. pitch becomes higher when the vocal folds vibrate faster. functions of pitch variation differ from language to language. pitch variation has been categorized into two namely tone and intonation. pitch differences could be applied to words in order to distinguish two or more words whose composition in terms of consonants and vowels is the same. pitch differences used in this way are called tones and the languages which make use of tones are called tone/tonal languages. a vast majority of african languages are tonal. conversely, in many indo-european languages like english, german, french, regular sequences of different pitches characterize stretches of speech between pauses, and are known as intonation. tone tone is a phenomenon of pitch which has received much attention. tone, according to ladefoged (1993), is the distinctive pitch level of a syllable. a tone language, as defined by pike (1948:43), is “a language having lexically significant, contrastive but relative pitch on each syllable”. in tone languages, tone is an integral part of a word itself. igbo is a tone language because it manipulates tone contrastively. two level tones are observed in igbo namely high which is unmarked and low. the downstep tone is a high tone which is reduced in pitch. tone performs semantic and grammatical functions in igbo. the application of different tones to certain lexical items yields different meanings. for instance: isi akwa oke isi ‘head’ akwa ‘cry’ oke ‘male’ isì ‘smell’ akwà ‘cloth’ okè ‘boundary’ ìsì ‘blindness’ àkwà ‘bed or bridge’ òkè ‘share’ isí ‘to cook’ àkwa ‘egg’ òke ‘rat’ tone distinguishes an affirmative sentence from a question. for example: 1a. ọ gàrà ahịa. “s/he went to the market.” b. ọ̀ gàrà ahịa. “did s/he go to the market?” 2a. ha zàrà ụlọ. “they swept the house.” b. hà zàrà ụlọ “did they sweep the house?” 3a. o sìrì nri. “s/he cooked.” b. ò sìrì nri. “did s/he cook?” 4a. ọ nà-èke isí. “s/he plaits hair.” b. ọ̀ nà-èke isí. “does s/he plait hair?” linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 55 intonation pitch of the voice rises and falls at intervals in order to avoid monotony of pitch in utterances. this rise and fall in utterances is referred to as intonation. intonation, according to strang (1970:89), is “patterning of the pitch variable in speech, a variable depending on the relative tension of the vibrating vocal folds in voiced speech”. intonation performs semantic and grammatical functions. in english, for instance, intonation is also used to convey meaning. this is enormously illustrated in roach (1991) as follows: fall �yes �no gives an impression on finality. rise , yes , no conveys an impression that something more is to follow. fall-rise yes no shows ‘limited agreement’ or ‘response with reservations’ rise-fall �yes �no used to convey rather strong feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise. level -yes -no used in a rather restricted context. it almost always conveys (on single-syllable utterances) a feeling of saying something routine, uninteresting or boring. interaction of tone and intonation in language instruction word pitch is called tone while sentence pitch is referred to as intonation. the igbo language is basically a tone language, and igbo learners of english find it difficult to employ intonation in english sentences. this is as a result of the influence of tone. in this regard, while teaching english to an igbo learner, attention needs to be given to the pronunciation of words that make up a sentence. interestingly, uguru (2009) points out that whereas other igbo dialects manifest tone only, ika dialect of igbo manifests intonation in addition to tone. although ikekeonwu (1987) reports the existence of an upstep tone in abakaliki, this, argues uguru (2009), is not intonation as there is no attitudinal meaning attached to it. in ika, intonation gives out attitudinal meaning. ika manifests both tone and intonation, so, pitch plays both tonal and intonational roles in this dialect. six tune patterns exist in ika. they are as follows: high fall tune pattern hf (����) low fall tune pattern lf (ˎˎˎˎ) high rise tune pattern hr (’) low rise tune pattern lr (ˏˏˏˏ) fall rise tune pattern lr (v) rise fall tune pattern rf (∧∧∧∧) examples of intonation in ika 1. low rise 2. high rise /we – ‘they’ (emphasis) / we? – ‘they?’ h h 3. fall rise 4. high rise we? – ‘you mean them?’ l/ si? ‘pardon/come again’ h + + phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 56 l l 5. kə wụ /taani? “(did you say?) what day is today?” 6. rise fall o bụ ọ٨ nyị? (does it cause dysentery? (disbelief)’ (adapted from uguru, 2009) the effects of tone on intonation, notes uguru (2009), make ika tune patterns to sound slightly different from those of english. igbo, being a syllable-timed language, usually affects english, a stress-timed language. timing in english depends on the stressed words. that is, much time is going to be spent on the stressed words. but in igbo every syllable is given its own time. many a time, igbo learners of english employ syllable-time to english words rather than stress-time. this is the influence of tone in igbo. for instance, an igbo learner of english may employ syllable-time in the pronunciation of the word “tribalism” as “*trìbalís‘m”. it is then the duty of the language instructor to correct such a learner by providing the stress-timed version of the word thus “'tribalism” and ensure that the learner pronounces it correctly. an ika instructor of english will be very useful in teaching intonation to igbo learners of english. similarly, ika learners of english will not find intonation practices difficult in anyway. the rise fall tune in ika is reported to be slightly different from the type found in english. also, the high rise in ika often sounds a little lower than that of english when it occurs with a low tone. we should expect this influence of tone on intonation since ika manifests both. but the intonation inherent in ika native speakers will go a long way in facilitating the learning of intonation patterns in english. phonological processes in language instruction and learning the form of a segment may change when that segment combines with other segments during the formation of words or utterances. the changes which sound segments undergo are referred to as phonological processes. in the course of this research study, the author examined deletion, insertion, vowel lengthening and syllable as instances of phonological processes and their involvement in language instruction and learning. deletion in phonology, this suggests the dropping of speech sounds. this is mostly evident in the speeches of igbo learners of english. for example, the deletion of the palatal approximant /j/ as in the following words: received pronunciation igbo representation english gloss [nju] [nû] nuù new [njuz] [nûzù] nuùzù news [fju] [fû] fuù few [fjuəl] [fuὲlʊ] fuelù fuel [stju] [sìtû] sìtuù stew the language instructor will give a great attention to this area pointed out in the above data so as to correct the anomaly. linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 57 insertion this is the addition of sound segments into certain positions of a word. a consonant may be inserted to break up vowel clusters while a vowel may be inserted to break up consonant clusters. the igbo language does not permit consonant clustering. so, vowels are inserted anywhere consonant clustering occurs in order to break up the clustering. therefore, an igbo learner of english may pronounce the words below as: english igbo realization bread bùreèdì stew sìtuù school sùkulù christmas kirisímasì cupboard kọpụbọ́dụ̀ break bùreèkì it is the duty of the language instructor to help the learners to get rid of these inserted vowels. vowel lengthening vowel lengthening is the doubling of vowels. this is not distinctive in igbo. there is no contrast between long vowels and their short counterparts. for instance, there may be two versions of the human female “nwanyi�” and “nwaanyi�” but they will not result in a semantic change. conversely, long vowels contrast with short vowels in ibibio, a lower cross language of the new benue-congo language family according to williamson’s (1989) classification. vowel lengthening in ibibio is illustrated below: nèm ‘be delicious’ nèèm ‘crack (e.g. nuts)’ bàk ‘be early’ bààk ‘be afraid of’ bk ‘cook soup’ bk ‘nurture’ dép ‘buy’ déép ‘scratch’ (curled from urua, 2000) many a time, igbo speakers lengthen vowels of english words. the reason being for ease of pronunciation. for instance: english igbo realization bread bùreèdì break bùreèkì stew sìtuù loss lọọsù� note noòtù the task of the language instructor here is the elimination of these lengthened vowels. phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 58 syllable this is another area of concentration for the language instructor. the syllable is seen as a unit of connected speech. although several attempts have been made towards defining the syllable, there has not been a strict definition of a syllable. matthews (1991:366) claims that the syllable is, “a phonological unit consisting of a vowel or other unit that can be produced in isolation, either alone or accompanied by one or more less sonorous units.” crystal (1997:164) views a syllable as, “an element of speech that acts as a unit of rhythm, consisting of a vowel, syllabic, or vowel/consonant combination.” let us examine some igbo words and their english equivalents. igbo english àdaèzè name of a person ewu goat �gwèrè lizard gà go re sell ọnwụ death unù you (pl) gị you (sing) ha them niílé all ike strength wàa split ghe fry a cursory look at the data above will suffice to say that: 1. there is no coda in the igbo language except in a few cases like dum ‘all’ ọdụm ‘lion’ there is coda in english 2. igbo has an open syllable while english has both open and closed syllables. 3. igbo has no consonant clusters while english has. 4. the basic igbo syllable is c v (consonant + vowel) as in si ‘cook’ zụ ‘buy’ kụ ‘hit’ while the basic english syllable is vc (vowel + consonant) as in is, on, am, at, if etc. summary of findings the findings in this study are challenges to english language instructors in igbo speaking areas of nigeria. they are challenged to instruct the learners on the correct articulation of their speech organs. they should make the learners have the tip of the tongue make contact with the upper front teeth for the production of /θ/ and /ð/ instead of the front part of the tongue coming into contact with the alveolar ridge which results in the production of /t/ and /d/. the instructor may not have to teach the positions of the vocal folds since the learners can distinguish between linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 59 voiced and voiceless sounds. a language instructor from ezeagu speech area will be needed because these sounds occur in ezeagu’s phonemic inventory. for the production of /ʒ/, the instructor will instruct the learners how the blade of the tongue makes contact with the hard palate. an instructional aid is needed here. the language instructor will demonstrate the articulation of speech organs using a human being. igbo has /a/ but lacks /æ/ and /α/. igbo learners replace english /æ/ and /α/ with igbo /a/. so, there is usually no distinction in words such as: english igbo realization pat /pæt/ part /pαt/ [pat] cat /kæt/ cart /kαt/ [kat] mat /mæt/ mart /mαt/ [mat] chat /ʧæt/ chart /ʧαt/ [ʧat] fat /fæt/ fart /fαt/ [fat] the english vowel /∧∧∧∧/ is realized as /ɔ/ in igbo. for instance. english igbo realization cup /k∧∧∧∧p/ [kɔpʊ] come /k∧∧∧∧m/ [kɔmʊ] mother /m∧∧∧∧ðər/ [mɔda] love /l∧∧∧∧v/ [lɔvʊ] these english vowels / ə / and / ɜ / do not occur in standard igbo. /ə/ occurs in some dialects of igbo namely niger igbo, inland west igbo and waawa igbo. so, these dialect speakers that have /ə/ in their phonemic inventories will not find difficulty in producing /ə/ whenever it occurs in english words. but other dialect speakers will have problems producing it. /ə/ occurs in english unstressed syllables and can be regarded as end product of ‘stress-timing’ which is a result of vowel reduction. this is not the case with ni, iwi and waawa igbo dialects clusters of igbo where /ə/ is a full-fletched phoneme. in most cases, / ɜ / is replaced with / ε / in igbo. as in english igbo realization bird /bɜd/ [bεdi] girl /gɜl/ [gεlʊ] the language instructor is left with the task of teaching the articulations of the above-mentioned speech sound. sometimes / ɜ / is replaced with / ɔ / as in english igbo realization curse /kɜs/ [kɔsʊ] phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 60 igbo has sound-to-symbol correspondence which lacks in english; therefore, igbo learners tend to apply it to english. this results in mispronunciation of the following words: english igbo realization sword /sɔd/ [swɔdʊ] tomb /tum/ [tombu] comb /kəʊm/ [kombu] quay /ki/ [kwei] fiend /find/ [fiεndi] igbo, being a syllable-timed language, affects english, a stress-timed language. so, lexical stress is replaced with tone. igbo learners pronounce english words with tone. for instance: english igbo realization floorboard /'flɔbɔd/ [fʊlɔbɔ́dʊ]̀ study /'st∧∧∧∧di/ [sitɔd ì] umbrella /∧∧∧∧m'brelə/ [ɔmbʊ̀relà] lovely /'l∧∧∧∧vli/ [lɔvʊ́l ì] chairman /'ʧeəmən/ [ʧiemánʊ]̀ information /ˌinfə'mei∫n/ [infme∫nʊ ̀] central vowels do not occur in standard igbo but /ə/ is found in ni, iwi and waawa igbo dialect clusters of igbo. it is discovered that the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives occur in ezeagu dialect only. therefore, an ezeagu language instructor may be needed to instruct other dialect speakers on the use of / θ / and / ð /. following igboanusi (2002), this present study observes that igbo learners use /i/ for english /i/ and /i/. so, a word like ‘bit’ will be pronounced the same way as ‘beat’. igbo has the pair /i/ and /i/ which are distinguished by pharyngealization or tenseness rather than length. also, igbo /ɔ/ is used for both /ɒ/ and /ɔ/ in english. this could be seen in: english igbo realization cot /kɒt/ court /kɔt/ [kɔt] shot /∫ɒt/ short /∫ɔt/ [∫ɔt] although // and /ŋ/ exist in igbo phonemic inventory, they do not occur in word final position (wfp). when // occurs in wfp, it must be followed by a vowel. english igbo realization judge /∧∧∧∧/ [ɔi] hinge /hin/ [hini] linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 61 final /ŋ/ is either followed by a [g] or replaced with [n]. for example: english igbo realization hang /hæŋ/ [haŋgi] lung /l∧∧∧∧ŋ/ [lɔŋgʊ] meeting /mitiŋ/ [mitin] fainting /feintiŋ/ [fentin] conclusion this paper examined the role of phonology in language instruction and learning of english by native igbo speakers of south-eastern nigeria. the phonological phenomena of interference and facilitation were critically examined and the paper discovered the areas of difficulty in the learning of english. it was also observed that some sound segments which were lacking in standard igbo could be found in some dialects of igbo, for instance the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives / ð / and / θ / occur in ezeagu dialect only. therefore, this paper suggests that language instructors should be selected from those areas whose dialects have the difficult sound segments and incorporated in the school curriculum. also, intonation is reported in ika dialect of igbo, therefore, a language instructor would be needed from this area to teach intonation to other dialect speakers. phonology in teacher education in nigeria: the igbo language example ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 62 references agbedo, c.u. (2000). general linguistics: an introductory survey. nsukka: ace resources konsult. baker, g. (2000). a parents’ and teachers’ guide to bilingualism (2nd edition). tonawanda, ny: multilingual matters bamgbos�e, a. (1971). the english language in nigeria. in j. spencer (ed.). the english language in west africa. london: longman group. ltd. crystal, d. (1997). the cambridge encyclopedia of language (2nd edition). cambridge: cambridge university press. gordon, r.g., jr. (2005). ethnologue: languages of the world (15th edition). dallas, texas: sil international. hulit l.m., & howard, m.r., (2006). born to talk: an introduction to speech and language development (4 th edition). boston: allyn & bacon heward, w.l. (2009). exceptional children: an introduction to special education (9th edition). upper saddle river, n.j: merrill idowu, o.a. (n.d). regional variations in english in nigeria and the implications for its teaching as a second language. retrieved april 22, 2010, from http://www.unilorin.edu.ng igboanusi, h. (2002). igbo english in the nigerian novel. ibadan: enicrownfit. ikekeonwu, c.i. (1987). igbo dialect cluster: a classification. university of nigeria, nsukka: linguistics departmental seminar series. ladefoged, p. (2007). a course in phonetics (4th edition). fort worth tx: harcourt brace college publishers. lewis, m.p. (2009). ethnologue: languages of the world (16th edition). dallas, texas: sil international. matthews, p.h. (1997). oxford concise dictionary of linguistics. reading: cox and wyman ltd. owens, r.e. (2008). language disorders: an introduction (7th edition). boston: allyn & bacon. pence, k.l. & justice, l.m. (2008). language development from theory to practice. upper saddle river, nj: merrill/prentice hall. pike, k. (1948). tone languages: a technique for determining the number and type of pitch contrasts in a language with studies in tonemic substitution and fusion. ann arbor: university of michigan publications. roach, p. (1991). english phonetics and phonology (2nd edition). cambridge: cambridge university press. strang, b.m.h. (1970). modern english structure. london: edward arnold ltd. ubahakwe, e. (1979). the teaching of english studies: readings for colleges and universities. ibadan: university press. uguru, j.o. (2009). on the interaction of tone and intonation in ika. in awka journal of linguistics and languages (vol. 4). awka: amaka dreams. urua, e.e. (2000). ibibio phonetics and phonology. cape town: centre for advanced studies of african society. williamson, k. (1989). niger -congo overview. in j.t. bendor-samuel (ed.). the niger congo languages. lanham: university of america press. williamson, k. and r. blench (2000). niger-congo. in heine, b. and d. nurse (eds.). african linda chinelo nkamigbo ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 48-63 63 languages: an introduction. cambridge: cambridge university press. pp.11-42. computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe shoorai konyana mkoba teachers’ college, zimbabwe elias g. konyana great zimbabwe university,zimbabwe abstract in this paper we seek to explain the relevance of introducing computer studies in zimbabwe’s rural schools as a means to reduce the access to information and communication technology (ict) gap between rural and urban schools. we acknowledge the efforts of various stakeholders in education in introducing the information and communication technology curriculum in rural schools in the last ten or so years as a commitment to bringing science and technology to the rural pupil. in addition, we further explore the progress that has been made by rural schools that received computers from the government over the years. in the process, however, we observe that most rural schools have not fully embraced the ict curriculum owing to a number of challenges. thus, we contend in this paper that most rural schools that received donated computers had not been capacitated to fully utilise the new technology for the benefit of students, teachers and the community. as a result, most of the gadgets have been lying idle in classrooms due to lack of either proper infrastructural facilities such as computer laboratories and electricity as well as lack of trained ict teachers. in the final submission, we implore stakeholders in education to facilitate ict development in rural schools in zimbabwe so as to increase access, quality and equity in education for sustainable rural development in southern africa. the study was qualitative in nature and relied on interviews, observations and use of the questionnaire. using the theoretical paradigm of curriculum change and innovation, the study revealed that the use of computers for pedagogical purposes is very low in rural schools in zimbabwe. basing on this, the research recommends a multi sectoral approach involving government, private sector, 2 computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case study of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) parastatals and other stake holders to ensure that students in rural schools benefit from the new technology. keywords: information and communication technology, computer studies, rural schools. introduction and background to the study the millennium development goals (mdgs) put in place by the united nations in 2000 highlighted the importance of information and communication technology (ict) in the global development agenda. the last of the mdgs, goal number eight, implies the need to ensure that the benefits of new technologies, especially icts, are made accessible to all for the success of sustainable development. production of information and knowledge is growing at a tremendous pace and ict serve as a transmission belt in generation, dissemination and sharing of knowledge (anderson, 2008). the education sector plays a key role in information and knowledge production hence the need to ensure that all teachers and students are part and parcel of this trend. zimbabwe, as a developing nation, needs to be part of this new dispensation and this means integrating ict processes into the education system. there is little doubt that zimbabwe’s education sector is missing out on the benefits of ict, especially in the rural areas. as the country lags behind in the adoption, use and innovation of ict, kachembere (2011), observes that many students and teachers are losing out on better education and well-paying ict jobs. it is through this realisation that some schools in chipinge district in zimbabwe are striving to seize this opportunity to exploit the benefits of ict for the purpose of teaching and learning. their efforts are informed by the understanding that ict in education is a significant key driver for pupil achievement through enhanced production of information and knowledge. the effective use of ict in education also has the potential to enhance achievement among students through greater collaboration, improved communication and opening of wider opportunities to share information (victoria, 2011). from a broader perspective, the benefits from advances in icts could also mean an acceleration of economic and social development and greater inclusion of isolated, particularly rural populations, into the mainstream of society (kabanda 2012). in zimbabwe, ict in education is not a very widespread phenomenon, particularly considering rural settings where most schools are not connected to electrical power supply and where some schools hardly have any buildings to house the computers. in fact, zimbabwe remains at the bottom ten of ict network readiness index (reddi, 2004). chipinge district is largely rural with the majority of the schools unable to offer computer studies due to non-connectivity to electrical power supply. this therefore means that teaching and learning has largely remained rooted in the traditional models of delivery. however, traditional systems of teaching and learning have long been outpaced and outstripped by new and dynamic trends. the traditional concept of schooling inside the walls of brick and mortar has been superseded by the spectacle of schooling without walls. conventional learning set-ups have been overtaken by digital environments and the face-to-face mode of tuition delivery is fast being replaced by online articulated learning and knowledge delivery methods (kachembere 2011). education experts however argue that bringing ict into the learning environment will create opportunities for broader education initiatives that will bring all students into the information era. in an effort to bring the potentially empowering benefits of ict to the students, the government of zimbabwe embarked on a massive drive to turn around the education sector by donating state of the art computers to many schools around the country mainly in the rural areas. connected with that was an effort to train computer studies teachers who were badly needed in the schools. to that end, many teacher training colleges, both primary shoorai konyana and elias g. konyana 3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) and secondary were mandated to train computer studies teachers or to offer computer appreciation courses to their student teachers among the programmes they offered. it should be noted, however, that for the past decade or so, zimbabwe has been limping under the effects of an economic recession which seriously crippled the education sector and also made the country lag behind in this vast digital revolution (bwpi, 2009). some schools have, however, made significant progress towards harnessing computer technology for the purpose of teaching and learning. this effort has not been without its challenges. some of the major challenges that schools in the district and zimbabwe in general are facing are largely associated with the prohibitive costs of purchase and maintenance of computers in the schools. some schools located in the remote parts of the country have also generally failed to attract not only qualified computer studies teachers but qualified teachers for other disciplines as well. after graduating from high school or from tertiary institutions worldwide, graduates are expected to join the working fraternity which hitherto has seen a rise in the demand for computer skills it is vital therefore, that all students, whether in urban or rural settings, are equipped with the necessary ict skills to fully empower them to participate in the highly digitalised world from a young age. all sectors of education from primary, secondary to university as well as vocational and skillsbased education need to harness ict. this study therefore sought to ascertain the level of computer use among students in the district as well as to examine whether teachers and heads appreciated the rationale of introducing computer studies in their schools. in most developing countries, educational institutions are facing increasing demand to produce intellectual skills that meet the challenges and goals of a rapidly changing and globalized world order. in zimbabwe, the presidential commission of inquiry into education and training, headed by nziramasanga (1999) endorsed that, as zimbabwe enters into the third millennium which is dominated by economic competitiveness and communication technology, the state is required to revamp or change and innovate its educational curriculum and provide relevant technological equipment to enable students to develop skills that are essential for a technological age. for any curriculum to remain relevant to the people it serves, it has to continue to serve the needs and interests of those people. if the curriculum of zimbabwe endeavours to remain relevant to the people of zimbabwe, it should embrace the technological change brought about by ict that is prevalent in the society. conceptual framework the study concerns itself with curriculum issues: change or innovation and curriculum content organization. for any curriculum to remain relevant to the people’s expectations, it has to continue to serve the needs and interests of its beneficiaries (fullan 1993). in the case of computer studies, rural secondary school students are the beneficiaries. arguments were often advanced concerning whether the curriculum should continually change or remain static. two contrasting theories emerge to this end. some notable classical educationists like plato were of the idea that the curriculum was a fixed and static device for bringing about the desired educational processes. during his era (and to a certain extent even today), there were in-built devices to ensure permanence rather than to permit or promote change and this has always presented threats and challenges to curricula reform. on the other hand, modern times have witnessed shifts and turns in the curricula provision in different education systems. the justification presented being that society is in a constant state of flux. it is not static, but is ever changing in terms of value, belief, and knowledge systems, and a host of contemporary pressures that demand change in society. fullan 4 computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case study of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) (1991, p. 3) supported the need for change when he said, “everything must change at one time or another or else a static society will evolve.” the support for a static curriculum has long been dispensed with in all the progressive societies, though there still remain products of arguments in support of the traditional view of an absolutist stable curriculum as opposed to a relativist curriculum. based on the view that curriculum is relative to the needs of the society and should seek to change as those needs change, the theory underlying change is, therefore, justified and curriculum change, like any other change in any other sphere of life, is as necessary as it is inevitable. this view provides the theoretical background of this study on the computerisation of the rural secondary school curriculum. if the secondary school curriculum is to remain relevant, it should embrace the technological change in the society by equipping its products (students) with the relevant computer skills so that they fit well in the labour market and in industry and commerce. based on the ongoing argument, implementation of computer studies as a subject in rural secondary schools as a curriculum reform or innovation is justified provided it is done in line with these principles of change. however, the tendency in post independence zimbabwean curriculum reform is that it tends to be piece-meal and spontaneous (nkomo 1995), resulting in what “pot hole sealing” or what curriculum experts identify as stop gap measures. curriculum that comes out of such circumstances tends to be disjointed, poorly organised and often lacks proper rationalisation, leading to passive resistance or total “tissue rejection” by the user community. this article is also rooted in the issue of equity and equality of provision of educational resources and access to the same curriculum implementation by all zimbabwean secondary school students. it also seeks to explore the rationale behind the introduction of computer studies as a curriculum improvement for rural secondary schools in zimbabwe. it articulates as well as defends the relevance of computer studies to students attending rural secondary schools, arguing that these students from poor backgrounds should also have access to information and communication technology (ict) in the same way as their urban counterparts. feldman (1993) maintains that the 20 th century has largely been dominated by a techno-centric educational paradigm shift for most countries in the world. this is particularly true in the case of the use of computers, with emphasis on learning about technology in order to meet the perceived needs of contemporary life. thus, the rural and urban students have to face this reality inevitably, hence the need for students attending poor rural schools to access knowledge of ict as well. statement of the problem and research questions the knowledge of information and communication technology (ict) has become the musthave breed of knowledge for many a school leaver in the recent years. this was comparatively easy for the pupil in an urban environment owing to his/her closeness to a number of institutions offering computer studies. the pupil in a rural setup has lagged behind in accessing ict knowledge because computers are not readily available. this has greatly disadvantaged the rural school pupil, hence the underlying principle behind the introduction of computer studies as a subject in rural secondary schools. however, the following research questions became critical as they formed this study’s basis for considering the extent to which the computerisation of the rural secondary school was feasible:  what is the level of chipinge district rural secondary schools’ preparedness to include or add computer studies to their curriculum? shoorai konyana and elias g. konyana 5 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013)  how many student teachers per intake take up computer studies as a subject/course of study at teacher training colleges and how many of these teachers are deployed to rural secondary schools?  what is the perception of school heads, teachers and the community towards information and communication technology (ict) in general and computer studies in particular?  how does the ministry of education, sport, art and culture promote the implementation of computer studies in rural secondary schools?  what is the role of politicians in promoting the teaching and learning of computer studies in rural secondary schools?  who are the beneficiaries of the introduction of computer studies in rural secondary schools? the above research questions were carefully raised to inform the study’s quest to explore the rationale behind the introduction of computer studies in the rural secondary school curriculum. the questions are also set to unearth some of the underlying issues that affect the implementation of computer studies in most rural secondary schools. research design the success of any research depends on the choice of the methodological framework and the research design used to carry out that research. this is further emphasised by mavhunga (2000) when he says that an appropriate research design provides a systematic strategy and plan for selecting, rationalising and organising the sequence of procedures for collecting and handling the evidence or information relevant to solve the research problem. for this article, we chose the case study methodology framework which lends itself more to the qualitative research paradigm or design. we have the confidence of hitchcock and hughes (1995, p. 26) who maintain that: …the process of education, teaching and learning are so complex and multifaceted that to focus only upon cause and effect, products, outcomes or correlations on research in schools is of limited value. the complexity of the education process demands the use of a variety of techniques and the qualitative research design becomes the most appropriate paradigm. of the same perspective are cohen, manion, and morrison (2007) who expound that educational phenomena, by their nature, lend themselves more to interpretive analyses, hence are best explored by use of case studies. yin (1994) further argues that a case study is most suitable as a research design in education for it is an enquiry into the real life issues as opposed to the contrived contexts of an experiment or a survey. furthermore, the case study design was employed in this article because it is the only qualitative research design that displays the belief that human systems develop a characteristic wholeness or integrity and are not simply loose connections of traits. as a result of this belief, researchers who use case studies hold that to understand a case, to explain why things happen as they do, and generalise or predict with certainty from a sample of cases, require an in-depth investigation of the interdependencies of parts or samples and of the patterns that emerge thereof. population and sampling the study population consisted of 100 teachers and ten (10) school heads from which a sample 6 computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case study of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) of 50 teachers and five (5) school heads was chosen. the five schools were purposively chosen on the basis of their different responsible authorities and the fact that the schools are located in reasonably different geographical areas. two government day schools (urban and peri urban), one rural council day school, one rural mission boarding school, and one rural private boarding school formed the sample. this was meant to provide diverse views regarding the level of computer use in the schools because as conditions differ geographically or otherwise, experiences are also bound to differ. these five schools were considered to be relatively well established schools in chipinge district and therefore were in a position to provide traceable records of computer establishment processes in their schools. it was also noted that the schools were examination centres for the zimbabwe schools examination council (zimsec) subject examinations, excluding computer studies. schools which offered computer studies but were not host to zimsec examinations in computer studies did not qualify to be part of the sample. schools were put into tiers based on their geographical location and responsible authority and one school was randomly chosen from each stratum. at each school, the names of the teachers were put into two separate boxes one for males and the other for females, the names were then picked at random. four males and four females were selected for questionnaires. using the same method, one male and one female were selected for interviews. this brought the total number of respondents to ten teachers per school. stratified random sampling was thus very useful in ensuring gender balance. the researchers chose to interview two teachers per school, that is, one computer studies teacher and a non-computer studies teacher. this was meant to validate some of the information gathered from the questionnaire. it was hoped that more detailed information could be solicited from computer literate teachers who were charged with the task of teaching computer studies on a daily basis. research methodology and data collection the research was qualitative and heavily relied on interviews and use of the questionnaire. in order to understand the determinants of computer use for teaching and learning, the feelings, opinions, attitudes and perceptions of the participants in the study, had to be taken into account. teachers and heads as human beings have feelings, emotions, and perceptions and the qualitative research model is suitable to probe such inner feelings. through interviewing both the teachers and the heads, the study was thus able to gather in-depth data on the level of computer use, impediments to effective implementation of computer studies subject in some schools, and the extent to which teachers and heads appreciated the need to offer the subject in their schools. the data obtained through interviews was analysed manually. although the study preponderantly used the qualitative model, quantitative data was also collected in the process. this in line with cohen et al (2007) who assert that a number of social researchers have since realised the need to use both types of data (mixed methods approach) if a true picture about a phenomenon is to be revealed. in this research, quantitative data that was gathered included statistics relating to classes taking computers, number of computers in the respective schools, number of qualified ict teachers, and the ratio of students to computers. this was meant to generate a hypothesis on the extent to which computers were used for teaching and learning in the schools. the data collected using the questionnaires was analysed using the statistical packages for social scientists (spss) version 16.0. data collection instruments the research made use of three instruments to collect the data for this article, namely interviews, shoorai konyana and elias g. konyana 7 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) document analysis, and observation strategy. the instruments were used concurrently in order to increase the validity of the research outcome. this is in line with cohen et al (2007)’s contention that if two or more different data collection instruments are used, then the validity of the research results is not only increased but assured. a brief presentation of how each of the three instruments was used is included below. interviews. each of the identified participants was approached by the authors with interview protocols or set of interview questions which were open-ended. the interview protocols had spaces at the end of each question to allow the authors to write down reflective notes on how the participant responded. at the same time, the open-ended questions had the advantage of offering the participants a wider scope of flexibility. for each question, the authors had an opportunity to follow up on any revealing leads given by the participants. in this respect, mavhunga (1998) posits that probing the participants further may help clear the misunderstandings and misconceptions that may arise. document analysis. we visited all the five participating rural secondary schools and asked to look at all documents related to infrastructural developments, curricula, enrolment patterns, and pass rates. the documents identified provided additional information regarding the level of preparedness to offer computer studies prior to receiving the computers. the observation strategy. during the visits to the five rural secondary schools we also had the advantage and opportunity to record information picked up through the participant observation strategy. we were able to identify the attitude of various participants towards the introduction of computer studies and the availability of computers at their school. results and discussion. on the issue of whether the schools used computers for administrative purposes, all five (5) heads (100%) indicated that use of computers was crucial for the running of the school. the heads cited various areas for which computers were being used in the administration of their schools. table 1. functions of computers in the school administration school rural school number of computers prior to government donation function of computers in the school school a 1 keeping financial records and typing administration material like students and staff records. school b 1 typing administrative documents like minutes and circulars. school c 3 typing examination materials, making exam schedules and the school timetable. school d 2 keeping enrolment figures, typing and performing other administrative functions. school e 2 typing the timetable, exams and keeping school records. sentiments raised by the heads revealed that despite some challenges that the schools were facing, computers were being used to perform administrative work of which the most common was typing and storing administrative and financial records. heads from two government schools indicated that since they had very few computers and considering the high pupilcomputer ratio which stood at about one computer per forty students, it was prudent to allocate most of the 8 computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case study of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) computers to the students and retain only a few for administrative work. the heads also indicated that most schools did not have the resources to purchase enough computers for the whole school. some schools benefitted from donations made by the government, their school development committees (sdcs), and individual parents. use of computers for teaching and learning across the curriculum in response to the issue of whether computers were being used across the curriculum, the majority of the interviewed teachers (74%) indicated that computers were not being utilised in all facets of the curriculum. they indicated that the use of the computers must spread across all subject areas, other than just being used as instructional tools in a single subject area. in fact, the teachers observed that computers were being utilised solely for computer studies lessons. it should be noted, however, that through utilisation of suitable software, computers could be used to teach subjects like mathematics, science, geography, art, physics, biology and other subjects. general trends in rural schools it emerged from the data collected that most of the rural secondary schools that received computers from the government were not prepared to start offering computer studies to students. while the computers were welcome, the school heads submitted that the computers became a big liability to the schools. the major reason was that the schools had no proper computer laboratories to house the computers. in the majority of the cases a classroom had to be converted into computer laboratory and the school had to spend some money adjusting the rooms to accommodate the computers. at two of the five rural secondary schools electricity was not available in the school buildings. the schools had to expedite the electrification of at least one building or block (room) where the computers would be kept. all the five rural secondary schools had no qualified computer studies (ict) teacher, let alone the computer studies syllabus. this meant that some teachers with basic computer knowledge were asked to chip in and help teach students computer appreciation skills. the education officers (staffing) also lamented the situation at most of these schools saying that there was nothing they could do to assist with providing trained computer studies teachers apart from waiting for the deployment of such teachers from the provincial office. they said the district office did not receive any computer studies specialists deployed to the district year in and year out and that meant the schools had to improvise. to make the situation worse, most teachers’ colleges do not train teachers specifically in computer studies. it is only recently that one college, mutare teachers' college, began training teachers of computer studies. it is hoped that when the first intake of student teachers specialising in computer studies complete their teacher training course, the problem of shortage of computer studies teachers will be alleviated. introducing computer studies in rural schools: a technological imperative computer studies is one of the numerous practical subjects in the zimbabwean secondary school curriculum. it is regarded as a technical or vocational subject that is taught at poly-technical institutions, colleges, and universities as information and communication technology (ict) throughout the country. most of the graduates from these colleges are absorbed by many institutions that deal with ict as well as industry. thus, computer studies has become one of the many vocational subjects that create employment opportunities for many school leavers. shoorai konyana and elias g. konyana 9 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) this is in response to the post-independent zimbabwean high unemployment rate which was attributed to the failure by the school curriculum to “…reward with opportunities those who went through it” (the sunday mail, 15 june 1997). the argument was that the school curriculum was too academic and insufficient to foster total human development. to this end, a philosophy purporting that education needs to stress more skills training in order to address manpower shortages in the technical categories of labour has emerged (unesco monograph, 1994; ndawi 1997). thus the introduction of computer studies in rural secondary schools is relevant as it further buttresses the integration of vocational training in the secondary school curriculum. the following points can also be presented as the rationale behind the introduction of computer studies in rural secondary schools:  to equip rural school leavers with knowledge and technical/vocational skills useful in an age of increasing technological advancement to enable them to contribute to national and international development.  to transmit knowledge, skills, and attitudes useful in both employment seeking and employment creation. this assists in addressing the wake of unemployment levels for secondary school leavers in many developing countries such as zimbabwe.  to re-orient secondary school students’ attitude of their rural school setups and communities so that the students become positive about their potentialities, thereby halting the rural-urban migration. the above points justify the introduction of computer studies in the rural secondary school curriculum from an instrumental and occupational point of view which is encapsulated in the idea of a worthwhile education as vouched by r.s. peters (1986). recommendations on the basis of the foregoing research findings, this study proposes the following recommendations for the various stakeholders in education: school heads and teachers. school heads should work out modalities to ensure that all students benefit from the meagre resources available in their schools. offering computer appreciation evening classes in the case of boarding schools might be one way of going round the challenge. teachers ought to realise that computers are an inevitable technological innovation which has come in the classroom to stay. as such, teachers need to train, through inservice programs, for proficiency in the use of computers in the teaching process. rural secondary school students, computers, and learning. students must develop keen interest in computer studies in much the same way as any of the traditional practical subjects in the schools. computer skills acquisition for students in rural schools has attracted a number of stakeholders in education such as politicians and the business community. so, students in these areas must take this as a chance to have access to computer technology and develop computer skills. students in rural schools should embrace the chance and acquire computer skills through increased interest in ict programmes. curriculum development unit (cdu) and computer studies in rural secondary schools. the curriculum development unit must clearly articulate the short term, mid, and long term goals for the role and place of computers in the country’s education system and share these with all stakeholders in education. this is meant to avoid situations where computer studies is 10 computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case study of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) introduced in schools without adequately preparing them to offer it. the ministry of education, sport, art and culture. the ministry of education, sport, art and culture (moesac), through its district offices, should liaise with ict departments at poly-technical and teacher training colleges to facilitate the in-service training of teachers from rural secondary schools. this will capacitate most of these rural schools and ensure that the teaching of computer studies takes place once such schools are ready to start offering the subject. moesac should also work with the zimbabwe electricity supply authority (zesa), rural electrification agency (rea), and tel-one (a telecommunication company) to expedite the connection of electrical power supply to some schools, as well as upgrading telecommunication infrastructures respectively. it is also imperative that the schools engage technical support that will ensure that repair services and technical information is provided. moesac should work towards engaging skilled personnel to teach computer studies by providing programs for in-service teachers who did not do computer studies on basic computer skills to better positioned them to assist their students. conclusion the article has pointed out that computer knowledge is very important for all students regardless of their school location. it has also argued that secondary school students in rural schools have lagged behind in this regard and that there is need to introduce computer studies in rural schools as well. there is need to equip the pupils attending rural schools with the same computer skills as their urban counterparts. in the main, the authors argue that while the introduction of computer studies in rural secondary schools is a welcome human resource development strategy, its implementation has yet to be properly designed and organised especially for rural secondary schools due to their lower economic status. hence, there is need for all stakeholders in education to consult and liaise with each other to effectively bring computer studies to the rural secondary schools. study results in the chipinge district show that the use of computer technology for the purposes of teaching and learning is still very low and, in some cases, non-existent. teachers are still largely relying on the traditional talk and chalk mode of delivery. poor ict competencies and lack of confidence in using new technology are viewed as determinants based on their low levels of engagement in ict. this confirms ndlovu’s (2012) observation that though a number of schools in zimbabwe claim to be offering computer studies, it is only a minority who are benefitting. computer studies as a subject is still a reserve for very few students, mostly in urban setups. this challenge is a result of the shortage of computer textbooks and trained computer studies teachers, as well as a lack of proper facilities to apply the subject. within the curriculum change and innovation framework it is desirable for zimbabwe to invest heavily in computer technology so as to create a sustainable computer competent generation. shoorai konyana and elias g. konyana 11 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) references anderson, r.e. (2008). implications of the information and knowledge society for education. international handbook of information in primary and secondary education, 20 (1), 522. bwpi, (2009). moving forward in zimbabwe: reducing poverty and promoting growth. manchester: the university of manchester. [electronic version]. retrieved 13 july 2013, http:// www.bwpi.manchester.ac.uk/.../zimbabwe/moving_forward_in_zim. cohen, l., manion, l. and morrison, k. (2007). research methods in education (6 th ed). new york: routledge. kabanda, g. (2012). knowledge frontiers for sustainable growth and development in zimbabwe. harare: zimbabwe open university. fullan, m. g. (1991). the new meaning of educational change (2 nd ed.). london: cassel educational. fullan m. g. (1993). change forces: probing the depth of educational reform. london: the falmer press. hitchcock, g. and hughes, d. 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(2012). lack of skills challenge to ict development in the schools. the chronicle. retrieved 15 july 2013, http: //www.chronicle.co.zw/ lack-of-skills-challenge-to-ictdevelopment-in-school. nkomo, g. m. (1995). curriculum implementation, change and innovation. harare. centre for distance education. http://www.bwpi.manchester.ac.uk/.../zimbabwe/moving_forward_in_zim http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/07380593;jsessionid=388fwdh4et6m7.alice 12 computerization of rural schools in zimbabwe: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case study of chipinge district, south-east zimbabwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) nziramasanga, c. t. (1999). report of the presidential commission of inquiry into educational and training. harare: government publications. peters, r.s. (1986). philosophy of education. new york: paulist press. reddi, u.v. (2004). using icts to remove barriers in education: adapting to changing times and needs. thailand: bangkok. unesco (1994). systems of knowledge: a case study of curriculum innovation in malta. retrieved 13 july 2013, http://www.books.google.co.zw/books?id=nsh3aaaacaaj. victoria, t. l. (2011). ict in education. retrieved 13 july 2013, http://www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki? ict-in-education. yin, (1994). case study research and methods. beverly hills: sage publications. http://www.books.google.co.zw/books?id=nsh3aaaacaaj book review teachers as agents of pupil indiscipline, banja, m.k., university of zambia press, lusaka, 2013, 79 pages, isbn: 978-9982-03-068-7. review by gabriel walubita, george benson college of education, zambia. parents are usually answerable for their children’s misbehaviour at home, just like teachers are often held accountable for their learners’ failure to perform academically to the expected levels. the recent announcement of the 2013 examination council of zambia poor results for their grade twelve examinations had ignited debate among various stakeholders in the education sector, some of whom blamed teachers for this poor performance. in madalitso khulupirika banja’s book, teachers as agents of pupil indiscipline (2013) he cites teacher indiscipline as the source for pupil indiscipline in zambian schools while acknowledging that “this book is not intended to unfairly and wholesomely portray all teachers as ill behaved” (xi), but as portrays the majority of teachers as dedicated and committed professionals who are committed to duty. the informative book is filled with both african and european literature that shows the sources and the effects of pupil and teacher indiscipline. banja also presents the common forms of pupil and teacher indiscipline in secondary schools derived from studies not only conducted in zambia but also in other countries. the main objective of the book is to show how teacher indiscipline adversely affects the academic performance of pupils in secondary and tertiary institutions. the author argues that teachers are responsible for some of the learners’ maladaptive behaviour observed in school. the reasons for writing this book are provided. first, this book raises awareness that learner and teacher indiscipline is a huge crisis facing secondary schools in zambia and that this problem needs to be addressed in the education system. second, the book attempts to make an original contribution to the limited literature on learner and teacher indiscipline in zambia. finally, in his foreword to this book, dr. john phiri, former zambia minister of education, welcomes the book and says that it serves to remind teachers that “they carry on their shoulders a huge responsibility of turning young people into responsible adults” (xi). 2 book review: teachers as agents of pupil indiscipline ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) banja’s book is divided into four parts. part one presents a discussion on the common forms and causes of pupil indiscipline which cut across africa, europe, and america. the second part of the book explains the conduct of teachers and head teachers where it is emphasized that a basic understanding of teacher behaviour can aid in knowing learner behaviour and can also help in strengthening interventions to curb problematic behaviours exhibited by learners and teachers. banja asserts that the performance of some teachers and head teachers is commendable, while that of others leaves much to be desired. part two discusses the outcomes of a qualitative study conducted among 160 respondents drawn from 4 government secondary schools in zambia. the study revealed that some of the offences committed by teachers included leaking examination content, flirting with school girls, reporting late and drunk for work, engaging in illegal class enrolments and obtaining money from pupils for preferential treatment (16). the study also reported that head teachers also committed these offences which had detrimental effects on the pupils’ behaviour and school performance. for instance, some head teachers’ were either too harsh toward pupils, overlooked students’ concerns or showed signs of favouritism towards certain pupils. one of the most outstanding observations made was that some teachers used sarcastic and abusive language towards pupils noted in statements such as “put your stinking anus down,” “you stink,” or “she is just a prostitute, just leave her” (29). the author noted that these comments were very demeaning to the learners and must be strongly discouraged. banja applies social learning theory by bandura and walters (1963) as a theoretical framework used to explain “the nature and quality of the interaction between pupils and their teachers; and between pupils and head teachers as well as in the manner of making decisions that affect their pupils.” (16) banja also presents the causes of teacher indiscipline which include lack of teacher socialisation, poor conditions of service, teacher stress, poor professional training, and lack of effective school management. the effects of pupil and teacher indiscipline on the school are also examined such as absenteeism, disobedience to school authority, truancy, fighting, substance abuse and classroom disruption. the author argues that pupils are not passive (as they are perceived to be by some teachers) but active players in imitating their head teachers’ and teachers’ behaviour during continued interaction at school. banja indicates, “there is an urgent need to tackle teachers’ indiscipline in order to reduce pupils’ indiscipline, which affects educational attainment” (18). part three of banja’s book moves from the secondary school setting to a tertiary setting where very important discussions are presented on the factors that affect the relationship between the student and the lecturer in the university. emphasis here is placed on the need for inexperienced lecturers to be professional in the way they conduct themselves. the other concerns raised are the old fashioned ways of teaching demonstrated by the older, experienced lecturers. he describes as having fallen in academic slumber and are likely to operate like programmed robots, always teaching the same material in almost the same way for decades. the author also explains that examination leakages, student over-enrolment, inadequate teaching infrastructure, and lack of effective institutional management are among the main challenges faced by tertiary institutions that need to be addressed. gabriel walubita 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) banja remains optimistic in confronting pupil and teacher indiscipline by proposing that parents need to be actively involved in inculcating moral values in the pupils because they are role models who spend most of their time with the pupils outside school. other solutions to the problem of pupil and teacher misconduct that the author suggests include: prompt and adequate use of reinforcement instead of punishment; hosting regular morally-focussed teacher training workshops; intensifying teacher training in counselling and behaviour management techniques; provision of comprehensive management training to school managers; massive reduction of pupil class size; and improvement of teacher conditions of service in schools. in order to rein in lecturers’ misconduct in tertiary institutions, banja advocates for the introduction of lecturer appraisal systems by students that will keep the teaching staff in check so that “students can indicate whether they found the lecturer to be enthusiastic and stimulating, whether material has been clearly presented and whether they were challenged by it” (64). finally, teachers and lecturers are reminded to take responsibility for their actions, set a good example, and encourage good behaviour. this book is an excellent must-read book, because in no uncertain terms it presents topics that are rarely or ever covered in zambian literature on student and lecturer indiscipline in tertiary institutions. for example, lecturer indiscipline and how it can be solved in tertiary institutions is one of the topics in this book. second, the issues presented in the book are consistent with global literature on significant effect of teacher behaviour on pupil indiscipline in secondary schools. the information contained in this book depicts a typical zambian learning environment that needs attention. although there is no dearth of literature on pupil and teacher indiscipline in africa, it is clear that most of these do not present the zambia specific context of banja’s work or his connection across secondary and tertiary education. that is student indiscipline as it relates to the principal, teacher, and lecturers’ misconduct in both secondary and tertiary institutions. the author’s detailed descriptions of how lecturers relate to students allows the reader to experience the most realistic and honest vision of university life. thus, there is no doubt that the book is unique and will fill the existing knowledge gap. banja’s book can not disappoint anyone because it makes it evident that teachers have a role to play in pupil misconduct. this is in line with findings that the involvement of dedicated teachers with appropriate professional skills in the enforcement of school rules and regulations help to guard against misbehaviour. it is also worth noting that the book title teachers as agents of pupil indiscipline arouses one’s curiosity as it raises a red flag that teachers are not setting a good example for pupils. this title provokes the reader to examine the role of the teacher in the school. this book also draws attention to the deteriorating standards in the education sector which to some extent are caused by both teachers’ and head teachers’ misconduct. although the findings presented in the book were based on qualitative analysis, the author could pay more attention to the quantitative analysis. specifically, there is a need to validate the internal consistency of the self-administered questionnaire used in this study to assess its reliability for application to zambian secondary schools. 4 book review: teachers as agents of pupil indiscipline ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) the argument advanced in the book that “whatever misbehaviour pupils may bring from home is reinforced and supported by the school itself through its teachers and head teacher” (48). this statement is not applicable to all teachers because for most teachers, it is their goal to make pupils perform better. this goal is supported by the fact that sometimes teachers’ promotions and appointments are determined by the academic excellence of their pupils, so why should they support pupil indiscipline? although the book was published by a renowned, credible and experienced publisher and the price is affordable to the least paid teacher, the book is not attractive to the reader. the publisher needs to add a picture to the cover and pictures to the text to break the narrative’s monotony. it is evident that the merits prevail over the demerits of the book making it relevant and resourceful to most readers. banja argues that in order to profit from the school as a social entity, the school should be free from pupil and teacher indiscipline. it is well known by society that a school is a formal organisation of instruction where people learn about the customs, attitudes, and ways to improve in the society. as stakeholders, teachers and pupils should work together towards creating a favourable teaching and learning environment. the quality of banja’s work presented in this book definitely compels one to put it among their “must read” books. the book is handy not only to the field of sociology of education but also to other disciplines, especially teacher education program’s classroom management courses. another unique quality of the book is that it provides valuable information on how lecturers’ should relate to their students in tertiary institutions. banja emphasizes that “this book might be of great importance to teachers, head teachers, policy makers and other stakeholders in education who value a favourable learning environment” (14). the book appeals to other potential readers like parents and community members due to its relevant topics and easy readability. references bandura, a. (1963). social learning and personality development. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. banja, m. (2013). teachers as agents of pupil indisciplines. lusaka: university of zambia press. ekpoh, u.i. (2007). management of indiscipline among teachers by principals of public and private secondary schools in akwa ibom state. global journal of educational research, 6 (1/2): 35-36. assessing students’ cognitive acceleration in mathematics education learning (as camel) via formula mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality assurance in upper basic education adetunji abiola olaoye lagos state university, nigeria abstract this study was designed to examine mathematics teachers’ workload vis-à-vis the students’ performance in mathematics and as a correlation to quality assurance in upper basic education. as a descriptive study it consisted of four research questions and hypotheses at 5% level of significance. the study sample was comprised of twenty public secondary schools from which thirty-two mathematics teachers and one thousand and two hundred upper basic level 2 students were purposively selected for the study. two instruments, a mathematics achievement test (r = 0.78) and a “questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ workloads in upper basic education level 2” (r = 0.83) were used for the study. data were analysed through simple percentages, pearson moment correlation, t-test and one way anova. findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ gender and students’ performance in mathematics (t-cal>t-ratio, df = 1198; p<0.05) but there was no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ qualification and students’ performance in mathematics (fcal<f-ratio, df = {4, 1194}; p>0.05). however, it was found that there was a significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ subject(s) taught and students’ performance in mathematics (t-cal>t-ratio, df = 1198; p<0.05). furthermore, study revealed that there was a significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ workload and students’ performance in mathematics (f-cal>f-ratio, df = {7, 1191}; p<0.05). the implications of the findings were discussed and recommendation suggested towards ensuring better quality assurance for mathematics in upper basic education. key words: workload, mathematics teachers, quality assurance, upper basic education 2 mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality insurance in upper basic education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) introduction quality assurance in education is ascertained when the end-products could contribute to meaningful development of the society. this is why education is regarded as a veritable tool that all developing and developed nations of the world may skilfully use to accomplish their national objectives. universal basic education (ube) as announced in september 1999 by president olusegun obasanjo in sokoto state of nigeria was conceived as a panacea to the problems associated with the former educational system of universal primary education (upe) of 1976. like upe, the ube provides free and universal education in a numbers of ways which makes it an improvement. it is educational system that allows children to spend the first six years in primary school, three years in the junior secondary school, called upper basic educational levels. for instance, upe makes a voluntary enrolment of primary school programme, while ube establishes a compulsory education programme for all children between the ages of six and fifteen that accommodates pupils from primary to the junior secondary school (jss) levels. ube comprises lower and upper basic education and it is expected to accomplish the following objectives: (i) developing in the entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and strong commitment to the vigorous promotion. (ii) the provision of free universal basic education for every nigerian child of schoolgoing age. (iii) reducing drastically the incidence of dropout from the formal school system (through improved relevance, quality and efficiency) (iv) catering for the learning needs of young persons who, for one reason or another have had to interrupt their schooling through appropriate forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education (v) ensuring the acquisition of the appropriate level of literacy, numeracy, manipulative, communicative and life skills as well as the ethical, moral and civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for life-long learning (etim, 2003, pg 72). to actualize these objectives different school subjects are imperative for the learner. prominent of these subjects is mathematics whose objectives of learning vary from one level to the others. at the upper basic level of education it includes: (i) generating interest in mathematics and providing a solid foundation level for everyday living (ii) developing of computational skills in students (iii) fostering the desire and ability of accuracy to a problem at hand (iv) development of accurate, logical and abstract thinking (v) development of ability to recognize problems and solve them with related mathematical knowledge (vi) provision of necessary mathematical background for further education (vii) stimulation and encouragement of creativity (badmus, 1997, pg 56-57) critical analysis of the objectives of learning mathematics point to the actualization of the cardinal objectives as clearly stated in (v) of the ube as stated above. no wonder mathematics is an indispensable subject and is accorded a premium position among school subjects. it is a subject that every student must register and pass, as well as advance to other levels in future. in spite of the premium position occupied by mathematics at the upper basic level of education, there has not been a remarkable improvement in the students’ performance as corroborated by odubunmi (2006) as revealed in table 1 below, it shows the trend of students’ performance in 3 adetunji abiola olaoye _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) nigeria for the west african senior school certificate examination (wassce) before and after the commencement of ube. table 1 students’ performance in mathematics from 1991-2004 in the wassce year number of candidates % of credit pass % of failures 1991 294,079 11.10 88.90 1992 265,491 21.69 78.31 1993 291,755 10.93 89.07 1994 518,118 16.50 83.50 1995 262,273 16.50 83.50 1996 514,342 10.00 90.00 1997 616,923 7.60 92.40 1998 756,080 11.15 88.75 1999 756,080 18.25 81.75 2000 643,371 32.81 67.19 2001 na 36.55 63.44 2002 1,078,961 31.56 68.44 2003 939,506 36.91 63.09 2004 844,525 34.52 65.48 source: west african examination council annual reports in odubunmi (2006) the above dismal performance in a core subject like mathematics as shown above is one of the pointers to non-attainment of quality assurance in the ube in particular and nigerian educational system in general. various research conducted by different scholars indicated some factors that have contributed to this poor student performance in mathematics. according to olaoye (2004) mathematics teachers’ experience in handling the subject with the students was found to exert greater influence on the academic performance of students. it was posited that the more experienced a mathematics teacher was in teaching the course the more they made innovations to make the subject exciting to the learners compared to new entrants into teaching professions. other reasons advanced that explain the lack of quality assurance in mathematics’ learning outcomes included inadequate knowledge of subject matter by the teachers (onocha and okpala, 1995), irrelevant and inadequate instructional facilities (akinlua and popoola, 1998), some topics perceived to be too difficult (oyedeji, 1996) and many more. some of the aforementioned factors indicted mathematics teachers as a cause of non-attainment of quality assurance in the schools’ mathematics as a subject in spite of every successive government spending huge amounts of money to facilitate the teaching and learning of mathematics. however, no one has ever considered the nature of workload and its attributes inclusively, which mathematics teachers are subjected to; especially considering the numbers of students taking the subject in most cases outnumbered all other subjects combined. it is against this background that the present study is designed to examine mathematics teachers’ course period assignments vis-à-vis the students’ performance in mathematics and how it correlates to quality assurance in upper basic education (also referred to as junior secondary school). 4 mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality insurance in upper basic education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) conceptual framework of quality the concept of quality in education is quite relative as everyday use in most cases refers to different interpretations. according oxford dictionary of current english quality is defined as goodness or worth, superior something that is special or that distinguishes a person or thing. corroborating this madugud & guyit (2003) opined that quality could refer to high standard when necessary and sufficient inputs went into the final products for consumption or use, otherwise low quality is achieved when necessary inputs into products are insufficient and thereby not capable of satisfying the needs of the people as required. referring to quality in education one is trying to transform the degree of performance of teachers in satisfying the needs and curiosity of the learners. this is to say that quality of teachers and other infrastructural facilities available determine the standard of the services rendered. in the perception of madugud & guyit (2003) quality in education has three attributes. the first attribute of quality refers to perception of a school inspector when visiting a school in terms of performance in the 3rs, acquisition of givens fact in liberal and science concepts by the students, and assessment of idleness, industriousness, and punctuality to mention a few. from economic and productive angles, quality is seen as the rate of returns to the economy for the investment made in it. the conception being held here is that 100 percent success of students in public examination without any functional satisfaction to them and the society cannot be regarded as quality. by combining these three attributes quality in education is judged by the ways students pass excellently in examination as set by external bodies and at the same time determines the quality of schools and teachers. furthermore, quality is ensured when the educated students are able to satisfy the needs of a given society’s economy and not solely dependent on that society to sustain them. this shows lack of quality in the former upe which produced educated students that were not self-sustained, but found their lot one of scouting around the street for non-existent white collar jobs. the present ube is committed to compulsory education as against the previous voluntary one of upe to address nigeria’s lingering development problems. statement of the problem the study was designed to examine mathematics teachers’ workload vis-à-vis the students’ performance in mathematics and as correlates of quality assurance in upper basic education. specifically, this study sought to answer to the following research questions: rq1: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ genders and learning outcome of students? rq2: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ qualifications and learning outcome of students? rq3: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ subject taught and learning outcome of students? rq4: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ academic workload and learning outcome of students? as a result the following hypotheses were generated for the study at the significant level of 0.05, ho1: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ gender and students’ performance. ho2: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ qualifications and students’ performance. ho3: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ subject taught 5 adetunji abiola olaoye _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) and students’ performance. ho4: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ academic workload and students’ performance. methodology research design the research design for the study was descriptive as the research was not intended to manipulate the independent variables like mathematics teachers’ genders, qualifications, subject(s) taught and workload. rather it tried to assess the influence of these variables on the dependent variable of students’ performance in mathematics at upper basic education levels. population the population for this study involved all the junior secondary schools’ mathematics teachers and their students in ojo and badagry local government areas of lagos state public junior secondary schools with focus on upper basic education level 2 (junior secondary school, form 2). sample and sampling techniques twenty public secondary schools in ojo and badagry local government areas of lagos state were selected based on the available mathematics teachers in all of the upper basic education level 2 (i.e. jss2). meanwhile, a sample of thirty-two mathematics teachers and one thousand two hundred upper basic education level ii students were chosen purposively based on the criteria that these teachers taught these students during their upper basic education level i term. instruments two instruments were used for the study. these included an adapted achievement test in mathematics in line with the settings of national examination council (neco), an examining body which conducts entrance examination for all the unity schools in nigeria. the other instrument was a self-developed instrument for mathematics teachers labelled, “questionnaire for mathematics teachers’ workloads in upper basic education level 2” (questionnaire). it contained mathematics teachers’ bio data and relevant statements to the workload of teachers. validation of instruments the adapted achievement test was given to five mathematics teachers outside the scope of the study to ascertain that it paralleled to the national examinations council (neco) standards and to make necessary corrections. the draft copy was administered to twenty five upper basic level 2 students over a period of three weeks. a final draft was drawn after incorporating all suggestions made by the mathematics teachers involved. this reduced the achievement test items to forty multiple objectives questions from the original fifty questions due to the deletion of ambiguous questions. in a similar manner the draft copy of the mathematics teachers’ questionnaire instrument was given to two experts in language and mathematics to offer constructive criticism to the language pattern and adequate coverage of the study areas. it was later administered on ten mathematics teachers, who were not included in the final selection for the study, to offer constructive criticism to it as a first draft. the final draft of the questionnaire 6 mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality insurance in upper basic education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) was subsequently administered to another set of teachers with comparable attributes, who were not included in the study, to ensure that represented items did not contain double interpretations to the final respondents. reliability of instruments the first draft of the achievement test in mathematics which contained fifty multiple objective questions which students outside the final selected ones responded to resulted in a final draft of forty multiple objective questions were the ambiguous ones were expunged as presented over an interval of three weeks. the pearson moment correlation coefficient of the achievement test was computed and found to be at 0.78; while the final draft of the mathematics teachers’ questionnaire showed reliability coefficient of 0.83. the study considered both instruments as appropriate to stand the test of time. administration of instruments personal contact was made by the researcher to the affected schools to verify that the selected mathematics teachers had taught the affected students since their upper basic level 1 term (jss i). sequential to the school principals’ prior permission, the instruments were administered personally to mathematics teachers who in turn assisted the researcher to administer the achievement test which took one week to complete due to logistic reasons. procedure for data collection direct mode of collection was used in retrieving the instruments from the mathematics teachers, who in turn assisted in collecting the administered achievement test from the students. this was carried out on a specified day by different teachers with all tests collected without exception on that day, time, and location. data scoring and analyses the achievement test was scored at forty points as each right and wrong answers attracted one and zero marks respectively and was coded to identify the mathematics teacher for each test collected to ensure proper alignment. analysis was carried out using simple percentages, pearson correlation, t-test and one way anova. pearson correlation was used to show the extent of relationship between the identified mathematics teachers’ attributes and students’ performance; and anova was used for more than two variables under consideration and students’ performance. findings and discussions table 1 teachers’ gender with corresponding number of students teachers’ genders males females total number of students 560 640 1200 percentages 47 53 100 table 1 showed that 560 students representing 47% were taught mathematics by the male teachers and 640 students representing 53% were taught mathematics by female teachers. this demonstrated that out of thirty two mathematics teachers involved in the study and in spite fewer female teachers, who totalled 14 and represented 44% of the selected teachers compared with 18 7 adetunji abiola olaoye _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) male teachers who represented 56%, the female teachers taught greater percentages of students mathematics. by implication the teaching and learning of mathematics should not be gendered skewed as having an impact on the performance of students. instead all the students should be encouraged to embrace its learning with ease as compared to its compulsory tendency. table 2 teachers’ qualifications with corresponding number of students teachers’ qualifications nce hnd/ pgde b.sc./ pgde b.sc./ed m.sc./ed total number of students 385 230 320 168 97 1200 percentages 32 19 27 14 08 100 table 2 described mathematics teachers’ qualifications along with the numbers of students found in each group taught by them. 385 students representing 32% were taught by the national certificate of education (nce) holders who totalled 12 representing 38% of the teachers, 230 students representing 19% were taught by the higher national diploma (hnd/pgde) holders who totalled 8 representing 25% of the teachers, 320 students representing 27% were taught by the bachelor of science (b.sc/pgde) holders who totalled 4 representing 13% of the teachers, 168 students representing 14% were taught by the bachelor of science in education (b.sc/ed) holders who totalled 5 representing 16% of the teachers, and 97 students representing 8% were taught by the masters of science in education (m.sc/ed) holders who totalled 3 representing 8% of the teachers. this demonstrated that the study took cognizance of teachers’ qualifications as one of the core factors in the determination of assuring the quality delivery of mathematics contents in the school system. by simple indication the highest number of students taught per teacher of mathematics seemed to skew towards the least qualifications holders and the least number of students taught per teacher of mathematics went to the highest qualifications holders, who were also the fewest in number of teachers. it thus seemed that the teachers with higher qualifications had the higher attrition rates or that the lower qualifications holders were yet to obtain the additional qualifications. table 3 teachers’ subject(s) taught per term with corresponding number of students teachers’ subject(s) taught mathematics only mathematics with other(s) total number of students 630 570 1200 percentages 53 48 100 table 3 described subject(s) taught by mathematics teachers in a term along with the numbers of students. for the mathematics alone 15 mathematics teachers representing 47% were found to teach 630 students representing 53%. for mathematics with either science and/or social science subject(s) taught there were 17 teachers representing 53% and they were found to teach 570 students representing 48%. for mathematics teachers to handle more than mathematics alone in the junior secondary school setting with such teeming student populations is an indication that something is quite wrong. especially in light of the additional burden incurred by teachers who cover content areas of mathematics with other subject(s) attached. the implication may be an increase in the practice to teach towards the examination as against the subject-matter and knowledge acquisition to foster better understanding of the subject. 8 mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality insurance in upper basic education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) table 4 teachers’ workload per week with corresponding number of students teachers’ workload 6-12 13-18 18-24 25-30 17-22 23-28 29-34 35-40 total subject (s) taught mathematics only mathematics with other(s) number of students 66 75 81 67 107 237 206 361 1200 percentages 5.5 6.3 6.8 5.6 8.9 19.8 17.2 30.1 100 table 4 described the workload of mathematics teachers in a week along with the numbers of students. those handling mathematics alone (15 teachers) had the least and highest workload of 6 and 30 periods in a week respectively, and total students in these categories numbered 289 represent 24%. on the other hand those handling mathematics with other subject(s) (17 teachers) had the least and highest workload of 17 and 40 periods in a week respectively, and total students in these categories totalled 911 representing 76%. one would see that the numbers of students under those handling mathematics with either science and/or social science was too extreme to bring about meaningful learning outcomes on one hand and not in conformity the international standard ratio of one teacher to thirty students in a classroom. this suggested the need to make mathematics teachers responsible for teaching mathematics only and excuse them from teaching additional subject(s). moreover, it points to an increased attrition rate of leaving the teaching profession to others, where teachers found it too demanding. by implication qualified hands might be lost to other areas of human endeavours, which may turn the education sector to mediocre quality. table 5 academic performance of students in mathematics inte rval perf orm ance 0-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 & above missing total stud ents 440 48 71 54 76 62 64 384 1 1200 perc enta ges 36.7 4.0 5.9 4.5 6.3 5.2 5.3 32.0 0.1 100 table 5 described the academic performance of students in the administered achievement test in mathematics. it found that almost half of the entire student sample (440 students representing 36.7%) had scores between (0-39) percent which is considered as failure based on neco’s criterion standards and the wassce guidelines. though quite appreciable numbers of students (384 students representing 32%) had scores between (70 & above) percent; still quality assurance in education is ascertained as when in most cases failure is so minimal as if at all to exist. by implication more attention needs to be given to other salient factors that might have direct and indirect impact on the academic performance of students in mathematics. as mathematics often 9 adetunji abiola olaoye _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) regarded as the language of technology, the need for improvement is imperative otherwise the pace of national development might take retrogressive form. table 6 relationship between teachers’ gender and students’ performance variations correlation coefficient significant teachers’ gender 0.062 strong relationship achievement of students rq1: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ genders and learning outcome of students? table 6 described the relationship between teachers’ gender and the academic performance of students, and it was found to be positive though with a weak correlation coefficient of 0.062. in other words the academic performance of students in mathematics is influenced by the gender of the mathematics teachers concerned. this confirmed that the quality assurance in the academic performance of students in mathematics without any doubt has gender implications. ho1: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ gender and students’ performance. table 7 t-test of relationship between teachers’ gender and students’ performance variations t-calculated t-ratio df significant teachers’ gender 106.425 1.645 1198 p<0.05* achievement of students * significant table 7 described the t-test relationship between teachers’ gender and the academic performance of students, and it was found significant (t-cal>t-ratio, df = 1198; p<0.05) thereby making the null hypothesis one to be rejected so that there is a significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ gender and students’ performance in mathematics. students taught by male teachers seemed to do better academically than those taught by female teachers. rq2: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ qualifications and learning outcome of students? table 8 relationship between teachers’ qualifications and students’ performance variations correlation coefficient significant teachers’ qualifications 0.06 positive relationship achievement of 10 mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality insurance in upper basic education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) students table 8 described the relationship between teachers’ qualifications and the academic performance of students, and it was found to be positive with a weak correlation coefficient of 0.060. this is to say there is a relationship between the academic performance of students in mathematics and the mathematics teachers’ qualifications, but whether it is significant could not be ascertained for now. as a result, emphasis should be placed on the recruitment and retention of qualified and professional teachers to make the learning of mathematics reach an optimal level of quality assurance. ho2: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ qualifications and students’ performance. table 9 anova of teachers’ qualifications and students’ performance variations sum of squares mean squares df fcalculated f-ratio signific ant between groups 4631.816 1157.954 4 1.082 2.370 p>0.05 within groups 1278053.200 1070.396 1194 total 1282685.016 1198 table 9 described the one way anova of teachers’ qualifications and the academic performance of students, and it was found not significant (f-cal<f-ratio, df={4, 1194}; p>0.05) thereby making the null hypothesis two not rejected so that there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ qualification and students’ performance in mathematics. this confirmed the earlier assumption that the relationship might not be substantiated on a general level in research question two. however, this does not translate that teachers without these qualifications should be allowed to teach mathematics. rq3: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ subject taught and learning outcome of students? table 10 relationship between teachers’ subject(s) taught and students’ performance variations correlation coefficient significant teachers’ subject taught -0.035 negative relationship achievement of students table 10 described the relationship between teachers’ subject(s) taught and the academic performance of students. it was found to have a negative correlation coefficient (-0.035). there is contrast relationship between the academic performance of students in mathematics and the number of subject(s) taught by mathematics teachers. this may not be unconnected to inadequate coverage of contents areas in mathematics as a result of greater responsibility related to covering additional subject(s) on the part of teachers. it also may not be unconnected with the professional qualifications of teachers involved. meanwhile, it may be inferred that a status quo of subject 11 adetunji abiola olaoye _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) specialists’ team teaching in a situation of inadequate numbers or qualifications of mathematics teachers be adopted. ho3: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ subject taught and students’ performance. table 11 t-test of relationship between teachers’ subject(s) taught and students’ performance variations t-calculated t-ratio df significant teachers’ subject(s) taught 102.276 1.645 1198 p<0.05* achievement of students * significant table 11 described the t-test relationship between teachers’ subject(s) taught and the academic performance of students, and it was found significant (t-cal>t-ratio, df = 1198; p<0.05) thereby making null hypothesis three rejected so that there is a significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ subject(s) taught and students’ performance in mathematics. students handled by mathematics teachers who teach mathematics alone performed better than their counterparts who were handled by mathematics teachers that taught mathematics with either science and/or social science subject(s) in schools. by inference team teaching is one option that may be encouraged among mathematics teachers so that those with additional responsibilities may be assisted to concentrate on their primary assignment of disseminating mathematical knowledge. this does not mean that teachers should not perform some administrative work. rq4: what relationship exists between mathematics teachers’ academic workload and learning outcome of students? table 12 relationship between teachers’ workload and students’ performance variations correlation coefficient significant teachers’ workload -0.235 negative relationship achievement of students table 12 described the relationship between teachers’ workload and the academic performance of students and it was found to have a very sharp negative coefficient of -0.235. there is contrast relationship between the academic performance of students in mathematics and mathematics teachers’ workload. this might be connected to improper teaching and inadequate coverage of contents areas in mathematics that emanated from the additional responsibilities of the teachers. meanwhile, it may be suggested that a minimum workload should be assigned to the mathematics teachers in order to ensure a good standard regarding students’ performance. in addition, the coverage of topics may be shared among the available mathematics teachers so that no teacher is overloaded with other assignments than the teaching of mathematics. 12 mathematics teachers’ workloads as a correlation of quality insurance in upper basic education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) ho4: there is no significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ academic workload and students’ performance. table 13 anova of teachers’ workload and students’ performance variations sum of squares mean squares df f-calculated f-ratio significant between groups 89078.571 12725.510 7 12.698 1.94 p<0.05* within groups 1193606.4 1002.188 1191 total 1282685.0 1198 *significant (f {7, ∞} ≈ f {8, ∞}) table 13 described the one way anova of teachers’ workload and the academic performance of students and it was found significant (f-cal>f-ratio, df = {7, 1191}; p<0.05) thereby making null hypothesis four rejected so that there is a significant relationship between mathematics teachers’ workload and students’ performance in mathematics. this showed that the more workload mathematics teachers are given the less quality assurance of students’ performance in the subject. in fact, this study corroborated the findings of ashton & crocker (1987) and sim (1990) that observed at variant that students’ dismal performance could be traced to the number of assigned workload (courses) given to a teacher, stressing the higher the workload (courses) the lower the performance of students. conclusion and recommendation findings have shown that dismal performance of students and attainment of quality of mathematics curriculum depends on quite a number of factors as enumerated above. in view of these it is suggested that the teaching of mathematics should be given additional attention as its unique position in the contemporary period cannot be overemphasized. more qualified and professional hands should be encouraged to engage in teaching mathematics in other to avert the perennial dismal performance of students. furthermore, mathematics teachers’ workload should be such that it allows for adequate content coverage, and thus minimizes teaching towards passing the examination alone. meanwhile, it is recommended that schools implement team teaching of mathematics so that they may pool knowledge of different mathematics topics to maximize students’ understanding. still this (team teaching) should not compromise addressing the need to establish equitable and effective workloads to attain a high standard of quality assurance in mathematics education. references akinlua a.a. & popoola a.a. (1998). evaluation of difficult topics among secondary schools’ mathematics. journal of mathematics association of nigeria, 1, 4-8. ashton p. & crocker l. (1987). systematic study of planning variations: the essential focus on teacher education reform. journal of teacher education, 38, 32-38. 13 adetunji abiola olaoye _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) badmus, g.a. (1997). mathematics education in nigeria. science mathematics and technology education in nigeria: proceedings of the 11 th annual congress of the nigeria academy of education, lagos, 54-65. etim r.e. ( 2003). actualising the vision of ube in nigeria through effective funding. in philosophy of education association of nigeria’s teacher education and ube: annual book of reading (pp. 72), nigeria: saniez publication nigeria ltd. madugud j.e. & guyit r. (2003). preparing teachers for the universal basic education (ube) programme: an examination of the quality of pivotal teacher training programme (pttp). in philosophy of education association of nigeria’s teacher education and ube: annual book of reading, nigeria: saniez publication nigeria ltd. national examination council (2004). senior school certificate examination general mathematics-objective paper i. odubunmi e.o. (2006). science and technology education in nigeria: the euphoria, the frustration and the hopes. 21 st inaugural lecture series. lagos state university, nigeria. olaoye, l.a.a. (2004). an evaluation of the mathematics curriculum of the nigerian certificate in education programme. unpublished phd thesis. university of ibadan, nigeria. onocha c.o. and okpala p.n. (1995). the effects of systematic assessment procedures on students achievement in mathematics and science subjects. unesco-african (a six monthly journal of the dakar unesco regional office in africa), (10), 55-56. oyedeji o.a. (1996). perceived causes of underachievement in mathematics among nigerian secondary school students. journal of educational discussion and researc,h 2(1), 101 106. sim, w.k. (1990). factors associated with job satisfaction in work centrality among singapore teachers. comparative education, 26(2&3), 259-276. computer literacy and secondary school teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state, nigeria michael o. ogundele national teachers institute, nigeria patricia a.o. etejere university of ilorin, nigeria abstract this study investigated the relationship between computer literacy and teacher’s job effectiveness of secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. the study was a correlation survey. stratified random sampling technique was used to select 1800 respondents. the respondents were comprised of 40 principals, 80 vice principals, 120 heads of departments, 120 teachers, and 200 prefects totaling 600 respondents from each of the three senatorial districts in kwara state. five research hypotheses were generated for the study. computer literacy questionnaire (clq) and teacher’s job effectiveness questionnaire (tjeq) were used to collect relevant data. the instruments were validated and the reliability index of .63 and .69 was obtained for the (clq) and (tjeq) respectively. the data obtained were analyzed using pearson product moment correlation statistic and t-test statistics and tested at .05 significance level. the findings revealed that computer literacy encourages appreciation and utilization of computers during teaching learning processes which invariably aid teachers’ job effectiveness, such as job performance, record keeping, school discipline, and supports students’ academic performance. it also revealed that computer literate teachers perform better in the schools than non-computer literate teachers in the schools by making use of computers during their teaching, the use of computers arouse students’ interest in the teachings which supports effective student academic performance. those schools with non-computer literate teachers were never exposed to computers’ usage which detracted from effective teaching and learning in the schools. it was recommended that computer systems be supplied to every school for the teachers and students use by the government, nongovernmental agencies, and philanthropists. also all teachers should be encouraged by the government through provision of in service computer training opportunities. in doing so, teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state secondary schools will improve. keywords: teacher computer literacy, teacher effectiveness, computer literacy 2 computer literacy and secondary school teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) introduction of recent, electronic information systems have shown that they offer great opportunities for teachers and students in various disciplines. the use of electronic information systems enables teachers to access the necessary information on learning instruction materials through the internet. electronic information systems can be defined as the combination of hardware and software used to store the needed information from external and internal sources for more accessible data bases towards the accomplishment of organizational goals. through the use of electronic information systems (eis) necessary information is transmitted widely within the shortest possible time. thus enabling researchers, scholars, and professionals to meet, interact and exchange ideas in the field of education. lawal (2012) noted that, the assumption of the public that students that study computer education, computer science, and computer technology in nigeria tertiary institutions are usually adjusted or well acquainted to the use of electronic information system is not true. this is because there are various electronic information system resources that come on the market as new systems in acquiring knowledge and information with ease. eis in education is generally used to introduce students and teachers to the use and working principles of computer systems that enhance teachers’ job effectiveness in their records keeping and teaching learning processes in the schools. eis in education aids the following: introduction of simulations and games pedagogical strategies, computer based instructions, administrative effectiveness, school discipline, research publications facilities, and effective teaching-learning processes. also, of recent, teachers log into internet websites to access necessary information for research and assignments. computers can be described as scientific machines that are used to perform tasks or calculating according to set instructions or programs. etejere and ogundele (2008) observed that electronic information system enables the teachers, researchers, school administrators, and students to acquire, process, store and disseminate vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by electronic based systems. however, adequate use of electronic information systems in the schools demands effective computer literacy skills and acquisition. computers also work through the interaction of hardware and software. the hardware is part of computer that one can see and touch. the part of computer that helps to translate instructions and performs calculations is called the central processing unit. while software refers to the instructions and programs that tell the computer hardware what to do through the operating system. examples of hardware are monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer etc. computers in education are used in the classroom teaching learning processes through computer aided instruction (cai), computer assisted learning (cal), and e-learning. the uses of computers by the teachers however assist in the curriculum contact delivery. computers in the school system assist in the academic environment to store, display, transmit, and analyze data by the educational researchers. a couple of examples of these uses are helpful. for instance, kpolovie (2006) observed that the use of statistical package for social sciences (spss) software for advanced statistics aids academicians, teachers, administrators, and researchers by overcoming the rigor of manual analysis of primary data. he explained further that the use of computers enables researchers to share and chat among each other through use of internet. also, opue (2003) described the internet as an electronic library (e-library) where vast amounts of information are provided through different sources and displayed. the use of the internet through the computer enables researcher and teachers to access the relevant information needed for 3 michael o. ogundele and patricia a.o. etejere ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) research and teaching they conduct. both these authors strongly stated that meaningful and quality research work proceeds with great difficulty without computer usage. computer literacy is therefore, inevitable for both the teachers and principals, if schools are to be effective and if their academic goals are to be achieved. the nigeria national policy on education (2004) cited the importance of computer literacy in teacher education programs, exposure to changes in the methodologies, curriculum reform, and that innovation in the professions is very important. in addition, it is noted that computer literacy skills enable teachers to implement effective record keeping strategies, and computer assisted instruction and communication. the rationale for this study therefore is to investigate the influence of computer literacy skills as it impacts teachers’ effectiveness in secondary schools, especially in kwara state, nigeria. statement of problem even though computer science and technology is a relatively new phenomenon in nigeria, the use of computers is reflected in many areas of human activities, such as medicine, domestic activities, engineering, architecture, and education. it is imperative to note that the use of computers is reflected in the secondary school programs. however computer science and technology in the educational sector calls for all the stakeholders in education to be computer literate, if the schools are to cope with the challenges in the society. for the schools to be effective, computer literacy should be demonstrated through computer availability, computer utilization, and content competencies in the schools, as well as through teachers’ effectiveness in the areas of record keeping, supporting student academic performance, teachers job performance, school discipline, and community services. this article attempts to assess secondary school teachers’ computer literacy and its relationship to these areas in kwara state. purpose of study the study aimed at examining the influence of computer literacy on teacher’s effectiveness in kwara state. specifically the study in kwara state focused on:  investigating the level of computer literacy skills among secondary schools teachers examining the influence of computer literacy on teachers’ effectiveness.  identifying the specific problems militating against computer literacy skills in secondary schools.  proffering useful suggestions for the amelioration of those problems identified in the interest of enhancing teachers’ computer literacy and effectiveness in the classroom. research hypotheses. the following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study: ho1: there is no significant relationship between computer literacy and teacher’s effectiveness in kwara state secondary schools. ho2: there is no significant relationship between computer appreciation and secondary teacher’s effectiveness in kwara state secondary schools. ho3: there is no significant relationship between computer aided instruction and teachers’ job performance in secondary schools. ho4: there is no significant difference in the job performance of computer literate and noncomputer literate teachers in secondary schools of kwara state. 4 computer literacy and secondary school teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) ho5: there is no significant relationship between computer literacy skills and teachers’ record keeping strategies in secondary school. research method the study is a descriptive survey of correlation types. it made an attempt to investigate the relationship that exists between computer literacy and school effectiveness in kwara state secondary schools. the study also made a comparative study of the school effectiveness variables between computer literate and non-computer literate teachers. a stratified random sampling technique was used to select 20 secondary schools from each of the three senatorial districts in the state. a total number of 60 sampled schools participated in the study. a total of 1800 respondents participated in the study; comprised of principals, vice principals, head of departments, prefects, and core subjects teachers in the senior secondary schools in kwara state. core subject teachers included those in english language, mathematics, biology, economic, and yoruba. a computer literacy questionnaire (clq), a school effectiveness questionnaire (seq), and a students academic performance checklist (sapc) were the instruments used to collect relevant data for the study. content validity of the instruments was assured by the experts with a split-half reliability method used to determine the reliability of each instrument that gave reliability index of .63 and .69 for the clq and seq respectively. the data collected were analyzed using pearson product moment correlation statistics and t-test statistics. all the operational hypotheses were tested at .05 significance level. all analysis of data was subjected to a spss computer analysis. results ho1: there is no significant relationship between computer literacy and teachers’ effectiveness of secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. table 1: computer literacy and teachers’ effectiveness in secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. variable no x sd df calculated r-value critical r-value decision computer 1800 78.31 28.64 ho1 literacy 1799 .66 .195 rejected teacher’s effectiveness 1800 66.53 43.6 above table 1 shows the analysis on the relationship between computer literacy and teachers’ effectiveness of secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. the result however, shows that the calculated r-value of .66 is greater than that critical r-value of .195 at the degree of freedom of 1799 and tested at .05 significance level. hence the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between computer literacy and teachers’ effectiveness of secondary schools in kwara state is rejected. it indicates a high positive significant relationship exists between computer literacy and teachers’ effectiveness in secondary schools. the result is supported by sofoluwe (2007) who pointed out that computer literacy 5 michael o. ogundele and patricia a.o. etejere ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) by teachers will enhance computer aided instruction. that knowledge of computers also aid effective data processing, storing, outputting, and retrieving of information in the schools system. further that computer literacy relieves teachers of the stress of manual operations of data processing. in addition it indicates that computer literacy will aid the teachers during teaching-learning processes, and thus enhance teacher’s effectiveness in the schools. again the findings were supported by fasiku (2007) who observed that knowledge of computers would aid effective management of information systems in the schools and it would aid effective decision-making processes which eventually make administration of schools effective. ho2: there is no significant relationship between computer appreciation and teachers’ effectiveness in secondary schools of kwara state, nigeria. table2: computer appreciation and teachers’ effectiveness in secondary schools of kwara state, nigeria. variable no x sd df calculated r-value critical r-value decision computer 1800 62.4 58.3 ho2 appreciation 1799 .63 .195 rejected teacher’s effectiveness 1800 66.53 43.6 p>.05 table 2 above shows the result of the relationship between computer appreciation and teachers’ effectiveness in secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. from the analysis made therefore, the table shows that the calculated r-value of .63 is greater than the critical r-value of .195 at the degree of freedom of 1799 and tested at .05 significance level. hence the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between computer appreciation and teachers’ effectiveness in kwara state secondary schools is however rejected. it indicates that computer appreciation by the teachers aids effectiveness in their jobs. the result is in line with the opinion of lawal (2011) who stated the need for computer appreciation in the schools. according to lawal, when teachers appreciate the use of computers in the schools, the work becomes easier for them. the records, various data and analysis of various issues through computer use become easily appreciated. it is therefore necessary for the teachers to appreciate computer use in their work in order to enhance teacher effectiveness in their jobs. ho3: there is no significant relationship between computer aided instruction (cai) and teachers’ effectiveness of secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria table 3: computer aided instruction and teachers’ job performance of secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. variable no x sd df calculated r-value critical r-value decision 6 computer literacy and secondary school teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) computer 1800 62.44 58.32 ho3 aided instruction 1799 .68 .196 teacher’s job rejected performance 1800 55.32 38.61 table 3 above shows the relationship between computer aided instruction and teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. the result of the analysis indicates that the calculated r-value of .68 is greater than the critical r-value of .196 at the degree of freedom of 1799 and tested at .05 significance level. hence the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between computer aided instruction and teacher job performance is rejected. it indicates that computer aided instruction makes use of the computer as a medium of instruction for tutorial, drills and practices, simulation or games which aid effective teaching – learning processes. the result is in line with the findings of alabi (2011) who pointed out that computer assisted instruction helps to open up a greater number of training topics that are required for job advancement. computer assisted instruction also provides technological skills for effective teaching – learning processes. based on these findings, therefore effective teacher job performance is enhanced by providing necessary computer assisted instructional programs in the secondary schools. ho4: there is no significant relationship between computer literacy skills and teachers’ record keeping strategies of secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. table 4: computer literacy skills and teachers’ record keeping strategies in secondary schools kwara state, nigeria. variable no x sd df calculated r-value critical r-value decision computer 1800 72.53 28.64 ho4 literate 1799 .62 .196 rejected record keeping 1800 56.36 40.22 strategies p>.05 table 4 above shows the relationship that exists between computer literacy skills and teachers’ records keeping strategies in secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. the result of the analysis indicates that the calculated r-value of .62 is greater than the critical r-value of .196 at the degree of freedom of 1799 and tested at .05 significance level. hence the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between computer literacy skills and teachers’ record keeping strategies in secondary schools of kwara state, nigeria is rejected. it also indicates that a high positive significant relationship exists between computer literacy skills and record keeping strategies in secondary schools. the result is in line with the opinion of ameh (2002) who stated that the knowledge of computer operational and technical skills enables the teachers to have accurate student data on student enrolments, progression 7 michael o. ogundele and patricia a.o. etejere ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) and results, school events, and other statutory and non-statutory records that may be needed for quick decision making in the schools with easy availability. ho5: there is no significant difference between job effectiveness of computer literate and non-computer literate teachers in secondary schools of kwara state, nigeria. table 5: job effectiveness of computer literate and non-computer literate teachers in secondary schools of kwara state, nigeria. variable no x sd df calculated t-value critical t-value decision computer 800 72.53 46.8 ho5 literate 1798 .56 .349 rejected non-computer 1000 66.51 40.3 literate table 5 above shows significant differences in the level of job effectiveness of computer literate teachers and non-computer literate teachers. the above indicates that the calculated – t-value of .56 is greater than the critical t-value of .349 at the degree of freedom of 1798 and tested at .05 significance level. hence, the null hypotheses which stated that there is no significant difference between job effectiveness of computer literacy and non-computer literacy teachers in secondary schools of kwara state is rejected. the findings of this study indicate that a high significant difference exists between job performance of teachers that are computer literate and those that are non-computer literate. the study is supported by alabi (2011) and lawal (2012) who indicate that computer literacy aids computer appreciation, computer assisted instruction, data processing, and record keeping strategies in the schools. the authors also agreed that computer knowledge brings effective gathering, processing, storing and retrieval of necessary data in the schools. the use of computers relieves computer literate teachers of the stress of manual operations of data collection in the schools. the authors agreed that most of teachers that are not computer literate are found keeping large files, resorting to manual calculations and arrangement of data (e.g. students’ academic scores, curriculum sets, school population), and maintain traditional communication methods (e.g. chalk board, talk or lecture methods). most of the non-computer literate teachers could not complement the use of computer aided instruction, such as powerpoint presentations, interconnectivity, drills games and simulations, and other computer aided teaching and learning processes. in view of the findings that computer aided teachers’ job effectiveness makes work easier and educational goal achievement more attainable; etejere and ogundele (2008) also agreed that effective utilization of computers in the schools bring about school discipline, effective teacher job performance, curriculum delivery, and research and publication. therefore teachers’ jobs and principals’ administration become easier. conclusion based on the analysis of the data collected it may be concluded that there is a high positive significant relationship between computer literacy skills and teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state secondary schools. the computer literacy skills, such as word processing, data processing, excel, powerpoint, and interconnectivity operations, have significant impact on 8 computer literacy and secondary school teachers’ job effectiveness in kwara state ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) teacher job effectiveness, including areas such as, record keeping strategies, student academic performance, teachers’ job performance, school discipline, and community services in secondary schools of kwara state. it is also concluded that there is a significant difference in the job effectiveness of the teachers that are computer literate and those that are not computer literate in secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are presented. recommended installation of computer facilities in the science laboratories of secondary schools. the nigerian government should install computer systems in the schools for both the teachers and the students use in the interest of enhancing teachers’ effective in the classroom. compulsory computer education for the secondary school teachers in kwara state. kwara state government should mandate that secondary school teachers attend computer training. in service training opportunities should be given to the teachers in order to encourage teacher computer appreciation, effectiveness; and to enhance teacher job performance in secondary schools in kwara state. supply different types of computer systems to secondary school teachers. the secondary school teachers should be provided individual computers, like desktop, laptop, pagers, and palmtop and supplied with interconnectivity, so that they are used during teaching and learning processes in the schools to enhance teacher job performance and student academic performance. the principals should be provided different types of computer accessories for the schools for teacher and student use. these accessories, such as modems, pagers, fax, cd-rom, electronic media, and other accessories should be accessible to the teachers and the student to enhance teacher job effectiveness and student academic performance in the secondary schools. computer literacy skills should be encouraged through compensation. extrinsic motivation such as promotion, reward, award, praises, etc. to encourage non-computer literate teachers to become computer literate should be implemented to aid teacher development and job effectiveness in the schools. finally, education resource centers should be established in every local government. these should be equipped with internet devices, e-library, and statistical package for social sciences (spss) where stakeholders in education can interact and acquire and improve computer knowledge on a regular basis. references alabi, o. (2011). computer aided instruction and administrative effectiveness of secondary schools in kwara state. unpublished paper. pgde project national teachers institute at kaduna. ameh, s.a. (2002). managing information and communication technology for nigerian distance education. international journal of education, 5(10), 25-35. 9 michael o. ogundele and patricia a.o. etejere ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) etejere, p.a.o. & ogundele, m.o. (2008). information and communication technology and administrative effectiveness of nigerian distance education. journal of national association of educational administration and planning, 8(2), 135-144. fashiku, c.o. (2007). management of information system, decision making process and academic goal achievement of kwara state tertiary institutions. unpublished ph.d. thesis, university of ilorin. federal republic of nigeria (2004). national policy on education. abuja: nerdc. kpolovie, s.a. (2006). information communication technology and schools administrative effectiveness. journal of education and sociology, 10(3), 58-66. lawal m.k. (2012). electronic information system and administrative effectiveness of federal polytechnics in the south-west, nigeria. unpublished paper. pgde project, national teachers institute at kaduna. opie, j.o. (2003). computer aided instruction and teaching-learning processes in secondary schools. journal of education and sociology, 10(3) 74-88. sofoluwe, s.a. (2007). information and communication technology and administrative effectiveness of nigeria universities. international journal of educational management, 2(3), 43-56. determinants of pre-school teachers’ attitudes towards 1 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching florence kinuthia kenyatta university, kenya donald kombo kenyatta university, kenya maureen mweru kenyatta university, kenya abstract this study sought to investigate determinants of pre-school teachers’ attitudes towards teaching in thika municipality, kenya. the concern to stakeholders was the negative attitudes of the preschool teachers towards teaching. such a concern called for investigation. to accomplish this task, a descriptive survey design and ex-post facto design were used. a total of 53 pre-school teachers and 12 administrators participated in the study. a simple random technique and purposive sampling were employed to identify study samples. in addition, questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data. the statistical procedures were carried out using the statistical package for social sciences (spss). qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed in order to analyse the obtained data. the study revealed there were still low levels of training among pre-school teachers, teachers with few years of teaching experience were the ones involved in teaching in the pre-schools and teachers in public pre-schools were more positive towards their job than their colleagues in private schools. among the recommendations were that pre-school teachers work under the ministry of education and an attempt be made to improve the retention level of teachers. administrators should also work on modalities of motivating their teachers. keywords: preschool teacher attitudes, teacher attitudes, kenya education, kenya preschool, kenya early childhood education, preschools, teachers attitudes and determinants. 2 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) introduction this paper presents the findings of a research study carried out in thika, kenya to find out the determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching young children. in the paper the term preschool refers to institutions that care for and provide education for young children up to the age of six years. such facilities are also referred to as nursery schools, kindergartens, day care centres, crèches, pre-primary school units, and montessori schools. the term attitude refers to the opinions or feelings the teachers have towards teaching. this was shown in their responses to questions in the questionnaire. the word determinant means factors that influence a teacher’s attitude towards teaching. background to the study preschool teachers’ attitudes and practices are a widely discussed subject. the subject has been examined from different perspectives, such as, economic, social, educational, psychological, and in early childhood studies. for example, one of the studies reviewed, ndegwa (2004) examined preschool teachers’ attitudes towards child-centred and teacher-centred teaching methods. she found that pre-school teachers preferred to use teacher-centred approaches. this paper particularly looks at the variables of professional training and the teacher’s attitude, as well as the teacher’s teaching experience and the teacher’s attitude. in studying attitudes, it was necessary to examine the entry requirements for teachers at this level. requirements for preschool teachers vary the world over, some are high and require professional training, but others are low in comparison. in the usa, a high school diploma is all a person needs to teach in a licensed child-care centre. however, most preschools are not required to hire teachers who meet even the most basic professional requirement (barnett, 2004). it is the american national goal to raise preschool or early childhood teacher’s qualifications with emphasis on college degrees; the initial goal was that by 2008, fifty percent of these teachers should be holders of a degree. in new york, the target set is that these teachers should complete a masters degree after five years of employment (whitebook, 2003). in france, preschool teachers are required to have at least a basic degree to enter the profession. this is followed by two years of further professional training. this makes a total of five years at the university level. these requirements are the equivalent of a master’s degree and are among the highest in the developed world (barnett, 2004; kaga, 2007). japan similarly upholds high standards for pre-school teachers. it requires that the teachers have a bachelor’s degree as a minimum requirement. teachers also need to be licensed by the different boards of education in the country. this is issued after the teacher sit for examinations. in kenya, teachers’ qualifications are low (koech, 2003). the ministry of education requires in its guidelines that pre-school teachers hold at a minimum a kenya certificate of primary education grade d plus be at least 18 years old and acceptable in the community (ice, 2001). in the new national early childhood development policy framework, these requirements were not revised (republic of kenya, 2006). comparing the kenyan situation to the other countries above, shows that, while the others are pursuing professionalism by seeking to push the entry requirements higher, kenya continues to maintain low requirements. this is important to note because the level of professionalism influences teachers’ attitudes. the absence of high entry requirements maybe related to the observed teachers’ negative attitudes towards teaching. 3 florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) it was also necessary to investigate teachers’ level of training because training helps to shape preschool teachers’ attitudes and relates to the quality of services delivered (barnett, 2004). previous studies reveal that the presence of degree level education and sub-specialization leads to better outcomes for young children (barnett, 2004; bowman, donovan & burns, 2001; howes & brown, 2002). in kenya, between sixty and seventy percent of preschool teachers are trained or are undergoing training (koech, 2003). however, this is low level training with a majority attaining certificates and diplomas. at the higher levels of bachelors and masters degrees, the numbers are few. therefore, outcomes for the young children remain wanting; the quality of service delivered remains low and many children’s needs are not adequately met. previous studies in kenya show this position to be true. according to gakii (2003) only one-half (50%) of the teachers in her study had positive relationships with the children in their classroom. whereas some teachers were warm, nurturing, positive, and enthusiastic; others were shorttempered, harsh, and rebuking as cited in koech, 2003. this report further stated that teachers did not appear to want the children to come close, but wanted to hurry them through the lessons. when their introduction in lessons on concepts or skills to be learned were inadequate, the children became confused or stopped paying attention, while the teachers on their part became harsh. the research was carried out in thika municipality. there are 105 preschools and 240 preschool teachers. the number of these preschools is high compared to the size of the town. some of the preschools open and then grow to be big schools, while others fail and close down. this in itself presented an issue that required investigation. could the opening and closing down of schools be linked to the teachers’ attitudes and how they handle children? statement of the problem whereas the expectation of the government, stakeholders and parents is that preschool teachers should have a positive attitude towards teaching, this is not the case in kenya. assuming that they are in this career by choice, they have taken time to train because they like it and therefore enjoy teaching small children. this expectation is at variance with reality. some of the preschool teachers do not take their work seriously. this is reflected in the manner in which they handle and teach the pupils. there is a history of complaints from different sources concerning preschool teachers’ negative attitudes (branyon, 2002; gakuru & koech, 1995; koech, 2003).these negative attitudes are reflected, for instance, in their disregard for government prescribed teaching methods as many teachers are not positive to what government and parents want. while the government recommends use of child-centered approaches, most teachers prefer to use teacher-centred approaches (branyon, 2002; ndegwa, 2004; ng’asike, 2004). the teachers also tend to use lower primary textbooks to teach (ng’asike, 2004) in disregard to government instructions. these issues indicate that all is not well. parents too have viewed teachers’ attitudes towards their children to be wanting. some of the complaints touch on the teachers’ behaviour and reactions towards the children. observations show that some teachers are harsh; they beat the children and in some cases injure them. children also get a lot of homework that takes most of the evening time to complete, leaving the children with in adequate time to rest. this approach to handling children reveals a lot of indifference on the part of the teachers. it is contrary to the expectations at this level of schooling where the teachers are supposed to be warm, caring, and nurturing. consequently, it has been noted that, these kinds of experiences that children are going through in preschools make them 4 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) unable to cope well at the primary school level (branyon, 2002; gakii, 2003; koech, 2003; ng’asike, 2004). experts in early childhood studies complain that preschools are no longer healthy places for children. this is because there is a lot of emphasis on pre-primary education. children are required to acquire specific learning skills, such as reading, writing, and counting. they are expected to prepare for examinations to gain entry to class one. children are also taught advanced concepts (kaga, 2007; koech, 2003; ndegwa, 2005; ngasike, 2004).these complaints indicate that there is a problem with the preschool teachers’ attitudes toward suitable teaching methods. if their attitudes were positive, then the cited complaints would not arise. hence the need for this study, to find out what determines the teachers’ attitudes towards teaching, so as to redress this worrisome situation and to aid in developing teachers that hold positive attitudes towards preparing children for schooling at this basic level. objectives of the study the general objective of the study therefore, was to find out what determines preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching. specifically, the study’s objectives were to investigate the relationship between the following: 1. training and preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching and, 2. experience and preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching. conceptual framework in the conceptual framework, the researcher postulated that teachers’ attitudes towards teaching were influenced or dictated by external factors, whether positive or negative towards their profession and pupils. fig.1:1 shows what the researcher stipulated in the conceptual framework. 5 florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) figure 1.1: conceptual framework methodology as far as methodology is concerned the study adopted two research designs, a descriptive survey design and ex-post facto design. according to kombo and tromp, 2006 a descriptive survey is a description of the state of affairs as it exists. philip, 1985 also indicates that it is a procedure for systematically collecting information from people in the field by obtaining their responses to motivation  salaries  welfare significant others  head teachers  parents  colleagues type of school  public  private gender  male  female training levels  degree  diploma  certificate  untrained teachers’ experience retraining supervision higher motivation re-socializing corrective measures teachers’ attitudes towards teaching positive negative 6 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) questions using the questionnaire, interviews, and observations as instruments for data collection. this method can be used when collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, habits on any of a variety of education or social issues (orodho & kombo, 2002). the aim of the survey is to obtain information from widely scattered respondents, which can be analyzed, patterns extracted from it, and comparisons made (bell, 1993). the descriptive survey therefore fitted well in what the researcher wanted to find out given the circumstances under which they were working. at the end of the process, the researcher reported the findings (kombo & tromp, 2006). according to macmillan and schummacher (1989), the ex-post facto design is used to explore possible relationships among variables that cannot be manipulated by the researcher. the reason for this is that the events have already taken place. the design helped to investigate and establish the nature of relationship among the stated variables. that is training and teachers’ attitudes towards teaching, as well as experience and teachers’ attitudes towards teaching. however, the design had some limitations. according to kerlinger (1973), the design lacks control. it is not possible to manipulate the independent variables and the researcher risks improper interpretation of results. this study therefore employed both the descriptive survey design and ex-post facto design as described by the scholars referred to in this section. sample size in selecting a sample, the researcher referred to (fraenkel & wallen, 2000) who define a “sample” in a research study as any group on which information is obtained. sampling refers to the process of selecting individuals who will participate (be observed or questioned) as part of the study. the sampling techniques that were employed are described in the section below. sampling techniques in this research simple random and purposive sampling techniques were used. a simple random sample is one in which each and every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected (fraenkel & wallen, 2000). it is the most desirable kind for almost every survey and is extremely important to the reliability and validity of the data. it is the best because it is most representative of the entire population (alreck & settle, 1995). this technique was used to select twelve out of the 105 preschools in the municipality. names of the preschools were written on pieces of paper. the papers were then folded and shuffled in four separate bowls. these were categorized into private-big, private-small, public-big, and public-small schools. the researcher then drew out three names from each bowl to form a total of twelve preschools to be studied. the sampled schools constituted 10% of the total population. as gay (1992) explains, a minimum of 10% of the target population is enough for descriptive surveys. purposive sampling technique was used to select twelve administrators of the twelve preschools sampled in the study. the technique was also used to select all preschool teachers in the selected preschools. fifty-three preschool teachers were therefore included in this study. the researcher hoped that they would be willing to provide the data required. therefore, all the preschool teachers in the sampled schools formed a study sample. data collection techniques as far as this study is concerned the researcher obtained a research permit from the ministry of education to conduct research in thika municipality. she also got approval from the thika 7 florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) municipal education office to research in the preschools within the municipality. thereafter, the researcher sought permission from the administrators to administer the questionnaires to both the school administrators as well as the teachers. further to this, the administrators were interviewed. the researcher followed the following steps: over lunch hour, questionnaires were administered to teachers. in the afternoon, administrators filled in questionnaires. then the researcher conducted interviews with twelve administrators and some selected teachers. fifty-three preschool teachers filled in the questionnaire and twelve were interviewed. twelve administrators filled in the questionnaire and were also interviewed. data analysis in this study data analysis procedures involved both qualitative and quantitative procedures. in qualitative data analysis, information collected was transcribed into written texts by combining the notes taken. these were then organized by using various thematic categories in the data, which were distinct from each other. in quantitative analysis, the data were grouped according to the research questions and analyzed through percentages and frequencies. study findings the background information on the participants of the study show that 71% of teachers were trained, while 23% were undergoing training, and a small percentage (6%) were not trained. some teachers (9%) did not indicate their level of training as fig 1:2 shows. training and teachers’ attitudes towards teaching in thika municipality 71% 6% 23% yes no undergoing training figure 1:2 preschool teachers training status. another finding on the background information of the teachers showed that a high percent, 66% of the teachers had been trained at the certificate level, 15% were at the diploma level, and only 4% were at the degree level. the findings therefore, reflect low level training among the teachers in thika municipality and they concur with the studies by koech (2003) and wawire (2006). as fig 1:3 shows. 8 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) 66% 15% 4% 9% 6% certificate diploma degree untrained no response figure 1:3 preschool teachers’ highest level of training these findings were influenced by other factors as follows: the study found that administrators preferred to hire teachers with low level training, such as diplomas or certificates. the main reasons cited for this choice was that degree holders demanded higher salaries. it was also difficult to retain them for long because when they got better jobs they moved on. many of the respondents indicated that they were hindered from advancing their training by lack of finances. it also appeared that if they acquired high levels of training that attracted higher pay, it might be difficult to get appropriate jobs because administrators were still not ready to pay higher salaries for teachers at this point. during the data analysis as indicated in appendix 1, the relationship based on the calculated x 2 value of 1.17and the critical x 2 value of 12.59 was not significant at 0.05 level of significance. based on that analysis, the null hypothesis which stated that, there is no significant relationship between the professional training of preschool teachers and their attitudes towards teaching was accepted. the study therefore concluded that professional training does not significantly determine preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching in thika municipality. in this study the number of years that teacher taught in a pre-school was also investigated. it was found that this had an influence on the teachers’ attitude towards teaching and towards the pupils. following is fig1:4 which showed the number of years preschool teachers had spent teaching. 28% 40% 13% 15% 4% 1-3 yrs 4-6 yrs 1yrs 10 above no response 9 florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) figure1: 4 number of years preschool teachers spent teaching. as fig 1:4 shows 68% of the teachers had experience ranging from one to six years. another 15% had 10 years and above experience, while 13% had less than one year experience. some teachers (4%) did not indicate their number of years of teaching experience. the findings of this study indicated that thika municipality had a high percentage of preschool teachers with only a few years of experience. these were the ones actively teaching in the preschools. on the question of experience versus attitude, this study assumed that the number of years preschool teachers spent teaching was an indication of what experience the teacher had. relating the number of years a teacher taught to the attitude of the teachers, findings showed that experience influenced teachers either positively or negatively. on the positive side, experience meant that teachers acquired better teaching methods and were more at ease working with the children. on the negative part, experience meant that the teachers became complacent in their work. long-serving teachers according to the administrators were hard to supervise because they felt they knew more than them, therefore did not want to be corrected by their seniors. this information was put to a statistical analysis and appendix 2 shows that the relationship based on the calculated x 2 value of 4.74 and the critical x 2 value of 12.59 was not significant at 0.05 level of significance. based on this analysis, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between preschool teachers’ teaching experience and their attitude towards teaching was accepted. this further strengthened the position that experience is not a good indicator of attitudes. presence of experience could either evoke positive or negative attitudes in the teachers. recommendations based on the study results, it was recommended to the ministry of education that: registration of preschool teachers under the teachers service commission should be strengthened. the teachers need to be recognized as part of the national teaching workforce in the country. preferably preschool teachers need to be under the ministry of education. preschool teachers with high qualifications like degrees should be hired by the government. they should be paid well like other graduates. they also should then be deployed to head the preschools. preschools should also have head teachers that are specifically trained in that field. the ministry of education needs to help reduce the turnover rate. improved retention levels would enhance stability at the preschool level. it was also recommended to kenya’s national centre for early childhood education (nacece) that it should come up with refresher courses for preschool teachers in the area of attitudes. many of the teachers did not seem to understand well what attitudes are and how these attitudes impact on their performance. 10 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) appendix 1 t a b le 4 :5 a n a ly si s of t ea ch er s’ a tt it u d es t o w a rd s te a ch in g b y p ro fe ss io n a l tr a in in g h ig h e s t p r o f e s s io n a l q u a l if ic a t io n c e r t if ic a t e d ip l o m a d e g r e e u n t r a in e d t o t a l a t t it u d e t o w a r d s p o s it iv e t e a c h in g n e u t r a l n /a 30 69 .8 % * 62 .5 % ** 3 75 .0 % * 6. 3% ** 1 10 0. 0% * 2. 1% * * 7 16 .3 % * 14 .6 % * * 1 25 .0 % * 2. 1% * * 2 4. 7% * 4. 2% * * 4 9. 3% * 8. 3% * * 43 10 0. 0% * 89 .6 % * * 4 10 0. 0% * 8. 3% * * 1 10 0. 0% * 2. 1% ** t o t a l 34 70 .8 % * 70 .8 % * * 8 16 .7 % * 16 .7 % * * 2 4. 2% * 4. 2% * * 4 8. 3% * 8. 3% * * 48 10 0. 0% * 10 0. 0% * * c al cu la te x 2 = 1 .1 7 c ri ti ca l x 2 = 1 2. 59 df = 6 s ig ni fi ca nt l ev el o f 0. 05 * c ol um n pe rc en t ** r ow p er ce nt 11 florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) appendix 2 t a b le 4 .9 a n a ly si s o f te a c h e r ’s a tt it u d e t o w a r d s te a c h in g b y t e a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e . p e r io d y o u h a v e b e e n t e a c h in g l e s s 1 y e a r 2 – 3 .5 y e a r s 3 .6 -4 .5 y e a r s 5 + y e a r s t o t a l a t t it u d e t o w a r d s p o s it iv e t e a c h in g n e u t r a l n /a 1 1 2 4 .4 % * 2 2 .0 % * * 1 3 2 8 .9 % * 2 6 .0 * * 1 2 5 .0 % * 2 .0 % * * 1 1 0 0 .0 % * 2 .0 % * * 3 6 .7 % * 6 .0 * * 1 8 4 0 .0 % * 3 6 .0 * * 3 7 5 .0 % * 6 .0 % * * 4 5 1 0 0 .0 % * 9 0 .0 % * * 4 1 0 0 .0 % * 8 .0 % * * 1 1 0 0 .0 % * 2 .0 % * * t o t a l 1 1 2 2 .0 % * 2 2 .0 % * * 1 5 3 0 .0 % * 3 0 .0 % * * 3 6 .0 % * 6 .0 % * * 2 1 4 2 .0 % * 4 2 .0 % * * 5 0 1 0 0 .0 % * 1 0 0 .0 % * * c a lc u la te d x 2 = 4 .7 4 c ri ti c a l x 2 = 1 2 .5 9 d f = 6 s ig n if ic a n c e l e v e l o f 0 .0 5 * c o lu m n p e rc e n t * * r o w p e rc e n t 12 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) references alreck, p. l. and settle r. b. 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(2000). how to design and evaluate research in education. london: mcgraw hill. gakii, c.m. (2003). preschool teachers factors that influence the teacher-child relationship in miriga-mieru divisions, meru central district, kenya. unpublished .med thesis, kenyatta university. gakuru, o. n. and koech, b.g. (1995). the experiences of the young children: a contextualized case study of early childhood care and education in kenya. unpublished research report. kenya. gay, l.r. (1992). educational research competencies for analysis and application (4 th ed.). new york, ny: macmillan publishing company. howes, c., andbrown. (2002). improving childcare quality: a guide for position 10 commissions. los angeles: uncla centre for healthier children, families and communities. international conference on education (ice). (2001). national report on the development of education in kenya. nairobi: ministry of education, science & technology. retrieved from: http//www.ibe.unesco.org/interntional/ice/natrap/kenya. 13 florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) kaga, y. (2007). the training and working conditions of pre-school teachers in france. retrieved from: http://www. unesco. org / education / early –childhood / brief. kerlinger, f. n. (1973). foundations of behavioral research. new york, ny: holt rhinehart and winston inc. koech, b. (2003). new emerging category of young children at developmental risk in kenya. unpublished paper: kenyatta university. kombo, d. k. and tromp, d. l. a. (2006). proposal and thesis writing: an introduction. nairobi: pauline’s publications africa. macmillan, j. and schumacher, s. (1989). research in education: a conceptual introduction (2 nd ed.). london: scott foresman and company. makoti, n. (2005). terms and conditions of service and their relationship to motivation of preschool teachers in kwale district. unpublished m.ed thesis: kenyatta university. kenya. mumo, d.k. (1999). job satisfaction of tutors in technical institutes in nairobi province. unpublished m.ed thesis: kenyatta university. ndegwa, m. (2004). factors influencing pre-school teachers’ attitudes towards child-centred and teacher-centred teaching methods in nairobi, kenya. unpublished m.ed thesis: kenyatta university. ng’asike, j. (2004). teachers’ use of play as a medium of bridging pre-school children’s mathematic experiences: a case study of kasarani division, nairobi. unpublished m.ed. thesis: kenyatta university. omwenga, k.c. (1992). a study of the attitude of pre-school teachers and standard eight children toward basic prevocational skills in lang’ata division, nairobi. unpublished m.ed thesis, kenyatta university. orodho, a. j. and kombo, d. k. (2002). research methods. nairobi, kenyatta university: institute of open learning. phillips, b. (1985). sociological research methods: an introduction (the dorsey series in sociology). london: the dorsey press. republic of kenya (2002). thika district development plan 2002-2008. nairobi: government printers. republic of kenya. (2006). early childhood development service standard guideline for kenya. nairobi: government printers. 14 determinants of preschool teachers’ attitudes towards teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) waithaka, e.n. (2003). the level of job satisfaction of preschool teachers in thika municipality. unpublished m.ed. thesis, kenyatta university. wawire, v.k. (2006). factors that influence the quality and relevance of early childhood education in kenya: multiple case studies of nairobi and machakos districts. unpublished phd dissertation, kenyatta university, kenya. whitebook, m. (2003). early education quality: higher teacher qualifications for better learning environments: a review of the literature. berkeley: university of california. an implicit analysis of the prevalence of test anxiety among preservice teachers eric anane durham university, united kingdom abstract this unique study, which was carried out in an area that seemed under researched, explored the relationship between the sources and manifestations of anxiety and the general test anxiety among preservice teachers. data was collected from 100 female preservice teachers in a college of education in ghana by using an adapted version of the test anxiety inventory (tai) developed by spielberger and vagg. a key finding is that external factors such how others (e.g. parents and tutors) perceive preservice teachers when they perform poorly tend to be the major source of trainees’ test anxiety. this brings to bare the sources of general test anxiety among preservice teachers in the study, which is an illumination on what literature seems to suggest that students who experience test anxiety tend to be the type of people who put a lot of pressure on themselves to perform well. the findings suggest that the status of the test and how high the stakes are for a test the more likely that preservice teachers will experience increased test anxiety. keywords: implicit, pre-service teachers, test anxiety, high-stakes tests. introduction in 2004, the ministry of education, ghana, reformed teacher education and changed its status from second cycle to tertiary by introducing diploma in basic education courses in colleges of education. the introduction of the diploma in basic education and its accompanying end-ofsemester examinations for an initial teacher certification was met by varied reactions from preservice teachers. many were wondering about the form and nature of the programs to be offered and others were skeptical as to the nature of the end-of-semester examination that was introduced. the new assessment is different from the teachers’ certificate ‘a’ examinations that were administered twice over a three-year span. with the end-of-semester system examination, 2 an implicit analysis of the prevalence of test anxiety among preservice teachers _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) students are expected to write at least five externally organized examinations from the institute of education, university of cape coast, which is the awarding body. the new examinations have a high-stake characteristic because of the decisions that emanate from the results (anane, 2010; wilson, 2007). they are used as the major determinant of a student’s progress to the next stage of preservice training (the second year) of the three-year training. above all, scores from end-of-semester-examinations, students’ scores from teaching practice, and scores from project works are used to determine their cumulative grade point averages (cgpa), which in turn helps in determining their classifications and hence, the awards of their diploma certificates. these certificates serve two main purposes: one as an academic award which could be used by the awardees to seek admission for training for a higher degree (usually a bachelor’s degree in education) and two, as a sole determinant of professional qualification, which allows preservice teachers to secure teachers’ numbers to make them professional teachers. in the light of these, until the preservice teacher passes all of his/her papers, he/she remains a ‘pupil’ teacher and will continue to receive training allowance as salary until the time she/he is able to redeem the failed paper(s). the examination, therefore, fits in zollar and ben-chain’s (1990) description that we are we living in a test-conscious age in which the lives of many people are not only greatly influenced, but are also determined by their test performance. therefore, the uses of the end-of-semester examination results and its inherent implications appear to have placed a huge responsibility on the student. as rana and mahmood (2010) put it, tests and examinations at all stages of education, especially at higher education levels have been considered an important and powerful tool for decision making in our competitive society, with people of all ages being evaluated with respect to their achievements, skills and abilities; such tests and examinations come with it, stress, which is thought to prevent some individuals from reaching their academic potential. as a result of the antecedents and the consequences of the teacher trainee examinations, it is likely to evoke and perpetuate anxiety, pressure and caution, as the stakes get higher and higher; students are constantly prompted to do better to avoid the possibility of failure and disappointment (pekrun, elliot & maier, 2009). there is therefore the need to explore the sources of test anxiety and how these sources relate to general test anxiety among preservice teachers. sources of test anxiety the construct of test anxiety has been used for well over four decades to describe the behavior and emotions of students who consider preparing for and taking tests stressful (elliot, kratochwill, cook & travers 2002). test anxiety is defined as the predisposition to respond with concern, trepidation, and physiological arousal to situations in which one’s knowledge is being formally evaluated (spielberger & vagg, 1995). test anxiety is one form of performance anxiety. in situations where the pressure is on students, implicitly or explicitly to put up their optimal best, and where a good performance counts for future opportunities, students can become so anxious that they are actually unable to do their best. test anxiety also seems to bring about symptomatic bodily reactions. studies on test anxiety (lowe & ang, 2012; keith, hodapp, schermelleh-engel, & moosbrugger, 2003; beidel, 1998) have named this aspect of test anxiety as physiological hyperarousal. beidel (1998) contends that, in test anxiety, physiological hyperarousal produces physical symptoms such as sweaty palms, increased heart rate, or shallow and rapid breathing when an individual prepares for and 3 eric anane _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) takes a test. researchers (e.g., stöber, 2004; zeidner, 1998) have stated that the test anxiety construct is complex, consisting of multiple dimensions. dimensions proposed to be part of the current conceptualization of the test anxiety construct, based on nearly a century of research on test anxiety, include emotionality and a lack of self-confidence (stöber, 2004; keith, hodapp, schermelleh-engel & moosbrugger, 2003; hodapp, 1995). in addition to physical reactions to anxiety, there is a mental component as well, which often manifest itself in the form of cognitive interference. cognitive obstruction is viewed as the degree to which test anxiety disrupts the ability of an individual to organize his or her thoughts or to concentrate on the task at hand (lowe & ang, 2012; eysenck, derakshan, santos & calvo, 2007). anxiety can be created by a person's expectations concerning what is likely to happen before, during and after tests and/or their perceptions on other’s (e.g. teachers, parents and students) judgments about them (steele, spencer & aronson, 2002; steele, 1997). this is what steele (1997) termed as “stereotype threat” (p. 613). henriques (2003) in line with cooley’s (1902) looking-glass self notion, asserts that, human beings have ego or ‘self’ because they are the only animals that have had to justify their behavior to others (see, for example, shaffer, 2005). human self-consciousness, he says, functions to allow humans to develop justifiable reasons for what they do (henriques, 2004). these expectations may be expressed in words to oneself, mental pictures, or physical symptoms. if a student believes, for example, that he or she is going to perform poorly because of his or her gender (steele, 1997), has not studied enough, or will appear foolish, that person will have an emotional reaction consistent with that expectation. the mental state of the student produces a corresponding emotional reaction (lowe & ang, 2012) or lower self-esteem (putwain, 2007). in general, literature suggests that most anxious situations are brought about by the pressures an individual brings on his or herself in their quest to perform well, thus, proximal influences (see, for example, lowe & ang, 2012) along with students’ intrapersonal variables play a major part in the perceived threat. most researches conducted are carried out at the level of examining the effect of test anxiety on performance to the neglect of the sources of such anxious situations and how students express such anxieties before and during examinations. even though it has been found that students consistently perceive examination as a source of increase in anxiety and a situation engulfed with uncertainty/unfairness in letting them demonstrate their true achievements (rana & mahmood, 2010). such feelings among students seem to stem from the fact that they are thinking of how they would pass these examinations to secure their jobs in the future, and/or because of the normative nature of the tests, they are comparing their performances with their colleagues (elliot, murayama & pekrum, 2011). to elliot, murayama and pekrum (2011), these aversive processes tend to prompt self-worth concerns that preclude full investment and interfere with attention to task; cognitive activity in the service of failure and often interferes with academic performance (mendes, major, mccoy & blascovich, 2008). in the case of preservice teachers where the stakes and accountability pressures seem to be higher than what was expected of them when they were in senior high school (i.e. their performances are for both academic and professional qualifications), the aversive behavior could be more severe. test anxiety and achievement test anxiety seems to have become most upsetting and a disruptive factor for students (rana & mahmood, 2010). there are a number of researches reporting test anxiety as one of the major 4 an implicit analysis of the prevalence of test anxiety among preservice teachers _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) causes for students’ low achievements and poor performances at different levels of their educational life (oludipe, 2009) and has been shown to affect students’ ability to profit from instruction (schonwetter, 1995). investigations into the effects of students’ test anxiety and teacher’s evaluation practices on students’ achievement and motivation at the post secondary level by hancock (2001) have shown that students, especially students with high anxiety levels, performed poorly and were less motivated to learn. thus he concluded that when students who are particularly test-anxious are exposed to a highly evaluative assessment environment in their educational institution, they perform poorly and are less motivated to perform (hancock, 2001). in 2002, cassady and johnson investigated the effect of cognitive test anxiety on students’ academic achievement. they found out that cognitive test anxiety brings to bear a significant steady and negative brunt on academic achievement measures. this could have serious implications for learners as phenomenologists such as mccombs (2009) have espoused that the eventual source of motivation to self-regulate during learning is to augment or actualise one’s self-concept with the basic aim of generating motivation to approach and persist in learning activities. the individual does this through the evaluation of the personal meaningfulness of the task he or she is involved in and the relevance of learning activities relative to perceptions of his or her competencies and goals. these evaluations of self-concept, task value and test anxiety, and how to handle them are necessary in initial teacher preparation, since they are being prepared to, as in the words of claxton and carr (2004) develop “young people’s ability to be skilful and confident when faced with complex predicaments of all kinds” (p. 87), including test anxiety. literature (putwain, woods & symes, 2010), suggests that general test anxiety is prevalent among students in post-compulsory education and preservice teachers are no exception and this is the cause for concern, as it is feared that the introduction of new courses and examinations in colleges of education will raise the levels of test related anxiety among preservice teachers and teachers who possess higher levels of test anxiety may inadvertently pass on these negative feelings to their students. these call for greater attention to the test anxiety phenomena in other to identify the root cause of general test anxiety among teachers in order to address them properly. however, not much has been done in terms of research on preservice teachers; especially within the settings of teacher education and from a developing country’s perspective where end-ofsemester examinations seem to be the sole determinant of professional status of newly qualified teachers and quality of education. test anxiety is known to have a deleterious effect on students and with preservice teachers in this situation, they are likely to be under considerable pressure to perform which could affect their emotional and physical wellbeing (tymms & merrell, 2007), learning dispositions, self-regulation and their performance in the end-of-semester examinations. again, reviews from literature (putwain, woods & symes, 2010; mclean & anderson, 2009; oludipe, 2009) indicate that few studies concentrate on the root sources of test anxieties among students, and studies which have tried mostly report of the overt symptoms exhibited by students leaving the embryonic variables. this study was conducted in a female institution, because, substantial evidence indicates that women report greater fear and are more likely to develop anxiety disorders than men in most cases (mclean & anderson, 2009). several studies have reported a significant difference in anxiety levels between males and females. results from these researches show that females have higher levels of overall test anxiety than males (chapell, blanding, takahashi, silverstein, newman, gubi & mccann, 2005; cassady & johnson, 2002; mwamwenda, 1994; pintrich & d 5 eric anane _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) groot, 1990). cassady and johnson (2002) explained that “differences in test anxiety on the basis of students’ gender is that males and females feel same levels of test worry, but females have higher levels of emotionality”(270). even though cassady and johnson’s assertion could be attributed to gender stereotyping and stereotype threat, reaching the inherent sources of test anxiety rather than the observable variables will contribute meaningfully to literature. the present study, therefore, sought to explore the implicit sources of test anxiety and how anxieties manifest among preservice teachers in a female college of education. in summary, this study was guided by five research questions. 1. how does test anxiety manifests itself among preservice teachers? 2. what are the sources of test anxiety among preservice teachers? 3. what relationships exist between the sources test anxiety and general test anxiety? 4. what is the interactive effect of the sources of anxiety on students’ general test anxiety? 5. what is the relationship between academic level and students’ general test anxiety? method participants. the sample included 100 first and second year female preservice teachers from a medium size college of education in ghana. fifty students each were selected from first and second year cohorts through a systematic random sampling procedure. forty-six percent of the students attended general related courses, 26%, science related courses and 28%, early childhood courses. measures. the sample responded to a self-report questionnaire (a modified test anxiety inventory-tai). the 51-item questionnaire, with a 3-point likert scale (1 = not true of me, 2 = true of me and 3 = very true of me) was designed to assess the preservice teachers test anxiety and how anxiety manifest among student teachers. the 51 observed variables were grouped into 7 latent scales. scales one (how others will view you if you do poorly) and five (bodily reactions) were made up of 8 items each; scale two (concerns about your own self-image) was made up of 7 items; scales three (concerns about future security), four (concerns about not being prepared for the test) and six (general test anxiety) had 6 items each. scale seven, which measured students’ thought disruptions, had 10 items making the scale. the following cut-off-points based on mean values, were established for interpretation of results: 1-1.4 = not true of me; 1.5-2.4 = true of me and 2.5-3 = very true of me. the instrument was administered to 100 preservice teachers by the researcher. the questionnaires were given to respondents in their classrooms after the selection of the sample. standardized test administration procedures were followed in the administration of the tai, according to the directions printed on the inventory to prevent researcher influence. the items yielded internal consistency reliability, a coefficient alpha of .82 for the present sample. 6 an implicit analysis of the prevalence of test anxiety among preservice teachers _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) data analysis: results manifestation of test anxiety among preservice teachers. the first question of the study concerned how test anxiety manifests among teacher trainees. table 1 displays the summary of the descriptive statistics of the signs of test anxiety among preservice teachers. table 1. descriptive statistics of how anxiety manifest among preservice teachers mean std. deviation bodily reactions 1.46 .378 thought disruptions 1.76 .330 general test-taking anxiety 1.92 .446 as indicated in table 1, students appear not to have much to show in terms of bodily reactions (m = 1.46, sd = .38), it is worthy to note that preservice teachers in the study indicated that they did experience thought disruptions (m = 1.76, sd = .33). with a mean of 1.92 and a standard deviation of 0.44, the results show that preservice teachers in the study experienced a moderate amount of test anxiety, generally. sources of test anxiety. the second research question concerned the potential sources of test anxiety among preservice teachers. descriptive statistics were computed and the results are shown in table 2. table 2. descriptive statistics of sources of teacher trainees’ test anxiety source not true of me true of me very true of me mean sd 1. how others will view me if i do poorly 74% 26% 2.26 .305 2. concerns about my own self-image 1% 92% 7% 2.05 .302 3. concerns about my future job security 10% 71% 19% 1.96 .488 4. concerns about not being prepared for the test 41% 54% 5% 1.58 .469 n = 100 on the whole, the results from the analysis of data show that, preservice teachers’ anxiety stem from their perception of how others will think of them if they do not perform well in tests and examinations. concerns about how others will see them when they perform poorly was their highest source of anxiety (m = 2.26, sd = .31). a follow-up analysis of the external sources (how others will view me if i do poorly) was conducted to find out the specific sources of anxiety. of the external sources of students’ anxiety, respondents indicated that, people such as family members and friends counting on them to do well in examinations serve as a major source of worry (m = 2.77, sd = .51). respondents were of the view that their parents would become disappointed if they got low scores. another thing that emerged from students’ responses were that they were worried of the fact that some people will be amused if they [students] had low scores in examinations (m = 2.29, sd =.77). of the 100 students who took part in the study, 92% of them expressed concern about thinking about their own self-image during tests (m = 2.05, sd = .302). about half of the respondents (54%) said it is true of them having concerns about not 7 eric anane _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) being prepared for tests, but a mean of 1.58 and standard deviation of .469 shows that it was the least thing they are bothered about during tests and examinations. relationships among sources test anxiety and general test anxiety. the third question of the study concerned the relations between the sources of test anxiety and general test anxiety. to test the relationship between the variables, zero-order correlations were calculated and the results are summarised in table 3. table 3: the zero order correlations of sources of preservice teachers test anxiety sources 1. how others will view you if you do poorly 2. concerns about selfimage 3. concerns about future job security 4. concerns about not being prepared for a test concerns about self-image .352* concerns about future job security .058 .225* concerns about not being prepared for a test .134 .099 .457* general test anxiety .434* .218* .240* .236* *p< 0.05; n=100 results in the table 3 show that with r = .457 between students’ concerns about their future and not being prepared for a test, 21% of the variation in preservice teachers’ apprehensions about not being prepared for a test is explained by the fact that they are thinking about their job security in the future. the results also show that students’ level of uneasiness about how others, such as family and friends would view them when they failed in tests relate to their self-concept (r = .352). however, notwithstanding the fact that concerns about future security showed some significant relationship with not being prepared for a test and self-image, there was no statistically significant relationship between concerns about their self-image and not being prepared for the test (r = .099). the students concern on how others will view you if they performed poorly was not associated with concerns about future security. there was a statistically significant positive relationship between students general test anxiety and their concerns about how others will view them if they do poorly (r = .434) as well as the fact that they are not prepared for the examinations (r = .236). interactions between sources of test anxiety and general test anxiety. the fourth research question looked at the potential interactions between the four sources of test anxiety on the general test anxiety variable. table 4. interaction effects of sources of test anxiety and general test-taking anxiety source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 19.638 a 94 .209 18.802 .002 intercept 355.217 1 355.217 31969.544 .000 8 an implicit analysis of the prevalence of test anxiety among preservice teachers _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) source1 * source2 * source3 * source4 19.638 94 .209 18.802 .002 s error .056 5 .011 total 388.333 100 corrected total 19.693 99 dependent variable: general test-taking anxiety; a. r squared = .997 (adjusted r squared = .944) s p< .05 the results from the univariate test shows a significant interaction effect between students concern about how others will view them if they do poorly; their own self-image; future security and not being prepared for a test and general test-taking anxiety, f(1, 94) = 18.80, p < .05, mse = .011. with an effect size of r = .41, the four sources of anxiety interactively predict students’ general test anxiety. thus, students who were reporting high on how others will view them if they do poorly; their own self-image; future security and not being prepared for a test were more likely to report high on general test-taking anxiety than those who reported low on these sources. 9 eric anane _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) relationship between students’ academic level and general test anxiety research question five sought to find out whether there was a significant relationship between students’ academic level and their general test anxiety. table 5. correlation between preservice teachers academic level and general test anxiety academic level general test-taking anxiety pearson correlation -.090 sig. (1-tailed) .186 n 100 results of the statistical analysis of the general test anxiety show that the academic level of a student does not relate to his or her general state of anxiety toward end-of-semester examinations (r = -0.09, p> 0.05). this finding is at variance with what sarason (2010) found in his study that, with an increase in number of years in college, the negative correlation between test anxiety and achievement disappeared, which means that as students progressed in academic levels, they tend to be less anxious of test, which is not what the results from this study seem to suggest. discussion these results suggest that preservice teachers are worrying about how other people perceive their performance in college examinations and tests. this confirms elliot, murayama and pekrum (2011) assertion that test anxiety and its aversive processes tend to prompt self-worth concerns that preclude full investment. the predominant source of test anxiety, which is external to the students, presupposes that preservice teachers seem to have low self-efficacy and therefore, do not believe in themselves and may not act proactively (zimmerman, 2009; tschannen-moran & woolfolk-hoy, 2001). their motive of performance was to please people such as parents, friends and tutors and thus seem to have devoted interest toward other people’s assessment of their performance in college. although my correlation data cannot address causality, yet, this outcome seems to suggest that, should external agents (e.g. parents) remove their interest in students, they would be reduced to low consciousness and ineffectuality (shaffer, 2012; henriques, 2003). the results also indicate that, the four major sources of preservice teachers’ anxiety (i.e., concerns about self-image, future job security, not being prepared for a test and how others will perceive their performances) have a significant interaction effect on their general levels of college exam anxiety. this indicates that, preservice teachers levels of general test anxiety is an interplay of what they think of themselves and their perceptions of how others such as teachers, parents and employers think of them in relation to their achievements in college. the results revealed that students who showed some anxiety because of concerns about not being prepared enough for a test were likely to show concern about their future job security. this might develop from the fact that, students’ perceived ill-preparation as a tell-tale sign of failing the test, which in turn will lead to them not getting the requisite certificate for professional practice. this and other findings in the study seem to illuminate pekrun, elliot and maier’s (2009), anane’s (2010) point that, the higher the stakes, antecedents and the 10 an implicit analysis of the prevalence of test anxiety among preservice teachers _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) consequences of a test is likely to evoke and perpetuate anxiety, pressure and caution among students, as students are constantly reminded of the possibility of failure. there are limitations to the findings. first, all the variables in this study were measured with self-report instrument. as noted by baron (1996), when using a likert scale, respondents can distort responses away from true scores, consciously or unconsciously. second, subjects’ responses are subject to central tendency biases, where respondents avoid using extreme response categories; acquiescence responding where subjects show a tendency to agree with statements as offered, and social desirability responding (i.e. where respondents try to depict themselves in a more positive way). again, some respondents may portray themselves in an overly negative manner, perhaps because of low self-esteem. it is, therefore difficult to estimate the frequency of such distortions to scores, but studies have shown that respondents can raise scores on normative personality questionnaires when asked to do so, by an average of point five to one standard deviation, and lower them even more (locke & baik, 2009; podsakoff, mackenzie, lee & podsakoff, 2003; ones, viswesvaran & korbin, 1995). such score distortions may be larger and more frequent in likert responses. conclusions in sum, it is evident from the study that, stakeholders need to look beyond the obvious when it comes to test anxiety among preservice teachers. the predominant source of test anxiety, which is external to students, suggests that, how others will perceive them when they perform poorly and their concerns about job security and fear for test have a high probability of raising their anxiety levels which can affect their general performances in college. the finding of the existence of general test anxieties across year groups goes to explain test anxiety’s detrimental impact of aggregate ability measures (e.g. end-of-semester examinations), rather than isolated assessments (zeidner & safir, 1989). this is probably so, because people tend to be much focused on external examinations, which are often summative and high stakes and its intended uses and consequences than formative assessments which are often low stake in nature. test takers are therefore pressurized and thus feel anxious to please families and friends, and in the case of preservice teachers, to secure their professional status when they complete college. the empirical work of pintrich and de groot (1990) demonstrated this phenomenon as they found test anxiety to significantly higher in end of term exam performance, but not performance on class work and essays, which were perceived as low-stakes. with these findings, the main recommendation that may be offered is a need to take a second look at how preservice teachers are admitted into colleges of education to ensure that people who are motivated from within are recruited and trained as prospective teachers to bring about a high sense of efficacy so as to lower the levels of anxiety. those who are already in colleges need to be given counseling and training on developing self-regulatory strategies in order to minimize test anxiety tendencies. references anane, e. 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(1990). gender differences in examination type, test anxiety, and academic achievement in college science: a case study. science education, 74(6), 597 608. obidike-etal teachers’ awareness of the existence and the use of technology to promote children’s literacy instruction obidike, ngozi, d., ph.d. early childhood & primary education faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka-nigeria drngoobidike@yahoo.co.uk       anyikwa, ngozi, e., ph.d. early childhood & primary education faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka ngozianyikwa@yohoo.com   enemou, joy o., ph.d. early childhood & primary education faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka enemuojoby@yahoo.com abstract this paper examined the awareness of teachers of nursery and primary schools on the existence of the technological resources that could be used to support children’s literacy instruction, as well as the use of such technological resources for enriching children’s literacy instruction. the study was carried out in awka local government education zone in anambra state, nigeria. two (2) research questions guided the study. five (500) nursery and primary school teachers were selected as the sample for the study using simple random sampling technique. questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection which was analyzed using mean scores. the findings, among others, were that both the nursery and primary school teachers are able to identify the technological tools that could be used to enhance literacy instruction in children but are not aware of how such resources could be used. suggestions for improvement were provided. introduction   literacy instruction traditionally refers to the teaching of basic literacy skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking. in today's digital world, however, technology has contributed to an expanded understanding of literacy. besides this, children of information age also use technology skills for communicating, investigating, computing, accessing and using information, thinking critically about messages inherent in news media and understanding and evaluating data. as policymakers and educators ponder what to be literate in a digitized society means, most educators today agree that literacy instruction, at the minimum, should include computing skills, identification and usage of audio-visuals in the classroom, assistive technology devices of all kinds, etc. all these tools are needed in preparing teachers for the instructional activities in our public schools. according to jordan (2009), a large body of research exists on preparing teachers to teach, use, and integrate technology in the classroom. though this body of research does not directly relate to the questions posed in this study, comparisons can be made to teacher education. for instance, several of these studies report that teacher preparation programs fail to properly prepare teachers for using and integrating technology into classroom teaching (e.g., doering, hughes, & huffman, 2003; panel on educational technology, 1997; u.s.congress, 1995) and that novice teachers report high anxiety in the use of technology in the classroom although they frequently use technology outside of the classroom in personal contexts (e.g., laffey & musser, 1998). this is a related factor, as teachers need to consider the many technologies available to them and how they could be used and integrated into everyday teaching of the curriculum (mckenzie, 2001). an important reason for reviewing these studies is to point out that teachers may or may not be equally reluctant or ill equipped to use technology for mentoring purposes. if integrating technology into everyday teaching is a challenge for novice teachers, using technology as a mentoring tool may prove to be equally challenging. furthermore, progressive educators see a greater role for technology in the literacy classroom; they believe that technology has the potentials to motivate children to reading and writing. for example, meyer and rose (2000) observed that new technology has the potential to revitalize reading instruction and to make reading more relevant to the lives of children growing up in the electronic age. this is in line with the observation of bruce and peyton (1999) that teachers of young children can use technological network-based approaches to literacy instruction to support authentic reading and writing, collaboration, student-centered learning, writing across the curriculum and the creation of classroom writing activities. according to holum and gahala (2001) the technological network-based tools that teachers can use to promote children’s literacy instruction include: audio booksprofessionally recorded, unabridged versions of fiction or nonfiction books on tape children can listen to and follow along silently with the printed version level. electronic bookselectronic texts that are available on cd-rom, the internet, or special disks presented visually. anderson-inman and horney (1998) noted that electronic books are searchable, modifiable (i.e. font sizes can be increased to meet the needs of the reader), and enhanceable with embedded resources (e.g., definitions and details). online textschildren’s texts materials that are available on the world wide web. electronic talking bookselectronic texts that provide embedded speech. the speech component offers a digitized reading of general sections, as well as pronunciations of specific words within the text; it supports and coaches students as they read the text of the story (leu, 2000). programmed reading instruction various types of software programs, computer-assisted instruction, and integrated learning systems, that offer programmed reading instruction for students. this skills-based instruction ranges from letter recognition to phonics instruction to vocabulary building. word processingtools that allow many students to write and edit their work more easily. word-processing tools such as spelling checkers are useful aids that improve the quality of children writing. desktop publishing of children work an extension of word processing, in which children learn to format text, plan the layout of pages, insert charts and graphics, to produce a professional-looking final copy of their reports, stories, and poems . multimedia composingvarious software programs allow students to insert images, sounds, and video, thereby creating complex, multilayered compositions. for students who have difficulty with writing, multimedia composing presents a means of self-expression and provides support for development of reading and writing skills. online publishing of student work online publishing of students' work through the school's web site. in developed countries, classrooms often have their own web pages, which can display student assignments and extracurricular writing. according to karchmer (2000), publishing online is a motivating factor when completing classroom assignments.  internet-based communication: e.g. using electronic mail (e-mail), electronic bulletin boards, and e-mail lists to promote children reading and writing skills. such internet-based communication can be with peers, adults, or professional experts from around the world. educational researchers and practitioners alike assert that the potential of new technologies for learning is likely to be found not in the technologies themselves but in the way in which these technologies are used as tools for learning (means & olson, 1995; owston, 1997; valdez et al., 1999). in literacy instruction, technology has both traditional and authentic uses (singh & means, 1994). a traditional use of technology is skills reinforcement; for example, children who need additional practice in reading might work individually on computers equipped with reading-comprehension software. an authentic use of technology on the other hand, is using it as a tool to accomplish a complex task; for example, children who are creating a written report might use the internet for research, word-processing software to write and format the text and hypermedia software to add images. technology is an area of the curriculum, as well as a tool for learning, in which teachers must demonstrate their own awareness and capacity for learning. in other words, for effective and meaningful teaching in the present information age, the demonstration of teachers’ awareness and competencies for instructional use of information and communication technology (ict) cannot be underscored. if teachers are aware of the use of it in literacy instruction, children are likely to benefit from their knowledge. therefore, bearing in mind the existing ict-poor school environments in nigeria, a developing country, and the vastness of ict capabilities, the question that comes to mind include: are teachers of young children aware of the existence and the use of technologies to promote children’s literacy instruction?  this is the question that presents the problems of this study. this paper, therefore, tries to find out the extent to which teachers of young children in the public school system are aware of the existence and the use of technological resources to promote children’s literacy instruction. specifically, the study tries to find out if any difference exists in the nursery and primary school teachers’ awareness as to the existence and the use of technologies to promote children’s reading and writing skills.    research questions   the following research questions guided the study: 1.      what are the technological tools that can be used to enhance children’s literacy instruction? 2.    to what extent are nursery and primary school teachers aware of the use of the existing technological tools to promote children’s literacy instruction?   methodology the study is a survey research conducted in public primary schools and public nursery schools in awka local government educational authorities in anambra state. the population was made up of primary and nursery school teachers in the area. based on the 2008/2009 school year, these populations are 233 nursery school teachers and 2763 primary school teachers.     sample out of 102 public nursery schools and 121 public primary schools in awka local government education authority, twenty (20) schools each were selected using simple random sampling. while five (5) teachers each where selected from each nursery school, twenty (20) teachers each were selected from the primary schools making a total of 500 teachers.   instrument for data collection questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. it was developed based on the two (2) research questions for the study. the questionnaire comprised two sections containing 20 items which were structured using a four point rating scale ranging from strongly agree (sa) to strongly disagree (sd). ten items present the existing technological resources that promote children’s literacy instruction while the other ten items are on the teachers’ awareness of the use of the resources.  the split–half method was used to ascertain reliability after the validation of the instrument by four experts from the departments of childhood education and educational technology. the questionnaire was once administered to twenty (20) nursery and primary school teachers in onitsha local government education authority for pilot testing. the person product moment correlation co-efficient was computed between the two sets of scores and that gave reliability co-efficient of internal consistency of 0.82. a score of 0.92 was obtained when the spearman brown formula was applied. data analysis the data collected were analyzed using mean scores to answer the research questions. any item with a mean score of 2.55 was regarded as ‘agree’ (a) while a mean score less than 2.55 was regarded as ‘disagree’ (d).   table 1 the extent of awareness of the existing technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction.               n = 500 s/n items                                x                             x   the technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction are nursery  teachers remarks  primary teachers remarks 1 audio books 2.67 a        2.77 a 2 electronic books 2.98 a        2.86 a 3 online texts 2.67 a        2.75 a 4 electronic talking books 2.69 a        2.55 a 5 programmed reading instruction 2.58 a        2.59 a 6 word processing 2.87 a        2.80 a 7 desk top publishing 2.47 d        2.56 a 8 multimedia composing 1.45 sd        2.40 d 9 online publishing 2.48 d        2.81 a 10 internet communication 2.49 d        2.20 d   grand total 2.56          2.63   table 1  indicates that the mean ratings of both the nursery and primary school teachers on the identification of the  technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction is higher than the cut –off point of  2.55. this implies agreement to the items.   table 2 the awareness of nursery and primary school teachers on the use of technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction.   n = 500 s/n items             -                x                   x   to what extent can the following technological tools be used in literacy instruction nursery teachers remarks primary teachers remarks 1 audio books can be used to promote students’ interest in reading and improve their comprehension of the text.   2.83   a   2.60   a 2 electronic books can be used to provide children with the opportunity to have a deeper understanding to concepts and new words in the book.   1.97   sd   2.02   d 3 online text can be used to provide children with the opportunity to have on-theweb reading materials.   2.67   a   2.68   a 4 electronic talking books can be used to teach children pronunciation and how to read as they read the story.   2.78   a   2.56   a 5 programmed reading instructing can be used to enhance letter recognition, phonics instruction and vocabulary building in children.   1.92   sd   2.00   d 6 word processing can be used to help   children to write and edit their work more easily. 1.98 sd 2.56 a 7 desktop publishing can be used to provide children the opportunities to format text, plan the layout of pages, and insert charts and graphics in the work.   1.96   sd   2.55 a 8 multimedia composing can be used to provide children the opportunity to integrate visual and aural components in their school work.   1.89   sd   1.01   sd 9 online publishing can be used to provide children the opportunity to publish their work in web site.   1.74   sd   2.56 a 10 internet-based communication can be used to help children to communicate their ideas to their peers or adults who have agreed to answer their e-mail questions.   1.88   sd   2.00   d   grand total 2.16   2.25   table 2 reveals that the mean ratings of both the nursery and primary school teachers on the awareness of the use of technologies to promote children’s literacy instruction are less than the cut –off point of 2.55.   discussion the findings of this study, generally, shows that both the public nursery and public primary school teachers could identify the technological tools that could be used to promote children’s literacy instruction but were not aware of the use of the identified resources to promote children’s literacy instruction. in other words, the teachers are not aware of how the resources could be used in promoting reading and writing skills in children. this supports the research which shows that nigeria is very much behind in the use of information and communication technology (ict) in education (obagah, 2002; ali, 2003, and osumah, 2003). according to the research, only 6% of schools in nigeria have any form of ict and only 7% of educators (teachers, administrators and technicians) have skills for operating ict. these poor figures are dimmed by those of the united states, for instance, where ict capacity is 83% and infrastructure in schools is 95.3%. the study equally reveals that there is no significant difference in the mean scores of the public primary school teachers and the public nursery teachers in their awareness of the use of the technological resources to promote children’s literacy instruction. this result can also be attributed to the lack of ict facilities across all the levels of our educational system. as of now, ict plays very limited role in all aspects of nigerian education. the use of technological resources in nigerian education must be re-emphasized and the technological resources provided at all levels of the system especially in the nursery and primary education levels since they are the preparatory grounds for further educational advancement. however, school administration should mobilize staff and students so that their attitude to the use of ict is focused and directed towards meaningful programs and projects in the community, using it as a tool for research, teaching and learning, rather than as toys or gadgets for decorating offices and boardrooms. it is necessary to point out that, although there is no difference in their mean responses both on the identification and the awareness of the use of the resources to promote children’s literacy instruction, their points of similarity differ. in table 1, while the nursery school teachers disagree that online publishing and desktop publishing cannot be used to promote literacy instruction in children, the primary school teachers agree that the resources could be used. furthermore, in table 2, while the nursery school teachers are not aware of how word processing, online publishing, multimedia composition, and desktop publishing could be used in enhancing literacy instruction in children, the primary school teachers were aware of this process. the differences in their opinions may be as a result of individual technological experiences and training of the nursery and primary school teachers, and not as a result of a group experience.   recommendations   based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: technological training needs of nursery and primary school teachers should be identified. they need to be trained on how to manage and use technologies to promote literacy instruction. funding: the state education board should provide fund to schools to procure the needed technological tools for student instruction in the nursery and primary schools. computers, audio-visual materials, and other forms of gadgets are required for global education, and nigerian children should not be left behind. internet facilities should be installed in all nursery and primary school classrooms or libraries, and adequate numbers of computers and educational software provided. nursery and primary school teachers should endeavor to participate in evaluating online educational materials for use in classroom instruction. arrangements and provisions should be made for all teachers to participate in the ongoing professional development on literacy and technology for public schools. curriculum planning and delivery: another important step in implementation of technological instruction and training in nursery and primary schools is curriculum planning and delivery. to begin, we recommend that teachers have a basic understanding of the technological resources and a commitment to make the curriculum and learning accessible for all learners. through an effective training by the educational authorities, such knowledge skill would be useful in designing effective lessons in the classroom. thus, the use of technology for instruction must be embedded in the general school curriculum, and teachers mandated to acquire the knowledge and teach accordingly. parent education and involvement: parents are another valuable resource for teachers building a technology resource curriculum and delivery. there are at least two important ways that parents can be a resource: as advocates and as volunteers. some of the parents have computers and other technological devices at home. the may need to undertake training where needed so that they can support their children with their homework. by educating parents about the technology activities going on in the classroom, teachers can develop a support system of informed individuals who can assist with and advocate for technology instruction. teachers should think about ways to inform parents about their children’s classroom activities. notes sent home, parent-teacher conferences and presentations, and school board meetings are all excellent opportunities to engage parents and  have them even donate assistive technology resource materials, volunteer in the classroom and provide support at home. a few possibilities are helping to prepare materials, monitoring kids during lessons, helping with technology, donating equipment, and supporting homework assignments (hall, strangman, and meyer, 2009)   conclusion   this is concerned about the awareness and existence of technological resources that promote children’s literacy instruction among public nursery and primary school teachers. in order to put these resources into effective and appropriate use is probably not known to these teachers, though on few selected items assessed, the public nursery school teachers showed more awareness of instructional technology devices than the public primary school teachers. in this regard, the authors want to reemphasize that teacher education training institutions have an obligation to consider ways that technology could support and enhance the knowledge and practices of novice teachers in the nursery and primary schools. given that children or young people today gather information and access knowledge in a much different way than people of past generations (prensky, 2005); failure to integrate technology and to consider critical ways that novice teachers use and learn from technological resources, such as the internet, could be considered irresponsible. furthermore, we are living in a digital age where the use of technological tools for communication is vital. students now attending colleges and universities could be considered digital natives, or children who have been born and raised with the language of computers, video games, and the internet, and who are native speakers of technology (prensky, 2001). nigerian government and stakeholders in education should, therefore, consider updating and upgrading the national curriculum with educational technology, for the development of our students in this digital age.                                                                                                references   ali, a. 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(2003). differentiated instruction and implications for udl implementation. wakefield, ma: national center on accessing the general curriculum. retrieved july 29, 2010, from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstructudl.html jordan, t.m. (2009), using web resources to support novice teachers in literacy instruction. retrieved august 31, 2010, from  http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/etd/image/etd3082.pdf holum, a. & gahala, m.a. (2001). critical issue: using technology to enhance literacy instruction. north central regional educational laboratory, learning point associates. karchmer, r. a. (2000). understanding teachers' perspectives of internet use in the classroom: implications for teacher education and staff development programs. reading and writing quarterly, 16 (1) 81-85.  laffey, j., & musser, d. (1998). attitudes of preservice teachers about using technology in teaching. journal of technology in teacher education, (6) 223-241. leu, d. j. 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(1997). word processors and children's writing in a high-computer-access setting. journal of research on computing in education, 30(2), 202-220.  retrieved july 29, 2010, from http://www.edu.yorku.ca/~rowston/written.html panel on educational technology. (1997). summary of findings and recommendations from report to the president on the use of technology to strengthen k-12 education in the united states. president’s committee of advisors on science and technology (2000) in. r. d. pearson (ed.), technology and learning (3-19). san francisco: jossey-bass. singh, r., & means, b. (1994). technology and education reform. retrieved june 12, 2010, from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/edreformstudies/edtech prensky, m. (2005). listen to the natives. educational leadership, 63(4), 8-13. u.s. congress, office of technology assessment. (1995). teachers and technology: making the connection (ota-her-616). washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. wood, j. m. (2000) literacy: charlotte's web meets the world wide web. in d. t. gordon (ed.), the digital classroom: how technology is changing the way we teach and learn (117-126). cambridge, ma: harvard education letter .     the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe sibonokuhle ndlovu university of cape town, south africa and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi university of cape town, south africa abstract this article is based on research carried out to investigate the prevailing conditions of schooling and classroom teaching and learning in southern zimbabwe, using the vygotskian socio-cultural theory to analyze the consequences that the breakdown of schooling and classroom teaching and learning had on learners' performance and cognitive development. according to findings from the case study of a specific primary school in gwanda district, classroom teaching and learning in rural zimbabwe were adversely affected by a conglomerate of contextual factors and worsened by the prevailing socio-economic and political problems resulting in contradictory classroom practices of teaching and learning. the analysis reveals the extent to which classroom teaching and learning have deteriorated and how the cultural practices of this particular tradition of schooling impede on possibilities for meaningful learning activities in the classroom. the article contributes to an understanding of how specific cultural conditions of schooling affect learners’ learning and cognitive development within the prevailing context of socio-economic and political instability in zimbabwe and suggests ways in which teachers could organise pedagogy to assist their learners’ learning and cognitive development. 2 the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) introduction more recent research in developmental psychology seeking to understand the relationship between learning and cognitive development elaborated in the vygotskian socio-cultural framework, argues that socio-cultural context has a significant impact on a child’s cognitive development. according to the studies, different sociocultural contexts import different developmental consequences for learners in developmental psychology. other studies carried out in rural south africa by moll (1994) and muthivhi, (2008) respectively have provided findings related to the specific relationship between learning and sociocultural contexts. influenced by these studies, this paper explores the ways in which this relationship occurs and plays out in rural zimbabwe as an environment distinguished from other socio-cultural contexts by its unique culture and conditions of schooling during the period of crisis from around 2000 to date. it is important to understand a socio-cultural context and the uniqueness of a culture because culture in developmental psychology concerns economic activity and way of life which, in turn, affect the way people think in a particular historical period. this article focuses mainly on the social organisation of the larger society, cultural traditions, and the conditions of schooling because of their bearing on teaching and learning and subsequently cognitive development. describing the sociocultural context and cultural traditions of rural zimbabwe, owomoyela (2002) argues that the european presence in zimbabwe since the colonial period caused profound changes in the way people live. according to owomoyela, this trend among africans towards westernisation was in response to new lifestyles appropriate to their new economic status and environments as they relocated to european-controlled areas for employment. from the developmental psychology perspective, when people engage in new economic ways of life, an accompanying development takes place in response to changes experienced. in essence, zimbabwean culture up to the present has undergone transformations due to western influence. african traditions have become integrated with, and even subsumed by, western ways of life. thus one could say that the “zimbabwean culture” is a complex mix of past and present traditions and customs. schooling in zimbabwe is thus generally located within a context of both the past “african” and the present “western” culture. the majority of the country’s population (65%) remains rural. while culture generally has continued to change since the onset of colonisation, in rural areas it could be described as more traditional and african than western. rural traditions, values, and norms influenced by the culture from the past are still practiced and revered by the majority of the people (child, 1968). this means that the greater part of rural schooling in zimbabwe is generally located within a more traditional and rural culture than western. it could be argued that despite the influence of western culture, people in rural zimbabwe retain most of their african traditions and customs. child rearing practices in rural zimbabwe are more traditional than western. commenting on child rearing practices of the ndebele people of zimbabwe, child (1968), echoed by ewomoyela (2002), describes the high value given to discipline. they teach children to be obedient to those in authority such as parents, and to respect their elders who include older children, adults in the community, and teachers at school. this means that the value of respecting the authority of elders by children is emphasised in the communities. this is significant for this study because it provides an understanding of the cultural traditions that influence schooling and consequently teaching, learning, and cognitive development in learners. 3 sibonokuhle ndlovu and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi __________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) discipline, highly regarded in children and administered to insure children’s conformity both in the community and in schools, is enforced through corporal punishment. parents believe that practicing this form of discipline, which represents an african childrearing practice guarantees that children will perform well at school (shumba, 2003a). thus they endorse this form of punishment by teachers. in addition, the zimbabwean president has also argued publically in favour of corporal punishment. he stated that corporal punishment is good for children and referred to occasional corporal punishment as in line with the zimbabwean culture (africa news, 2007). beyond the acceptance of corporal punishment as an appropriate cultural practice, the national constitution (1990) allows for it and its administration in schools, controlled through education policy (education act, 1990). given the strong influence of cultural traditions in schooling, it is imperative to examine the impact such a sociocultural context has on teaching, learning, and ultimately learners’ learning and development. in rural zimbabwe and gwanda particularly, subsistence farming and small scale animal rearing constitute the main economic activities. civil service jobs include those in the education, police and military sectors accounting for a large proportion of wage employment. the rural economy and economic activities of rural zimbabweans is important to this study because it involves what people are doing as a way of life, which has an impact on how they think, thus shaping the schooling and practices of teaching and learning. political and economic conditions inequality and longstanding political tensions that date back to the political transition from the colonial to a nationalist regime in 1980 continue to plague zimbabwean society. land ownership and redistribution served as the rationale for the zanu-pf nationalist regime to unlawfully seize commercial agricultural land, an action which resulted in the imposition of sanctions by the international community and ushered in the economic and political turmoil that ncube (2008) describes as “distinct”—a distinction originating from a kind of economic crisis generated from isolation by the west and as yet not experienced by any other country in africa. this political and economic crisis, in turn, affected the education system, which in the past ranked at the top in the human development reports, since before independence and in the post-independence period to the beginning of economic and political turmoil in 2000. thereafter the crises took its toll from 2003 to 2008, when the coalition government was formed. during that period, the political and economic conditions had negative implications for education in general and most especially for classroom teaching and learning in rural areas. this development holds special significance for this study because zimbabwean education ranked the best in quality in the southern region before the period of crisis (mungazi, 1992, 1993; chung, 2006). due to a collapsed economy, poverty levels have risen affecting communities and consequently teachers and learners in schools particularly in rural areas. zimbabwe ranked 169 th out of the 169 countries in a poverty survey (undp, 2010). the country, once named the “breadbasket” of africa for its strong economy, currently ranks last in 2010 poverty survey rankings. the undp (2010, p. 42) describes zimbabwe as the poorest country and and about 25% poorer than the poorest country in 1970, which then was also zimbabwe. in 2010, the income poverty rate was around 62%, up from 42% in 1995 (undp, 2010). this shows that poverty levels in zimbabwe have continued to rise, with negative implications for good nutrition (unicef, 2009, p. 11). the use of malnutrition as an indicator of poverty shows the extent to which the continuing increase in poverty has affected access to food for ordinary zimbabweans including school children. 4 the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) in describing some of the instances of political violence that affected schooling in zimbabwe before the coalition government, stiff (2000, p. 402-404) states: an armed gang of 60 zanu pf thugs cordoned off the school and forced its closure. they rounded up five teachers, accused them of being mdc supporters and locked then in a room, before sending 900 children home...a secondary school teacher at madziwa northeast of harare was assaulted with iron bars and whips...war veterans arrived at njangu primary and secondary schools in chimanimani while classes were in session. they ordered the teachers and pupils, ranging in age six to about seventeen, to assemble outside. none of the pupils were of the voting age. they nevertheless subjected them to‘re-education’; giving their version of the history of zimbabwe...at maringambizi school veterans burnt the library... the situation described above shows the severe effect of political disruptions on schooling. political violence in schools, exacerbated by worsening economic conditions, drove many teachers out of the country to seek employment in other neighbouring states especially in south africa (cross, seager, wentzel, mafukidze, hoosen, & van zyl, 2009, p. 25-26). condemning political violence in schools, the present minister of education, david coltart stated in an interview (johnstone, 2011): i was saying it in parliament today, the education ministry in any country should be the least political of any because children should be allowed to develop their own thought processes. in the zimbabwean situation, schools have been used as bases for militia and teachers have been threatened and that is abhorrent. not only were there political disruptions of the nature described above; but also numerous other disruptions caused by labor strikes among civil servants which were most prevalent during 2007-2010.teachers also participated in these labor strikes. reporting on the most recent one, latham (2011) revealed that: many teachers in zimbabwe are on strike and may be joined by other state employees after the government offered a ‘paltry’ wage increase, the daily news said, citing ray majongwe, the secretary general of the progressive teachers’ union of zimbabwe. during such times schooling and teaching would be affected. at other times schools remained closed during the school term because teachers demanded salary increases before they would start working (kwenda, 2009). examples of practice of unique cultural traditions and the accompanying historical political and economic conditions situating the schooling experience within a specific sociocultural context warrants the examination of how cultural practices influence schooling from the perspective of developmental psychology, in order to understand the developmental consequences for learners’ learning and cognitive development. theoretical background for an understanding of how classroom teaching and learning impacted cognitive development as influenced by the conditions of schooling and cultural tradition in rural zimbabwe, it is important to consider the theoretical background on the relationship between socio-cultural context and cognitive development and also the relationship between teaching, learning, and cognitive development. this theoretical background is discussed from the 5 sibonokuhle ndlovu and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi __________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) perspective of the vygotskian theoretical conception, which is the specific framework used to understand the concept of the unique sociocultural context of rural zimbabwe and cognitive development in this article. sociocultural context and cognitive development according to vygotsky (1978), social and cultural context plays a major role in influencing the development of the higher psychological processes in an individual. the social and cultural context provides an individual with the psychological tools for learning. these mediate the individual thought processes, enabling changes in his or her functions in the process. vygotsky argues that culture plays an important role in development through the mediation of the psychological tools in children to develop and use in order to understand the world. in his elucidation of the vygotskian idea of sociocultural context influencing development, matusov argued that the social, cultural, historical and political particularity of a situation that influences an individual may lead to different developmental directionalities (masutov, 2008, p. 9). this means that different sociocultural contexts and conditions of living influence development differently. the sociocultural contexts and conditions of schooling have an impact on learners’ development. thus to understand the process of this development it is important to consider it within the larger context of cultural traditions and conditions that influence the process itself. matusov argues further that “technologically advanced societies develop new cultural tools that mediate psychological processes in new and more advanced ways” (matusov, 2008, p. 18). this suggests that technologically developed social contexts, in turn, influence advanced development, which results from the mediation of advanced cultural tools in the process of cognitive development. so differences in development between technologically or industrially advanced societies and traditional societies stem from the influences within different sociocultural contexts. such understanding helps to illuminate and underpin the analysis and discussion of ways in which the unique socio-cultural context and conditions of schooling have affected the practices of classroom teaching and learning, and the processes of learners’ learning and development in the particular rural context of zimbabwe schooling. masutov’s idea of sociocultural contexts influencing development differently according to context aligns with vygotsky’s explanation of development: higher psychological processes are not superimposed as a second story over the elementary processes, they represent new psychological systems…..the formation of a new functional learning system includes a process akin to that of nourishment in body growth, wherein at any particular time certain nutrients are digested and assimilated while others are rejected (vygotsky, 1978, p. 124). in essence, the development of higher psychological processes is largely dependent on the extent to which the cultural context supports this development. a rich cultural context will to a larger extent more greatly influence the development process, just as the body develops faster and better when it receives rich nutrients. for the purposes of this article it is important to analyse whether the conditions of schooling that include socioeconomic and political conditions and various elements of a unique traditional and rural society within which schooling takes place, have provided a rich context for cognitive development. as previously noted, the economic activity in which people are involved at a particular historical time influences cognitive development. vygotsky uses this in his sociohistorical theory of understanding development. according to his theory, societies are in 6 the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) a constant state of flux and change, and social context continues to change, thus development needs to be understood in a historical context. what people are doing as an economic activity at any given time has an impact on their way of thinking. the vygotsky-luria expedition illustrates the inter-relatedness of social and cultural context and cognitive development in individuals (luria, 1976). their study of the uzbekistan community during the 1930s reveals that change in the social context of individuals also manifests change in their ways of thinking. the study was carried out during the rapid cultural and social changes which came about as a result of the russian revolution. this period involved radical transformation in the social economic lives of the uzbekistan traditional community. there were rapid changes involving formal schooling for adults, collectivisation, and advanced agricultural developments. comparing the cognitive functions of the schooled and unschooled subjects at the time, luria found that schooled subjects manifested changes in their cognitive functioning. they were able to categorise objects in abstract terms and use general terms in classification. on the other hand, unschooled subjects manifested contextualised thinking tendencies. although these findings were generalised to other sociocultural contexts, subjecting them to contestation by cole (1996), the study revealed that change in the social context also, in turn, influences changes in cognitive development. the study also revealed that formal schooling plays a major role in the development of cognitive functioning. sociohistorical understanding of development is important because it enables us to trace development in historical terms. this is important for this study. the vygotsky-luria experiment relates to the understanding of conceptual manifestations within a socio-cultural context of a non-industrialised traditional setting. during the time of socio-economic and socio-political upheavals in the zimbabwean context of schooling in 2010, profound and rapid changes were experienced in the social, cultural, economic, and political lives of the participants in the rural zimbabwean context. this could have implications for the practices of classroom teaching and learning and consequently for the cognitive development of learners requiring the tracing of changes in development. the idea of understanding cognitive development in historical terms is further explained in the argument that: the entire existence of the australian aborigine depends on his boomeranging, just as the entire existence of modern england depends upon her machines. take the boomerang away from the aborigine, make him a farmer, then of necessity he will have to completely change his lifestyle, his habits, his entire way of thinking vygotsky & luria (1993, p. 74). changes that occur in the social and economic context impact on cognitive development due to individual society dialectical processes. when the social context changes, individuals’ thought processes also change. the vygotsky-luria expedition with the uzbekistan community strikingly illustrates such developmental changes (luria, 1976), which for the purposes of this article underpin the understanding of how socio-cultural, political, and economic changes presently experienced in a particular school in rural zimbabwe have influenced further changes in the thinking of teachers and learners. sociocultural context of formal schooling and cognitive development according to vygotsky, the sociocultural context of formal schooling promotes cognitive development. therefore, the sociocultural context of formal schooling should differ from the everyday social context of learners if it has to facilitate cognitive development. he argues: 7 sibonokuhle ndlovu and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi __________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) school education is qualitatively different from education in the broad sense. at school the child is faced with a particular task to grasp the bases of scientific studies, i.e., a system of scientific conception. the early concepts that have been built in the child in the process of living, and which were assisted by rapport with his social environment, are now switched to a new process, to a new specially cognitive relationship to the world, and so in this process the child’s concepts are transformed and their structure changes. in the development of a child’s consciousness the grasping of the bases of a science-system of concepts now takes the lead (vygotsky, 1978, p. 130). this means that in formal schooling there exists a systematic procedure that specifically promotes cognitive development. this explanation increases an understanding of the school as the socio-cultural context in which cognitive development takes place. the practices of teaching and learning should therefore not be considered in isolation from the cultural context that influences cognitive development. it is important to understand that formal schooling and its conditions influence teaching and learning which, in turn, influence cognitive development in learners. such understanding is critical for explaining the nature of the schooling conditions in rural zimbabwe and their consequences for children’s learning and cognitive development. the main difference between the sociocultural context of formal schooling and that of the everyday context is in the manner of learning and the promotion of cognitive development. learning in the everyday context is spontaneous, and the development of everyday concepts is unconscious. in formal schooling there is a highly systematised way of learning through which the scientific concepts develop. explaining this vygotsky states: spontaneous concepts are those the child learns in the course of his daily life. their learning is not usually made conscious; the child uses such concepts with ease and without any awareness that there is such a thing as a concept. scientific concepts are typically learned in a school setting as a system of knowledge. they have explicit verbal definitions. their learning is made conscious. they are taught in the context of academic subjects such as social studies, language instruction and mathematics (vygotsky, 1987, p. 177). the key distinction between the everyday context and the schooling context is that it is the latter which promotes cognitive development. further extricating the need to distinguish, kuzolin (1990) argues that vygotsky’s distinction between everyday and scientific concepts is inadequate because spontaneous concepts can display a certain degree of systematicity, while much of what is traditionally taught at primary school does not go beyond “nonscientific” empirical generalisations (kozulin, 1990, p. 256). this means that basing the systemic level of learning on the binary distinction of the two contexts on their sources of acquisition as asytematic and systemic is inadequate because they overlap. according to davydov cited by kuzolin (1990), the central discriminating factor between scientific and spontaneous concepts should be their content, which is theoretical for the scientific concepts, and empirical for the everyday spontaneous concepts. thus a distinction is achieved only in teaching and learning where theoretical approaches which differ from empirical approaches are used in formal schooling. this is in agreement with karpov (2003) who argues that scientific knowledge should be taught directly to students rather than “discovered” by them. the type of learning that meets this requirement has been called theoretical learning (karpov, 2003, p. 71). according to this model, it is through 8 the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) theoretical methods that scientific concepts can be learned by learners in formal schooling. this facilitates an understanding of the dominant approaches used in classroom teaching and learning. teaching, learning, and cognitive development explaining the relationship between development and learning as he understood it, vygotsky argued that learning precedes development. this means that learning precedes development, and development occurs only after learning. vygotsky argues that the reason and rationale for this lies with the zone of proximal development (zpd). he defines the zone of proximal development: the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by individual problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). the actual level of development refers to those functions that have matured in a child, enabling him or her to solve problems on his or her own. potential development refers to those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturing. in other words, there are two levels of development in a child—the first and second. when functions at the first level have matured the child is able to solve problems independently. on the second level of development, the functions have not yet matured. they are in the process of maturing. they enable the child to solve problems with assistance from an adult or others more knowledgeable on this level than the child. the zone of proximal development (zpd) is the space between these developmental levels. it is where learning occurs. the zpd concept is a methodological tool in the context of teaching, learning, and development. the idea of the zpd can help teachers to understand at what precise stage learning occurs in a learner. classroom teachers can use it to inform the organisation of their lessons. teachers who utilise the concept of zpd in their teaching can facilitate learning that is oriented towards the cognitive development process of learners because they are targeting the process of learning at the level where development takes place in the learner. vygotsky argues that teaching and learning should target those functions that have not yet matured but are ready to. teaching and learning should not target those functions that have already matured, but instead should take place or be directed at a level above the actual developmental level of the child. these ideas are important in understanding the quality and effectiveness of teaching and learning to promote cognitive development in learners from the vygotskian conception. methodology a case study of one rural primary school was used to carry out this study. the rural context was utilised because the setting is thought to be one of the most vulnerable because of the impact of the present economic crisis. according to the african government report (2009, p. 58), 70% of poor africans live in rural areas, and poverty in the continent is largely a rural phenomenon. the effects of the current conditions of schooling in a rural context should provide the crucial results of what the long term effects of the complex contextual factors on classroom teaching and learning and learner’s development would be. the observation method was used to collect data and was followed up with interviews. the observation and interview methods used enabled the gathering of data useful 9 sibonokuhle ndlovu and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi __________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) to understand how classroom teaching and learning have been adversely affected by the prevailing conditions of schooling. the research design and methodology proved adequate for yielding valid and reliable data which was successfully analysed using theoretically informed interpretations and discussed using the vygotskian theoretical conceptions. findings findings indicate that the classroom teaching and learning in rural zimbabwe was adversely affected by local contextual factors and worsened by the prevailing socio-economic and political problems of zimbabwe. the extent to which classroom teaching and learning in rural zimbabwe have deteriorated is manifested in the contradictions of schooling and its breakdown. the unfavourable conditions manifested in poverty, gross absenteeism, disruptions, and disturbances interfered negatively with learning as less time was spent on teaching and learning. according to vygotsky (1978), developmental processes require special conditions in which to be effectively promoted. for example, cognitive developmental processes such as mediation and internalisation require conditions in which both the teacher and learner are fully participating in the learning activities. instances of absenteeism, hunger, poverty, and/or disruptions resulting from political and economic crises do not provide conditions conducive to learner development. in the vygotsky-luria study, those subjects who participated actively and effectively in schooling activities transformed their thought processes and were even able to classify objects in abstract categorical forms. however, luria (1976) found that the thought processes of those subjects he referred to as “unschooled” were not transformed because of their lack of participation in schooling. similarly the learners in this study lacked the opportunity to participate actively in effective schooling activities during a time of political and economic upheaval, with negative developmental consequences for their thought processes, in particular their development of abstract concepts which remained untransformed and stagnant. moreover according to vygotsky (1978), development precedes learning. cognitive development occurs at the onset of formal school learning. in this instance, disruptions and disturbances negatively affected schooling and formal learning taking place in the classrooms. based on vygotskian’s proposition of learning preceding development, this, in turn, had negative developmental consequences for learners because contextual factors operating in the schooling situation delayed learners reaching vital cognitive developmental milestones. beside the unfavourable conditions that impacted negatively on learners’ learning and cognitive development, the dominant forms of teaching and learning were empirical, characterised by rote memorisation, repetition and drilling. teaching proceeded from and utilised the everyday experiences of learners. this was endorsed as teaching from the “known to the unknown,” meaning the focus was on emphasising what learners already knew in order to teach them what they did not yet know. vygotsky (1978) also acknowledges the usefulness of learners’ prior knowledge in the process of acquiring new knowledge. however, vygotsky (1978) contends that formal schooling should develop scientific knowledge in learners—a kind of knowledge whose acquisition requires a highly systematised procedure and abstraction and generalisation from universal to particular contexts. elaborating on this, kuzolin (1990) explains that scientific concepts proceed from the top to meet the everyday experiences of learners which proceed from the bottom. in essence, to enable learners to acquire scientific knowledge, formal school learning should be structured and facilitated in ways that differ from the spontaneous forms learners use to acquire everyday concepts in their everyday contexts. the empirical 10 the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) approaches that dominated schooling in this study, endorsed as teaching from the “known to the unknown,” did not offer learning opportunities that were different from learners’ spontaneous everyday forms of learning. this had negative developmental consequences for learners because cognitive development arises from systematically mediated experiences of learning presented to learners in abstract forms. the quality of the mediation in the teaching process was also insufficient to promote learners’ learning and cognitive development because of the cognitive level at which lessons were prepared. teaching and learning were matched or tailored to the expected performance level or below of the learners. this was the result of teachers teaching strictly according to the ministry syllabi which provided subject content and was structured according to the curriculum designers’ expectation of learners’ mental developmental stages at different grade levels. in cases where teachers planned their teaching below grade levels, their argument was that these learners’ levels of performance were low. vygotsky (1978) posited that the only “good learning” is that which is in advance of a learner’s development, and this kind of learning takes place in the zpd. learning oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective because it does not aim for, or is not pitched at, a new stage of the developmental processes and lags behind the process. thus the meditational process did not afford learners the necessary developmental gains that occur at the zpd. the cultural practices adopted in the specific tradition of schooling utilized limited meaningful learning activities in the classroom. this resulted in dominant modes of teaching used by teachers to present knowledge to their learners fundamentally shaped by the culture and society in which schooling took place. the relational modes that privileged teacher domination and learner subordination were the cultural traditions of protocol, respect for authority, and corporal punishment that dominated classroom teaching and learning. vygotsky (1978) explained the relationship between culture and the development of higher cognitive functions. according to him, higher psychological functions are not superimposed as a second story over the elementary ones; they represent new psychological systems (vygotsky, 1978, p. 24). in essence, it is during the process of mediating cultural tools and the internalisation of these, that individuals transform their thinking processes. cultural traditions of respect, authority, and protocol did not provide a socio-cultural context in which these cultural tools that transform thinking could be effectively mediated. this lack of mediation could be seen in those kinds of social relationships resulting from respect, authority, and protocol which hindered learners in acquiring the kinds of cultural tools they could use to develop their thought processes. the language tool, for example, a crucial “tool” for the organising of thought processes could not be usefully or effectively developed when learners were not actively involved in the activities of learning. besides hindering the acquisition of cultural tools, passive learning metamorphoses into dependency and authority-based relations between teachers and learners, in which the teacher is seen as the sole source and transmitter of knowledge. the consequence of this is that learners come to depend on the teachers’ interpretation of content matter which in turn leads to rote learning and parroting. the traditional culture of using corporal punishment in schooling has negative psychological implications that impede learners’ learning and cognitive development. vygotsky is particularly opposed to this culture practice, arguing that every form of punishment places both the teacher and the student in the most painful and difficult of positions because neither love nor respect can be preserved between the teacher who is inflicting punishment and the child he is punished (vygotsky, 1997). so corporal punishment 11 sibonokuhle ndlovu and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi __________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) does not foster good teacher-pupil rapport and, in turn, affects the way learners’ learn in the classroom and their cognitive development. developmental gains in learners’ learning and cognitive development are limited by the cultural traditions that negatively influence schooling and consequently the practice of teaching and learning as was the case in this particular schooling. suggestions for improvement this study reveals that teaching and learning in a particular context is fundamentally shaped by the culture and society, in which schooling occurs, privileging teacher domination and learner subordination. the presence of corporal punishment in classroom teaching appears to be the major factor hindering learner participation in learning. it is important first to ensure that teachers understand the negative psychological implications of corporal punishment for learners. workshops educating teachers in the schools about the negative sides of corporal punishment would therefore be recommended. these workshops would encourage teachers to use other forms of punishment equally if not more effective in controlling and modifying learner behavior in the school. for example, teachers can discuss with learners strategies to avoid behaviors such as tardiness that interfere with schooling. learners’ suggestions of ways they can avoid tardiness could result in a code of conduct designed by learners themselves and used to self-regulate. in that respect, both teachers and learners develop and own a code of conduct which helps to guide and monitor the ways learners conduct themselves without enforcement through corporal punishment. this study also recommends use of the zpd to improve the quality of classroom teaching and learning. application of the zpd underpins the process of restructuring and reorganising classroom teaching and learning. this recommendation is based on the vygotskian idea that development is facilitated through teaching and learning pitched at a level above learners’ actual performance levels, and that it is in the zpd that new developmental pathways are opened during learning (vygotsky, 1978). in this particular case, teaching at the level above that of learners’ performance and effectively utilising the zpd may not come easily. teachers would need assistance in determining learner potentials through assessment processes. when teachers determine learner potentials, then they can adjust the level of their teaching and learning to a level above the actual levels of learner performance by using learner potentials as a baseline. this would involve reorganisation of their lesson plans since the lessons would then be based upon both what learners have achieved and what they are able to do. when teaching and learning have been adjusted in this way, it will be possible to offer learners meaningful learning tasks that facilitate their cognitive development. holzman and newman (1993, p. 85) argue that vygotsky left the door open to pragmatic objectification of the zpd, and that it is our task as educators and researchers to close it. vygotsky realised that the use of zpd in teaching and learning is potentially broad and dependent on the context within which it is applied. it is therefore up to the researchers and practitioners in education to see how best they can utilise the zpd to reorganise and restructure teaching and learning. in this case study, vygotsky’s zpd as a method for facilitating learning and the acquisition of knowledge is recommended as a foundation for the process of restructuring and reorganising teaching and learning, and as a means to promote more effective and meaningful cognitive development in learners. conclusion this article investigated the prevailing conditions of schooling and classroom teaching and learning and their effect on schooling in the context of rural zimbabwe. it reveals how 12 the developmental conditions of classroom teaching and learning in a primary school in zimbabwe ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) classroom teaching and learning in rural zimbabwe was adversely affected by local contextual factors and worsened by zimbabwe’s prevailing socio-economic and political problems. what emerged is the extent to which classroom teaching and learning in rural zimbabwe has deteriorated. it also described some cultural practices utilized in schooling that limited meaningful learning in the classroom. the use of vygotsky’s zpd is suggested as one way for teachers to organise pedagogy and potentially improve their learners’ learning and cognitive development. pedagogy informed by vygotsky’s zpd idea would facilitate meaningful learning activities by helping to situate teaching and learning activity at the appropriate level for cognitive development. with the implementation of these suggestions and a view toward facilitating positive changes, classroom teaching and learning in rural zimbabwe could experience and benefit from major improvements that may in turn have long term favorable effects on learners’ learning and cognitive development. references africa news (2007, june 24), “zimbabwean president extols corporal punishment,” m 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(1997). educational psychology. boca raton, fl: st lucie press. usability of computers in teaching and learning promoting teacher ethics in colleges of teacher education in tanzania: practices and challenges william a. l. anangisye, phd. university of dar es salaam, tanzania wanangisye@edu.udsm.ac.tz wanangisye@yahoo.com abstract this paper focuses on the initiatives and challenges of promoting ethics in teacher training colleges. it draws on qualitative data; generated from dar es salaam, iringa and mbeya regions of tanzania in east africa. data collected reflect views of informants, including teacher educators, school teachers, student teachers, school inspectors, teachers service department (tsd) officers, and education officers. the data was generated from both interviews (primary) and documentary (secondary) sources. analysis of data involved data reduction, organization, and interpretation (huberman & miles 1994). the findings unveiled two major initiatives: the use of college regulations and the teaching of religious code of conduct. challenges, on the other hand, ranged from the absence of a course related to teacher ethics, professional “incompetence” of teacher educators, shortage of qualified teachers, lack of resources, the moral problem of society or the irresponsibility of parents and society. the study has concluded that without a well-defined education policy in favour of promoting teacher ethics education, efforts to that effect are doomed to fail. introduction teacher education in tanzania and other nations must prepare and produce not only academically and pedagogically competent teachers, but also professional teachers able to live up to the highest moral standards of their teaching profession. teacher education is a framework through which trainee teachers are oriented to, amongst others; understand what is “good” and what is “bad” or what is “wrong” and what is “right” with reference to day-to-day teaching commitments. the orientation is very important and inevitable for several reasons. ethical questions are complex and relate to humankind: they are ?associated mainly with humans as social beings. as herrick (2003, p.21) indicates: “the social nature of humans creates the need for morality, not from a god but from the nature of human self-responsibility and social inter-relations”. beyond the family, upon graduating teachers are expected, on a regular basis, to relate and associate with, inter alia, pupils ? their immediate clients, and others interested parties in their respective societies. in light of the power that teachers have, especially to “make or ruin our society” (nyerere, 1968; p.228), ethics education is an integral part of the teaching enterprise. since no human being is born with, every person needs to acquire these principles: children do not enter the world compassionate, caring, fair, loving, and tolerant. nor do these qualities emerge in due course like hair on the body or hormones in the endocrine system. rather, moral qualities are learned ?acquired in the course of lived experience (fenstermacher, 1990; p. 132). more importantly, as widely acknowledged in the available literature, the ethical nature and character inherent in teaching and/or education (tom, 1984) necessitate the process of orienting or initiating student teachers into teacher ethics. thus, by virtue of joining the teaching profession or education sector, school, college, and university teachers are obliged to ethical lives. this paper reflects the initiatives or practices that teacher training colleges in tanzania have adopted so far to familiarize trainee teachers with teaching. the paper seeks to establish challenges that teacher training colleges encounter in the promotion and development of teaching ethics. the paper argues that the promotion of teacher ethics among student teachers in teacher training colleges should not be left to the formal established institutions only; it should also be the responsibility of the whole society ? every adult person (walsh, 1995). it is, thus, time we borrowed from the old africa wisdom whereby: “every adult was not only responsible for moral education and development but also a moral exemplar (model) or simply moral values educator” (anangisye, 2008; p.18).   research objectives and questions this study is aimed at establishing the current practices and challenges in the promotion of teacher ethics in teacher training colleges in tanzania. in this regard, the study focused on the following lines of inquiry: i.how do teacher training colleges promote teacher ethics? ii.what are possible challenges that teacher training colleges face in promoting teacher ethics? rationale for the research several educational issues in tanzania justified the need for this paper. first, for decades, curriculum meant for teacher education programmes in tanzania has concentrated mainly on the cognitive and pedagogical domains. ethics, which is equally crucial dimension in the teaching profession, has been largely neglected. as a result, this negligence marginalises the ethical character inherent in education and/or teaching. secondly, there is a growing body of evidence globally indicating that teachers, teacher educators, and lecturers engage in professional misconduct (adelabu 2005; fauske, mullen, & sutton 2006). so often, teachers are implicated in sexual related behaviours (srb) with their clients, theft, and academic dishonesty. in tanzania, scholars have acknowledged widespread cases of professional misconduct amongst school, college and university teachers, and teacher educators (united republic of tanzania, 2001; barrett, 2005; anangisye & barrett, 2005). thirdly, the role of teacher training colleges is not only limited to the production and preparation of enough teachers, but also involves churning out “high-quality teachers who can work effectively with students” (wang, spalding, odell, klecka, & lin, 2010, p.3); and serve a pillars of good moral conduct.          review of related literature various literatures stress the centrality of moral education in teacher training. according to sirotnik (1990, p. 316) “teacher education is more a process of building moral character than a process of building knowledge-based skills, and expertise (not that the latter are unimportant)”. the concern over moral character is indeed a mission of every teacher education facility, irrespective of its geographical location. also, such a duty extends beyond the socio-economic status of the geographical contexts in which teacher educational programmes are executed. the centrality of moral education in teacher training is connected with the ethical character and very nature of the teaching undertaking. whereas many studies widely documented the teaching enterprise in general, scholars, researchers, practitioners, and policy makers specializing in the philosophy of education have normatively raised and addressed the ethical dimension of teaching and/or education in much more specific terms.   elizabeth campbell; in her book entitled the ethical teacher, for example, explicitly acknowledges the inherent ethical character of the teaching enterprise. she indicates that teachers’ moral commitment has a dual character. “the first relates to the exacting ethical standards the teacher as a moral person and a moral professional holds himself or herself do, and the second, concerns the teacher as a moral educator, model, and exemplar whose aim is to guide students towards a moral life” (campbell, 2003; p. 2). the dual nature is possible because teaching is by nature moral (chang, 1994). in the same vein, pring (2001, p.106) asserts that “it is an activity in which the teacher is sharing in a moral enterprise, namely,  the initiation of (usually) young people into a worthwhile way of seeing the world, of experiencing it, of relating to others in a more human and understanding way”. perhaps, more extensively david carr in most of his scholarly works spells out not only the ethical character and nature of teaching but also aspects in which the teaching undertaking is ethically implicated. in professionalism and ethics in teaching, for example, carr argues: teaching seems to differ from many other professions and occupations in so far as the kind of person a teacher is, and the way he or she is inclined to live, appear to have considerable implications for professional practice, not least in respect of that further ethical dimension of moral exemplification which is less conspicuous, if not entirely absent, in the case of such standard professions as medicine and law (carr, 2000; p. 226). hence the ethical character of teaching rests on the fact that it constitutes a human action undertaken mainly for the benefit of human beings (fenstermacher, 1990). equally important is its explicit concern with human needs or public good: “there are persons who by virtue of their membership to [sic] a profession have a moral obligation to provide clients with certain basic needs. this suggests that the need of the provider is secondary to the clients’ needs and interests” (anangisye, 2006; p.191). in this respect, teachers are moral practitioners just as medical doctors and lawyers. whereas doctors and lawyers are concerned with basic needs such as health and justice respectively, teachers are directly concerned with education a basic human right. scholars, especially educational psychologists acknowledge that, although children are born with certain innate endowments, they are not born with ethics or morals. instead, children are ‘taught’ moral qualities which develop as they grow up. parents and other close relatives are responsible for this early moral education. such moral education calls for appropriate nurturing; and exemplary conduct in terms of moral awareness on the part of parents and others (herrick, 2003). in principle, parents are the first engineers of children’s moral education and development. this obligation, however, is not only limited to the family setting since the teaching of moral or ethical values also extends to school and college settings. in countries, such as china, moral education is taught right from elementary school to university (xiaoman & cilin, 2004). so far, there is little doubt that moral education is an integral part of school, or college (see, for example; nyerere, 1968). these educational institutions are agencies with an obligation to provide ethics education to students and raise the necessary awareness on the importance of ethics. whereas the contribution of educational institutions to moral education development is self-evident, scholarship in tanzania appear to have neglected this phenomenon. this inquiry, therefore, was an attempt to study the contribution of teacher training colleges in the provision of ethical or moral education.   research design and methods this is a qualitative research whose framework employed field data on the initiatives and challenges of promoting teacher ethics in teacher training colleges. within the framework of qualitative approach, the case study design informed the research procedures. as it applies to this paper, the design was reflected in what research theorists call a “bounded system” (creswell 1998). the notion of bounded system has to do with boundaries aimed at achieving a detailed exploration of the phenomenon. in this study, the system was defined in terms of geographical settings and teacher training colleges. relevant data was generated from conversations with teacher educators, school ?teachers, trainee teachers, school and college inspectors, and ministry of education officers. the informants were from three geographical regions of tanzania; namely, dar es salaam, iringa, and mbeya. in particular, data pertinent to this paper reflect the experience of informants in five teacher training colleges: al-haramain (dar es salaam), klerruu (iringa), and mpuguso, tukuyu, and uyole lutheran college of education (mbeya). given the eclectic nature of the qualitative inquiry, relevant data was sought using different methods which are as follows: a. primary sources which relied on interactive methods, including informal discussions between the informants and the researcher. the settings for primary data generation varied from homes, occupational offices, long ‘safari’ buses, classrooms, and under trees. b. secondary sources, on the other hand, included journal articles, books, policy documents, theses, booklets, and ‘grey’ literature from college and education offices. equally relevant were electronic documents retrieved from the internet. these varied sources provided the researcher with relevant data with diverse viewpoints. in the light of the above, the researcher utilized interviews, discussions and conversations as the major and reliable means for the data generation. this approach is usually implicated in the so-called dialectical method (heyting 2001), owing much to philosophical developments in the analytical tradition of socrates and plato. in the present context, the method focused mainly on one-to-one conversations. the method involved both in situ and telephone conversations between the researcher and the informants. the method was aimed at giving informants freedom (legard, keegan, & ward 2003) and confidence in expressing their ideas. two relevant themes regarding initiatives and challenges of promoting teacher ethics informed the conversations. the researcher also used both note taking and a tape recording the conversations. furthermore, documents regarding the initiatives and challenges of promoting teacher ethics in teacher training colleges were subjected to a critical examination. the documents included scheme of works, college joining instructions, and online documents such as colleges’ mottos and missions. equally crucial was the analysis of the curriculum for teacher training programmes. the focus was on the extent to which the curriculum for teacher education addresses issues of professional ethics. data analysis data generated from  interviews and documents was analysed thematically at the outset of fieldwork. it focused on transcribed conversations (interviews), field notes made during and after interviews, and documentary evidence. this data analysis involved three main stages (huberman & miles, 1994). the first stage is data reduction which involved transcribing and summarising the data from all sources. data reduction was conducted on a daily basis. this enabled the researcher to assess the methods and strategies of data generation, and make necessary adjustments. the second involved organising the reduced data, generating major themes and sub-themes from oral and written texts. the third stage covered the interpretation and drawing of conclusions from the analysed data. the primary units of analysis were informants and written texts. although the data pertinent to this study was derived from diverse community settings within tanzania, the country was used as the unit of analysis. hence the conclusions in this study are generalised to the whole country. generalization of findings was possible because teacher education largely draws on a centralised curriculum. as noted elsewhere, philosophical tools of analysis informed data analysis and interpretation process. central to such analysis was the conceptual analysis whose aim according to chambers, takes into accounts the primacy of relevant concepts to understand the problem: “because concepts are so crucial to our thinking, confused concepts will cause us to think in confused or crooked ways. such crooked thinking will lead us often into crooked action; such mistaken action will often occur in school life” (chambers, 1983; p. 14).    research findings findings resulting from the conversations and a critical study of relevant documents indicated varied views, feelings, and experiences regarding the initiatives undertaken to promote and develop teacher ethics in teacher training colleges. teacher practices and college regulations findings in this study indicated that all the teacher training colleges involved in the study had regulations document on promoting professional teacher attitudes and ethics. the document serves as guidelines for dos and don’ts for trainee teachers which are provided to every trainee upon arrival to the campus. in addition, college regulations are posted on all notice-boards in areas with large concentrations of students such as libraries, halls of residence, dining halls, and assembly halls. these documents seek to create awareness on the trainee teacher responsibilities at these colleges, as well as regulate how they should conduct themselves, both as trainee and graduate teachers, because good conduct is mandatory for all students within and outside the college premises. in addition, all the first year trainee teachers get academic and general counselling upon arrival on campus. the principal, the dean of students, and other authorities at the teacher training colleges seize this opportunity to remind the freshmen of the college regulations, in terms of their daily conduct and academic responsibilities after matriculation. for example, a dean of students (also, a teacher educator) in one of the teacher training colleges sampled, explained thus: we wait until all new teacher trainees have reported; what we do is to give [them] instructions. usually there are two or three days of instructing them on all areas of life. we encourage them to get used to the college environment. meanwhile we give them information on college guidelines, rules and regulations to follow in terms of conduct. as they are from different cultural backgrounds and environments, we expect that the guidelines, rules and regulations will be of help to them. this is important because some of them are funny people, drunkards and hooligans. therefore, we inform and instruct them (teacher educator informant) on the need for professionalism. it is evident that college regulations aimed at giving directions to trainee teachers on the level of professionalism expected of them. this suggests that trainee teachers are expected to begin displaying qualities of a good teacher while at college. all undesirable behaviour is discouraged. for example, there are consequences and punitive measures for violating college rules and regulations which includes suspension, or dismissal, depending on the nature of the offences committed. also, colleges rewarded students that demonstrated exemplary behaviour on campus during the final year graduation ceremonies. the emphasis of the regulations tended to vary from one teacher training college to another. through the ministry of education, vocational and training (moevt), the government of tanzania grants every teacher training college autonomy to formulate its own policy regulations according to the college’s environment; for instance, in klerruu, mpuguso, tukuyu, and uyole lutheran teacher training colleges. the central themes of their regulations can be summed up as follows. all trainee teachers are obliged to observe college rules and regulations, respect and obey their trainers, respect work or duty, care for college or public property and the environment, observe personal hygiene and maintain discipline, and cordial relationships. the rules include, respect of national laws and regulations, maintain academic standards, and avoid alcohol abuse. as noted elsewhere, failure to follow these rules and regulations may lead to adverse consequences: every student is obliged to observe and follow delineated guidelines, rules and regulations to ensure that harmony and understanding is sustained in the college. failure to adhere to the guidelines, rules and regulations will result in the student being punished or discontinued, depending on the misconduct (klerruu college of teacher education). similarly, college teacher educators must abide by college rules and regulations. besides classroom teaching, teacher educators are supposed to enforce professional ethics by being models of moral conduct (fallona, 2000; fovo, 1965). in principle, each one of them is responsible and accountable for the conduct of student teachers. indeed, teacher educators are mirrors of good conduct for trainee teachers. in this regard, a dean of students explains the responsibilities of an ideal college teacher educator as follows:   teacher educators are supposed to be committed in carrying out their professional responsibilities to the nation. thus, they [must] teach concisely, empower them and ensure that they help a student teacher to become a future leader; knowing that such persons are required to defend the nation morally and train young people for the nation’s development (teacher educator informant). given this perception, the question is to what extent are college teacher educators, professional models for their student? during an interview with another teacher informant from the same college, the researcher found that there were several cases of professional misconduct amongst the trainers expected to be moral models.  in the same vein, wedgwood (2006) found that teacher trainers do not always arrive on time for teaching their students. unfortunately, the interviewee (dean of trainee teachers) was not prepared to discuss thoroughly such cases.  yet, when asked how the college handled these problems, he stated that usually they summon the culprit and attempt to reform him or her. at another college, the researcher came across (through observation) a case of shabbily dressed alcoholic teacher educator. this educator was disruptive on campus while classes were in session. this disruptive behaviour distracted the students and tarnished the image of teacher educator as a role model. whereas private and public colleges of teacher education have many things in common regarding professional regulations, the gravity attached to these regulations when it comes to enforcing varied considerably. private colleges, especially, those owned by or affiliated to religious organisations had religious provisions in their regulations. the regulations of uyole lutheran college of teacher education (ulcte), for example, have christian orientation in promoting morality and ethics in their curriculum. the teaching of religion the findings of the present research also disclosed that some teacher training colleges (of the 48 of these colleges, 12 were religious-based and owned by either christian or muslim institutions) offered a religion studies as a subject in the curriculum in addition to the professional courses. in these institutions, the religious course was a compulsory subject for every teacher trainee, regardless of his or her religious background. the focus of the curriculum on religion varied significantly from one college to another. naturally, the subject matter taught in muslim colleges differed from that of christian religion. there were also notable differences in the curriculum of church affiliated colleges. for example, roman catholic and lutheran church-owned colleges offered different concentrations on religious aspects although the institutions basically seek to promote christian values. college teacher educator informants revealed that the teaching of religion alongside other courses was well organised, like in ulcte. incorporating religion into the curriculum was essentially aimed at promoting the moral values of trainee teachers. two kinds of ethics are represented in the teaching of religion in teacher training colleges: ‘traditional ethics’ and biblical ethics. traditional ethics cover the following sub-topics: the definition of ethics and the aims of ethical conduct in africa. ‘biblical understanding of ethics’, on the other hand, focuses on three sub-topics: the source of moral knowledge as revelation, personal standards of goodness, and moral teachings (scheme of work for religion knowledge, ulcte). these aspects are taught from a christian perspective, which advocates the promotion of christian culture and values. thus, teachers graduating from these colleges are expected to teach, as well as serve as messengers of the christian faith.   for the muslim colleges, the course is called ‘islamic knowledge’ taught as an interdisciplinary subject alongside other professional courses. like other religious institutions, islamic colleges inculcate islamic values and norms into trainee teachers. such values and norms are usually embedded in the mission statement of the colleges: to produce morally upright, highly responsible, aware and educated teachers who on their part will strive hard to teach with sacrifice and full dedication to establish a god-conscious, peaceful, justice-loving, and educated community; by eradicating the three major enemies of the society, namely "the three evil ‘is’: ignorance, injustice and immorality" (dodoma muslim college, n.d.). [publisher's note: the url for this document has been removed to protect readers from malware infection.] whereas religious affiliated teacher training colleges have organised approaches to teaching religion, government-owned colleges do not have such provision. however, this does not preclude religious activities from these colleges. these religious activities are run by student teachers under the guardianship of their teacher trainers who primarily serve as advisers. usually, trainee teachers organise these religious activities along denominational, inter-denominational, or religious lines. religious groups in which trainee teachers participate include the tanzania young christian student, -‘umoja wa kikristo wa wanafunzi tanzania’(students’ christian union of tanzania), iringa pentecostal youth association, christ ambassador students’ fellowship of tanzania, and muslim associations. these activities are part of college’s extracurricular activities pursued to promote religious values. according to an official guideline, “provision is made on the timetable for students to follow a course in religious education according to their particular persuasion” (united republic of tanzania, 1976; p.17). in view of the foregoing discussion on the teaching of religion in teacher training colleges, one fundamental question is: does one need religion to be ethical? the role of religious values in making trainee teachers (or even teachers) ethical or helping them behave professionally is -to some extentuncertain. after all, the conduct of immoral religious leaders highlights the moral dilemma of our society, especially in a secular institution. today, some religious ministerspeople held in high esteem as custodians of morality and models of good conduct, are often implicated in immoral practices. such occurrences have made the role of religious norms and values in reducing misconduct amongst trainee teachers subjective. challenges in promoting and developing teacher ethics arguably, promoting teacher ethics is a means through which to curb misdemeanors likely to arise amongst school, college, and university teachers. however, the initiatives in place at teacher training colleges aimed at promoting teacher ethics notwithstanding, there are challenges that seem to undermine such efforts. research findings reveal levels of challenges that these colleges encounter as follows: absence of a course in professional ethics: generally, “teachers ought to be professionally trained in colleges where one learns ethics of the teaching industry” (mwaimu, 2001; p. 22). for many years, however, courses on teacher ethics have been glaringly absent from the curriculum of teacher education and training. the colleges, departments, or faculties of education did not have specific and separate courses on teacher ethics. the focus was on other education courses: the teaching/learning process (through specific subjects, curriculum studies, psychology and guidance and counselling); pedagogical knowledge (understanding the learner and the theories of learning); classroom management; preparation and use of teaching/learning materials; basic knowledge in ict (mhando 2006, p.3). in such courses, the place of teacher ethics is not well-defined. as teacher ethics is not well-defined in the curriculum itself, the teaching of such a subject is not guaranteed. often times, the teaching of teacher ethics in such a situation depends on the interest of the teacher responsible for the course. in fact until 2003, the curriculum for teacher education had little provision for teacher ethics. things have since changed because now tanzanians can at least speak of professional ethics in the curriculum for the preparation of licensed secondary school teachers, and even certificate level elementary teachers referred to as grade iiia teachers in tanzania. the provision of professional ethics in the school curriculum is undermined by poor implementation. in fact, the new school syllabus containing a sub-topic on professional ethics was not in use at the time of data collection for this study. in all colleges that the researcher visited teacher educators were still using the old syllabus and had no idea that the new one was now available. when the researcher asked curriculum developers and designers at the tanzania institute of education (tie) why the new syllabus was not in effect in teacher training colleges despite having been released in 2003, they explained that tie designed and developed curriculum but the ministry (moevt) was responsible for distributing it to the colleges. hence, lack of implementation of the new curriculum is attributable to management and administrative snags that implementing agencies face.    professional ‘incompetence’ of college teacher educators:  some informants identified the incompetence of college tutors as a challenge to teaching ethics to reinforce teachers’ professionalism. in the absence of specific courses in professional ethics, colleges and universities tended to churn out half-baked school and college teachers to teach without the required competence. it was generally difficult for college teachers to teach teacher ethics when they were not adequately exposed to them during their training at college or university. trainers are also often confused when it comes to identifying the course in which to include the component to teacher ethics. in some cases, college and practising teacher informants identified educational psychology as compatible with the teaching of ethics. in particular, teachers mentioned ethics as part of the teaching of ‘personality’ psychology. this problem arises for two major reasons. firstly, teacher training colleges did not have a course in teacher ethics. as a result, they could hardly draw a clear distinction between the subject matter of the discipline and other courses. secondly, since the curriculum did not have a provision for such a distinctive course, teachers in colleges used different lessons to introduce student teachers to the aspects of teacher ethics. shortage of qualified teachers: the shortage of qualified public school and college teachers affects the teaching of ethics. this teacher shortage problem has forced the government, through the moevt, to adopt fire-brigade strategies to recruitment, including hiring ‘unqualified’ teachers. such initiatives like reducing the teacher-training period, which in turn affects the quality of the teachers produced for the public schools. recently, the government reduced the training period for grade iiia teachers from two years to a year. this crash programme was part of the 2002-2006 primary education development programme (pedp) initiatives. the programme was aimed at easing acute shortage of qualified teachers in primary schools. another alternative to the problem was to employ graduates from universities and other institutions of higher learning that did not possess any basic professional teaching qualifications. these ‘non-teachers’ were placed in secondary schools and education administrative offices, which dealt with key decisions or policies pertaining to the operations of teachers. some of these recruits ended up teaching in teacher training colleges, the very institutions that prepare professional teachers. in an interview with the assistant director of the directorate of teacher education at moevt, it was learnt that the original plan was to have such employees undertake postgraduate programmes in education at some stage:  since we have a dire need for teachers, as you know the number of schools has gone up drastically, we desperately look for teachers, we say we can take you but after a certain time we will send you to a postgraduate diploma in education (pgde) for those that do not have training in teaching so as they get professional skills. this is where all problems began (education officer, moevt). before these individuals get an opportunity to undergo professional training, they spend a lot of time teaching in schools and colleges. data from the field revealed that some of these unqualified teachers had taught for more than four years without getting any basic training in teaching. all these counterproductive measures undermine the central mission of teacher training colleges of promoting teacher ethics. the question is: whose ethics do such non-teaching professionals entrusted with the responsibility of preparing teachers perpetuate? it should be emphasized here that these people represent diverse specializations, including engineering, horticulture, sociology, political science, commerce, home economics, economics, food science, and agriculture, but without basic teaching qualifications. it is pertinent to note that by employing every jobless degree holder in the teaching profession to resolve the teaching staff crisis makes the task of promoting teacher or professional ethics difficult. lack of teaching materials and resources: teacher training colleges involved in the study also lacked relevant teaching and learning resources for different courses. with the exception of the university of dar es salaam library, the premier institutions of higher learning in tanzania offering teacher education; no other college libraries had books, journals, and other literature relevant to the teaching of teacher ethics. actually, this problem cuts across almost all disciplines. in colleges, trainee teachers solely relied on notes from their educators. findings from interviews indicated that the offices of the teachers’ service department (tsd) also lacked such resources on teacher ethics. as a result, district departments of the tsd failed to passing on relevant information pertaining to teacher ethics to all teachers. on this aspect, one of the informants explained: i think the problem is funding. if there was money we would be able to purchase and issue booklets that consisted of information about teacher ethics to all teachers. for the time being not all teachers get copies of such materials. for example, we were given forty copies of booklets for the whole district. i have about two hundred primary schools in this district (tsd officer). this anomaly suggests that trainee teachers who do not have exposure to relevant courses on teacher ethics also lack opportunities to familiarize themselves with ethical issues of the teaching profession once they become teachers. though there is no evidence to confirm that practising teachers would have time to read these books when available, the presence of such resources could serve as a stopgap measure and motivation for them to at least read something on teacher ethics. when it comes to time management, there is ample evidence suggesting that some teachers did not prepare themselves for lessons, citing lack of time. however, these same teachers spent most of their time on other activities to supplement their meagre income (sambo, 2001). the moral problem of society: during the fieldwork, there were informants that identified moral problems in society as a serious impediment to promoting teacher ethics in teacher training colleges or even amongst practising teachers in tanzania. there was evidence that immoral practices found in the society at large tend to find their way in different training institutions as well: the environment has changed from the past. sometimes people behave according to environmental influence. the society has great influences on people coupled with the economic environment which is different today. demands have also changed so much so that sometimes teachers’ behaviour is a response to social demands (school and college inspector). this signifies that misdemeanours in the teaching enterprise may be a reflection of the present societal social ills. it is arguable that trainee teachers from a morally depraved society in which, related misdeeds, corruption, and theft are pervasive (kaduma, 2004) can be affected by these social evils in some way. moreover, upon graduation these trainee teachers (now in colleges) have to work in already corrupt communities, a situation compounded by the fact that they have to work with unprofessional teachers and other corrupt or irresponsible members of the public. in such a scenario, one has just to imagine the type of candidates that teacher training colleges in tanzania receive. thus, the promotion of teacher ethics extends beyond the narrow confines of the corridors of teacher training colleges since what is happening in the wider society has a spill-over effect on the training of teachers, as well as the environment in which they have to work. irresponsibility of parents and society: writing from experience in america,walsh (1995, p. 23) reveals that “family sociologists calculate that parents are spending forty percent less time interacting with their children today that they did in 1950”. research findings disclosed that parental irresponsibility in raising their children was another challenge to promoting teacher ethics. consequently, some of these children find their ways into teacher training colleges, and later into the teaching profession as teachers in schools, teacher educators in colleges, or lecturers at universities. what does this imply as far as the provision of teacher ethics to professional teachers is concerned? firstly, teacher preparation is a shared responsibility that involves not only teacher educators but also other stakeholders such as parents and members of community at large. secondly, there is need to promote dialogues on children’s moral awareness, education, and development across and among different stakeholders, including parents and guardians. conclusions and recommendations in the light of the findings of the research, it is concluded that the promotion of teacher ethics in tanzania and related societies is a responsibility of both teacher training colleges and other stakeholders. as such, it requires the concerted efforts of the mass media, religious institutions, and families or every adult in society. in this regards, the researcher recommends the following: first, teacher training colleges should make courses on teacher and professional ethics mandatory. such courses expose trainee teachers to ethics pertaining to their vocation and lead exemplary lives worthy of their teaching profession. as ishumi (2009, pp.6-7) asserts: the school must demonstrate the highest possible level of integrity in its approach to preparing young teachers-to-be for their responsibility and service to the three clearly defined categories of clients; the learner, society and the immediate community; their profession; and their employer, be it the state or private other employer. secondly, the foundation of the ethical conduct of teachers is to a certain degree laid by parents and guardians during childhood. as berger (1991, p. 122) points out, “parents are teachers of their own children”. without appropriate moral education at home and positive transition, trainee teachers will find it difficult to change their conduct in only two or three years of teacher training. truly, “when a child first comes to school at the age of six or seven, such individual has already developed some character traits, and has absorbed some ideas through life in the family” (nyerere, 1968; p.40). the foregoing excerpt suggests that teacher trainers have the responsibility to promote and develop character traits that trainee teachers already posses when they join teacher training colleges. thirdly, facts from the discussions indicate that there is an urgent need for a well-defined teacher education policy and effective regulations for all institutions in accordance with national ethics and patriotism. this policy should inform a common practice regarding the teaching of professional ethics in teacher training colleges. references adelabu, m. a. 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(2004). teacher training for moral education in china. journal of moral education, 33 (4), 481-494. ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria solomon o. makinde lagos state university, nigeria omawumi o. makinde lagos state university, nigeria oludare a. shorunke ondo state university of science and technology, nigeria abstract this study contributes to the limited research available on information and communication technology (ict) literacy of language teachers in nigeria. the advent of ict brought new opportunities that require a skill set to operate better and faster, even in the education sector. the case for teachers’ ict literacy is cogent in the information age to update them on their areas of specialization. the use of ict requires some skills to enhance the access and retrieval of the required information without undue stress. the level of ict skills a teacher possesses may affect the extent to which the teacher puts ict to use. this study revealed that majority of the respondents made use of ict resources. the study revealed that aggregately a large proportion of the teachers are ict literate. this study made recommendations to improve ict skills training and access to ict resources. keywords: ict literacy, language teachers, secondary schools, teacher training, teacher development, school libraries, nigeria ict. introduction the advent of information and communication technology (ict) has brought new opportunities. this however requires certain skill sets to explore the embedded benefits ict has to offer the education sector, especially in teaching and learning activities. in fact, the education sector worldwide is now being opened to ict in contrast to what used to be the case over a decade ago where there were substantial numbers of teachers who had negative or obnoxious feelings about computers in the classroom (ahrenfelt and watkin, 2008). ict for example, offers a range of different tools for use in schools and can enhance both practical and theoretical aspects of language teaching and learning. it has therefore become an 2 ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) necessary component that is infused into teaching and learning in secondary schools (aiyebelehin, 2012). ict brings about innovation in the teaching and learning processes as it improves lifelong learning habits in students. moreover, amri (2001) identified certain areas of ict as important for language teachers, for example, the use of a word processor, e-mail, and multimedia. some of the available ict applications and facilities that can be used to enhance learning, make lessons interesting and enliven the classroom in a language class include, but are not limited to, interactive boards and presentation applications, such as microsoft powerpoint, adobe photoshop, corel draw, and picasa. these and many more may be adopted by language teachers to enhance their effectiveness and relevance in the knowledge society where emphasis is placed on intellectual capabilities (to use ict effectively) and not on physical input of available (ict) resources. the use of such resources is however dependent on availability, accessibility, skills, and ease of use (adetimirin, 2011). research conducted on young people showed a remarkable trend, it revealed that children retain 20% of what they hear, 40% of what they see and hear, and 75% of what they see and do. ict use in the classroom in developing countries is still in its infancy. its overall effectiveness needs to be enhanced by better software and hardware as well as greatly increased availability. (aktaruzzaman, shamim, & clement, 2011). when used appropriately, different ict facilities help expand access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and raise educational quality by helping to make teaching and learning an engaging and active process connected to real life. the use of ict will prove beneficial in improving nigeria's educational system and giving students memorable lessons if applied properly. a technologically advanced workforce will lead to ict growth in nigeria, with the potential to improve military technology and telecommunications, media communications, and skilled ict professionals who will be well equipped to solve it problems in nigeria and other parts of the world (goshit, 2006; adomi and kpangban, 2010). aiyebelehin (2012) studied the influence of teachers’ information needs on ict use in schools in oyo state and found that, computer, multimedia boards, projectors, telephones, internet, scanners, and photocopiers were used by teachers. further from his findings the largest percentage of computer users (57.26%) reported to be monthly users, the largest percentage of multimedia users (52.56%) reported to be occasional users, and the largest percentage of projector users 125 (53.42%) reported to be occasional users. adetimirin (2011 citing mlitwa, 2004) agreed that ict has the capability to enhance teaching and learning through improved interaction across cultures, among students, among academics, and between these groups. ict brought about the era of the “boundary-less” classroom, thereby extending the frontiers of knowledge dissemination beyond the four walls of the traditional classroom and as such, a need to spearhead this new era by ict literate “teachers without borders”. any educational system in the world with teachers, who are masters of their subject matter and ict literate, has the capability to revamp and revitalize the educational system by infusing novelty into the dissemination of instructional content. integrating ict into teaching methodology in the curriculum modules may further enhance the competencies and skills of teachers for greater performance. garnishing the language curriculum with applicable ict in our environment is a starting point. this may call for a departure from the meagre 8% of the annual budget apportioned to the educational sector in nigeria, while comparatively other countries like ghana allocate 31% of their annual budget to education. going by unesco standard, developing countries like nigeria should allocate at least 26% of its annual budget to education. solomon o. makinde, omawumi o. makinde, and oludare a. shorunke 3 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) teachers have great influence on students through the learning process and can enhance pupils’ cognitive growth (ogunsaju, 2009). as learning in the ict age no longer restricted to the four walls of the classroom, students with internet enabled mobile phones can do basic searches online and obtain information that may not be within the teacher’s reach at the point of disseminating the instructional content. teachers must as a result exploit ict with comparable or better technology to enliven their lessons; thereby facilitating better assimilation of the instructional content and keeping teachers abreast of current updates in their subject of specialization. language teachers are responsible for developing students’ abilities in reading, writing, listening, and speaking of the language being taught and as such should be in the forefront of leveraging technology in the classroom. moreover, amiri (2000) opined that there is general agreement among teachers and teacher educators that information technology (it) has become so important, both in our everyday lives and in education, that it is necessary for teachers to know how to use it effectively in their teaching. therefore, the purpose of language teaching goes beyond memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary, or even the development of individual communication skills. rather, the purpose of language teaching, and indeed of any educational process, is to enhance the human and social development of students and their broader community (warschauer, 2004). this broader function of language education is one of the reasons why the use of technology in instruction can be so important. through the introduction of technology, language students can master the kinds of information and communication media that will allow them to use the language being taught in potentially powerful ways, such as for national and international communication, investigation and research knowledge production and dissemination, and publication of texts and multimedia documents (shetzer &warschauer, 2000; warschauer, 2004). knowing that language teachers need to be ict literate is one thing, another salient need is the maintaining of updated ict knowledge because ict is continually evolving. in an international ict literacy panel report (2002), they defined ict literacy as “using digital technology, communication tools, and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information in order to function in a knowledge society.” the report expanded further on the five critical components embedded in the definition of ict literacy, for instance, access is knowing about and how to collect and/or retrieve information; to manage involves the application of an existing organizational or classification scheme; to integrate connotes interpreting and representing information and it involves summarizing, comparing and contrasting; to evaluate is the ability to make judgments about the quality, relevance, usefulness or efficiency of information; and creation is the generation of information by adapting, applying, designing, inventing or authoring information. however, ict literacy for the purpose of this study is the ability to choose, evaluate, and use the existing computer based materials, both those developed specifically for language learning and otherwise. in fact, the demand for computer and ict literacy is increasing in nigeria because employers realize that computers and other ict facilities can enhance efficiency. on the other side, employees have realized that lack of computer knowledge can be a threat to their jobs, and the only way to enhance job security is to become computer literate. with the high demand for computer literacy, teaching and learning these skills are concerns among professionals (adomi and kpangban, 2010). teachers’ ict literacy is a foundational skill in the information age in order for them to stay current in their areas of specialization. they can exploit ict to complement print resources available in their various school libraries and to retrieve information relevant to the achievement of academic goals. the global information technology report 2013 and the national information technology development agency website revealed that nigeria does not have an ict policy. however, nigeria’s national 4 ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) information communication technology (ict) policy draft (2012) is available in the public domain. this document places emphasis on the introduction of ict training at all school levels through the development of specialized training institutes. it also provides for computer and internet access in public facilities, such as post offices, schools, and libraries. ahrenfelt and watkin (2008) averred that a major impediment to ict use by teachers is lack of time to experiment with technology. invariably, good progress in the utilization of ict requires an investment of time. they further noted that many schools have computers, but the problem is access to them. computer rooms are often booked for ict lessons only, but some other subjects also need them. the implication of this situation is limited access for classes offered by teachers of other subjects. similarly, aiyebelehin (2012) reported on some of the challenges teachers face in the use of ict and found that lack of time (80%), inefficiency of teachers’ technical knowledge (77%), deficiency in professional development opportunity for gaining knowledge and skills (54%), and traditional teaching beliefs (54%) were reported to be the major constraints to the teachers’ use of ict. we believe that ict has the potential to enhance learning, teaching, information distribution, and educational services. in this regard, educational institutions should significantly revise present teaching practices and resources to create a more effective learning environment, and improve the lifelong learning skills and habits in their students. it is quite disheartening to note that the computer is not part of the classroom in more than 90% of nigerian public schools (okebukola, 1997 cited in adomi & kpangban, 2010). this appears to remain the case in lagos state public schools, which observations revealed the presence of computer rooms’ locked up and opened for inspection purposes only. this study therefore seeks to assess the extent of ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools within the lagos metropolis. research objectives and questions the objectives of the study were: 1) to assess the available ict facilities in the schools; 2) to assess the level of accessibility to ict in the schools; 3) to identify the academic purposes for which the respondents use ict; 4) to assess the ict literacy level of the teachers; and 5) to identify constraints to ict literacy. the following research questions were addressed in this study: 1) what are the available ict facilities in the schools? 2) what is the level of accessibility to ict in the schools? 3) what are the academic purposes for which the respondents use ict? 4) what is the ict literacy level of the teachers? 5) what are the constraints to ict literacy of respondent? research methodology pellegrino, chudowsky, and glaser (2001) proposed that effective assessment has, as its core, three features: a detailed description of the thing (construct) being assessed; a set of assessment materials that are developed in relation to the description; and the process of generating suitable inferences from the information that the assessment yields. in the case of our study, our instrument (a closed ended questionnaire) covered sections on respondents’ demography, available ict facilities in the schools, accessibility to ict in the schools, academic purposes for which the respondents use ict, ict literacy of the teachers, source of ict literacy and the constraints to ict literacy. the study adopted the descriptive survey design. eighteen (18) secondary schools in ojo local government of lagos state were solomon o. makinde, omawumi o. makinde, and oludare a. shorunke 5 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) purposively selected and a sample size of 200 was selected based availability at the time the instrument was administered. data collected were analyzed using the statistical package for social science (spss) for the analysis to get frequency and percentages. results questionnaires were distributed to 200 respondents but 175 were returned giving a response rate of 87.5%. information on gender distribution of the respondents revealed that 79 (45.1%) of the respondents were male, 92 (52.6%) were female, while 4 (2.3%) did not indicate their gender (table 1). table 1: gender distribution of respondents gender id frequency percent 0 (unreported) 4 2.3 1 (male) 79 45.1 2 (female) 92 52.6 total 175 100.0 table 2 revealed the qualification of respondents with majority being holders of bachelor’s degree 93(53.1%), nce 43(24.6%), master 36(20.6%) and ph.d. 2(1.1%) table 2: qualifications of respondents academic qualification frequency percent nce 43 24.6 bachelor’s degree 93 53.1 master 36 20.6 ph.d. 2 1.1 others 1 0.6 total 175 100.0 table 3 showed the earnings of the respondent in naira. it revealed that a large proportion of the teachers earn between 18,000 30,000 (24.6%), 31,000 – 40,000 (24.0%), and 41,000 – 50,000 (22.3%) per month and slightly more than a quarter (29.2%) earning 51,000 or more. table 3: salary information of respondents earnings in naira per month frequency percent 18,000 – 30,000 43 24.6 31,000 – 40,000 42 24.0 41, 000 – 50,000 39 22.3 51,000 – 60,000 19 10.9 61,000 – 70,000 2 1.1 71,000 – 80,000 4 2.3 91,000 – 100,000 7 4.0 101, 000 and above 19 10.9 total 175 100.0 table 4 revealed that a large percentage of the respondents indicated the availability of computer systems 170 (97.1%), followed by printers 127 (72.6%), telephone 120 (68.6%), 6 ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) photocopiers 104 (59.4%), scanners 97 (55.5%), and the internet 81(46.3%). a smaller proportion of the respondent indicated the availability of multimedia projectors 59 (33.7%) and interactive boards 44 (25.1%). table 4: available ict facilities in schools ict facilities available % not available % computer system 170 97.1 5 2.9 internet 81 46.3 94 53.7 multimedia projector 59 33.7 116 66.3 telephone 120 68.6 55 31.4 interactive board 44 25.1 131 74.9 photocopier 104 59.4 71 40.6 printer 127 72.6 48 27.4 scanner 97 55.5 78 44.5 regarding the teachers’ source of access to ict, the majority of respondents (72%) made use of a computer laboratory, while smaller percentages of respondents accessed ict through cybercafés (16%), business centers (14.3%), and from home (12.6%). table 5 showed a varied response pattern to the frequency of ict use by the teachers. however most users of computer systems 103(58.9%), telephones 82(46.8%), internet 55(32.1%), multimedia projectors 59(34.5), interactive boards 58(30.3%) and printer 47(28.1%) reported to be daily users. the largest percentage of users of photocopiers 52 (29.7%) and scanners 51 (31.8%) reported to be weekly users. table 5: frequency of ict use by teachers ict dai ly % wee kly % every 2 wks % occasi onally % ne ver % computer 103 58.9 21 12.0 6 3.4 31 17.7 14 8.0 internet 55 32.1 36 21.6 6 3.5 43 25.1 35 20.5 multimedia projector 59 34.5 37 21.6 10 5.8 30 17.5 39 22.8 telephone 82 46.8 33 18.9 9 5.1 19 10.9 32 18.5 interactive board 58 30.3 25 14.3 12 6.9 36 20.6 49 28.0 photocopier 41 23.4 52 29.7 13 7.4 44 25.1 25 14.3 printer 47 28.1 38 22.8 6 3.6 53 31.7 23 13.8 scanner 39 24.0 51 31.8 8 3.2 43 26.6 34 10.5 the academic purposes for which the respondents use ict, table 6 showed that a majority 115(65.7%) reported they used ict to get feedback on lessons taught from students, 113 (64.6%) made use of ict to disseminate assignments to students, 112(64%) made use of ict to deliver the instructional content to students, 106(60.6%) to chat with students through social media, and 84(48%) to send emails to students. however, a very small proportion of the teachers 65(37.1%) made use of ict to send text messages to students, and 47(27%) reported the use of ict to make calls to students. solomon o. makinde, omawumi o. makinde, and oludare a. shorunke 7 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) table 6: academic purpose for which respondent used ict? academic purpose of using ict true % not true % to make calls to my students 47 27.0 127 73.0 to send text message to my students 65 37.1 110 62.9 to send emails to my students 84 48.0 91 52.0 to chat with my students through social media (facebook, 2go, twitter, whatsapp, pinging) 106 60.6 69 39.4 to pass the instructional content to my student 112 64.0 63 36.0 to disseminate assignment to my students 113 64.6 62 35.4 to get feedback on lesson taught from my students 115 65.7 60 34.2 on the duration of use of ict, majority of the respondents used ict between 1 to 2 years 62(35.4%), 36(20.6%) used ict for less than 6months while 26(14.9%) indicated the duration of use to be between 2 to 5years, the same proportion of respondents 26(14.9) indicated that they had been using ict for over five years and 25(14.3%) had been using ict for 6 to 12months. on accessibility of ict in the schools, the response pattern is varied as revealed in table 7. a majority of the respondents indicated that computer systems 102(58.3%), telephones 57 (32.3), multimedia projectors 50(28.6%), the internet 47 (26.7%) and scanner 42(28.4) are very highly accessible. this was followed by 60(45.8%) and 54(30.9) of teachers who mentioned that printers and photocopies were highly accessible. however a large proportion of the respondents 50(28.6) reported that interactive board had no accessibility. table 7: level of ict facilities accessibility in the schools access to ict vha* % ha* % ma* % la* % na % computer system 102 58.3 26 14.9 23 13.1 12 6.9 12 6.9 internet 47 26.9 44 25.1 20 11.4 33 18.9 31 17.7 multimedia projector 50 28.6 38 21.7 30 17.1 18 10.3 39 22.3 telephone 57 32.6 47 26.9 13 7.4 19 10.9 39 22.3 interactive board 40 22.9 45 25.7 28 16.0 12 6.9 50 28.6 photocopier 43 24.6 54 30.9 25 14.3 23 13.1 30 17.1 printer 39 23.2 60 45.8 29 17.3 23 13.7 24 14.3 scanner 42 28.4 33 22.3 21 14.2 19 12.8 33 22.3 *vha = very highly accessible; ha = highly accessible; ma = moderately accessible; la = low accessibility; na = no accessibility. majority of the language teachers used microsoft power point at 115(65.7%) in preparing lessons and to enhance learning, followed by corel draw used by 90(51.45%), adobe photoshop used by 78(44.6%), and picasa used by 70(40.0%) teachers (table 8). 8 ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) table 8: the ict packages to prepare lessons and enhance learning ict packages used in teaching use it % do not use it % microsoft powerpoint 115 65.7 60 34.3 adobe photoshop 78 44.6 97 55.4 core draw 90 51.5 85 48.6 picasa 70 40.0 105 60.0 interactive board 65 37.1 110 62.9 table 9 showed the respondents’ level of literacy in using ict. a vast majority of respondents reported that they were literate in using microsoft power point at 95.4%, microsoft word 91.4%, adobe photoshop 82.3%, e-mail 71.5%, interactive board 70.2%, corel draw 66.3%, multimedia projector 63.4%, and social media 60.6%. table 9: ict literacy skills of language teachers literacy level expert % interm ediate % begin ner % no literacy % microsoft powerpoint 85 48.6 51 29.1 31 17.7 8 4.6 microsoft word 69 39.4 67 38.3 24 13.7 15 8.6 adobe photoshop 66 37.7 52 29.7 26 14.9 31 17.8 corel draw 47 26.9 46 26.3 23 13.1 59 33.7 multimedia projector 38 21.7 38 21.7 35 20.0 64 36.6 interactive board 48 27.4 44 25.1 31 17.7 52 29.7 e-mail 54 30.9 40 22.9 31 17.7 50 28.5 social media (facebook, twitter, etc.) 45 25.7 36 20.6 25 14.3 69 39.4 in identifying teachers’ sources of ict literacy, table 10 revealed that a large proportion (66.3%) indicated that they attended a computer literacy program organized by the state. this was followed by those that paid for a computer literacy program 63.4%; interestingly the same proportion 63.4% also acquired ict literacy through personal development. however 58.4% acquired ict literacy through friends and 57.7% acquired ict literacy as a result of an ict program organized by the school. table 10: teachers’ sources of ict literacy ict training source true % false % paid for computer literacy program 111 63.4 64 36.6 ict literacy program by the state government 116 66.3 59 33.7 ict literacy program by the school 101 57.7 74 42.3 through friends 103 58.8 72 41.1 personal development 111 63.4 64 36.6 i do not use ict 57 32.6 118 67.4 solomon o. makinde, omawumi o. makinde, and oludare a. shorunke 9 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) major constraints identified by respondents included: erratic power supply, frequent computer breakdown, and lack of technical know-how. the proportion of the total number of respondents by percentages were: erratic power supply 62.3%, followed by frequent computer breakdown 52.6%, low computer confidence 52.5%, computer phobia 49.2%, inaccessibility to ict 49.7%, and lack of technical know-how 49.1%. this is delineated in table 11. table 11: teachers’ constraint to ict literacy constraints to ict literacy very true % true % not very true % not true % computer phobia 64 36.6 22 12.6 47 26.9 42 24.0 erratic power supply 61 34.9 48 27.4 46 26.3 20 11.4 frequent computer breakdown 45 25.7 47 26.9 48 27.4 35 20.0 inaccessibility to ict 41 23.4 46 26.3 61 34.9 27 15.4 lack of technical knowhow 34 19.4 52 29.7 66 37.7 23 13.2 low computer confidence 44 25.1 48 27.4 49 28.0 33 19.4 it is interesting to note that table 10 revealed that female teachers use ict facilities more frequently ( x =25.48; sd =11.14) than the male teachers ( x =21.04; sd =9.01). table 10: summary of means [ x ] and standard deviation (sd) of teachers’ scores: frequency of ict use based on gender. gender n mean (frequency of ict use) std. deviation (frequency of ict use) std. error mean male 79 21.04 9.005 1.013 female 92 25.48 11.143 1.162 discussion of findings regarding the demographic information of respondents, the vast majority of the teachers were females 52.6%, while the male teachers accounted for 45.1% of the population. this may explain the high interest of females in language education. similarly, the high interest of females in language education came up in the findings of fakeye (2010) “english language teachers’ knowledge and use of ict in ibadan southwest local government of oyo” that revealed there were more female english language teachers than male teachers in oyo state. findings on the qualifications of respondents revealed that majority of the language teachers are holders of a bachelor degree 53.1%.this cannot be far from the requirement of the state ministry of education on staffing, which further suggests that schools employ teachers with requisite qualifications to teach language related subjects. the finding on qualifications of respondents is not at variance with the report of fakeye and ashaolu (2013) in their study on assessment of english language teachers’ knowledge and use of information and communication technology (ict) in ibadan. the study further revealed that the majority of the respondents were first-degree holders. furthermore, analysis on earnings (in naira) revealed that a large proportion of the teachers earn monthly between 18,000 30,000 10 ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) (24.6%), which was followed closely by 31,000 – 40,000 (24.0%), 41,000 – 50,000 (22.3%), 51-60, 000 (10.9%), and 101,000 and above (10.9%). this finding implies that the take home pay of about 49% of the respondents is below 51,000 per month (about $322). this is meagre income and may not encourage individual language teachers’ ict literacy development when taking into consideration the high cost of living in lagos metropolis. the results of this study on sources of ict literacy revealed that a large proportion of the respondents were sponsored for ict literacy training. in assessing the available ict facilities in the schools, almost all the teachers reported the availability of computer systems 97.1%, followed by printers 72.6%, telephones 68.6%, photocopiers 59.4%, scanners 55.5%, and internet 46.3%, while a small proportion of the respondents indicated the availability of multimedia projectors 33.7% and interactive boards 25.1%. the available ict facilities looks encouraging, but looking at the suitability in teaching in a language classroom, the available ict facilities may not prove efficacious in teaching a language class. the multimedia projector and interactive board are suitable technologies considering the large number of students in the language class, and considering the compulsory status that language instruction holds in the school curriculum. other ict facilities like computer systems and internet connectivity might not be accessible to all students when teaching which may impede the effectiveness and efficiency of instructional content dissemination. this finding corroborates the findings of ezeoba (2007) and fakeye (2010) that ict facilities are not fully available in primary and secondary schools. furthermore, the results showed that the teachers’ main source of access to ict is the computer laboratory, while a small percentage of the respondents access ict through cybercafés, business centers, and at home. the findings on the accessibility to ict in the schools showed a varied response pattern as a majority of the respondents indicated that computer systems 58.3%, telephones 32.3%, multimedia projectors 28.6%, the internet 26.7% and scanners 28.4% are very highly accessible, followed by printers 45.8% and photocopiers 30.9% which are highly accessible. however, a large proportion of the respondents (28.6%) reported that interactive boards were not accessible. as noted earlier, the importance of interactive boards in a language classroom cannot be overemphasized, as it enlivens the classroom and makes language students master the contents. interactive boards could even engender innovation that will allow students to use the language learnt in potentially powerful ways, such as for national and international communication, investigation and research knowledge production and dissemination, and publication of texts and multimedia documents. the research findings on the academic purpose for which respondents use ict showed a varied response pattern to the frequency of ict use by the teachers. it is interesting to note that most users of computer systems, telephones, internet, multimedia projectors, interactive boards, and printers reported that they were daily users, while the largest percentage of users of photocopiers and scanners reported to be weekly users. on the academic purposes for which the respondents use ict, the result of the statistics showed that the majority of the language teachers reported the use of ict to get feedback on lessons taught from students, to disseminate assignments to students, made use of ict to pass the instructional content to student, to chat with students through social media, and to send emails to students. this is rather interesting as it suggests that language teachers in lagos metropolis are exploring the potentials of a “boundary-less” classroom offered in the information age. however, only a small proportion of the teachers made use of ict facilities to send text messages to students and to make calls to students. our findings agree with adeyemo (2010) that physics teachers in lagos secondary schools tend to use ict more than language teachers in teaching. in connection with ict use, lin, lee, & chen (2004) reported that “chinese language arts instructors would like to encourage their students to solomon o. makinde, omawumi o. makinde, and oludare a. shorunke 11 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) send emails…or participate in a pre-arranged web discussion forum to ask questions and get direct responses from the teachers.” however, in the nigerian context language teachers in lagos state used ict in getting feedback from students. it may apparently offer great learning reinforcement after studying during vacations as students are able to post questions and get feedback directly from their teachers through online platforms. the result of statistics taken on the duration of use of ict revealed that majority of the respondents either used ict for between 1 to 2 years (35.4%) or had used it for less than 6 months (20.6%). of the remaining respondents14.3% had used ict for 6 to 12 months with an equal respondent percentages at14.9% each, who used ict from between 2 to 5 years or for more than five years. findings on ict teacher literacy revealed the proportion of the total number of respondents that are literate in using microsoft power-point 95.4%, microsoft word 91.4%, adobe photoshop 82.3%, e-mail 71.5%, interactive boards 70.2%, corel draw 66.3%, multimedia projectors 63.4%, and social media 60.6%. furthermore, the research results revealed that majority of the language teachers were found to use microsoft |power-point in preparing lessons and to enhance learning, followed by corel draw, adobe photoshop, picasa and the least, interactive boards. it is explicit from the findings that aggregately a large proportion of the language teachers are ict literate. however, it should to be noted that frequent use of ict would improve ict skills and the longer the duration of use, the better the skills possessed (adetimirin, 2012). on teachers source of ict literacy, findings revealed that a large proportion indicated that they attended a computer literacy programme organised by the state, this was followed by those that paid for a computer literacy programme, interestingly the same proportion (that paid for a computer literacy programme) also acquired ict literacy through personal development, however 58.4% acquired ict literacy through friends, 57.7% acquired ict literacy as a result of an ict programme organised by the school. however, is worrisome that 32.7% of the respondents do not use ict. this discovery agrees with the report of lin, lee, & chen (2004) in their research on exploring potential uses of ict in chinese language arts instruction found that the school trained teachers on the use of ict. this result implies that a large proportion of the language teachers are ict literate. school administrators can explore this if the necessary ict facilities and qualified it personnel are available. it may also serve as a means of bridging the (digital) divide, which according to warschauer (2003) was caused by (ict) literacy between graduates of the schools and their counterparts in educationally advanced part of the world. from the results taken from statistics, major constraints to ict literacy identified by respondents include erratic power supply, frequent computer breakdown and lack of technical know-how which is the least. however, the proportion of the total number of respondents by percentages are erratic power supply 62.3%, followed by frequent computer breakdown 52.6%, low computer confidence 52.5%, computer phobia 49.2%, inaccessibility to ict 49.7%, lack of technical know-how 49.1%. the results of this finding corroborate the findings of aiyebelehin (2012) and fakeye (2010) that teachers cannot use ict constructively due to lack of their technical knowledge. it is apparent in the findings and interesting to note that female teachers use ict facilities more frequently ( x =25.48; sd =11.14) than the male teachers ( x =21.04; sd =9.01). this finding validates the findings of adeyemi (2005) that female teachers use ict facilities more than their male counterparts do. this however contradicts the findings of fakeye (2010) that male teachers have higher knowledge of ict more than female teachers do. conclusion and recommendations 12 ict literacy of language teachers in selected lagos state secondary schools, nigeria _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the educational effectiveness of icts depends on how they are used and for what purpose; as ict has lot to offer to the teaching profession. this study established that aggregately a large proportion of the teachers’ are ict literate and revealed the extent of availability and accessibility of ict facilities that are hitherto inadequate. it further established that frequency of ict use would improve ict skills. however, it should be noted that ict is a supplement to educational tools in developing world, and like any other educational tool or mode of educational delivery, icts do not work for everyone, everywhere in the same way. the results revealed opportunities to enhance the use of ict in teaching and learning, in particular, those activities in which the respondents used icts frequently, in order to expand its roles and potential impact. on the overall, nigeria can address the problem of “global learning deficit” by investing in quality teacher development and scaling up teachers’ ict literacy in both the formal and informal contexts using appropriate technologies. recommendations based on this study’s findings, include the following areas and strategies for improvement. first, state level ministries of education can collaborate with the national information technology development agency to develop an ict based curriculum that is relevant for keeping in pace with technological development and the changing competencies required of the 21 st century teacher. second, school administrations should endeavour to sponsor teachers for regular seminars, symposia and workshops on ict (that focuses on classroom application) hosted by renowned organizations, that are teacher-learner oriented, and may also establish an ict department in the schools for training and retraining the teachers as ict is constantly evolving and this may improve the ict literacy of teachers. in addition to state and school administrator roles, schools can source funds through public/private partnership and through donor agencies to fund school ict projects as these are project is a capital-intensive projects in order to augment the inadequate ict facilities for language teaching noted in the schools. also, though there is no one formula for determining the optimal level of ict integration in the educational system, creative teachers at all levels of education have always found ways to incorporate innovative teaching aids and strategies in their classes. however, we suggest that using icts in conjunction with well-planned classroom teaching should have a positive impact on the learner. schools should deploy ict in language classrooms and teachers should be encouraged to use presentation software like microsoft powerpoint to teach at least once a month. this will also involve the need to recruit technical staff (system analysts) who will attend to the problems that may crop up with the systems; and to provide a stable electricity system is an indispensable infrastructure in the proper functioning of computer systems and other ict facilities and good effort towards acquiring such should be made. finally, the school library should include relevant books on ict literacy in its collection development on a quarterly or yearly basis and the timetable should be flexible for teachers to utilize such. references adetimirin, a.e. 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(2004). of digital divides and social multipliers: combining language and technology for human development. analytical survey, 46. ozor challenges of education for democracy in the gambia frederick ugwu ozor university of the gambia fred_oz_or@yahoo.co.uk, fozo@utg.edu.gm abstract several theory and conceptual issues appear to surround global education-democracy conection, including, issues surrounding the impact of formal education on democracy in developing countries. this paper argues that education for democracy can strengthen democratic structures in the republic of the gambia; and developing knowledge and skills in democratic education among teachers could play a significant role in developing democratic awareness. the paper addresses the basic question of whether the prevailing political culture in the gambia is supportive of western model of democracy, if not, what brand of african democracycould be adopted by african educationto facilitateproductivity in the society. how can african learning be structured to support african democracy? the paper finally discusses the contributions of gender and age in the gambia to democracy and democratic education, as well as how they could strengthen the development of democracy in the gambia. introduction in recent years, social science researchers have shown increasing interest in the nexus between education and democracy, as well as the question of the role of formal education in political modernization, and its contributions to democratic development and the development of democratic citizenship in different societies. several theories and conceptual issues appear to surround education-democracy linkage, including issues regarding the impact of formal education on democracy in developing countries. while social research has attempted to resolve some concerns, others remain largely unresolved and still lingering in many nations. it is often assumed, for instance, that formal education can significantly impact on people's understanding of democracy and support for democratic regimes. it has also, however, often remained an issue whether this is true for new fledgling democratic regimes in most parts of africa with low levels of education. in the context of education-democracy linkage theory, and the ongoing debate in literature on its relevance to africa , this paper argues that education for democracy can strengthen democracy in the gambia, and developing knowledge and skills in democratic education among teachers, could play significant roles in developing democratic awareness. the paper, further, seeks to address the basic question of whether the prevailing political culture in the gambia is supportive of western model of democracy; if not, what brand of african democracy (or perhaps modified western model incorporating traditional african democracy elements) towards which african education can work or whether formal education can be structured to positively add to the development of democratic political culture, according to african standards. another related study question for education in the gambia is whether teachers teach students to question or conform to national ethics and norms. this issue, therefore, is essentially a matter of which form of education is possible, and how can african learning be structured to support african democracy? this paper equally discusses the contributions of gender and age to democracy and education for democracy; and sought to understand how these process can strengthen the development of democracy in the gambia. conceptualizing education for democracy what do we mean by education for democracy or democratic education? these two concepts are often used interchangeably because they serve the same or similar purposes, though the later appears to refer more appropriately to a form of education. education for democracy describes the processes, structures and content of learning directed at spreading democratic awareness. democratic education involves the dissemination of concepts and practices that result in integrated democratic awareness essentially through public outlets, and so it takes place at public and official levels, as well as among the ruling elites (abdulghani, 2008). democratic education is about knowledge, about democratic awareness, about what people believe and established, regarding their relationships to the political system of governance; their relations, for instance, with the legislature, institutional structures and legal system. this knowledge enables them to understand how they actually relate and should relate with political objects, issues and events around them, and to accordingly adjust their behavior to realize democratic purposes and good governance. it is, thus, more of critical rather than passive learning. democratic education provides the framework for shaping political cultures, itself, an integral part of the shared culture of society. it is aimed at producing a democratic culture consisting of principles derivable from philosophical and ethical themes within an integrated system of thought that extols such values as human and public freedoms, and social justice. public freedom which democratic education teaches is about human and civil rights and the right to political participation; while social justice which it reaffirms, also reechoes the themes and principles of universal adult suffrage to achieve democratic purposes of equal 'citizenship' and faith in rule of law. these are themes commonly found in the western model of democracy, in most liberal democracies, and representative majoritarian democracy model. however, in order to examine the nexus between democracy and education for democracy, and in order to access the relevance of education for democracy in the gambia; it becomes necessary to specify the meaning of democracy and education for democracy for this discourse. in other words, what is democracy? and what does education for democracy (or democratic education) mean for this study: what is education, or more precisely, what is the principle behind the african/gambian education or learning system? democracy has come to mean several things to several people. what does democracy mean for africans? what form of democracy can we fashion towards which african education can work? if western model of democracy appears not to work for africans, what alternative democracy model would be appropriate? generally, political scientists hold that democracy is a governmental form in which public decisions are ultimately controlled by all adult members of society, while this popular sovereign power is exercised on behalf of the people by their representatives in public offices. western democracy model is built around this major attribute of democracy. however, studies of african democracy demonstrate that most post independence african states tended to adopt their former colonizers' democracy model (mazrui, 2008; good, 2002; duignan and jackson, 1986) and experiments with democracy in these states have remained largely faulted. however, in the gambia the prevailing political culture is characterized by political complacency, uncritical support for the political leadership, particularly by the youth, youth political ignorance, and generally, political socialization tends to create awareness and knowledge of values of obedience to the state, civic obligations supportive of the establishment and, on the whole, a culture of unquestioning support, as well as tailored demand inputs to the political system. evidently, this culture is not supportive of western model of democracy, and the gambia, therefore, needs an african model of democracy towards which its learning must work. some scholars have, nevertheless, suggested as an alternative the development of some kind of home grown democracy model for africa that takes in some positive elements of traditional african political institutions and conceptual foundations such as consensual decision making structures and spirituality or theocratic inclinations of kingdoms since the wholesome transfer of western democratic values, instruments and goals appears to have failed in most of africa ( stromberg, 1996; osabu-kle, 2000; birch, 2002). their argument appears to be that modern african states could benefit from their past colonial experiences by harmonizing the civil and political aspects of life which colonialism failed to harness in africa. nevertheless, in the search for what form of democracy for africa and therefore, for the gambia, this study suggests, as the author has stated in a previous study, the strengthening of western model of representative democracy by building into its mainstream 'some kind of institutional changes that blend with the spirituality of the past and african's spirit of compromise' (ozor, 2009: 319). in this study i have argued that 'rather than seek a fundamentally variant type of democracy in the search for a home tailored democracy modelthat is, a democratic framework that basically departs from basic principle of democratic representationafrica can draw from its strength in compromise of the past and achieve legitimate consensus in proportional representative system that recognizes, permits and incorporates minority interests and expression of minority views and concerns' (ozor, 2009: 328-9). this would mean institutionalizing the role of interest groups as important players in the political process beyond merely seeking their inclusive group interests. it would mean also the institutionalization of democratic spirit (which was not borrowed as africa borrowed other democratic structures) achieved through integration of african spirituality in governance and african tradition of compromise. spirituality in governance describes the link that existed between rulers and the ancestral spirits of africans, where public office holders were assumed to be representatives of ancestral gods in secular matters and were expected by the ruled and the gods to demonstrate public justice, probity, public morality and accountability in their administration of public affairs (orizu, 1944:198-212). african tradition of compromise derives from african traditional social philosophy. though there may have existed some elements of consensual governance in african traditional society (stromberg, 1996; birch, 2002), i do not claim that traditional african systems were based on consensual governance as africa, indeed, had its share of war lords and autocrats who ruled by coercion, not by consensus, but the idea is to highlight how some long surviving elements in traditional african societies could be incorporated in ways to contribute to debate on how to strengthen democracy in africa. the paper, therefore, argues that though african history may be replete with accounts of autocratic rulers and war lords, the fact remains that compromise is a social concept embedded in the spirit of most africans and this tradition can be revived not necessarily in its substance but in its spirit. the merit of this democracy model lies not only in popular sovereign power but also in the democratic values and themes of tolerance of opposing views and opposition concerns, basic freedoms and liberties, and importantly in the democratic spirit, which it embodies. this spirit of tolerance (in the governors and the governed) has all important and obvious implications for providing enabling milieu for democratic education in africa. the model of democracy towards which africa education must work is expected to create a platform 'where all stakeholders are institutionalized entities and legitimate actors in the political process, capable of articulating their views, making possible decision-making through discussion of issues, consensus and unrestricted registration of preferences by all adult members of society'( ozor, 2009: 317). it allows for all points of view, both majority and minority views, and therefore, recognizes and extols the democratic theme of tolerance of political opposition and of popular critical participation in political decision making process. western education system introduced in africa since independence appears unfit to teach these democracy values of tolerance of opposition seems too alien and ill-designed to develop democratic spirit/culture, critical political participation, recognition and respect for human rights and of social justice, themes which our democracy model extols. rather 'undemocratic culture' seems to characterize most african political systems. i, therefore, argue that african education must necessarily seek to teach and create awareness of african democratic values, especially values of political tolerance and cooperation. african learning needs to be re-engineered, if it must serve as a veritable and pragmatic means of creating awareness of these democracy values. african education must borrow from positive aspects of indigenous african learning and on carefully chosen new ideas, methods and technology from abroad. africans need to ground the framework of their education on the positivity of indigenous education and thought while borrowed western education ideas and technology must be placed within african cultural and conceptual framework (tedla, 1996). the education system which we must fashion should be able to benefit from positive elements of african traditional social philosophy and in pragmatic ways contribute to development of african democracy. conceptually, it is specified in this study as a re-engineered african learning organized around those democratic structures and themes that permit critical learning for teachers and learners, that permit tolerance on the part of educators, allow teachers to listen to and prepare themselves to be heard by learners and so teach the democratic value of listening to others/tolerance, avoid teaching authority dependence, allow educators to understand the learners, know their world and the language with which they relate to and combat with their world and which appreciates african experiences, particularly experiences that seem to work. african learning must be able to overcome the pitfalls of imported western education system that tended to produce african educated elite who either ignored or despised african way of life and which perpetuated the marginalization of the weak, political dis-empowerment of minority interests and, through ignorance or mis-education, the exclusion of majority of 'rural' people from political decision making process. it must make use of tolerant, not arrogant but progressive educators who must encourage learners to think freely and democratically. teaching and learning, therefore, must necessarily be a democratic process to be able to promote development of democracy because, as freire (1998:40) argues, authoritarian education system will at times cause children and students to adopt rebellious positions, defiant of any limit, discipline, or authority. but it will also lead to apathy, excessive obedience, uncritical conformity, lack of resistance against authoritarian discourse, self-abnegation, and fear of freedom. african learning to be democratic must be developed around the philosophy that majority of the people must be able to think freely and be thought to imagine better ways of relating to their political system and of improving their circumstances. it calls for the progressive educator who must subordinate class differences and haughtiness, practically demonstrate democratic spirit of tolerance and humility that allows him to listen and understand the needs of learners, and encourage learning through discussion and reflection. african democratic education can benefit from positive and rich aspects of indigenous african learning and thought by drawing on the strength of informal educational framework. this can enable teachers to create democratic awareness in more or less informal class sessions in which wisdom teachings of african ancestors are thought and in which african folklore may be employed to teach democratic values and beliefs. such values and beliefs which necessarily constitute the bedrock of african democracy are derivable from and sustained by some indigenous african social concepts as those of mysticism, asceticism, contentment, compromise, right to revolution, individual freedom, and happiness as end of life. african mysticism is rooted in self-discipline which removes all selfishness in social relations. asceticism, a basic african social concept, demands subduing the emotional self to discipline in order to achieve a good and enriched life. contentment in african social philosophy is the belief that happiness derives from the african simplicity mode of life, not either materialistic or necessarily primitivehappiness results from enjoying what one has and not seeking that which one has not. another source of happiness in african social philosophy is the capacity to give up ones maximum demands and to accommodate some of other peoples' demands, in cases of sharp conflicts of interests. this spirit of compromise has significant political implication as it translates to one of the basic values of african democracy model, a value not copied in the african imitation of the westminster democracy model, but which can be recreated through a new african learning. also, found in african socio-politico philosophy is the right of the people to bring down and replace a government if it fails to perform its basic functions. the essence of life in african social philosophy is located in the freedom of the individual, and this includes, economic, social and religious freedoms. there is the belief that happiness is the most valuable goal to be sought, and that all desires and man' actions must not negate this important purpose of human existence. these social concepts show how indigenous african politics, rooted in ethics and religion, can provide valuable sources from which african education can draw material for creating democratic awareness. it, further, highlights the possibility of recreating and utilizing informal educational structures that were the traditional mode of education, and the principal traditional means of political socialization. within formal educational systems informal platforms could enable teachers and learners to share knowledge about their political system and increase democratic awareness through interactive sessions where state/community stories, folktales, and ancestral wisdom sayings that portray values and messages of democracy may be shared. the assumption is that african education will impact on democracy by increasing understanding of democracy concepts by means of providing knowledge, skills and values associated with african political culture that support democracy. democratic education research in the gambia education in the gambia is getting better than in the past years during the government of dr. dawda jawara who ruled the country for 30 years with relative stable democracy among an illiterate population. according to obiozor (2007), the gambia has been classified among the least developed countries with an alarming number of illiterate citizens. the unicef (2006) report reveals that women make up about two thirds of the world's 875 million illiterate adults, and this includes women from the republic of the gambia. the unicef report also disclosed that 65 million of the 121 million children in the world who are not in school are girls. in sub-saharan africa, which the gambia is part of, 24 million girls were out of school in 2002. unicef reports that 83% of all girls out of school live in sub-saharan africa, south asia, east asia and the pacific. in the gambia, as in most parts of africa, school organization and teaching approaches appear to be autocratic and tend to relate towards authoritarianism, as students end up possessing political values that keep them passive participants in the political process. schools tend to be authoritarian institutions and teaching methods grounded on more or less a 'copy-copy' approach without regard to the students previous knowledge and the need to encourage ability to investigate knowledge on their own (christie,1992; du bey et al, 1979; mbilinji, 1979; harber, 1997;davies, 2001). the author's five years teaching experience at both secondary and tertiary levels in the gambia education system, and more than ten years at similar levels in nigeria, supports this view. besides, research survey carried was out by the researcher using random samples drawn from six centers: banjul, brikama, jarra soma, fatoto, basse, and farafanni. the study used samples randomly drawn from the target groups of basic, secondary and post-secondary/tertiary school teachers, students and university undergraduates, and officials of state education departments in the gambia. a total of 300 structured questionnaires were administered to participants out of which 84% were successfully retrieved. the primary data were collected and statistically tabulated. while descriptive statistics is used to present data in a statistical format to facilitate initial data analysis, inferential statistics is introduced to make statistical inferences about the population from which the sample is drawn so that important patterns, relationships and analysis become more meaningful (bailey, 1994). the analysis involves the use of non-parametric tests utilizing binomial methods. table 1  teaching methods in the gambia educational system  being authoritarian (n=252) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------                                               frequency                            % ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------  yes                                         198                                    78.6            no                                           54                                      21.4   --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- total                                       252                                    100  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- table 1 shows that 78.6% of the respondents believe that teaching methods are authoritarian as taught by the teacher, the students learn, and the principal is considered the all powerful commander while the school system tends to be a bank from where students come and take knowledge.   table 2 possession of knowledge, skills and concepts of african democracy among the teaching force (n=252) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------                                                 frequency                                     % --------------------------------------------------------------------------------               yes                        79                                             31.3%                      no                         173                                           68.7% ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------                     total                         252                                            100  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------   table 2 indicates that only 31.3% of the teaching force in the gambia possesses knowledge, skills and concepts of african democracy, specifically democratic concepts of tolerance and of a good/democratic citizen as an active political participant with a sense of social justice and who develops critical attitudes towards authorities and demonstrates allegiance to the community of the people, not one that imbibes and displays unquestioning obedience and loyalty to the abstract state. on the other hand 68.7% believe that democracy is all about obedience to the state and nation building. a binomial test produced a highly significant result (p<0.001) for misinterpretation of 'african' democracy among the gambia teaching force. the implication is that learning encourages uncritical allegiance to the state, teachers teach students to conform, and citizenship education, simply, is about nation building in line with neo-liberal educational models which are destructive of democratic purposes, for instance, such purposes that essentially seek to liberate citizens' critical minds, encourage active political participation and guarantee or protect basic rights and liberties (reid, 2002). mc cowan (2006), in a case study in the local municipality of pelotas, brazil, argues that good citizenship does not mean unquestioning allegiance to the abstract state but to the community of people of a state; and so schools do not need to develop conformity to policies that promote the glory of the nation but one that develops a sense of justice and of critical participation in the political process. consequently, the paper argues that the teaching force must necessarily develop appropriate knowledge, skills, concepts and attitudes around which 'african' democracy must necessarily be built while citizenship education in the gambia has to be redesigned in ways that teach african democratic values which empower citizens to defend their rights, actively participate politically and to develop critical attitudes towards authorities and allegiance to the people rather than the nation. developing knowledge and skills in democratic education among teachers can, therefore, play a significant role in developing democratic awareness. existing data analysis, further, supports the view that authoritarian and 'copy-copy' teaching methods prevail in the gambia in spite of espoused government education policy goal which 'is based on the principle of inclusive education, where every person, child, youth and adult shall be able to benefit from educational opportunities designed to meet their basic learning needs' (world conference on education for all, 1990). these needs, include, knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to equip the individual for survival, develop their full potentials, improve the quality of their lives, make informed decisions, and participate fully in development. the espouse policy, therefore, encourages student participation and learning through critical thinking. however, public education practice in the gambia rather appears either to ignore, or is incapable of addressing, the twin needs of education for democracy, namely the need for sharpening understanding through critical learning as well as raising the level of democracy awareness among teachers and of designing appropriate public education curricula, or more precisely appropriate content of means of public dissemination of democracy concepts, values and attitudes. a major challenge for effective education for democracy in the gambia, therefore, certainly tends to arise from local interpretations, if not misinterpretation, of democracy particularly among teachers. because formal schooling have immense potential to develop democratic culture and build democratic citizenship, the requisite democratic skills, values and knowledge need to be developed within the teaching force before these can be inculcated in the young ( schweisfurth, 2002). however, these local interpretations of democracy among teachers in the gambia tend to stray away from 'african' democracy concepts and values of tolerance, critical popular political participation and social justice. they tend to reflect support for citizens' loyalty to the state and greater concern for civic obligations, and so democracy for them is all about passive popular participation in the political process. this, therefore, calls for re-engineering of the gambia learning in order to equip teachers to become effective vehicles for democratic education. moreover, the content of means of public dissemination of democracy values as embodied in the social and environmental studies curricula appears ill designed to work towards african democracy model for the gambia. content analysis of social and environmental studies curricula in the gambia show that social studies program translate more to civic education while displaying certain contradictions and tensions surrounding the content of such studies at all levels of lower and upper basic education systems. the gambia is one of the 17 african social studies program (assp) countries (hawes, 1979; merryfield, 1985). assp articulated three areas where social studies could make a contribution: "national integration," "problems of rapid economic development "and" the promotion of self-confidence and initiative based on an understanding of one's own worth and of the essential dignity of man". social studies can help children to be capable of coping with social change without despising traditional values and institutions, and in the long run to be a veritable tool for democratic education. social studies must be taught through inquiry, with students learning to ask and answer questions and solving their own problems (report on a conference of african educators, edc and credo, 1968, p. 6-9). where the method and content are appropriate, skills and attitudes which develop through social studies teaching are those required by citizens in a free and democratic society. these skills, include, those of discovery, critical thinking and problem-solving and of listening to others in social interactions. the attitudes expected of citizens are considered to be respect, appreciation, cooperation, compassion, tolerance, and team spirit. of particular importance to democracy and democratic education are the values and attitudes of tolerance of opposing views and positions of others as well as cooperation. cooperation is necessary because politics is not all about conflicts. it is necessary because politics is also about consensus. students can only develop these skills and attitudes by participating in experiences that call for their use. therefore social studies must be taught in the gambia through inquiry, with students learning to ask and answer questions and solving their own problems and above all through discussion and reflection. however, because the subject matter of social and environmental studies in the gambia displays contracting values of loyalty, obedience, tolerance, social harmony, critical learning and citizens' active participation in decision making process, it presents a daunting challenge for teachers to implement assp values literally in a context where formal instructions in social studies program is all about civic obedience, where knowledge of my concept of 'african' democratic values, themes and practices remain largely uncertain even among teachers. such learning context ill-equips teachers to interpret and mediate over such procedural values as tolerance, open-mindedness, fairness or justice. besides, even assp acknowledges a problem of social studies that stem from the innate sensitivity of the social studies subject matter. for instance, education in citizenship, politics, and population, and even the teaching of a nation's history, has demonstrable political implications and ramifications in contemporary africa (and therefore in the gambia) where opposition may be perceived with apprehension. a course on civics may become extremely controversial as leadership changes, a one-party state emerges, or coups d'etat refashion the government (assp, nairobi, 1985). because students can only develop democratic skills and attitudes by participating in experiences that call for their use, social studies must be taught through inquiry, with students learning to ask and answer questions and solving their own problems. this is, because, as my research findings show, teachers in the gambia basically teach students to conform, but not to question issues of national concern to the citizens. in this regard, if teachers teach for conformity, if the teaching force misinterprets democracy and lacks requisite 'african' democratic skills, values and knowledge, if the education system or more precisely, formal educational programs such as social and environmental studies in the gambia cannot work towards african democracy, what must be done? education for democracy in the gambia, thus, faces daunting challenges. consequently, it becomes necessary to reform the education system to permit learning through inquiry, discussion and reflection, to equip teachers with appropriate skills, attitudes and knowledge of democracy concepts, to recreate and utilize informal structures, which were the traditional mode of education, in interactive class sessions. but where must the initiative for this change come from? because the political leaders are in control of public schools which are the principal means of political socialization, and because empirical evidence suggests that african political leadership tends to obstruct democratic transition (ake, 1996; good, 2002), the initiative for educational change is less likely to come from top leadership. the demand for change in the education system and the demand for 'african' democracy model must necessarily come from the people-from private individuals, the 'think tank', the academia, political interest groups, professional interest groups such as organized teachers' interests, the church, ngos with educational interests, and student bodies. much like basic human rights democracy must be earned. for instance, ake (1996, p. 36) argues that 'like development, democratization is not something that one person does for another. people must do for themselves, or it does not happen'. policy process and policy change are essentially political and so these groups in the gambia can mobilize for political action to bring about the required education policy outcome and democratic political structures. for instance, they may demand for a policy change in teachers' education which is capable of producing a teaching force with a fuller appreciation of democracy concepts, values and beliefs. another is a demand for policy change that enables the design of education curricula, especially formal social studies program, which supports and sustains democratic education in the country. however, issues around democratization cannot be pursued further here because the focus of the paper is on democratic education, stressing that democratic education can contribute in creating democratic awareness. youths and democratic education in the gambia the bottom-top dialogue and negotiation for change in the education policy process first calls for mobilization of political demands by the more articulate and active leaders of such groups as students' and teachers' associations in the gambia. youth political mobilization geared and spirited from the bottom can serve the dual purpose of contributing to bringing about change in the gambian learning through more effective input in public decision making as well as increasing democratic consciousness among the youths. however, youth political mobilization in the gambia appears to fall short of the requirements and expectations of african charter of au states while existing platforms for youth mobilization such as youth parliament merely provide opportunities for youth training in leadership skills, group decision making and service to the nation. they fall short of sharpening democratic consciousness among the youths, though however 'parliamentary debates' have been free and in few instances critical youth opinions were known to have caused the sack of some secretaries of state. youth political mobilization in the gambia appears to be warranted by the fact that there are discernible generation gap in electoral participation between the old and young. as rageau (2007) has argued this generation gap in voters turn-out in west africa, and so in the gambia, is partly explained by the fact that the younger generation does not have sufficient political efficacy as well as not being registered to vote out of either ignorance or neglect. nevertheless, in addition to the state platforms for youth mobilization such as the youth parliament, a complimentary approach would be for grassroots involvement to take advantage of education strategy of the state to mobilize for democratic awareness. this policy strategy included setting up pilot schemes for local ownership of educational activities and community based literacy education programs using grassroots experiences that seek to address practical needs essentially economic and survival needs of the population ( the gambia report,2000). such community based activities involving community teachers/educators, leaders of social and cultural groups, and local party organizations, could serve as useful platforms for mobilization and creating democracy awareness among community folk and to create and sustain social structures that help to develop youth democratic culture. gender and democratic education in the gambia finally, what is the contribution of gender to democracy and education for democracy in the gambia? gender imbalance in political participation in the gambia tends to spillover from gender inequality in educational opportunities. the paper argues that increasing educational opportunities for women in the gambia could increase the level of their democratic awareness and consequently enhance their contribution to democratic education. in other words, while it is generally granted that the education of women is in fact the education of a whole nation, democratic education for women in the gambia has limitless potential for democratic education for all. the culture of the people places women in a central role to do so. consequently, education for the older female folk other than girls must go beyond numeric studies and reading and writing to include social an environmental studies that equip them with necessary pedagogic skills and critical knowledge about political realities around them. democratic education for women in the gambia could enable them first in informal platforms to foster political socialization of the children in ways that prepare them to be useful citizens and critical participants in their national politics. it is also possible that the new generation of youths in the gambia with a sharper sense of political efficacy would mature into various occupations and professions, some of them politicians and teachers, to further straighten the path and process of democratic education and with time build a sustainable democratic culture. it is pertinent to note that, there are some cultural tensions and barriers to female democratic education in the gambia. while gender imbalance in the education system and political participation in africa presents a real challenge, it is prevalent in the gambia. grey-johnson (2003) as captured by obiozor (2007) lamented on this ugly situation in the gambia when he argued that the small tourism nation has a status that presents special challenges for her development, which centers primarily on the education of its citizens, especially on bridging the gender gap for manpower and increasing girls' enrollment in public schools. the girl child in the gambia benefits from the universal primary education offered by the government for every primary schoolage child (department, 2004), but after primary education, most of these girls drop out of school and do not proceed to acquire secondary education; in most cases, parents are blamed or accused of sponsoring their son's schooling at the expense of their daughters (s. taal in obiozor (2007), personal communication, january 12, 2007). this revelation was confirmed by winslow (1999) in his studies stressing that the girl child enrollment was low due to poverty and sociocultural factors which influenced parents' decisions not to send girls to school. furthermore, there have been evident attempts in recent years to narrow the gender gap in educational opportunities and raise female participation in the political process in the gambia. in recent years the government education policies were vigorously implemented to improve girls' education status in the gambia, and the outcome has been greater female political participation as women continue to gain greater relevance in politics. mrs fatoumata jahumpa ceesay was selected speaker of the national assembly in january, 2007, mrs isatou njie saidy the vice-president. increasing gender spread or equality is now found in many professions and occupations including the police and the army, while female voting turn-out is increasing since 2001. though however, such policies and programs as girls' friendly school initiative to sensitize communities and encourage setting up of mothers' clubs to foster greater female school enrolment and retention in schools, the fast track initiative for similar purposes, the scholarship trust fund for girls to address cultural setbacks to female education, and poverty reduction strategy to generally support female education and reduce gender disparities in basic and secondary education all may have recorded some limited success, but the fact remains that democratic education particularly for girls still appears to suffer major setbacks from socio-cultural and religious sources. teenage girls are often married out when they would have been in school and even many that were able to complete basic and/or secondary education have to contend with socio-cultural forces that impel them to early motherhood. moreover, the religious obligation for muslin female students to wear hoods while in school may prevent some, particularly the core religionists, from attending non-muslin but perhaps better equipped schools where they could take fuller advantage of more qualitative education than otherwise may be available in muslin schools of their choice. non-muslin female students may also suffer from similar constraints. because state education policy permits muslin schools to enforce the wearing of hoods in their schools while non-muslin schools are allowed by law to ban such practice in their schools, a non-muslin student, for instance, compelled to do so may be psychologically ill disposed to benefit from the learning process. table 3 gambia population figures, 2007 area name both sexes country/lga/district/village total <1 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-14 15-49 50-59 60+ ns 1,360,681 30,260 74,269 89,392 84,490 292,830 654,861 53,560 68,719 12,300 area name female country/lga/district/village total <1 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-14 15-49 50-59 60+ ns 689, 840 14,824 36,633 44,884 41,665 146,292 341,250 24,716 34,097 5,479 besides, descriptive analysis of demographic data from table 3 reveals a female dominance (50.70% female) of the gambia population. and given the prevailing polygamous marriage system in a society where most male members, particularly the uneducated tend to characteristically demonstrate either weak economic leadership of their families or inadvertently relegate responsibilities for care of their off springs to women, opportunities for educational improvement for women appear to be further limited. demands of child care and responsibilities for even of whole nuclear family, and sometimes for the extended family as the case may be, have often meant that women are constrained by social forces from taking full advantage of opportunities provided by the government gender-balance education policy initiatives. given therefore the positive government policy and concrete steps to support and promote gender balance, how can these gender issues be tackled to increase female democratic awareness? and given the female dominance of the gambian population, what is the female gender potential to contribute to democratic education and democracy? again the bottom-top efforts for change must necessarily compliment government gender balance initiatives. the elimination of cultural militating forces that impel preference of boys over girls in providing educational opportunities and religious forces that inhibit learning are all about social change, a social movement that calls for a change in social attitude to, and modification of values placed on women. the reason for this change already exists in the gambia as the government's education policies such as girls friendly education initiatives, fast tract initiative and scholarship trust fund programs provide the enabling ground. while more intensive public sensitization campaigns need to be mounted to address these cultural issues that lead to early marriages and pregnancy among girls which keep them away from school, nuclear families and other existing social and community structures such as mothers' clubs could in fact contribute to change in basic social attitudes, beliefs and values about women in the gambia. the potential for female contribution to democracy and democratic education is enhanced by the absolute female dominance of the gambian population and their central role in socializing their off-springs. conclusion in concluding, the paper recommends a model of african democracy towards which gambia learning must work, a proportional representative system which allows for representation of all shades of opinion and political convictions and which incorporates some practical aspects and elements of traditional african political structures and philosophical concepts the spirit of consensus and compromise as the bedrock for developing a democratic culture. this spirit of tolerance both in the governors and the governed, not borrowed as african borrowed other features of western democracy model, can support and sustain representative democratic structures in africa and the gambia. because teachers do teach students to conform, learning must be structured to permit critical thinking, de-emphasize authority dependence, create greater informality incorporating some features of traditional african learning, allow educators to understand the learners, know their world and the language with which they relate to and combat with their world and which appreciates african experiences, particularly experiences that seem to work. it must make use of tolerant, not arrogant but progressive educators who must encourage learners to think freely and democratically; it must encourage learning through discussion and reflection. teaching and learning therefore must necessarily be a democratic process to be able to promote development of democracy african and the gambia can benefit from positive and rich aspects of indigenous african learning and thought by drawing on the strength of informal educational framework. this can enable teachers to create democratic awareness in more or less informal class sessions in which wisdom teachings of african ancestors are thought and in which african folklore may be employed to teach democratic values and beliefs. however, a major challenge for effective education for democracy in the gambia appears to arise from local interpretations, as it is misinterpretation, of democracy particularly among teachers which tend to reflect support for citizens' loyalty to the state and greater concern for civic obligations. teachers must be equipped to become effective vehicles for democratic education. the teaching force must necessarily develop appropriate knowledge, skills, concepts and attitudes of 'african' democracy while citizenship education and social and environmental studies programs in the gambia have to be designed in ways that teach african democratic values which empower citizens to defend their rights, actively participate politically and to develop critical attitudes towards authorities and allegiance to the people rather than the nation. if teachers teach for conformity, the teaching force misinterprets democracy and lacks requisite 'african' democratic skills, values and knowledge, and the education system in the gambia cannot work towards african democracy, the thrust for change must necessarily come from private individuals, professional interest groups such as organized teachers' interests, the church, ngos with educational interests, and student bodies. youth involvement in this change process becomes necessary as youth mobilization can serve the dual purpose of contributing to bringing about change in the gambian learning through more effective input in public policy decision making as well as increasing democratic consciousness among them. in looking at the contribution of gender to democracy and education for democracy in the gambia, i argue that increasing educational opportunities for women can increase the level of their democratic awareness and consequently enhance their contribution to democratic education. efforts of the government to attenuate the social and cultural limitations on the female gender through public sensitization can be supported by complimentary contributions of nuclear families and other existing social and community structures such as mothers' club towards change in basic social attitudes, beliefs and values about women in the gambia. references african social studies programme. report on the seminar of the coordinating committee of the assp , nairobi, kenya, march 4-9, 1985. ake, c. 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(1999). crime and society: a comparative criminology tour of the world. retrieved august 22, 2007, from http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/ the roles of ict development in open and distance education: acheivements, prospects and challenges dickson ogbonnaya igwe national open university of nigeria abstract the promises of information and communication technologies (ict) have driven e-learning in transforming open distance education and thereby advancing the knowledge economy that rested on three arguments: e-learning could expand and widen access to tertiary education and learning; improve the quality of education; and reduce its cost. this article evaluates these three promises based on existing data and evidence. it concludes that the reality has not matched the promises so far in terms of pedagogic innovation. this does not mean that ict development has not produced any significant positive results in improving the overall learning (and teaching) experience in the institutions and societies where it is implemented. that implies that what will help further to identify the new challenge. ict development faces will be further research. obstacles and problems of ict that could have affected the open educational resource initiatives are yet to be established. the first section of the paper recalls some of the proposed values of elearning. the second section compares achievements so far and suggests that e-learning could be only at an early stage of realising educational innovation aspirations. the third section highlights the challenges of future developments in e-learning. key words: ict development; knowledge economy; e-learning; distance education; open education; tertiary education; innovative circle. 2 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) introduction knowledge, innovation and information and communication technologies (icts) have had strong repercussions on many economic sectors, such as informatics and communication, finance, and transportation sectors (foray, 2004; boyer, 2002). ict has also had an influence on education. the knowledge-based economy for example sets a new scene for education and new challenges and prospects for the education sector. in the first place education is a prerequisite of the knowledge-based economy and the production and use of new knowledge both require a more educated population and workforce. secondly, icts are a very powerful tool for diffusing knowledge and information, which is a fundamental aspect of the education process. in this capacity, they play a pedagogic role that could in principle complement (or even compete with) the traditional practices of the education sector. these are therefore two challenges for the education sector if it is to continue to expand with the help (or under the pressure) of new forms of learning. thirdly, icts sometimes induce innovations in the ways business is conducted in the education sector. for example, navigation does not necessarily involve the same cognitive processes since the global positioning system (gps) was invented (e.g. hutchins, 1995). also scientific research in many fields is revolutionised by the new possibilities offered by icts, from digitisation of information to new recording, simulation and data processing possibilities (atkins and al., 2003). another question to ask then is, “could icts similarly revolutionise education, especially as education deals directly with the codification and transmission of knowledge and information?” these two activities (codification and transmission) are effectively decoupled by the ict revolution. it is important to discover the characteristics of education before considering whether ict can revolutionise education. the education sector has so far been characterised by rather slow progress in terms of innovations that impact teaching activities. educational research and development does not play a strong role as a factor of enabling the direct production of systematic knowledge which translates into “programmes that work” in the classroom or lecture hall (oecd, 2003). as a matter of fact, education is not a field that lends itself easily to experimentation, partly because experimental approaches in education are often impossible to describe precisely enough to ensure that they are actually replicated (nelson, 2000). there is little codified knowledge in the realm of education and only weak developed mechanisms whereby communities of faculty collectively can capture and benefit from the discoveries made by their colleagues. moreover, learning typically depends on other learning inputs than those received in the class or formal education process: the success of learning depends on many social and family aspects that are actually beyond the control of educators. however, information and communication technologies potentially offer increased possibilities for codification of knowledge about teaching and for innovation in teaching activities through the delivery of learning and cognitive activities anywhere at any time. learning at a distance can be more learner-centred, self-paced, and problem solving-based than face-to-face teaching using traditional media, social media through networking to create open space interact between the lecturer and the students without necessarily face-to-face classroom situations. it is also true however, that many learning activities cannot be coordinated by virtual means only. the emulation and spontaneity generated by physical presence and social groupings often remain crucial. likewise, face-to-face exchanges are important when they enable other forms of sensory perception to be stimulated apart from those used within the framework of 3 dickson ogbonnaya igwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) electronic interaction. still it is important to note that the influence of distance and time is waning now that the technological capacity is available for knowledge-sharing, remote access and teamwork, and organising and coordinating tasks over wide areas (oecd, 2004a). focusing on tertiary education, this article examines the promises of icts in the education sector, first as a way to better participate in the advancement of the knowledge economy and second as a way to introduce innovations. leaving aside the impact of icts on the research or e-science performed by tertiary education institutions (see atkins and al., 2003; david, 2004), we concentrate on e-learning, broadly understood or used interchangeably as the use of icts to enhance or support learning and teaching in (tertiary) education. e-learning is thus a generic term referring to different uses and intensities of uses of icts, from wholly online education to campus-based education through other forms of distance education supplemented with icts in some way. the supplementary model, referred to above, would encompass activities ranging from the most basic use of icts, i.e. use of pcs for word processing of assignments, through to more advanced adoptions such as, specialist disciplinary software, handheld devices, learning management systems etc. however, in our model we keep a presiding interest in more advanced applications including some use of online facilities. secondly, this article draws on existing evidence, including a recent survey on e-learning in post-secondary institutions carried out by the oecd centre for educational research and innovation (ceri) that shows that e-learning has not yet lived up to its promises. the promises in fact, were overstated in the hype of the new economy. even so, icts have nonetheless had a real impact on the education sector, introducing a quiet rather than radical revolution. finally, the survey shows some possible directions to further stimulate use of ict development. the remainder of this article is organized as follows: the first section recalls some of the promises of e-learning. the second section compares these promises and the real achievements to date in developing countries, particularly in nigeria, and suggests that e-learning could be at an early stage of its adoption cycle in nigeria. the third section highlights the challenges for further development of e-learning and shows what future directions might be most promising. advancing knowledge and knowledge economy: prospects of e-learning the emergence of icts represents high promises for the tertiary education sector and, more broadly, the post-secondary education sector if one takes into account their impact on non-formal education. icts could indeed play a role on three fundamental aspects of education policy: access, quality, and cost. icts could possibly advance knowledge by expanding and widening access to education, by improving the quality of education, and reducing its cost. all this would build more capacity for the advancement of knowledge economies. this section summarises the main arguments backing these possibilities. e-learning is a promising tool for expanding and widening access to tertiary education. because they relax space and time constraints, icts can allow new people to participate in open distance learning (odl) by increasing the flexibility of participation compared to the traditional face-to-face model. in this way working students and adults, people living in remote rural areas, non-mobile students, and even students outside the country could now more easily participate in education. thanks to ict, learners can indeed study where and/or when they have time to do so, rather than where and/or when classes are planned. while traditional correspondence-based distance learning has long played this role, icts have enhanced traditional distance education by 4 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) enabling the rise of a continuum of practices between fully campus-based education and fully distance education. more specifically, fully online learning can allow large numbers of students to access education. the constraints of the face-to-face learning experience, that is, the size of the rooms and buildings and the student/teacher ratios, represents another form of relaxation of space constraints. icts indeed allow a very cheap cost of reproduction and communication of a lesson, via different means like the digital recording and its (ulterior or simultaneous) diffusion on tv, radio or the internet. the learning process or content can also be codified, and at least some parts be standardised in learning objects, for example a multimedia software, that can in principle be used by millions of learners, either in a synchronous or asynchronous way. although both forms might induce some loss in terms of teacher-learner interactivity compared to face-to-face teaching, they can reach a scale of participation that would be unfeasible via face-to-face learning. the promises of ict in the education sector when the needs are huge, fully online learning can be crucial and possibly the only realistic means to increase and rapidly widen access to tertiary education. some developing countries have huge cohorts of young people and shortages in their academic workforce that result in unmet demands for education. given that training new teachers would take too much time, notwithstanding resources, e-learning therefore might represent for many potential students the only chance to study, so it is not merely an alternative to full face-to-face learning (world bank, 2003). e-learning may also be viewed as a promising way for improving the quality of tertiary education and the effectiveness of open distance learning. these promises can be derived from different characteristics of icts, including: the increased flexibility of the learning experience it can give to students; the enhanced access to information resources for more students; the potential to drive innovative and effective ways of learning and/or teaching, including learning tools; easier use of multimedia or simulation tools; and the possibility to diffuse these innovations at low marginal cost among teachers and learners. distance e-learning has not only the virtue to be inclusive for students that cannot participate in tertiary education because of time, space, or capacity constraints, as was shown above. it can also offer to students more personalised ways of learning than collective face-toface learning. it can be helpful even in small groups. although learning is often personalised to some extent in higher education through the modularity of paths, icts allow institutions to give students a wider variety of learning paths from which to choose. this is not usually the case in non-ict supplemented institutions because of the administrative burden this represents in large institutions. this means that students can experiment with learning paths that best suit them. moreover, e-learning can potentially allow students to take courses from several institutions, i.e. some campus-based and others fully online. this potential flexibility of individual curricula may be seen as an improvement of the overall student experience, regardless of pedagogical changes. in brief, e-learning could render education more learner-centred compared to the traditional model. finally, as far as prospects and promises are concerned e-learning may be seen as a promising way to reduce the cost of tertiary education, which is critical for expanding and 5 dickson ogbonnaya igwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) widening its access worldwide. it might thus represent new opportunities for students having difficulties with traditional education formats. although initial ict investments are expensive, they can then generally be used at near-zero marginal cost. where does this cost-efficiency come from? it comes from the replacement of expensive brick and mortar campuses by smaller virtual campus centres; the digitisation of library materials that save the cost of keeping huge paper collections; the improvement of efficiency of institutional management; and the automation of some of the traditional on-campus activities, including some teaching. a quiet rather than radical revolution: icts’ achievements has e-learning (and especially online learning) lived up to the promises outlined in the previous section? the answer is “yes, to some extent.” the reality of e-learning has never matched its most radical promises (zemsky and massy, 2004). while experiments are still underway, the initial stage of over-enthusiasm ended with new economy bubble burst about 2002. in this respect, e-learning followed the ups and down of the new economy and gave rise to the same caveats as in other sectors, including: irrational beliefs about its market value, over-investment, over-capacity, and more announced initiatives than services actually launched (boyer, 2002). like other activities, e-learning has not yet proven its ability to generate high profits or to replace the old economy of learning. however, interpreting this as a failure of e-learning would oversimplify the reality and could be seen as “throwing the baby out with the bath water.” while, perhaps unsurprisingly, e-learning has not led to the radical revolution in open distance education that was sometimes prophesised, some of its forms are already pervasive in tertiary education and have led to a quiet revolution. the modesty of its achievements should not lead one to overlook these achievements. this section gives an overview of the available evidence of achievements that are visible with the adoption of e-learning in tertiary education. e-learning adoption benefits the radical perception of e-learning was that fully online learning would progressively supersede traditional face-to-face learning and represent a competitive threat for traditional tertiary educational institutions. to some extent, this belief was a reason for the creation of new ventures and for established institutions to enter this new market and early adopters could indeed possibly gain a brand name and a serious competitive advantage in the new market. the reality is that, while sometimes successful in experiments, fully online learning has remained a marginal form of e-learning and is often not even the ultimate goal or rationale for e-learning adoption. however, this does not mean that e-learning in other forms has not gained significant ground over the past decade in tertiary education. there is indeed some evidence of a noticeable growth of e-learning adoption both on demand and supply sides. one must bear in mind that e-learning encompasses a wide range of activities. following the terminology used in the ceri survey (oecd, 2005) we distinguish between different levels of online learning adoption as sub-sections of e-learning as follows, from the least to the most intensive form of e-learning:  none or trivial online presence;  web supplemented: the web is used but not for key “active” elements of the programme, i.e. course outline and lecture notes online, use of email, links to external online resources, without any reduction in classroom time; 6 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012)  web dependent: students are required to use the internet for key “active” elements of the programme, i.e. online discussions, assessments, online projects or collaborative work, but without significant reduction in classroom time.  mixed mode or blended: students are required to participate in online activities, i.e. online discussions, assessments, online project or collaborative work, as part of course work, which replaces part of face-to-face teaching/learning. significant campus attendance remains.  fully online: the vast bulk of the programme is delivered online with typically no (or not significant) campus attendance or through “learning objects”. what about the major trends in the adoption of e-learning by institutions and students in nigeria? what levels of online learning do they incorporate? the next section addresses these questions. odl education platform: a historical juxtaposition open distance learning (odl) is an acronym associated with national open university of nigeria (noun). for the present, noun cannot compete with many of the open universities, such as: united kingdom open university (ukou), indira ghandi national open university, india (ignou), alberta open university, india, open university of south africa, open university of hong kong in the area of e-learning. noun still depends on print materials and face-to-face facilitation which are meant as supplemental materials. noun is handicapped by the low level of development in information and communication technology (ict) facilities and support resources, such as electricity and inadequate infrastructural facilities in throughout the country that noun ought to serve. the course materials printed by noun headquarters are not equitably distributed to all the study centers and the study centers are poorly equipped. this makes it difficult to align materials from headquarters to appropriate course scheduling. noun, it may be said, is still at the beginning stages of implementation and cannot for now be compared in any open and distance education universities outside africa or even with open and distance learning universities in the neighboring african countries. this growth rate for online course enrolments, which was estimated at 25% in 2005, is much higher than the growth rate of total tertiary enrolments in the united states. from a low starting point, fully online learning is growing at a rapid pace, even if it is merely as a complement to face-to-face or mixed mode learning. moreover, fully online learning is clearly very important for distance institutions. in the ceri survey, the institutions willing to embrace fully online learning to the greatest extent were all virtual/distance learning only institutions (or branches) (oecd, 2005). in conclusion, e-learning seems to live up to its promises in terms of flexibility and access possibilities. it is a growing activity that has significantly increased the participation in tertiary education of foreign students (oecd, 2005). does e-learning improve the quality of open distance education? the real impact of e-learning on the quality of open distance education is difficult to measure. elearning largely embodies two promises: improving education thanks to improved learning and teaching facilities, and inventing and sharing new pedagogical techniques or ways of learning thanks to icts. the quality of education (with or without e-learning) is very difficult to measure, 7 dickson ogbonnaya igwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) not the least because learning depends on students’ motivation, abilities, and other conditions, i.e. family, social, economic, health backgrounds, etc., as much as on the quality of teaching. the reasons that explain icts’ positive impact on quality of e-learning is its ability to offer more flexibility of access to open distance learners, better facilities and resources for studying, and new opportunities for learning thanks to the relaxation of space and time constraints. its success does not correspond to a significant change in class pedagogy, but to a change in the overall learning experience. according to (oecd, 2005), the main drivers or components of this positive impact come from:  facilitated access to international faculty/peers, i.e. the possibility of online lectures or joint classes with remote students;  flexible access to materials and other resources, allowing students to revise a particular aspect of a class, giving more access flexibility to part-time students, or giving remote and easy access to the library materials;  improved communication between faculty and students and increase of peer learning; these “positive impacts” on the overall learning experiences of the learners is alone, a significant achievement of e-learning, even though it has not radically transformed the learning and teaching processes. cost efficiency of e-learning: looking beyond nigeria has e-learning lived up its promises in terms of cost-efficiency? here again, it is not the case, if one looks at the most radical promises as noted above. virtual universities have not replaced brick and mortar classrooms or saved the cost of expensive building investments and maintenance. digital libraries have supplemented rather than replaced physical ones. the codification and standardisation of teaching in a way that would allow less faculty or less qualified academics has not become the norm nor have new online learning objects been invented to replace faculty altogether. finally, it is clear that there was no one time only ict investments as the maintenance and upgrading costs of ict facilities are actually important, so contrary to the idea of marginal costs for replicating and diffusing information. moreover, cost-efficiency has for many universities been a secondary goal compared to the challenge of developing innovative and high quality e-learning courses at many tertiary education institutions. the ranking of cost-efficiency has increased between 2002 and 2004 by 16%. further, only 37% of recent survey respondents considered “cutting teaching costs longterm” as a key rationale in the obhe survey (obhe, 2004); this is a small percentage compared to the two key rationales, which were reflected in over 90% of responses. again, most universities consider e-learning materials and courses as a supplement to traditional classroom or lecture activities rather than a substitute. the predominance of web dependent and mixed modes of e-learning makes the assessment of the costs and benefits of e-learning investments per se more difficult to evaluate as they become part of the on-campus experience. it is striking that the institutions participating in the ceri survey on e-learning had no systematic data on their e-learning costs (oecd, 2005). in this context, and after the burst of the dot.com economy bubble that put many e-learning operations out of business, identifying sustainable cost-efficient models for e-learning investments in tertiary education has become critical. 8 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) there are examples of cost-efficient models “outside” the traditional colleges and universities though. virtual tertiary education institutions, such as the catalonia virtual university have a cost advantage as they are developing e-learning material from scratch and not “building onto” a physical camp. the open university in the uk which is gradually moving from traditional distance learning courses using books, video cassettes, and cd-roms to online courses reported that their costs per student are one third of the average cost for similar oncampus programmes in the uk. fixed capital costs are lower and it is easier to align staffing structures to e-learning processes than at “traditional” universities. the e-learning activity of the university of phoenix, which is a private for-profit university mainly for adult students, is also seen as cost-effective. its business model is based on “standardised teaching,” relatively small on-line class size, and use of proven low-tech e-learning technologies (inducing lower costs than more sophisticated technologies). much of the faculty staff at the university of phoenix is hired part time with fulltime jobs at other tertiary education institutions. this indicates that staff development costs are lower at university of phoenix than other tertiary education institutions. e-learning investments in tertiary education can be cost-effective, but it depends on the business model, the profile and number of students and topics. in fact, its cost-effectiveness has been demonstrated in some cases in large undergraduate science classes (harley, 2003). the calculations also depend on whether student opportunity costs are taken into account. the initial costs for e-learning development are often high. they include among other items, infrastructure, creating course material from scratch, experimentation, new kinds of staffing, immature technologies, etc. in order to ensure that e-learning investments are cost efficient, e-learning activities may need to substitute parts of the on-campus teaching activities rather than duplicate them. educational innovations, like learning objects, could for example support the re-use and sharing of e-learning materials. although data is lacking on cost-efficiency, at this stage there is little evidence that elearning has led to more cost efficiency in tertiary education. failures have been more numerous than success stories, although the latter document the possible sustainability of e-learning. the adoption of icts for administrating tertiary education institutions has probably been the main source of cost efficiency in the tertiary sector, like in other economic sectors. odl in nigeria and e-learning prospects so, has e-learning lived up to its promises? this is probably true as far as it holds promises for incremental improvement, including an increased access and quality of the learning experience— a improvement whose importance should not be underestimated. as for radical innovation, the answer is, not yet. so far, e-learning has induced a quiet rather than a radical revolution of open distance education particularly in nigeria. as noted earlier noun is the first fully fledged university that operates in an exclusively open and distance learning (odl) mode of education in nigeria. the university focuses mainly on a distance teaching and learning system, and delivers its course materials via print in conjunction with ict formats. noun currently has thirty study centres, which are stratified into the six geopolitical zones of the nation. students’ enrollment capacity is projected at about 50,000 students. this figure is the reason to conclude that odl mode of education holds a great prospect as it increases capacity in the educational sector. its greatest challenge is power generation and high cost of access to ict facility by both students and staff. 9 dickson ogbonnaya igwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) as a force contributing to social and economic development, odl in nigeria is fast becoming an accepted and indispensable part of the mainstream of educational systems. this growth is stimulated in part by the interest among educators and trainers in the use of new internet based and multimedia technologies and also by the recognition that traditional ways of organizing education need reinforcement by innovative methods. in this way the fundamental right of all people to learning may be realized. development challenges of e-learning in tertiary education. the aim of this final section is to identify and reflect on some of the key issues that need consideration in a systematic way for e-learning to develop further and become a deeper driver of innovation in tertiary education. in general and in particular in odl, if the vast majority of colleges and universities whether in close or open distance learning platforms are to embrace elearning, a sustainable innovation and investment model must be developed. the first challenge lies indeed in the development of sustainable e-learning innovation models which go beyond using e-learning as an add-on to traditional forms of teaching and learning in tertiary education. there is a need to invent new, useful and better pedagogic innovations that may partly substitute for traditional face-to-face teaching. this requires a broad willingness of these institutions to search for new combinations of input of faculty, facilities, and technology and new ways of organising their teaching activities. secondly, the challenge lies in the development of a realistic model for investment in elearning that would stimulate the participation of faculty and other stakeholders and be financially sustainable. this requires more straightforward, systematic knowledge on the real costs and benefits of e-learning investments in tertiary education. however, like ict investments in other sectors, the cost-effectiveness of e-learning investments will depend on whether new organisational and knowledge management practices are adopted. experience has shown that it might be more difficult to provide the “softer” social, organisational and legal changes in tertiary education than the technological infrastructures necessary to fully embrace the advantages of elearning. this article emphasises partnerships and networks as a possible way forward for further investment, product development, and innovation diffusion in e-learning. there are many examples where tertiary education institutions seek to share the costs of e-learning development through partnerships and networking. partnership and network building are also useful for accessing new knowledge, to learn from others’ experiences and exchange information about the latest developments in e-learning. this may involve many different organisations, such as traditional colleges and universities, virtual universities, libraries, for-profit icts and training companies from different sectors, etc. these activities can range from sharing material, joint technology and software development, joint research and development, joint marketing, joint training, connectivity and may be regional, national, and/or international (oecd, 2004b; cunningham et al., 2000). after showing the importance and challenges for universities to engage their faculty in e-learning, this article considers an innovative practice exemplifying the potential power of partnerships and networks, as well as open educational resources (oer). these partnerships will have significant implications for the way e-learning activities will develop over the coming years in tertiary education. e-learning: a possible way forward through open educational resources 10 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) open educational resources appear as an innovative practice that provides a good example of the current opportunities and challenges offered by icts in order to trigger radical pedagogic innovations. digitalisation and the potential for instant, low-cost global communication have opened tremendous new opportunities for the dissemination and use of learning material. this has spurred an increased number of freely accessible oer initiatives on the internet including: 1) open courseware; 2) open software tools, i.e. learning management system; 3) open material for capacity building of faculty staff; 4) repositories of learning objects; and 5) free educational e-learning courses. at the same time, there are now more realistic expectations of the commercial e-learning opportunities in tertiary education. the oer initiatives are a relatively new phenomenon in tertiary education made possible by the use of icts. the open sharing of one’s educational resources implies that knowledge is made freely available on non-commercial terms sometimes in the framework of user and doer communities. in such communities the innovation impact is greater when it is shared, i.e. the users are freely revealing their knowledge and work more collaboratively. these communities are not always able to extract economic revenues directly from the knowledge and information goods they are producing or from the sharing of these good which are not steered by market mechanisms. instead they have specific reward systems often designed to give some kind of credit to inventors without exclusivity rights. others do seek patents for their innovations, but may not charge for use as long as they are credited for the innovation. in the case of open science, the reward system is collegial reputation, where there is a need to be identified and recognised as “the one who discovered” which gives incentives for the faculty to publish new knowledge quickly and completely (dasgupta and david, 1994). the main motivation or incentive for people to make oer material available freely is that the material might be adopted by others and maybe modified and improved to further its development. reputation is therefore also a key motivation factor in oer communities. being part of such a user community gives access to knowledge and information from others, but it also implies that one has a “moral” obligation to share one’s own information. inventors of oer can benefit from increased “free distribution” or from distribution at very low marginal costs. a direct result of free revealing is to increase the diffusion of that innovation relative to conditions in which it is licensed. if an innovation is widely used it would initiate and develop standards which could be advantageously used even by rivals. the sakai project, for example, has an interest in making their open software tools available for many colleges and universities. therefore they have set a relatively low entry fee for colleges and universities who wish to access their software tools. the financial sustainability of oer initiatives is a key issue. many initiatives are sponsored by private foundations, public funding or paid by the institutions themselves. in general, the social value of knowledge and information tools increases to the degree that they can be shared with and used by others. the individual faculty member or institution providing social value may not be able to sustain the costs of providing oer material freely on the internet in the long term. it is therefore important to find revenues to sustain these activities. it might, for instance, be possible to charge and to take copyrights on part of the knowledge and information activities springing out of the oer initiatives. finding better ways of sharing and re-using e learning material, like the discussion on learning objects above, might also provide some revenues. 11 dickson ogbonnaya igwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) it is also important to find new ways for the users of oer to be “advised” of the quality of the learning material stored in open repositories. the wealth of learning material is enormous on the internet and if there is little or no guidance of the quality of the learning material, users may be tempted to look for existing brands and known quality. there is no golden standard or method of identifying quality of learning material in tertiary education on the internet as is the case with quality identification within tertiary education as a whole. the intentions behind the merlot learning object repository was to have the user community rate the quality and usability of the learning objects that were made freely available. in reality very few users have taken the time and effort to evaluate other learning objects. there is little doubt that the generic lack of a review process or quality assessment system is a serious issue and is hindering increased uptake and usage of oer. user commentary, branding, peer reviews or user communities evaluating the quality and usefulness of the oer are possible ways forward. another important challenge is to adapt “global oer initiatives” to local needs and to provide a dialogue between the doers and users of the oer. lack of cultural and language sensitivities might be an important barrier to the receptiveness of the users. training initiatives for users to be able to apply course material and/or software to local meet specific language or cultural needs might be a way to reach potential users. also important is the choice, maintenance, and user access to the technologies chosen for the oer. this is a huge task in better understanding the users of oer. there are a very few surveys on the users of oer are available and these are hardly conclusive. there is a high need to better understand the demand and the users of oer. a key issue is who owns the e-learning material developed by faculty. is it the faculty or the institution? in many countries including the united states, the longstanding practice in tertiary education is to allow faculty the ownership of their lecture notes and classroom presentations. this practice is not automatically applied to e-learning course material. some universities have adopted policies that share revenues from e-learning material produced by faculty. other universities have adopted policies that apply institutional ownership only when the use of university resources is substantial (american council of education and educause, 2003). in any case, institutions and faculty groups must strive to maintain a policy that provides for the university’s use of materials and simultaneously fosters and supports faculty innovation. it will be interesting to analyse how proprietary versus open e-learning initiatives will develop over the coming years in tertiary education. their respective development will depend upon several points, including:  how the copyright practices and rules for e-learning material will develop at tertiary education institutions;  the extent to which innovative user communities will be built around oer initiatives;  the extent to which learning objects models will prove to be successful;  the extent to which new organisational forms in teaching and learning at tertiary education institutions will crystallise;  the demand for free versus “fee-paid” e-learning material;  the role of private companies in promoting e-learning investments. it is likely, however, that those proprietary e-learning initiatives will not dominate or take over open e-learning initiatives or vice versa. the two approaches will more likely develop side by 12 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) side sometimes in competition, but also being able to mutually reinforce each other through new innovations and market opportunities. conclusion and recommendations there are many critical issues surrounding e-learning in tertiary education that need to be addressed in order to fulfil e-learning objectives. these include: widening access to educational opportunities; enhancing the quality of learning; and reducing the cost of tertiary education. elearning is, in all its forms, a relatively recent phenomenon in tertiary education that neither has not radically transformed teaching and learning practices nor significantly changed the access, costs, and quality of tertiary education. as this article has shown, e-learning has grown at a rapid pace and has enhanced the overall learning and teaching experience in developed countries with less use demonstrated in developing countries, like nigeria, due to high cost of power generation and access to ict facilities. while e-learning has not lived up to its most ambitious promises to stem radical innovations in the pedagogic and organisational models of the tertiary education, it has quietly enhanced and improved the traditional learning processes. most institutions, especially in developing countries like nigeria, are still in the early phase of e-learning adoption, characterised by important enhancements of the learning process but no radical change in learning and teaching. noun, using odl platform, was established basically to put an end to the regional tertiary education disparity in nigeria and to offer quality education to every nook and corner of each state in the country at affordable rates. icts can be used through e-education to spread quality education and pedagogy. a balanced blend of technology and content offers a window of opportunity to the learners in the rural schools to bridge the digital divide. the e-learning system is a comprehensive and well thought-out initiative to open new vistas of learning and to provide a level playing field to schools’ students in rural areas and isolated towns. this highlights the need to bridge the diverse proliferation of education across different socio-economic and geographic segments of the country. the icts programs developed impact when and where students learn. in the past, educational institutions provided little choice for students in terms of the method and manner in which programs were delivered. students typically were forced to accept what was delivered and institutions tended to be quite traditional in terms of the delivery of their programs. learning through e-education is now creating competitive edges through the choices they are offering to the students. these choices extend from when students can choose to learn to how and where they learn. like other innovations, the innovations of e-learning, icts, and open resources may eventually live up to their more radical promises in the future and really lead to inventions in new ways of teaching, learning, and interacting within a knowledge community constituted of learners and teachers. however, in order to head towards these advanced innovations, a sustainable innovation and investment model needs to be developed. while the first challenge is technical, it will also require a broad willingness of tertiary education institutions to search for new combinations of input of faculty, facilities and technology and new ways of organising their teaching activities. similar to ict investments in other sectors, the cost-effectiveness of elearning investments will depend on whether new organisational and knowledge management practices are adopted. experiments are already underway that make us aware of these challenges, 13 dickson ogbonnaya igwe _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) but also that the opportunities and lasting promises of e-learning in tertiary education are eminent. there is a quite a bit which may be achieved by the successful implementation of elearning modules via icts and e-learning campaigns across nigeria. the level of literacy of the country itself is also likely to increase because e-learning is possible in all nigerian languages, i.e. igbo, hausa, yoruba and others, as well as english language components. the migration of students towards towns and cities for studying may be reversed. availability of quality education at their door steps should result in increased opportunities to learning which should translate to increased earning power. this increased knowledge and awareness also increases overall growth of skilled manpower in the country. references allen, i.e. and seaman, j. (2003), “sizing the opportunity: the quality and extent of online education in the united states, 2002 and 2003,” newport, ma: the sloan consortium. baer, m.a., king, j.e., anderson, e.l., hawkins, b.l., barone, c.a., eds. (2003). distributed education: challenges, choices and a new environment. washington dc: american council on education. atkins, d.e., droegemeier, k.k., feldman, s.i., garcia-molina, h., klein, m.l., messerschmitt, d.g., messina, p., ostriker, j.p., wright, m.h. (2003). revolutionizing science and engineering through cyberinfrastructure: report of the national science foundation blue-ribbon advisory panel on cyberinfrastructure. arlington, va : national science foundation. bates, a. w. (1995). technology, e-learning and distance education. new york: routledge. boyer, r. (2004), the future of economic growth: as new becomes old. english translation by michel albin. uk: cheltenham. cunningham, s., ryan, y., stedman, l., tapsall, s., bagdon, s., flew, t., coaldrake, p. (2000). the business of borderless education. canberra, australia: australian department of education, training and youth affairs. dasgupta, p. and david, p.a. (1994), “towards a new economics of science”, research policy, 23:5, 487-521. david, p.a. (2004), “toward a cyber infrastructure from enhanced scientific collaboration: providing its ‘soft’ foundations may be the hardest threat,” paper presented at the international conference advancing knowledge and the knowledge-economy, national academy of science, washington d.c., 10-11 january 2005. foray, d. (2004). the economics of knowledge. cambridge, ma: mit press. 14 the roles of ict development in open and distance education: achievements, prospects, and challenges _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) harley, d., henke, j., lawrence, s., mcmartin, f., maher, m., gawlik, m., and muller, p., “costs, culture, and complexity: an analysis of technology enhancements in a large lecture course of uc berkeley,” center for studies in higher education, 3.03 (march 2003). hutchins, e. (1995). cognition in the wild. cambridge, ma: mit press. nelson, r. (2000), “knowledge and innovation systems”, centre for educational research and innovation, editor, in knowledge management in the learning society, paris: oecd publications, 115 124. garrett, r., (2002), “online learning in commonwealth universities: selected data from the 2002 observatory survey, part 1,” observatory for borderless higher education http://www.obhe.ac.uk/documents/view_details?id=577 oecd (2003). new challenges for educational research. paris: oecd. oecd (2004a). innovation in the knowledge economy: implications for education and learning. paris: oecd. oecd (2004b). internationalisation and trade in higher education: opportunities and challenges. paris: oecd. oecd (2005). e-learning case studies in post-secondary education. paris: oecd. smith, j. m. and thille, c. (2004). the open learning initiative: cognitively informed e learning. london: the observatory on borderless higher education. world bank (2003). constructing knowledge societies: new challenges for tertiary education. washington, d.c.: the world bank. zemsky, r. and massy, w.f. (2004). thwarted innovation: what happened to e-learning and why. philadelphia, pa: the learning alliance. http://www.obhe.ac.uk/documents/view_details?id=577 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi: a dual assessment process elias kaphesi the polytechnic, university of malawi abstract the present study is an evaluation of assessment of fourth year undergraduate student teachers on teaching practicum in secondary schools. the study was carried out in the department of mathematics and statistics at the malawi polytechnic of the university of malawi. a total number of 18 (14 males, 4 females) mathematical sciences education students of the polytechnic of the university of malawi were included in the study. the assessment grades and supervision comments were taken by using instruments – teaching practicum grading form and lesson observation form designed and approved by the department. all the measurements were taken by observing a student teacher planning and delivering a lesson as part of the requirement of the degree of bachelor of education in mathematical sciences education of the university of malawi. obtained data was analyzed and correlation between assessment grade and the supervision comments based on the observed lesson was worked out. a positive correlation of grades was observed with the comments made and that the grade given to each individual student. the assessment grades were lower than what the supervision comments suggests regarding the quality of the student performance. the results raise the question of the validity and authenticity of assessment and supervision conducted by teacher educators. the results of the present study would be useful for teacher trainers/educators involved in assessing and supervising students during teaching practicum. keywords: teacher education, teacher training, assessment of student teachers, practicum, supervision of practicum 2 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) introduction practicum placements in schools are considered to be a significant component of pre-service teachers’ education program (grootenboer, 2006; wilson, 2006) and are highly valued by student teachers (beck & kosnik, 2002). the practicum experiences help student teachers develop a contextualised understanding of the intricacies of teaching and provide an opportunity to develop competencies across a range of areas including classroom management skills, the fundamentals of lesson planning, awareness of personal teaching style, and the ability to interact with students. according to grootenboer (2006), practicum experiences offer teacher students a place to “observe and work with real students, teachers, and curriculum in natural settings” (1). during practicum, student teachers apply theoretical knowledge and skills in a real classroom through direct and indirect teaching experiences, including supervised and unsupervised teaching experiences. however, the aim of practicum varies, depending on the view of teacher education which can be seen as cultural practices that serve local needs (allen & peach, 2007). during the university-wide quality reforms, the polytechnic of the university of malawi maintained the teaching practicum for undergraduate student teachers. education students are exposed to 28 weeks of theoretical training each of the first three years and 12 weeks of practicum in the fourth year. the practicum is scored out of 100% and accounts for a total of 10 credit units. thus, teaching practicum represents an integral part of teacher training to become a teacher. in fact all students’ work at college has one single objective, which is to equip student to responsibly and competently pursue students’ future role as the educator of the youth in malawi. for this reason, students need to be given adequate opportunity to: (i) learn from school based and classroom teaching experience; (ii) apply the knowledge and skills of teaching acquired at college; (iii) practice the approaches, skills and techniques recommended in teaching; (iv) observe student teachers and their learning, teacher and their teaching and schools and their organization and administration. teaching practicum is also the time for lecturers to guide and direct student in mastering the science and art of teaching and in the end to judge where students’ strengths and weakness lie and how far students’ may safely be left to continue the development of their competence as a full time member of the teaching profession. statement of the problem although belliveau (2007) claim that practicum experience is the most valuable aspect of teacher education programs, some of the approaches employed in assessing and providing teacher support during practicum are questionable. for example, university lecturers at the polytechnic combine two roles: as assessors and as supervisors. as supervisors, they are expected to observe how student teachers prepare, deliver the lesson and conduct themselves as members of teaching profession and are expected to advise the students on how to improve their teaching skills. as assessors, the lecturers are expected to grade the student teachers by assigning a score based on how the student teacher performs. considering that assessment grade is summative whereas supervision comments formative (tillima & smith, 2009), it is not always possible for a single lecturer to objectively assess the student at the same time provide advice for improvement during the teaching practicum. on the other hand, supervision may influence the assigning of the assessment grade. this dual function of supervision and assessment raises a elias kaphesi 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) question about how the two are related to each other. this study is based on the argument that the dual function of the university lecturers of being both assessors and supervisors may result in focusing on one more than the other to the disadvantage of the teacher professional development hence, this study analyses the relationship between supervision in improving students teaching practicum and the consequent assigning of assessment grade to the student by the same lecturer. purpose of the study this study was aimed at examining the relationship between supervision comments and the assessment grades assigned to students during school based teaching practicum. research questions specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions: (a) what is the nature of comments that supervisors make? (b) to what extent do the marks awarded by the supervisor reflect the comments? (c) what are student teachers’ perceptions of the supervisors’ comments on lesson observations? significance of the study this study adds to international debate on teaching practicum placement in schools in a number of ways. first, it examines the practicum in a framework of principles of effective supervision and assessment as a dual process in practicum. second, it contributes to debates about the balance between supervision and assessment and in particular the place of the practicum in assisting preservice teachers to close a perceived gap between formative and summative assessment of teaching practicum (tillima & smith, 2009). third, the study might help to improve the assessment and supervision of student teachers during the school based practicum of the teacher education program. besides, it provides valuable information regarding the objectivity of the assessment of student teachers during practicum. the results from this study also add to the existing body of literature related to the conduct of practicum. literature review a practicum is a graduate level course, often in a specialized field of study, that is designed to give students supervised practical application of a previously or concurrently studied theory (rowlins, 2011; smith, 2010). practicums are common for education majors. a practicum is the experience of working in-school placements. in addition to providing direct experience and an opportunity to apply newly acquired skills and knowledge, the practicum placements are a major source of curriculum in the sense that they bring students face to face with concrete situations. the underlying assumptions of this approach are that teaching can be considered as a form of problem solving and that teacher students learn best within cohesive academic and practical situations that allow them to understand and to master their environment. practicum refers to any early field experience in the classroom in which students’ progress towards the student teaching semester (rawlins & starkey, 2011). the practicum enables student teachers to acquire beginning teaching competencies and is a core component of the initial teacher preparation program in malawi (mtika, 2010). the purpose of the practicum is to help prepare student teachers for the realities of student teaching by providing them with a clear understanding of the contexts for schooling. the practicum plays 4 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) a major role in bridging “theory and practice”. further, it offers the context for student teachers to develop their personal teaching competence (smith & lev-ari, 2005) and to acquire and develop the knowledge of teaching and professional content knowledge of teachers. it is through the practicum experience that student teachers develop important professional knowledge such as knowledge of people, knowledge of themselves, self-control and inter-personal sensitivity all of which are important traits that would see them though their professional lives (yan & he, 2010). in addition, practicum teaches skills such as independent problem-solving, working collegially with fellow teachers and developing professional values and attitude. during practicum, student teachers are supported through systematic observations, assistance and advice. students have opportunities to become involved with, and actively participate in all aspects of the school’s activities. through these experiences they learn to link theory and practice, and to acquire the understanding and skills necessary for teaching effectively in a range of classroom situations. assessment of teaching skills or competences constitutes an area of debate and development (smith, 2010; haigh & tuck, 2000). this is because of the widespread dissatisfaction with the professional assessment procedures that are being used (mattsson & rorrison, 2011). furthermore, mattsson & rorrison (2011) noted that many problems surrounding assessment practices arise out of an inability to reconcile traditional assessment practices with the kinds of learning outcomes that might be expected from the practical. traditional-based modes of assessment such as written examinations which are still predominant in developing countries tend to favor assessment of pre-determined knowledge and competences at the expense of application and resourcefulness. however, even when the practicum offers students opportunity to apply knowledge, test theory and consequently modify their understanding (rennert-ariev, 2005), insights and understandings of the nature may be difficult for them to express and for supervisors to assess. the problem surrounding assessment of practicum has led to various efforts by teacher education institutions to improve it. such efforts focus on teacher knowledge and skills, but also on ways of sensitively documenting the personally and contextually complex world of teaching. they require supervisors to gain the pedagogical and personal principles that underpin teachers’ work (starkey & rawlins, 2012). the improvements include increasing the length of the practicum, making practicum more school than university-based, and diversifying the assessment strategies. efforts to improve assessment stemmed from a growing sentiment that more powerful and authentic assessment strategies are needed to target the complexities of the knowledge that teachers bring to bear in their teaching and the subtleties of innovative teaching practicum (rennert-ariev, 2005). according to darling-hammond (2000), authentic assessments: 1) sample the actual knowledge, skills and dispositions of teachers in teaching and learning contexts; 2) require the integration of multiple types of knowledge and skills; 3) rely on multiple sources of evidence collected over time and in diverse contexts; and 4) are evaluated using codified professional standards. darling-hammond (2000) further observes that authentic assessment needs to reflect the intellectual work of supervisors, as well as students’ active engagements, explorations and enquiry. such assessment has value beyond success during practicum in that it nurtures beginning teachers to personally take care of their own professional growth with minimal elias kaphesi 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) supervision. authentic assessment evokes grounded theory which gives insights into teaching processes (morse, 2003). methodologically, such theory enables supervisors to generate concepts that explain and derive meaning about students actions during practicum teaching practicum requires a philosophy to give directions to values and actions. the philosophy is needed for the development of a reflective and reflexive learner who learns through situational analyzing, theorizing, hypothesis-testing, inquiring, experimenting, and justifying. such development has to be built around the searching and identification of oneself as a teacher based on one's personal theory of teaching and learning. while supervisors can help by engaging in dialogues and interrogation with student teachers, they need also to carry out a personal reflection on their own self as a person of feelings, emotions, values and beliefs so as to embark on a transformation of their vision of what sort of teachers they would like to be. practicum in teacher education is dealt with in different ways at different universities. different models are applied depending on different national, regional and local contexts (ure, 2009). even if they overlap, different models can be identified. they emphasize different ideas, aspects and qualities. they have different historical roots and they represent different views on how professional practice knowledge is best nurtured. different resources are allocated in terms of people, time, equipment and economy. curricula differ and the procedures for assessing professional practice knowledge also differ. sometimes the local supervisor has a final say about preservice teachers who may pass or fail. often these decisions are taken by university based teacher educators. practicum is generally part of a particular educational system and should be discussed in relation to that specific system. the polytechnic of the university of malawi, the site for the study, uses the integrated model for teaching practicum. the integrated model is practiced by universities and communities who have agreed to share responsibility for a teacher education where practicum serves as an integrative element. local authorities may be in charge of certain educational arrangements, for example introducing preservice teacher to the field of practice. the university may be in charge of certain aspects, for example assessment of practicum learning. this model is based on the idea that preservice teachers should learn from a variety of schools and teachers that may differ a lot in quality. even though the model is described only briefly here, it indicates that teacher education and practicum could be organized and structured in certain ways to promote practicum learning. however, it seems that practicum is often left to chance and that there is a need for improved models, principles and practices to ensure that preservice teacher learning during practicum is supported. rorrison (2008) maintains that there is a need to ensure that the practicum is a valuable professional learning experience. it should not be left to chance and learning opportunities must be enhanced. it seems evident that the practicum is often a time of tension, frustration, misinformation, confrontation, compliance and poor communication (murrayharvey, slee, lawson, silins, banfield, & russell, 2000). rorrison (2008) emphasizes that many learning opportunities are wasted because they are not based on a clear model. research about models of practicum is often neglected. one reason for this state of affairs might be a historically rooted disregard among universities for practice knowledge and a historically rooted disregard among many school teachers for knowledge based on research. whatever practicum model is applied, teacher education institutions should allocate proper time, economy, personal and material resources for practicum. research about professional practice should be encouraged. 6 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) theories of practicum learning this study draws its framework from theories of learning. supervision of practicum learning requires that the practicum model is grounded in theories of learning. productive and transformative practicum should be linked to theories of learning, be clearly constructed, and the related teaching experiences are a careful scaffold for preservice teacher learning during the practicum. unfortunately, productive and transformative theories of learning are not well scaffolded for novice teachers during practicum (grootenboer, 2006). a deep understanding of learning theories is critical for continued teacher professional development beyond preservice training. whether these are personal and pedagogical theories constructed through reflection and experience or theories introduced through association with major educationalists like vygotsky, piaget, dewey or schön, this writer contends that preservice teacher engagement should be supported through a scaffold learning method. dual function of university supervisors the challenge of conceptualizing the practicum goes hand in hand with the challenge of reconceptualizing the supervision of student teachers. ideally the practicum should be an opportunity for teacher educators and experienced school teachers to partner with each other in supporting and supervising student teachers (starkey & rawlins, 2012). in reality, this is seldom the case and this results in inadequate supervision. for example, most of the student teachers taking part in zimbabwe’s integrated national teachers education course (zintec) believed that inadequate field supervision was the most crucial problem (anderson, 1997). this evaluation also noted that the supervision which did exist seldom involved supervisors helping students make connections between theory and practice. similarly, anderson (1997) describes the situation as even worse in malawi where supervision is "substandard, if indeed, it takes place at all" (moesc 2000, 4). attempts to improve supervision remain a tall order to fill. this is partly due to the huge number of students against a diverse social economic context. in addition, ulvik & smith elaborates further that “supervisors are less concerned with teaching skills and value theory even in the field of practice” (2010, 528). the problems of supervision are compounded by the lack of an effective working partnership between training institutions and schools. this, in turn, may widen the gap between theoretical studies and practical teaching experience (allen & peach, 2007). in considering some alternatives approaches to supervision, allen & peach, 2007 argues in favor of reconceptualizing the roles of the university supervisors and the mentor teacher. this reconceptualization entails empowering the mentor teacher with the responsibility for the training of the student teacher. the mentor teacher in turn would be supported by the university supervisor whose role would be focused on providing liaison teacher education between the teacher training institutions and the schools. this reconceptualisation of supervision would ensure that supervision stand out separate from assessment which is another function of the supervisors (smith, 2007). in singapore, supervisors are “seen” to be assessors and evaluators of the students’ performance rather than coaches and mentors to nurture and enculturate them into the profession (nam & hwee, 2011). moreover, the teaching practicum is a process of formative assessment rather than summative assessment where all stakeholders are responsible for the teacher learning during the practicum and are required to intervene and coach students when needed to succeed in their role as teachers (tillima & smith, 2009). the assessment role is more on assessing the willingness and degree of learning of the students from the coaching, guidance and direction of the experienced supervisors (chia & kee, 2010). elias kaphesi 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) assessment of students on teaching practicum is, essentially, assessment of work-based learning, which differs from assessing learning in an academic context. according to brodie & irving (2007), knowledge that is required to assess work-based learning takes on three main forms, declarative knowledge, which characterizes of the learning product, procedural knowledge which informs about the practical application of the knowledge, and finally, conditional knowledge which relates to knowing when to do what in the best possible manner. assessment of work-based learning is similar to the assessment of experiential learning (kolb, 1998) in the sense that critical reflection on own practicum is likely to lead to a deeper insight into and new understanding of practicum which often initiates professional growth. later, kolb (1998) expanded his experiential model of learning by introducing the concept of reflective dialogue which emphasizes the importance of discussing personal experiences with others. during the practicum the students are at the entrance gate of the professional practicum and for them the dialogue with the supervisor becomes crucial to their professional development as the students learn the very complex task of teaching. a major role of assessment in the practicum is to enhance students’ continuous learning, development and professional growth. several researchers (sadler, 2009; shute, 2008; hattie & timperley, 2007) argue that in relation to formative assessment, the quality of feedback the learner receives is a core factor in promoting learning. during the practicum students seek feedback mainly from the supervisors, a form of feedback which can take them forward, feed forward (hattie & timperley, 2007). supervisors give feedback in two forms: face to face comments or written comments. each of these has its advantages and disadvantages in so far as students perceive and interpret the quality and motive behind the feedback. formative assessment serves the main function of assessment during the practicum. yet, there is an additional function, the summative, a gate keeping function, as the best suitable student teachers are to be selected in order to protect the profession from incompetence (smith, 2010). smith (2006) has discussed the various roles of assessment in teacher education, and she claims that the two contradicting functions, the formative and the summative, the feed-forward and the judgmental role, increase in complexity when both functions of assessment are carried out by the same person. it can be stressful to have the role of supporter and judge at the same time, even though the final decision is placed with the university. smith’s (2006) argument point to the fact that assessment of the practicum is a complex issue which has not been given sufficient attention in the research literature, and the intention of the current study is to add to our understanding of underlying dual agenda, supervision and assessment of students during practicum. the underlying assumptions for this study are further supported by activity theory (tsui & law, 2007). supervision and assessment during practicum can be explained through activity theory because they both focus on students’ actions. tsui & law (2007) refer activity theory as a belief that individual or group actions are embedded in activity systems which are collective and social in nature. the motive for an activity is the object, and activities are realized by goal directed actions that are subordinate to motives (tsui & law, 2007). in the practicum, the student’s learning how to teach is the object, and the teaching, observation, supervision and assessment are all activities, or mediating tools. when the student comes to school he/she meets a system of norms, rules and regulations within the community, the school, of which the supervisor is a member. in the specific context of the practicum, the roles of the university supervisor, the student teacher and the pupils are quite clear. two different 8 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) systems, or actors are involved (student and supervisors), and they bring different knowledge, perceptions, understandings into the activity. the student is, at this point of the education, absorbed in the academic world, which has a rather theoretical focus. the supervisor is, above all, a practitioner whose focus is on the daily teaching of pupils, and that is also where her/his current expertise lies. it is likely that representing two different worlds, the supervisor and the student will not always see challenging situations eye to eye. both parties will have to cross boundaries by engaging in dialogues and interaction with an open mind in order to understand the other. daring to cross the boundary of one’s own culture leads to the creation of new knowledge and better understanding of teaching. this new knowledge entails elements from both cultures. the actors have developed insights of which they were probably unaware beforehand. the interlocutors are crossing boundaries, and in a way we can say that when the interaction between the two, the supervisor and the student, initiate new activities, the boundary crossing becomes a lever for change and innovations. thus, boundaries are being crossed and new understandings are being developed, which, in light of the model of experiential learning (kolb, 1998) often leads to changed practicum. feedback is another concept whose importance in the instructional encounter (smith, 2010), the meeting point between learning, teaching and assessment, is becoming a major issue in research on assessment for learning (smith, 2007). feedback is currently seen as the heart of assessment for learning. feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative (hattie & timperley, 2007). quality of feedback is not just the structure of the feedback but also its accessibility to the learner, its catalytic and coaching value, and its ability to inspire confidence and hope (sadler, 2009). useful feedback which carries a positive impact on students’ learning is not just a grade or a general statement to the learner, but as detailed meaningful information essential to the learner and the supervisor when planning future steps in the learning process. according to hattie & timperley (2007) feedback serves multiple functions. first, it is a kind of careful description of the current status of learning based on performance. the student becomes aware of strengths and weaknesses by engaging in dialogue with the supervisor. second, it reduces the discrepancy between current knowledge and the learning goal and improves teaching performance. there are two actors in this process, the supervisor and the student. the latter needs to be open to receive and accept feedback, and he/she needs to know how to apply it when planning and executing future performances. affective as well as cognitive learning strategies play an important role in the process, and the order of presentation is mindfully chosen. the affective strategies have to be in place before the student is ready to apply cognitive learning strategies in deciding how to proceed. the supervisor’s task is to ensure that challenges are optimal, that the dissonance between where the student is and what the next goal is, creates a positive dissatisfaction. if the gap between the current level of performance and the desired goal is too wide, the student is likely to give up. the supervisor needs the competence to provide clear feedback on the current status of competence and to give constructive feed and forward to the next achievable goal, and to be able to adjust this to the level and personality of the individual student (brookhart, 2008). in conclusion, supervision and assessment of student teachers on practicum is a complex, creative profession and have an expectation that supervisors should support the reflexive, possibility-thinking and risk-taking creative endeavors of the student teacher. although there is considerable good intent within the supervising and assessing student teachers concurrently, the elias kaphesi 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) situation has been shown to be less than ideal for both the supervisors and the students. supervision is central to preservice teacher education. however, supervision must be more than the mere provision of a set of comments incongruent with student teachers work. a practicum supervision and assessment should provide professional experiences for students as they link theories of teaching. to be more effective in promoting practicum learning, university supervisors should provide regular formative feedback, have strong interpersonal skills, be integrated with school communities, collaborate closely with cooperating teachers, and have strong university affiliations (jeffery, 2008). it is evident from the literature reviewed so far that support for student teachers is an essential component of the practicum program. however, study findings indicate that their respective supervisors fail. instead, the support students receive is inadequate to bring them the experience they expect from the practicum. in the same vein jeffery (2008) stated that more frequent feedback from university supervisors is related to greater student teacher confidence and desire to remain in the teaching profession which contradicts with what the respondents reported as they often receive conflicting and insufficient feedback from university based supervisors. the nature of practicum support is an important factor in new teacher development. the guidance, mentoring and feedback that student teachers receive from their university supervisors play a critical role in their learning and development. however, the dual function of supervision and assessment appears to be challenging and university supervisors may fail to optimally support student teachers since they are overloaded. methodology this study employed a descriptive research design and utilized both qualitative and quantitative approaches. qualitative approach enabled the researcher to describe the nature of supervisors’ comments in order to understand the meanings and values students attach to them. using the qualitative approach, the researcher sought the views of the student teachers about the supervisors’ comments and how the comments help them to improve their teaching skills. the qualitative approach is in recognition of the diverse interpretations of quantitative assessment during the practicum. the nature of supervisors comments and the extent to which marks awarded reflect comments were also be coded in order to derive percentages, hence the use of quantitative approach. the assessment grades which the supervisors awarded to the student teachers constituted the quantitative data. sample. a total of 18 students on teaching practicum in 2011 academic year participated in this study. their assessments forms and lesson observation forms were used. these forms were completed by all supervisors involved in the assessment of the students on teaching practicum. these students were in their final year of their bachelor of education degree program. these students were selected because they were the only group on the program that has participated in the practicum in the department. data collection. cresswell (1997) suggested that a mixed-method approach is useful when trying to monitor and describe a phenomenon, so both qualitative (interviews, writing) and quantitative (questionnaire) methods were employed. data were collected from supervisors’ assessment and supervision forms. the students were asked about the usefulness of written comments and conferencing in improving their ensuing practicum. in addition, preliminary findings were presented in a staff seminar to supervisors and school practice administrators where further comments were captured. data on the nature of comments supervisors made when supervising students during teaching practicum were obtained from supervisor’ supervision 10 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) forms while data on the marks awarded by the supervisors were obtained from the assessment form. data analysis. data analysis involved reading and coding supervisors’ written comments by assigning a number to each category as 1 = very poor; 2 = poor; 3 = good; 4 = very good; and 5 = excellent. the spss was used to explore the relationship between students’ assessment grades and the supervisors’ written comments (field, 2000). the views of the student teachers on the quality of supervision were typed in word perfect and categories were developed in order to develop themes for discussion. the qualitative data were examined using thematic analysis. informed by huberman and miles’s (2002) three-step content analysis procedure, responses to each open-ended question were first coded or grouped by question with the researchers reading across all responses to identify macro-level themes. this step was followed with a micro-level reading of each case to identify less pervasive themes and gaps in the data. this step was undertaken with the intent to understand and ultimately enhance pre-service teachers’ experiences of rural practicum. results qualitative data which consisted of comments from supervisors on the quality of the lessons was written in word perfect and similar comments were classified together to develop categories. this process was important because supervisors used different words to qualify student performance during practicum and meanings of these terms could only be classified by approximating their meanings to very poor, poor, good, very good and excellent. data on the teachers’ comments and frequency of making such comments were coded into numerical values which were then computed into percentages. these were then matched with the score each student got from assessment forms. the two sets of scores were compared by computing a regression line using spss. the results are presented in figure 1. figure 1. relationship between averages scored by lecturers and comments to students it was noted that there was a strong correlation between the grades that lecturers gave students and the comments they made on the teaching of students. those students who got low grades also received relatively poor comments and visa versa. this correlation suggests that supervisors were consistent in applying the set of criteria for providing feedback through face to face comments and written comments on teaching practicum. elias kaphesi 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) however, the results in figure 2 indicate that the marks which lecturers gave the students were consistently lower than the comments they gave the students. this finding suggests that supervisors were sympathetic in supervising students when in the actual sense they regarded the quality of teaching as relatively low. this is not surprising when you consider that the role of supervision is formative, giving the student benefit of double to correct and improve the skills whereas assessment grade was meant to be summative, the description of the performance as seen at that particular time. similar findings were reported by tuli (2009) where students teachers indicated that there was inconsistency between assessment grade and supervision comments which supervisors (lecturers) gave to students teachers. this finding highlight professional dilemma in the university lecturers between supervising and assisting students to improve their teaching skills and assigning a final grade as required by the university. this might also be due to human element of subjectivity versus objectivity. there is subjectivity when making comments during supervision as the meanings students’ performance are negotiated whereas the assessment grade is a personal reflection on the part of the supervisor (smith, 2010). you may wish to know that the assessment grade is never discussed by the two parties. it also reveals the arbitrary nature of qualitative grading even when such grading is guided by rubrics (rawlins, 2011). figure 2. a comparison: assessment score and supervision score by student another source of discrepancy between supervision comments and assessment grades is in the structure of the instruments used for the two activities (genc & buyukkarci, 2013). the supervision form is less structured allowing for free comments. it does not provide key words to guide the supervisor to use when making comments. on the other hand, there are distinct aspects of teaching which an assessment focuses. these include personal factors (1), class management (2), lesson preparation (3), lesson presentation (4), students’ participation in the lesson (5), and of general comments (6). lecturers distributed marks among these aspects of teaching. the results which are summarized in figure 3 indicate that students were better on personal factors and lesson presentation. these two aspects of teaching tended to push up the score for general comments. supervision score assessment score 12 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) figure 3. aspects of teaching assessed during teaching practicum (1= personal factors, 2=class management, 3=lesson preparation 4=lesson presentation 5=students’ participation in the lesson, and 6 = course general comments) the results in figure 3 show that the student teachers were doing very well on personal appearance such as not in questioning techniques and in concluding a lesson. poor questioning techniques may imply that student teachers did very little to engage learners in thinking through the tasks through discussion. asking questions helps teachers to engage learners in meaningful discussion of the content to be learnt. similarly, poor techniques in concluding the lesson means that the student teachers did very little to recap the major concepts meant to be learnt. they did very little to remind the learners what they were supposed to learn and how it would link to the next lesson. poor conclusion of a lesson may lead to disjointed lessons which lack connectedness and continuity. the use of a highly structured assessment form meant that supervisors were more objective in assigning grades. they were guided in being focused as to what aspects of teaching were to be assessed. discussion assessing students while giving them advice on areas needing improvement during the practicum is challenging for lecturers as reflected in inconsistencies between the two variables. the quality of assessment made differed from one assessor to another. two extreme types of the assessment used by assessors were identified. these were the stage by stage grading accompanied by written comments and the penultimate-stage grades without accompanying written comment. the majority of supervisors practised penultimate grading as opposed to stage by stage grading. the penultimate stage grading seemed acceptable if everything was correct but not very informative when something was incorrect. in contrast, stage by stage grading showed the mistake, where it was made and how it could be corrected. thus, a supervisor would give a grade 2 out of 5 against class management and explain why a student performance deserves a 2 on that aspect. in addition to being only interested in the final grade, the majority of lecturers seldom accompanied their marks with written comments to guide or encourage their students. there were some lecturers, although in the minority, who wrote negative comments about their students’ work; they yet gave good grades. lecturers generally did not look up on their written elias kaphesi 13 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) advice and instructions to students in order to derive a grade based on the observable student teaching performance. it is evident from this study that though the practicum is designed to ensure that student teachers acquire experience before they qualify as teachers, the findings of this study indicate that the practicum experiences end up coping with it as an assessment. supervisors were able to make encouraging comments which would help students to identify their strengths and weaknesses thereby guiding them to be competent professionals and enable them feel successful. however, study revealed that the supervisors gave grades which did not reflect the comments made about the teaching performance. for example, grades were consistently lower than the good comments made about students’ performance. this phenomenon highlights a mismatch between supervision and assessment and this might cause the whole assessment procedure less credible. this finding justifies what haigh & tuck (2000) stated as the assessments of students’ competence during practicum remain problematic and a number of issues remain continuous. they identified inconsistencies in the way students were evaluated by teachers, varying expectation of student performance and conformity between teachers and marked variation in the quality of feedback given to students by supervisors as a source of stress for student teachers. from the questionnaire, students indicated that they found step by step marking helpful and positive comments by their teachers encouraging. it was established that student teachers felt that instructional and content-related comments gave them guidance on what was needed to be done and how it could be done. student teachers disliked negative comments and found them to be discouraging. this finding is similar to those reported in a study by stark & rawlins (2011) who found that university supervisors gave less effective comments (feedback) to the students. the study, therefore, recommends that assessment should match the comments on areas needing improvement and meaningful accompanying comments should be made to guide student teachers in the desired directions, encourage student teachers to try harder or to give credit for work done well. the researcher felt that it is better to give assessment grade which are consistent with the supervision comments. if this is not possible, then the two functions, assessment and supervision must be separated by time or persons to do them. by combining the dual role of being supervisors and assessors, lecturers met challenges in fulfilling the two equally demanding roles. as supervisors, lecturers seem to be sympathetic about the students and used soft words to encourage them to improve in their teaching. no wonder that they described the student work as better when in fact the opposite might have been true. in contrast, as assessors, lecturers assigned grades to students which constantly were lower than comments given during supervision. this difference can be attributed to the problem of arbitrary commenting on students’ performance without being clear on the measures being used. in addition, the majority of lecturers seldom comments about their students’ work to justify the grades given. students indicated that they found supervision comments useful and helpful and encouraging. it was established that student teachers’ comments gave them guidance on what was needed to be done and how it could be done. however, student teachers disliked negative comments and found them to be discouraging. according to speck (1996), as adults, student teachers want to be the source of their own learning and will resist learning activities that confront their competence. thus, supervision comments need to give student teachers some power over their learning. supervision needs to be structured, to encourage collaborative learning and to reduce anxiety during learning. 14 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) in transformative practicum learning, students need to have a responsibility for creating the learning atmosphere by taking an active role in their learning process. according to mezirow (1997), transformative learning can take place in a welcoming environment in which the learners have adequate information, are free from intimidation, have equal opportunity to take up various roles in an institution, can become critically reflective of assumptions, are empathetic, are good listeners, and are willing to search for common goals. thus, the environment in which adults have to participate in learning is a critical factor in transformative learning. as in theories of learning, there are some fundamental guiding principles in fostering transformative practicum learning. for example, supervisors have to demonstrate qualities such as trust, empathy, care, authenticity, sincerity and a high degree of integrity; feed-back and selfassessment are important to the learners (taylor, 1998). therefore, it is recommended that lecturers must be oriented on how to supervise and assess student teachers during practicum. such action may help in ensuring that there is a close match between supervision comments and assessment grades awarded to the students teachers. when the activity theory is applied in the analysis of the findings of this study, it appears that supervision of students during practicum requires that supervisors and students cross the boundaries of each other. the students required to understand the purpose of supervision and the activities of the supervisors; to assist the students to improve the teaching skills. they are also required to acknowledge the complementary activity of assessment. other the other hand supervisors were required to appreciate the activities of a student – to teach according to the school standards and to demonstrate that they are learning to become teachers. it appears from this study that there was disparity in degree of crossing the boundaries between students and supervisors during supervision and assessment. it is possible that supervision focused on some students’ activities different from those being assessed. that is why supervision comments were different from assessment grades. conclusion overall, supervision during teaching practicum contributes to pre-service teachers’ education. the supervision of school based teaching practicum provides realistic experiences for pre-service teachers and helped them overcome preconceptions of work life. there seems no doubt that if one crucial element was to be identified from the preceding discussion, it is the people factor. based on these findings, it is understood that the dual function of university lecturers of being supervisors and assessors at the same time have the potential to give contradictory feedback to the students about their performance. evidence suggests that supervisors’ comments are relatively positive and encouraging to guide student into areas needing improvement. on the other hand, assessment grades were consistently lower than what the supervision comments perhaps because they were meant to capture the momentary student performance. while further work can be done to explore the relationship between supervision comments and assessment grades on a larger scale, the data discussed in this article highlight some considerations for how supervision and assessment of teachers during school based practicum can be improved. references anderson, l.w. (1997). teacher preparation for post-modern schools: the necessary integration of training and education. in w.k. cummings & n.f. mcginn (eds.), international elias kaphesi 15 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) handbook of education and development: preparing schools, students and nations for the 21st century. oxford: pergamon. beck, c. & kosnik, c. (2002). components of a good practicum placement: student teacher perceptions. teacher education quarterly, 29(2), 81–98. belliveau, g. (2007). an alternative practicum model for teaching and learning. canadian journal of education 30(1), 47‐67 brodie, p. & irving, k. (2007). assessment in work-based learning: investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. assessment and evaluation in higher education, 32(1), 11–19. brookhart, s. m. 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(2008). teaching practice as a component of teacher education in malawi: an activity theory perspective. phd thesis, university of nottingham. http://www.erej.ua.es/rdd/article/view/55 16 assessing final year undergraduate student teachers on school based teaching practicum at the polytechnic of the university malawi ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) murray-harvey, r., p. slee, m. lawson, h. silins, g. banfield, & a. russell (2000). under stress: the concerns and coping strategies of teacher education students. european journal of teacher education, 23(1), 19-35. rorrison, d. (2010). assessing the practicum in teacher education: advocating for the student teacher and questioning the gate keepers. journal for educational studies, 36(5). sadler, d. r. 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(2010) assessing the practicum in teacher education: do we want candidates and mentors to agree? studies in educational evaluation, 36, 36-41 smith, k., & lev-ari, l. (2005). the place of practicum in pre-service teacher education. asian pacific journal of teacher education, 33(3), 289–302. speck, m. (1996). best practice in professional development for sustained educational change. ers spectrum, pp. 33-41. accessed june 10, 2013: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te10lk12.htm. tillema, h. & smith, k. (2009). assessment orientation to formative assessment of learning to teach teachers and teaching. theory and practice teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 15(3), 389–402. tsui, a.b.m., & d.y.k. law (2007). learning as boundary crossing in school–university partnership. teaching and teacher education, 23, 1289–1301. tuli, f. & file, g. (2009). practicum experience in teacher education. ethiopian journal of education and science, 5 (1), 107 – 116. http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te10lk12.htm elias kaphesi 17 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) taylor, e. w. (1998). the theory and practice of transformative learning: a critical review. information series no. 374. columbus: eric clearinghouse. wilson, e. k. (2006). the impact of an alternative model of student teacher supervision: views of the participants. teaching and teacher education, 22, 22–31. beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program philip p. kelly boise state university, usa and amy cordileone new york university, usa abstract beyond simply watching teachers in international settings as tourists might, teachers in a ugandan – north american international teacher partnership program went further, reflecting on the social/political contexts within which they taught. teachers’ surveys and reflections are analyzed for factors addressing the successful negotiation of both teaching and relationship making across the cultural, pedagogical and political divides that separate them. in the midst of the international teacher partnership program, concerns arose regarding teacher-centered pedagogy and student passivity as after effects of uganda’s colonial education system. keywords: international education partnerships, uganda education, postcolonial education. 2 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) i acquired new skills and methods that applied in teaching activities. i also developed the ideology of being friendly to students. we had good teaching and brought new knowledge to each other. (ugandan math teacher) i’m part of the new generation of teachers in new jersey that have been lucky enough to have modern, up to date courses on the teaching methods that have been proven by research to be the most effective. listening to the teachers discuss their problems here, however, allowed me to jump off of my high horse for a second and see where they were coming from. (american english teacher) introduction in the summer of 2007, 16 north american educators joined 18 ugandan teachers in three secondary schools in the gulu region of northern uganda to participate in a new teacher partnership program. they did not know or understand how the experience would affect them or their teaching. what transpired during that summer laid a foundation for an international teacher partnership program, partnering ugandan secondary teachers with north american partners. in 2012, the six-week program involved approximately 100 educators in eleven ugandan secondary schools over an area of approximately 8,800 km 2 as well as 12 ugandan teachers partnering in 12 different high schools across the united states. this paper adds to the scant professional literature regarding international teacher partnerships by examining how such programs can push past “touristy” team-teaching to more nuanced endeavors, respectful of and informed by sociological and political contexts of host countries. the literature specifically exploring international teacher partnership programs is limited, generally providing descriptive accounts of such programs and typical professional development/adult learning advice for teacher educators considering similar opportunities. three decades ago, hayden (1981) lamented that “very little is known about the immediate let alone longer-term and personal impact of an international exchange experience” (p.2). unfortunately, limited progress has been made in researching the dynamics within, and the effects of, participation in international teacher partnership programs. researchers continue to describe the phenomenon of teachers teaching transnationally as an under-researched topic (elbaz-luwisch, 2004; johnson, 2008). because of this, craddock and harf (2004) correctly highlight that educators and program developers are left to “rely on anecdotal and intuitive analysis to inform their activities and planning” (p.2). when contemplating international teacher partnership programs involving post-colonial african schools and their teachers, the literature is even scarcer (mwebi & brigham, 2009). successful teacher partnership programs must succeed along two different sets of parameters simultaneously. first, such programs must negotiate the difficult process of intercultural negotiation and relationship-making (freberg, 1994). second, if they are to be more that voyeuristic teacher-as-tourist opportunities, partnership programs must provide quality teacher professional development opportunities that produce changes in teachers’ pedagogy or philosophy (mwebi & brigham, 2009). while both are necessary, neither is sufficient to produce a valuable, educationally focused experience for teachers involved. while belfiore, cooke, gorbet, hynes, & parsons (1982) warn of ignoring other countries’ needs and ignoring the experience or knowledge or partner teachers amounts to “colonization,” they urge such programs “to look beyond … teaching, … to see the social, cultural and political factors” (p. 31). within an african context generally and uganda specifically, teacher partnerships between 3 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) ugandan and north american teachers gain the added dimension of occurring within system of schooling that originated as a mechanism of colonization and oppression (kelly, 2013; okoth, 1993). this paper examines factors reported by 60 participants (36 north american/24 ugandan) that both inhibited and contributed to the traditional teacher partnership program as well as their awakening to artifacts of colonial education within which they taught. contextual background since independence in 1962, uganda’s educational reform has followed the trajectory originally identified by (johnson, 2006) in which former colonies perpetuate the policies of their colonizers – even while trying to transform those policies. the curriculum taught throughout uganda continues to be controlled by the ministry of education and is reminiscent of traditional british curriculum. the implementation of universal secondary education (use) in 2007 further complicated matters. the ministry of education’s mishandling of implementation of use led to extreme overcrowding within many schools throughout uganda (kelly, 2013). further complicating matters, the schools involved in this study are located primarily in the war-torn gulu region. northern uganda, the area in which the program under study is located, was plagued by almost four decades of war and strife. most recently, from 1986 through 2007, the lord’s resistance army (lra), a rebel group, led an insurgency against the uganda people’s defense force (updf), the military unit of the ugandan government. tragically, the lra adopted the practice of abducting children from school dormitories and remote villages to people its army. approximately 60,000 children were abducted by the lra over those years (republic of uganda, 2007). because of this war, the ugandan government displaced more than 1.8 million people (95% of the population) from their familial villages and farms across northern uganda into internally-displaced-persons (idp) camps, supposedly to protect them from the frequent lra raids. within idp camps, as many as 50,000 people were housed in huts crowded together in small area. because of the great poverty and fear among the people, camp life was often dangerous, chaotic, and violent. radoja’s (2007) work with acholi youth clearly demonstrates the extent of the violence in the gulu region of northern uganda. over half of all acholi male youth have witnessed torture. three-fourths of abducted children witnessed murder, and sadly, more than a third of non-abducted youth witnessed murder as well. so widespread was the violence in this area that large numbers of acholi adolescents are suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd), even among those who never directly experienced violence (radoja, 2007). the presence of severely traumatized children in classrooms throughout the partnership schools often colored classroom interactions. literature review because most teachers, and thus most participants in international teacher partnership programs, have limited international experience beyond occasional recreation trips, many experience a good measure of apprehension or fear of the unknown. as rapoport (2008) learned from participants in an american-russian partnership program, participants fear new and unknown teaching contexts. their apprehension was based upon multiple factors, including “tenacious stereotypes, prejudices, language deficiency, and lack of exposure to a different culture” (p. 229). thus, teachers, “have difficulties when moving across cultures. suddenly, with little warning, they find that behaviors and attitudes that proved necessary for obtaining goals in their 4 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) own culture are no longer useful” (cushner and brislin, 1996, p. 2). further complicating matters are the complexities of language – even among cultures that nominally have the same dominant language. inevitably, the lack of cultural understanding between participants results in occasional clashes and misunderstandings in communication that must be negotiated and resolved. cushner and brislin (1996) describe the difficulty well, writing: such clashes occur when people from different cultures interact in ways that each believes are proper and appropriate from his or her own perspectives but are different from what is expected by the other. a problem emerges, then, when people confront differences with which they are unfamiliar. lacking both an outsider’s perspective on the elements of their own culture and a vocabulary with which to discuss that culture, they are unable to speak with others about the situation. people typically respond first on an emotional level; they may become quite frustrated, make negative judgments about others, and then end an interaction at this point of frustration. this must be avoided if productive encounters are to result. (p. 7) to best avoid such clashes, careful selection of participants and cultural training must be provided to participants in international/intercultural teacher partnership programs. in their study of such programs, purves, jackson & shaughnessy (2005) highlight the importance of additional selection processes beyond simple applications. having a multiple step application process, involving personal questionnaires and interviews can contribute to “participants being more highly motivated than ‘usual’ and, in turn, possibly more likely to benefit” from the partnership (p. 553). in addition, pre-partnership personal questionnaires can contribute to successful program implementation in two ways. first, program directors can use them to screen applicants for desirable personal attributes, such as cultural tolerance or collaborative nature. second, from the questionnaires, personal profiles may be constructed of the participants that can be shared with their international partners before they actually meet. such pre-knowledge of one’s partner “enabled teachers to find out more about each other in advance and possibly facilitated the development of professional relationships and later teaching and learning opportunities” (purves, jackson & shaughnessy, p. 553). once participants are selected, program directors must divide their attention between supporting teacher professional development and facilitating healthy interpersonal and intercultural experiences between the participants. high quality teacher professional development is challenging to provide under normal circumstances. however, when designing professional development involving teachers from different educational systems and different cultures, the challenges are magnified. from reviewing the available literature, international/intercultural teacher partnership programs should provide for their participants: 1. time enough for participants to overcome their initial emotional reactions to the experience. 2. a broad enough understanding of their partners’ educational systems to suspend any value judgments. 3. a formal structure for partner dialogue that keeps those dialogues lessoncentered. 4. a supportive environment for reflection among participants. the emotional reaction mentioned above is “typical” of people engaging in intercultural experiences (cushner and brislin, 1996). for a program to be successful in both providing professional development and allowing teachers to seriously analyze and reflect on their practice, 5 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) programs must provide time enough for participants to push past their initial emotional reactions to engaging in a new culture/classroom. unfortunately, the minimal time for cultural adjustment recommended by researchers of at least three months lies beyond the availability for fully employed teachers (garson, 2010; koester, 1985). the subject of this study was a six-week program of partner teaching. because of the very nature of teacher partnership programs, time spent within another culture’s school system is limited. thus participants’ knowledge of general representativeness of their individual school is also limited. for this reason, rowe (1992) warns teachers against making value judgments about education or schooling in their host country/culture. as in the united states, educational quality and teaching practices vary widely across any nation. to draw conclusions based upon personal experience in a single school, or a few schools, is neither logically sound nor fundamentally fair to the host country/culture. to avoid such erroneous conclusions, teacher partnership programs should provide their participants enough background information on the host country’s educational system to deepen their understanding of their individual participation relative to the educational system. to address such concerns within this study, a total of eleven schools and 60 teachers were included. however, comparisons between various models of schooling and teaching are unavoidable and will be made by participants. thus, it is imperative that programs partnering teachers from vastly different cultures and approaches to schooling take care to address issues before comparisons are made. within post-colonial african educational systems, western teaching partners need to understand the origins and the political dynamics that lead african nations to perpetuate colonial approaches to education, as well as the ramifications on the students and teachers with whom they will be working (johnson, 2006; kelly, 2013). thus, the intellectual demands upon participants in such a program are increased as the teachers struggle to reflect on pedagogical, curricular, sociological and political differences between the hosts’ educational system and that of the guests. providing formal spaces and times for teachers to engage in such critical reflection is integral to facilitating professional growth among participants. as purves, jackson & shaughnessy (2005) observe, “partners may have very different concepts of what teaching and learning ‘best practice’ and ‘excellence’ actually are” (p. 548). having formally pre-arranged opportunities to engage in the reflective process allows participants to engage in lesson-centered discussions. keeping such discussions focused on lessons allows partners to depersonalize comments within a professional setting. given the emotionally-laden nature of intercultural exchanges, lesson-centeredness of the formal reflective opportunities provides participants a safer context in which to engage in professional dialogue. the last condition refers to a supportive environment in which all participants can share their individual experiences across different settings. teacher partnership programs that involve many teachers can benefit from the conversations among participants as they recount the idiosyncratic nature of their individual partnerships and classrooms. such arrangements can be either formal or informal, focusing on both instruction and the personal highlights and challenges that will inevitably occur. as in any gathering of diverse professionals, “many important conversations (take) place … over a beer at the end of the school day” (purves, jackson & shaughnessy, p. 565). because of the limited international exposure of most participants in international/intercultural teacher partnership programs, special attention must be given to supporting participants’ cultural transition from their own into that of their hosts’ country/region 6 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) (cushner, mcclelland & safford, 2000; melnick & zeichner, 1998). while most researchers in this area offer a list of desirable attributes for teachers participating in international partnerships, the tripartite framework of factors devised by martin (1987) is most elegant in its simplicity. martin organized the variety of necessary knowledge, skills and dispositions into cognitive, affective and behavior components described below: 1. cognitive skills (knowledge about the target culture, knowledge concerning cultural differences and the impact of the differences on intercultural communication/interaction.) also included in this dimension is self-awareness, particularly about one’s beliefs and values, based on understanding one’s own cultural norms. 2. affective or personal qualities (tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility, empathy, ability to suspend judgment.) 3. behavioral competencies (ability to solve problems created by cross-cultural differences, ability to form relationships, ability to accomplish tasks in an intercultural context.) (p. 339) participants possessing these characteristics are better equipped to maximize benefit from their experiences. cushner and brislin (1996) describe successful international teachers as developing contentment due to good personal adjustment, good interpersonal relationships, task effectiveness, and stress equivalent to changing jobs within the home culture. cushner and brislin’s first two factors highlight the importance of teachers engaging in cultural endeavors beyond their partners’ classrooms and schools, directly interacting with the larger community. key to any such exchange is the development of a level of comfort among the participants. that comfort must be situated in the larger cultural context, not simply in the somewhat familiar and comfortable confines of “schooling.” expanding the programmatic focus of these programs to include the larger community is important not only for cultural adaptation, but also to directly support, challenge and expand teacher learning. as putnam & borko (2000) report, “situating learning experiences for teachers outside of the classroom may be important – indeed essential – for powerful learning” (p. 6). documented effects of participation in international/intercultural teacher partnership on the participants are rather scant and anecdotal. most researchers report a questioning or weakening of stereotypes (betts & norquest, 1997; cushner & brislin, 1996; cushner & mahon, 2002; rapoport, 2008). specifically, rapoport (2008) in his analysis of a russian-american partnership program reports the following: 1. international program alumni have become more culturally sensitive and perceptive. 2. international program alumni have become more aware and understanding of the indivisibility and interconnectedness of our world and the various economic, political and educational systems that it comprises. 3. international program alumni emphasize in their practices multiple perspectives and multiple loyalties. 4. diversity awareness has made program alumni more open to the sound advice and quality practices that they hear or observed during their programs. 5. observations of foreign educational practices have made alumni value their own educational practices more. (p. 234) other researchers highlight not the expanded worldview of participants, but increases in sense of efficacy (cushner and mahon, 2002; quezada, 2004). having navigated the intercultural 7 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) negotiations necessary with participation in such programs, it stands to reason that participants would have more confidence and sense of efficacy. quezada’s (2004) study confirms the positive benefits of increased self-efficacy among teachers with international experience when guiding, motivating and praising their students. this study aims to identify emerging changes more closely aligned to the partnership experience through a multifaceted data collection during such a program, rather after the participants completed their partnership. methodology building off of rapoport’s (2008) study of a russian-american teacher partnership program, this analysis uses an interpretive case study approach to construct a representation of the ugandan north american teacher partnership program and its effects through the eyes of its participants. data was collected from 36 north american teachers and 24 ugandan teachers working in eleven northern ugandan high schools (see appendix). pseudonyms are used for all participants. to best document the experience of participants, data collection was triangulated among three data sources. first, open-ended surveys were administered to participants at the beginning and end of their six-week program. second, teaching partners were asked to complete open-ended questionnaires weekly for five weeks to track their experience over time. finally, participants’ personal, reflective journals/writings about their individual experiences were copied and open-coded for emergent themes (glaser 2008). to understand the programmatic background, the program founder/director was interviewed and various program publications were collected. all hand-written material was transcribed into electronic media for easier manipulation and analysis. responses were analyzed for emergent themes, which formed the basis of an iterative coding process. the author did not approach the data with a priori themes, but instead allowed them to be generated by the data. this is especially evident in the pre-post surveys in which the teachers’ responses after participating generated entirely new themes, not mentioned at all in the pre-surveys, while some concerns disappeared from pre to post-surveys. each data source was coded also for gender, country of origin, subject matter and school site. this analysis examines differences that developed over the teacher partnership program (pre vs. post analysis) and between the visiting teachers (north american) and host teachers (ugandan). though not originally intended specific attention is given to the participants’ responses indicating pedagogical remnants of the colonial system of education. program description in 2006, the founder of the program, amy nichero, found herself alone teaching english and geography in a ugandan classroom. surprisingly, she found herself thrust into the role of an expert immediately, only because she was american. nichero lamented: the common perception is that the local educators, the educators who for all intents and purposes really are the experts, must relinquish both status and duty when an outside educator wanders in. through a very real manifestation of colonial(ism), i was challenged to critically wrestle with this dynamic, my own motivations, and my previous teaching experiences. i began a conversation with teachers at the school, … about the possibilities of teaching across cultures and establishing strands of dialogue around the challenges of teaching, the requirements of 21st century learners across continents and cultures, issues of access and resources, the exchange of methods and strategies, and pedagogy. 8 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) from these conversations, nichero conceived of, and eventually founded, a six-week summer program seeking “to engender cross-cultural collaboration between international and ugandan educators.” from program materials, the objectives of the resultant international teacher partnership program were:  to facilitate collaboration between international and ugandan educators.  to generate critical thought as participants partner to explore the possibilities of student-centered education in unique contexts.  to enhance present educational models and create long-term learning opportunities that develop capacity for both teachers and students. to maximize the successful achievement of these objectives, candidates are carefully screened through an application process and matched by subject matter training with a similar teacher. according to nichero: thoughtful selection of participants is integral to the program’s momentum. a series of short-answer narratives are focused on teachers’ negotiation of their lived experiences, especially as they pertain to travel and cross-cultural engagement, expectations for the organization and the trip itself, and the perceived pedagogical implications of this opportunity. the staff vet the applications with several criteria in mind; we seek a diverse group of educators who have either received a master’s degree in education or state certification at the secondary level, and are teaching primarily in core subjects of study like english, various levels of mathematics, the life sciences, the earth sciences, and geography. most importantly, we are looking for candidates who exhibit a sense of adventure, motivation, flexibility, and openness. the second phase of the selection process is an interview, the focus of which is engaging applicants as storytellers and problem solvers. throughout the conversation, potential participants articulate their beliefs about teaching and learning, cultural respect and value systems, and their expectations for collaboration. an exemplary candidate expresses a willingness to both teach and be taught, a desire to explore a variety of relationships through the program, as well as a spirit of inquiry and adaptability. once selected, teachers participate in a six-week program that begins with cultural orientation and language lessons for the north american teachers led by ugandan staff. it is important for them to develop an understanding of the local acholi/ugandan history of the region and its people, as well as be able to communicate outside of the school setting. to assist in this process, and to push the visiting teachers beyond voyeuristic tourism, they are assigned to read freire’s (2000) pedagogy of the oppressed prior to departure. during the initial cultural orientation, participants are led in discussions of the oppressor/oppressed dynamic found in any post-colonial situation, and specifically their manifestation in classrooms. coupled with friere, participants also read okot p’bitek’s (1984/1966) song of lawino, a poetry collection that explores competing visions between tradition and modernity of what it means to be ugandan/african. through song of lawino, the north american teachers simultaneously read one of the most famous and important pieces of ugandan literature and grapple with large political and sociological issues in which their partner teachers and students find themselves. within the first few days of meeting each other, the teaching partners develop a working contract focused on professional engagement in their classroom. the contract then provides a 9 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) touchstone regarding professionalism, expectations, and goals. over the course of the program, most partner teachers became team-teaching friends, successfully negotiating the pedagogical and/or cultural frustrations typically mentioned by previous researchers (cushner & brislin, 1996; johnson, 2008). to this end, nichero committed to developing safe opportunities for dialogue to occur. multiple teaching pairs exist at each school in the program, and these pairs form a teacher roundtable. for six weeks, the roundtable at each school gathered regularly for conversations in which north american and ugandan teachers equally shared lesson ideas, offered critiques, and collaborated on joint projects for the local educational community. north american and ugandan teachers also have the opportunity to meet as culturally homogenous groups, away from their partner teachers, to work through emergent issues. finally, participants share in some events designed solely for social enjoyment in which ugandan and north american teachers are allowed to simply “hang out” together to build/strengthen interpersonal bonds, such as a formal dinner, a picnic and a fourth of july barbeque. findings participants’ concerns were collected initially during the pre-experience surveys administered during their training (see table 1). the strongest concerns noted by ugandan teachers regarded team teaching with their partners (75.00%), forming professional relationships with their partners (50.00%), as well as their partners’ ability to learn the local acholi culture (50.00%). as the host teachers, the ugandans’ concerns about sharing their classrooms with strangers from a different culture, of whom they know very little, are understandable. fortunately, their initial concerns were assuaged during the program as they taught and formed relationships with the north american teachers, as demonstrated by the large drop in the percentage of teachers reporting such concerns at the end of the program. while sharing some concerns about establishing a professional relationship with their partners (41.67%), north american teachers held a much different set of concerns. being guests in a much different school system, the most common concern they expressed related to the curricular content they would be teaching (47.22%). by the end of the partnership program, having actually taught the curriculum, the north americans’ concern was halved (23.33%). the third most expressed concern addressed unintentionally offending the ugandans with whom they interacted (36.11%). after six weeks of teaching and building relationships with ugandan teachers and students, no north american teachers mentioned unintentional offence as a concern. table 1.teachers’ concerns (% of teachers indicating concerns) concerns ugandan teachers north american teachers partner concerns pre (n=12) post (n=24) pre (n=36) post (n=30) timeliness n/a 45.83% n/a 40.00% professional relationship 50.00% 4.17% 41.67% 26.67% communication n/a 4.17% 22.22% 6.67% teaching concerns time management n/a 33.33% n/a 46.67% limited resources 8.33% 20.83% 2.78% 6.67% classroom n/a 16.67% n/a 36.67% 10 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) instruction team teaching 75.00% 8.33% n/a 16.67% content 8.33% n/a 47.22% 23.33% cultural concerns language n/a 16.67% 13.89% 26.67% food 8.33% 12.50% 5.56% 26.67% time management n/a 12.50% n/a 33.33% international teachers’ ability to learn culture 50.00% n/a 2.78% n/a unintentional offense n/a n/a 36.11% n/a however, some concerns developed as teachers participated in the program. the most common concern was timeliness, which was mentioned by 45.83% of ugandan teachers regarding concerns with their partners and by 46.67% of north american teachers when addressing teaching concerns. being a politically unstable and agrarian society for so long, punctuality and the meaning of time in northern uganda caused many difficulties among the teachers. while the visiting teachers were accustomed to punctuality and living their lives according to a rigid bell system, their ugandan partners had a much more flexible understanding of time. over the years, the program director has adapted to address similar concerns of both north american and ugandan teachers, as well as the headmasters of the schools where the partnerships are based. she explains: i find that the non-ugandan teachers are planners to the core, uniquely trained to approach life as they approach their lessons… there is really no way to plan for what takes place in that short period of six weeks. the notion of adaptability is central to the success of one’s experience. while my ugandan and international colleagues share many similar traits, they exhibit very different levels of flexibility; most non-ugandan teachers must be trained to adapt. as teachers struggled with the development of lesson plans and teaching, instruction became a concern of both ugandan and north american teachers. possibly as an artifact of the colonial origins of their system and the devaluing of indigenous peoples’ ideas, ugandan teachers often validated what they taught because of similarities with what the western teachers taught. typical comments include: students will have confidence in me after my partner leaves. they will see that what i teach them is what is done elsewhere. (odong, ugandan math teacher) this will develop confidence in my students as a lot is shared in common between me and my team teacher. (jennifer, ugandan english teacher) these comments of the cultural duality created within indigenous people when subjected to colonial education systems as highlighted by freire (2000) when he writes, “they live in the duality in which to be is to be like, and to be like is to be like the oppressor” (original emphasis, p. 48). in the case of most students studying in rural uganda, “to be” means to be like an urbanized british citizen, definitely a far cry from their immediate surroundings and culture. while the north american teachers did not comment on the curricular similarities between their home schools and their host schools, they did often comment on the didactic, 11 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) teacher-centered nature of their ugandan classrooms. bryan, a north american science teacher, echoing concerns raised by penny et al. (2008), recounted a day of observing a ugandan classroom, writing: most of the classes observed rely on banking knowledge. they dictate and have students write. no real interaction, group work, or ongoing assessment, which is understandable to a great extent when you consider the class had 115 students. the ugandan teachers did not address their didactic instruction directly, but indirectly by referring to the increased level of student participation fostered by their north american partners as a benefit to participation in the program. their comments included references to “adding more participatory approaches to students” and “giving the learners an opportunity to talk.” overall, both groups of teachers became more aware of the political dynamics manifesting in their classrooms. as bassey (1999) notes many african schools continue colonizing efforts to perpetuate inequalities, the teachers in these schools, however, are often unaware of systemic effects of such schooling. table 2. benefits of participation (% of teachers indicating benefits) benefit ugandan teachers north american teachers classroom benefit pre (n=12) post (n=24) pre (n=36) post (n=30) improved teaching 75.00% 91.67% 55.56% 50.00% increased student motivation 41.67% 54.17% 11.11% 20.00% closer to students n/a 25.00% n/a n/a gain international experience 16.67% 4.17% 38.89% 40.00% student discipline 33.33% 4.17% n/a 6.67% friendship 33.33% 20.83% 8.33% 40.00% collaboration skills 41.67% 12.50% 11.11% n/a expanded worldview 16.67% 4.17% 16.67% 40.00% develop as person n/a n/a 47.22% 16.67% both ugandan and north american participants reported many benefits of such collaboration, both within their classrooms and personally (see table 2). a majority of both groups of teachers predicted the experience would improve their teaching (75% ugandan/55.56% n. american). after teaching together for six weeks, over 90% of ugandan teachers reported improved teaching skills while half of the north american teachers reported the same. of this, komakech, ugandan geography teacher remarks of the benefit of working with his partner, writing “she has been able to spice up my lessons. i now have a better approach to the ‘learner centered’ method.” north american teachers benefitted as well, as indicated by janet, an ell teacher from the united states writing, “it has made me reflect on my practice and how to adapt it with large groups and little resources. as a traveling teacher, this will be beneficial.” beyond improved teaching, ugandan respondents reported increased student motivation within their classrooms (54.17%) as well as developing a closer relationship with many of their students (25%). given the colonial origins of the ugandan educational system, and the teachers’ 12 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) role as authorities within that system, it is not surprising that close relationships with students were not common in many of the partners’ classrooms. north american teachers, such as canadian science teacher christina, noted this lack of connection writing “i don’t like not having much time with the students. the interaction with the students was very impersonal which made creating lessons more difficult.” matt, an american english teacher, echoed christina’s concerns commenting “the lack of teacher/student relationship was tough because i felt a little constrained by that. i didn’t get to know the kids as well as i’d hoped.” many ugandan teachers remarked how working with their international partners helped them bridge the teacher-student gap by involving their students in the lessons, rather than dictating notes. abraham, a uganda science teacher, simply remarked, “i developed the ideology of being friendly to students.” the north americans, as the visiting teachers, indicated that they benefitted from participation in the program in the areas of international experience, the friendships formed, and an expanded worldview with 40% reporting each as a benefit. typical comments addressing their international experience and expanded horizons included: my students will benefit greatly from my participation in the program. i teach in an upper middle class district and the students often joke about living in a “bubble.” i’m excited to share my experiences with them to open their eyes to a different culture in a different part of the world. (judy, n.a. english teacher) i think that the experience of working with teachers and students from a culture so far removed from my own for a somewhat extended period of time will help me approach my classroom this fall with more consideration for the cultural backgrounds of the students in my classroom. (patrick, n.a. english teacher) judy’s and patrick’s comments clearly illustrate the expanded world view predicted throughout the literature on international teaching experiences (cushner & mahon, 2002; rapoport, 2008). table 3. cultural highlights (% of teachers indicating highlights) cultural highlights ugandan teachers north american teachers (n=24) (n=30) teaching together 75.00% 70.00% friendships 29.17% 56.67% cultural exchange 29.17% 30.00% food 20.83% 23.33% engage larger community 4.17% 23.33% even when prompted to describe their “cultural highlights,” the participating teachers, both ugandan and north american, pointed to teaching together in their shared classrooms (75% ugandan/70% n. american, see table 3). the friendships forged throughout the program were the second most cited cultural highlight, with most respondents citing shared experiences outside their schools as the foundations of their friendships. the teachers often referred to eating meals together, sharing stories about families, or simply “hanging out.” bryan, a north american science teacher explains his emerging friendship well, writing: it is nice to be building a relationship with ogweng. we did not discuss anything related to the classroom, but instead our lives. he shared that his greatest fear is 13 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) being put in prison. i asked why would he even consider going to prison. ogweng simply said, “you don’t have to do anything wrong to go to prison in uganda. the police force is the most corrupt part of the government.” i shared with him my getting multiple speeding tickets, ending with a huge fine and my wife’s extreme displeasure. we both laughed about disappointing our wives and being in the doghouse. i think it might be the same everywhere. teachers from both groups remarked about the surprising similarity between teachers from different parts of the globe. finding such similarities between teaching partners was a common theme across the program and helped participants to situate their learning both within shared perspectives as teachers and people as well as within the local context of their classrooms (chapman & thiel, 1999; putnam & borko, 2000). discussion while international teacher exchange programs have existed for decades, most have traditionally focused only on general cultural experiences and the sharing of lessons. at this superficial level, rarely are participants given the opportunity to deconstruct the contexts within which schooling occurs. the program described herein represents an effort to construct an international teaching experience that takes an extra step purposefully situating the partnerships that are formed within the program within the larger sociological/political context of post-colonial uganda. the efforts taken in this program to raise sociological/political awareness of the north american teachers to the local context within northern uganda allowed some participants to interpret their experience in a better informed manner, respectful of the local context. according to bassey (1999), teachers in africa often “do not realize that schools perpetuate inequalities … and limit their learners to passive roles” in the classroom. the early, week-long training of the north american teachers to the local acholi culture and the examination of p’bitek’s (1984/1966) song of lawino and freire’s (2000) pedagogy of the oppressed, sensitized them to sociological, political and pedagogical factors in which their ugandan classrooms were immersed. many of the visiting teachers identified manifestations of the colonial structure and power dynamics within their hosts’ classes. through the use of teacher roundtables at each school and the lesson-centeredness of discussions scaffolded by their initial contracts, north american and ugandan teachers were able to engage in discussions about the merits of shifting to a more student-centered pedagogy in which students’ voices were welcomed. while some of the ugandan teachers welcomed and were excited by the inclusion of more participatory pedagogies, others never mentioned such changes. some north american teachers echoed sentiments similar to those of belfiore, et al. (1982) who reported three decades ago, “we felt we simply were not teaching when we did what we were expected to do; and our students felt they were not learning when we taught them what we wanted to” (p. 34). thus, while the program simultaneously took definite steps to respect the efforts and expertise of the ugandan teachers and challenge some possibly oppressive aspects of post-colonial pedagogy, not all participants or students recognized or embraced a need to change. their lack of reaction to questions about more student-centered pedagogy is understandable given the system in which they were trained. over a century ago dewey (1902/1990) foresaw such resistance, writing, “we get used to the chains we wear, and we miss them when removed. ‘tis an old story that through custom we finally embrace what at first wore a hideous mein” (p. 206). further complicating matters may be the traumatization among teachers who survived the lra war. a 14 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) more purposeful examination of indigenous and visiting teachers’ perceptions of factors relevant to schooling in a post-colonial, post-war setting, as well as the long term effects participating in a program with such a focus will be useful addition to the field. while the sociological and political ramifications of the former colonial education system in uganda emerged as an interesting theme through teachers’ comments, the vast majority of their attention focused on traditional facets of international teacher exchange programs – those focusing on the instruction and interpersonal relationships. however as rapoport (2008) reports and supported by the pre-participation surveys, participants had many concerns about the approaching experience. fortunately, this study demonstrates that such concerns can be assuaged through a carefully constructed program that directly addresses the facilitation of healthy, lesson-centered, teacher partnerships. by the end of their partnership, most of the teachers’ initial concerns either disappeared completely or were greatly reduced. the majority of participants instead reported at length about the formation of close friendships with their partners and the importance of sharing of each other’s culture. conversely, as many concerns diminished, other unforeseen concerns arose. thus, international teacher partnership programs also need to address emerging issues of concern among their participants. within this study, timeliness emerged as the biggest concern, but was not indicated at all in the pre-surveys. as with any issue that arises between strangers partnering in international endeavors, the key was to keep dialogue open and focused on the work at hand. in this program, such dialogue and relationship negotiation was greatly enhanced through the initial formation of their partnership contracts that modeled how to address issues in a straightforward, nonjudgmental manner. this is just one example in which the ugandan teachers and north american teachers bridged the cultural, pedagogical, and curricular divides that separated them. conclusion the ugandan-north american teacher partnership program studied demonstrated that such programs can go beyond educational voyeurism. when given adequate cultural preparation and sociological awareness, teachers can and do engage in thoughtful reflection of the contexts within which teaching and learning occur. ultimately however, teachers, being teachers, focus first and foremost on the core tasks of teaching – lesson planning and instruction. it is through their teacher lens that participants’ experience is processed and that similarities are discovered across classrooms that are separated by cultures, politics and continents. thus, while these facets of the partnership experience should garner the most programmatic attention, developing an understanding of the local sociological and political contexts in which partners’ teaching and learning will occur can only improve the quality of the experience – both culturally and pedagogically. further study focusing specifically on the needs, concerns and reflections of host teachers in such programs would greatly add to the extant literature. typically, such programs involve north american teachers traveling elsewhere, and the resultant articles are often written from a north american perspective. gaining a more diverse perspective on the dynamics of teacher partnership programs would benefit the profession. 15 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) appendix list of ugandan high schools atanga secondary school awere (displaced) secondary school gulu high school gulu secondary school keyo secondary school koch goma secondary school pabo secondary school sacred heart secondary school st. joseph secondary school layibi st. mary’s secondary school – lacor sir samuel baker secondary school 16 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) references bassey, m. (1999). western education and political domination in africa. westport, connecticut: bergin & garvey. belfiore, e.m., cooke, d., gorbet, f., hynes, m., & parsons, j.p. (1982). can you succeed overseas? tesl talk, 13(3), 28-43. betts, s., & norquest, j. (1997). professional development for educators through travel to zimbabwe: one-year follow-up. journal of family and consumer sciences, 89(1), 50-53. chapman, j. & thiel, a. (1999). an affordable teacher exchange program. phi delta kappan, 80(6), 467-470. craddock, a.w. & harf, j.e. (2004) education for democracy in ukraine: student learning through a us-us civic education project. paper presented at the conference on civic education research. reno, nv. cushner, k., & brislin, r. (1996). intercultural interactions: a practical guide (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publication. cushner, k. and mahon, j. (2002). overseas student teaching: affecting personal, professional, and global competencies in an age of globalization. journal of studies in international education, 6(44), 44-58. cushner, k., mcclelland, a., & safford, p. (2000). human diversity in education: an integrative approach (3rd ed.). boston: mcgraw-hill. dewey, j. (1990). the school and society and the child and the curriculum. chicago, il: university of chicago press. elbaz-luwisch, f. (2004). immigrant teachers: stories of self and place. international journal of qualitative studies in education, 17(3), 387-414. freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york: continuum. garson, b. (2010). teaching abroad: a cross-cultural journey. journal of education for business, 85(6), 322-326. glaser, b. (2008). doing quantitative grounded theory. mill valley, ca : sociology press. hayden, r.l. (1981, april). issues in international education: exchange policy. paper presented at a meeting of the national council on education research, washington, dc. 17 philip p. kelly and amy cordileone ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) johnson, d. (2006). comparing the trajectories of educational change and policy transfer in developing countries. oxford review of education, 32(5), 679-696. johnson, k. (2008). teaching transnationally: examining the experiences of american teachers in foreign k-12 schools. unpublished thesis. location not identified. retrieved from umi. kelly, p. (2013). the paradox of universal secondary education in uganda. in c. sunal & k. mutua (eds.), research on the influences of educational policy on teaching and learning (pp. 23-40). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. koester, j. (1985). a profile of the u.s. student abroad. new york: council on international educational exchange. martin, j. (1985). the relationship between student sojourner perceptions of intercultural competencies and previous sojourn experience. international journal of intercultural relations, 11(4), 337-355. melnick, s.l., & zeichner, k. m. (1998). teacher education’s responsibility to address diversity issues: enhancing institutional capacity. theory into practice, 37(2), 62-69. mwebi, b. and brigham, s. (2009). preparing north american preservice teachers for global perspectives: an international teaching. the alberta journal of educational research, 55(3), 414-427. okoth, p.g. (1993). the creation of a dependent culture: the imperial school curriculum in uganda. in mangan, j.a. (ed.) the imperial curriculum: racial images and education in the british colonial experience. new york: routledge. p’bitek, o. (1984/1966) song of lawino and song of ocol. oxford, england: heinemann. penny, a., ward, m., read, t., & bines, h. (2008). education sector reform: the ugandan experience. international journal of educational development, 28(3), 268-285. purves, r., jackson, a., and shaughnessy, j. (2005). a longitudinal study of teachers’ professional development through an international exchange. journal of in-service education, 3(31), 545-567. putnam, r.t. & borko, h. (2000). what do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher learning? educational researcher, 29(1), 4-16. quezada, r. (2004). beyond educational tourism: lessons learned while student teaching abroad. international education journal, 5(4), 458-465. rapoport, a. (2008). exchange programs for educators: american and russian perspectives. intercultural education, 19(1), 67-77. 18 beyond educational voyeurism: an analysis of a ugandan-north american teacher partnership program ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) republic of uganda. (2007). peace, recovery and development plan for northern uganda. kampala, uganda: author. rowe, d. (1992). an educational exchange with livingston county michigan usa. head teachers review. winter, 21-23. ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case moses ochanji california state university san marcos, usa henry o. ayot kenyatta university, kenya penina kamina state university of new york, usa samson ondigi kenyatta university, kenya john n. kimemia kenyatta university, kenya abstract this study on teaching practice experience was conducted at a kenyan university by researchers from both the usa and kenya through a partnership project to build capacity through quality teacher preparation. the portion of this study presented here used survey techniques and specifically addressed the student teachers’ perspectives on the preparation processes, and ability to plan, instruct and use feedback to improve instruction in teaching practice. stratified sampling of student teachers (n=360) and supervisor (n=240) was used. the student teacher questionnaire covered several educational components such, as professionalism, lesson material preparation, content knowledge, teaching performance skills, and reflection based on classroom observation feedback. the major findings were student teachers inability to integrate information communication technology (ict) in teaching, a gap in the teacher education curriculum on the role of ict in teacher education, and lack of supportive supervisory feedback to the teacher candidates during teaching practice. the study recommends mapping of teacher education courses to ensure that ict and expert feedback are covered before teaching practice by offering coursework on modern accessible ict and facilitating rigorous microteaching experiences. also, 2 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) programs should train enough teaching practice supervisors, strategically plan school placements, and ensure timely posting of student teachers. keywords: kenya education, east africa education, student teaching, teaching practice, teacher preparation. introduction in teacher preparation, educational accrediting bodies identify specific standards by which teacher performance is evaluated (kenya ministry of education, 2013; council for the accreditation of educator preparation [caep], 2013). in kenya these standards are part of the quality assurance standards as established by kenya’s ministry of education. while most teacher education programs focus on equipping the student teacher to meet these standards, the degree of how well prepared the teacher candidates are upon graduation is unclear. one of the required accrediting standards is for the student teacher to intern or practice. caep (2013) notes, “the provider ensures that effective partnerships and high-quality clinical practice are central to preparation” (p. 6). internship is an important component of any professional training since it provides the opportunity to translate theory into practice (glickman & bey, 1990; mclntyre, byrd, & fox, 1996). in fact, internships have been compared to apprenticeship when making the case for increased professionalization of teacher preparation (darlinghammond, 2012). such steps in the professionalization of the teacher preparation requires creating a comprehensive system of teacher development that encompasses not only rigorous standards and assessments but also rigorous support mechanism for novice teachers entering the teaching career. it is important for beginners to have systematic, intense mentoring in the early years of the profession. most research has addressed the mentoring that occurs during the first years upon entering the teaching profession. however the need for such support needs to start during the pre-service year(s). having weekly support and in-classroom coaching in the first year for fine-tuning skills, for planning lessons, and for problem solving about things that come up in the classroom ensures that someone experienced is there during the critical moments of the beginning teacher's first year. about three-fourths of new teachers report that they have participated in an induction program and have had a mentor teacher assigned to them (wei, darling-hammond, & adamson, 2010). in pre-service teacher preparation, the internship is normally in form of teaching practice (tp). during tp, the student teacher is obligated to prepare and teach lessons in a classroom setting. at this time, student teacher is observed and given feedback on lesson planning and teaching by a supervisor. the tp process is there both a mentoring and evaluative stage of teacher development. the significance of mentoring for beginning teachers has been gaining wide recognition in developed countries (pungur, 2007), but is still at a formative stage in developing countries. attention continues to focus on teachers as a key factor in educational reform and on their need for on-going improvement and support, so teacher mentoring becomes a viable option in education policy. student teacher’s performance is assessed on various skills such as the ability to:  create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.  create learning experiences that make the subject matter meaningful to students. 3 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015)  use a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills.  plan instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and curriculum goals.  use effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.  provide learning opportunities that support students’ intellectual, social, and personal development.  create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.  use formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners.  integrate information communication technology (ict) in teaching. the student teacher’s effectiveness on these skills during the tp experience can be impacted by a variety of factors. in addition to the more documented aspects such as content knowledge (brousseau, 1987) and student teacher beliefs and values (twigg, 2010) , a student teacher’s performance in tp is mostly affected by the quality of the preparation education courses take prior to the tp experience and the supervision and feedback that the student teacher receives. other influencing factors may include: (a) how the teaching practice process is managed; (b) the structure of the teaching practice; and (c) the relationships that the student teacher develops with other school personnel (beck, 2002; wyss, siebert & dowling, 2012). there are a myriad of challenges that affect the quality of tp, but herein, we have discussed some issues namely disconnect between coursework and actual classroom performance, large tp student teacher enrollments, quality of supervision and placement, and mentoring by the cooperating teachers. problem many african universities typically experience very large enrollments in teacher education programs. thus the tp exercise is faced with many structural problems, mainly placement, financing of the tp exercise, and supervision. in kenya for example, there has been massive expansion of various local universities dealing with teacher education program with huge student enrolments, which exert pressures to both human and physical resources and are bound to lower the quality of teacher preparation. according to a survey carried out by kenyatta university in july 2012 as part of the baseline data for the capacity building through teacher education project supported by the higher education for development (hed) and usaid, the number of universities offering education degrees has increased from four national universities (kenyatta university, university of nairobi, moi university, and egerton university) to thirty-six universities and constituent colleges (not counting private universities) in the last 10 years. an overwhelming 800% increase of student teachers with minimal increment in school placements and experienced supervisors to go around! the new universities and university colleges have to share supervisors who originally were very able to handle few student teachers in the four national universities. the current state of affairs shows that there are not enough supervisors with expertise and skills to carry out effective tp supervisory roles. for example, in 2011 kenyatta university sent 2,975 4 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) students for teaching practice, which is an insurmountable number of student teachers to be supervised by a limited number of supervisors. the data for these students completing the tp exercise showed that while they were supposed to be observed and assessed a minimum of six times, they were only supervised once or twice. special content areas like foreign language have few supervisors’ forcing them to travel long distances to offer their expert feedback to student teachers. these large enrollments lead to compromised excellence and expectations. debriefing and feedback discussion of observed lessons by the supervisors has become a rare feature of tp given that a supervisor has to observe many student teachers that also happen to be in different schools that are not of close proximity to each other. this forces the supervisor to exit quickly to supervise other student teachers without providing the appropriate support to the observed student teacher. placement of student teachers is another challenge facing african universities, given the large number of students to be placed at school across broad geographic areas, usually the entire nation. thus the location of a school could be urban, suburban, or rural. there exists an unhealthy stigma regarding rural localities. mukeredzi and mandrona (2013) looked at opportunities and challenges experienced by undergraduate student teachers posted in the schools within the rural locations. one of their findings was that student teachers felt that the cooperating teachers “offloaded” their responsibilities to them. secondly, school administrators often request student teachers depending on the staffing needs of their schools. this means that a student teacher ends up in a school that does not have expert host teacher in the student teacher’s appropriate subject area. thirdly, in understaffed schools, some cooperating teachers feel relieved by the incoming student teacher and therefore may not look into his/her lesson preparation nor observe its execution. purpose of the study our research study focused on both pedagogical and structural issues associated with the goal of identifying the areas that can be reformed to improve tps’ quality. but in this paper we only dwell on the pedagogical tp issues regarding how the student teacher felt prepared, was able to apply theories learned in a classroom situation and perceived usefulness of feedback provided by the cooperating teacher, head of department, and the university supervisors. research questions 1. to what extent does the teacher preparation program equip student teachers for their teaching performance expectations? 2. how adequately were the student teachers prepared to employ the learned abilities and skills when delivering content in the classroom? 3. to what extent did student teachers value the feedback given to them by the mentor teachers, school administration and tp supervisors? and 4. what were the challenges experienced during the tp exercise? methodology sampling. survey data was collected during the student teaching semester in june, july, and august of 2012 in kenya from the participating university. the school placements were spread all over the country. at this time, the country had eight geographical provinces with a total of forty-seven districts. during this summer semester the tp administrators, subdivided the entire 5 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) school placements into 30 tp zones. each zone was assigned a faculty to serve as its area coordinator. strategic sampling was used to identify the zones and schools for data collection. a third of the tp zones were selected leading to 10 zonal areas for this study. in each area, six schools were selected. the distribution of the schools in each tp area was as follows, a national school; a provincial boys’ school; a provincial girls’ school; a district boys’ school; a district girls’ school, and a private school. table 1 below summarizes the sampling grid for one of the tp zone. for each school 6 student teachers were selected. in addition, 4 cooperating teachers and/or heads of departments were selected; the school principal was interviewed, and the area supervisor for each area was interviewed too. table 1: sampling grid for one of the tp zone school type number of student teachers number of cooperating teachers/ head of department principals area supervisor national 6 4 1 1 provincial girls 6 4 1 provincial boys 6 4 1 district girls 6 4 1 district boys 6 4 1 private 6 4 1 total 36 24 6 1 table 2 summarizes the total sample for all the selected 10 tp zones (10 out of 30 zones were sampled). table 2: total sample grid for the whole tp research. tp zone no. schools tp students cooperating teachers/ hods area supervisors nairobi east 6 36 24 1 nairobi west 6 36 24 1 kiambu 6 36 24 1 muranga/ nyeri 6 36 24 1 kakamega/ vihiga 6 36 24 1 bungoma/ busia 6 36 24 1 kisii area 6 36 24 1 nyamira area 6 36 24 1 mombasa malindi a 6 36 24 1 mombasa malindi b 6 36 24 1 total 60 360 240 10 6 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) instruments. a survey questionnaire was developed for collecting data from the student teachers. the first item dealt with biographic data about the participants including gender, teaching subject areas and type of school where the student teacher was placed. the second, third and fourth sections of the questionnaire focused on a self-evaluation of a range of pedagogical related aspects of teaching based on a 5-point likert scale questionnaire. for the same range of pedagogical aspects, the student teachers were asked to evaluate how well the teacher education program prepared them in acquiring these skills, the extent to which they were able to apply these skills during their student teaching practice and the extent to which the mentoring and evaluation feedback from their supervisors enhanced their ability to apply these skills in teaching. a different survey questionnaire was given to cooperating teacher and the head of department (hod). in many cases, the cooperating teacher was also the hod. the questions in this survey focused on the same pedagogical aspects addressed in the student teacher questionnaire but asked the cooperating teachers and hods to indicate the extent to which the student teacher was able to apply these pedagogical skills in their teaching. the survey also included other information such as the frequency of observations they conducted with their student teachers. the other two instrument used in data collection were interview schedules for the principal and for the area supervisor. the principal interview schedule was on their views about the university’s tp program and about the university student teachers at their school. the area supervisor interview schedule covered the number of student teachers in the area, the role of area supervisor, the challenges faced and the strategies adopted to address these challenges. the questionnaire items were selected directly from the pedagogical elements that tp seeks to assess as indicators of teaching performance by the teacher candidates. as such, the validity of the instruments was assumed since the instruments were directly matched with the performance assessment items. the instruments were tested for reliability on a class section of students in the second year of study at the university. data collection. in each school a researcher a) administered tp students questionnaires to all student teachers at the school; b) administered the questionnaire to 4 cooperating teachers/ heads of department (1 mathematics, 1 sciences, 1 languages and 1social studies); and c) interviewed the principal. the researcher also interviewed the tp area supervisor as shown in table 1. the questionnaires were completed by paper and pencil by the respondents while the interviews were audiotaped and later transcribed. data analysis. the data were synthesized using survey monkey. the descriptive statistics were generated and qualitative data grouped by question for further analysis. the student responses provided information on, (1) on the extent to which they were well prepared to with teaching skills; (2) to apply the skills; and (3) usefulness of the feedback from supervisors. these responses were compared to identify areas with high percentage scores versus lower percentage scores. this was a self-rating survey. the scores on the highest level of the likert’s scale were considered “very good” on the scale. percentage scores above 50% were considered as areas of positive performance, while areas below 50% were considered as areas of weakness. the qualitative data from the interviews and additional comments were read and re-read by the research team members to identify common themes. 7 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) findings from quantitative data perceptions of how education program prepared student teacher for tp. the percentage of student teachers who checked the “very good” rating scale were generated as seen in table 3 regarding the self-rating of how the teacher education program prepared the student teachers on the various pedagogical aspects of tp. scores below 50% are highlighted in bold font. the student teachers felt adequately prepared in 5 out of the 11 pedagogical areas surveyed. the areas where there was satisfaction on how well they are prepared include: creating a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and selfmotivation (66.7%); create learning experiences that make the subject matter meaningful to students (59.1%); fostering relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being (58.7%); using a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills (56.6%); and planning instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and curriculum goals (56.0%). table 3: student teacher perceptions on how well prepared they were for teaching practice. teaching performance aspect extent of preparedness (n= 177) create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. 66.7 % create learning experiences that make the subject matter meaningful to students 59.1 % to foster relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being. 58.7 % use a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills. 56.6 % plan instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and curriculum goals. 56.0 % to be a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other stakeholders in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally 49.7% use effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. 46.9% provide learning opportunities that support students’ intellectual, social, and personal development 45.8% create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners. 44.6% use formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners. 44.0% integrate ict in my teaching. 15.4% the areas where the student teachers perception were low include: the ability to integrate ict in teaching (15.4%); the use of formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners (44.0%); the creating of 8 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners (44.6%); the planning of learning opportunities that support students’ intellectual, social, and personal development (45.8%); the use of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom (46.9%); being a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other stakeholders in the learning community) and one who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally (49.7%). perceptions of how student teachers applied theory during tp. on the self-rating of the ability to implement various teaching and learning strategies in their tp, the percentage of student teachers rating the preparation as “very good” were generated as shown in table 4. on the same list of pedagogical aspects, student teachers ratings show that they were very able to apply all these skills during their teaching practice except in the area of ict integration in teaching (20.9%). table 4: student teacher perceptions: how well they were able to apply learned skills during tp. teaching performance aspect the ability to implement (n=177) to foster relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well being. 70.1 % create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. 67.8 % create learning experiences that make the subject matter meaningful to students 62.7 % use effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. 61.6 % provide learning opportunities that support students’ intellectual, social, and personal development 58.8 % plan instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and curriculum goals. 58.5 % to be a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other stakeholders in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally 57.1 % use a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills. 55.4 % use formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners. 53.1 % create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners. 52.1 % integrate ict in my teaching. 20.9 % perceptions of effectiveness of feedback from cooperating teachers/hods. table 5 is data generated from the self-rating regarding the extent to which the cooperating teachers and/or 9 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) hods evaluation and feedback enhanced the student teachers’ ability to perform on the various pedagogical aspects of tp. the data shows that the teacher candidates found the feedback to be useful in enhancing their abilities on all of the pedagogical aspects of teaching except in three areas. one of the areas where the feedback was found not to be useful was the ability to be a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others i.e. students, parents, and other stakeholders in the learning community, and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally (49.4%). table 5: student teacher perceptions effectiveness of cooperating teacher and hod feedback. teaching performance aspect ct/hod: feedback effectiveness (n=177) plan instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and curriculum goals. 63.8 % use effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. 61.1 % create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. 61.0% create learning experiences that make the subject matter meaningful to students 60.0 % use a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills. 59.1 % create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners. 58.1 % provide learning opportunities that support students’ intellectual, social, and personal development 57.8 % to foster relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being. 52.0 % to be a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other stakeholders in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally 49.4 % use formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners. 46.6 % integrate ict in my teaching. 17.0 % a second unhelpful feedback was the use of formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners (46.6%). the feedback on ict integration in teaching was the least useful (17.0%). perceptions of effectiveness of feedback from university supervisor. student teachers ratings on the effectiveness of feedback from university supervisor are in table 6. the same three areas of 10 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) unhelpful feedback from cooperating teacher/hod are also noted with the university supervisor’s data. table 6: student teacher perceptions: effectiveness of university supervisor’s feedback. teaching performance aspect us: feedback effectiveness (n=177) to foster relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being. 59.6 % provide learning opportunities that support students’ intellectual, social, and personal development 58.0 % create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. 57.1 % plan instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and curriculum goals. 56.0 % create learning experiences that make the subject matter meaningful to students 52.0 % use a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills. 52.0 % create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners. 51.2 % use effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. 50.9 % to be a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other stakeholders in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally 47.1 % use formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners. 45.6 % integrate ict in my teaching. 17.9 % comparisons of tp teaching performance from tables 3, 4, 5, and 6, consistently show low ratings for ict integration. another area with consistently low rating is the use of formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of learners. findings from qualitative data in addition to the surveys ratings data, the student teachers were asked open-ended questions about other aspects of tp that they would like to see improved. data from these responses were categorized into the following themes: resources, teaching methods, ict, supervision, feedback and overall tp exercise. two of these themes, ict and supervision, are discussed below given the quantitative data are consistent with the qualitative data from interviews. information and communication technology (ict). the student teachers consistently cited ict as an area they would like to see improved in their teacher education program. they suggest 11 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) that ict be made a course requirement that must be taken before being cleared for the tp exercise. one student stated: the institution should encompass more ict integration in tp training and provide material to facilitate improving the ict in learning. the student teachers also reported the need for ict services to be open to all students and not just to a selected group of students, i.e. those participating on grant projects, students teaching math and science subjects. the student teachers called for opportunities to practice ict skill, a student stated: students should be given opportunity to have an experience in powerpoint presentation, not just learning about it verbally as this brought us challenges in the school where we had our teaching practice, since it has the facility but we lacked the knowledge. other student teachers pointed to the need for subject specific technology support: student teachers should be equipped with the ict knowledge in order to apply it effectively in their teaching i.e. the teaching of field work in literature and other disciplines such as geography requires a lot of ict. it is evident from the student observations that they recognize the need and the potential the ict has to their teaching. supervision. the student teachers cited a number of challenges they experienced during tp that were connected to supervision. first issue was the fact that supervisors are assigned by region rather than by subject area. several student teachers pointed to the need to have supervisors who teach the subject areas they supervised, for example a student teacher stated: lecturers [university supervisors] should be familiar with the subjects he or she is supposed to supervise. subject experts should be used preferentially for assessment. second issue dealt with frequency of the university supervisor’s visits. several respondents pointed to “frequent supervision of the student teacher” and “the assessors [referring to university supervisors] should visit or see the students as many times as possible.” the third issue was about the communication between the university supervisors, the student teachers and the school personnel. some noted on the need for supervisors to let the student teachers know about when they will be observed, a representative quote was, “the supervisors are supposed to inform student-teachers earlier in advance and not impromptu visits since most of us become tensed.” similar remarks, such as the excerpt below, pointed to communications between area coordinators, supervisors and the student teachers: 12 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) also communications with the school administrators because the school programs are not fixed but sometimes flexible. that is they are affected by some extra activities like agm [annual general meetings], staff meetings and curriculum activities. lastly, several student teachers called for observation by external supervisors. such comments included: apart from internal supervisors, external supervisors should be encouraged (motivated) introduce the use of external examiners during supervision external supervisors should be involve in supervision. discussion and recommendations student teacher’s preparedness for teaching. the most critical area that needs to be address in the teacher education program is the integration of ict in teaching and learning. a number of issues arise from the data with regard to preparation in ict. it is evident that the student teachers have little or no preparation on ict integration. there are also no clear expectations for student teachers to integrate ict during tp. given the increasing influence that technology has on teaching and learning today, it is critical that this issue is given utmost consideration as part of the teacher education program. many african governments identify the ability to use ict as being critical to the general society and in job markets. little attention is paid on equipping student teachers with ict skills since these resources are lacking or inadequate. clearly then the graduating student teacher will not be sufficiently prepared for the teaching and learning. a survey study by udeani and ejikeme (2011) noted, “inadequate preparation in the use of ict for teaching was recorded for the teachers … [yet] icts are having a huge impact on everyday classroom activities … the obvious implication … is that teacher preparation programs must equip teachers with ict skills needed for knowledge creation and dissemination” (p. 535). in an investigation of models for preservice teachers’ use of technology to support studentcentered learning, chen (2009) found a disconnection between what students’ technological learning needs were and the teachers’ readiness to support them. this study recommended that teacher education programs need to adequately prepare and empower future educators to become active members of 21st century for teaching and learning. any consideration on how to make ict part of the teacher education program needs to consider that the concept of technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) which has emerged over the last decade. the tpack framework builds on shulman (1986 and 1987) conception of pedagogical content knowledge, by explicitly integrating the component of technological knowledge into the model. the framework includes three core categories of knowledge: pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, and technological knowledge. the tpack framework proposes that combining these three core types of knowledge results in four 13 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) additional types of knowledge including technological pedagogical content knowledge as a part of the model (akarasriworn & ku, 2010; mishra & koehler, 2006). apart from teaching about technology integration, teacher education faculty need to model current appropriate technologies in their own classrooms and offer hands-on task so that student teachers not only learn about technology integration but also experience it in their own learning. the student teachers’ high ratings on their ability to perform on the various pedagogical aspects of teaching may indicate the degree of confidence they carry to the field from their coursework. while the rating on how they feel prepared is low, the rating on their ability to perform is much higher. this could be attributed to the fact they were completing these surveys during student teaching, a time when they are also faced with the stress of being evaluated on their performance. it is therefore possible that they want to position themselves as performing strongly, while at the same time pointing to a lack of preparedness in the event that they are thought not to be performing well. the areas of well preparedness are closely tied to the ability to create meaningful leaning environments for students in general. these areas include planning for instruction and engaging students in active learning. the student teachers felt they were not well prepared in more than half of the teaching performance expectation areas. the areas with low self-ratings are of significance. the areas with low rating on preparedness and ability to teach cut across a range of teaching performance aspects. because these aspects are taught in general education courses, student teachers may be failing to see how they apply directly to their tp classroom during student teaching. we recommend a curriculum mapping exercise in which all the student teacher performance expectations are mapped against the teacher education classes. such reviews of the curricula beyond the pedagogy specific courses need to be carried out to evaluate how well these courses align with the identified areas. questions need to be asked of particular courses where the student teachers are learning for example, how to reflect on practice as well as strategies they are provided to enable this review to occur. periodic review of the curriculum is also necessary to ensure that the courses are up to date with the current research on issues of teaching, learning and teacher preparation. without such a careful correlation between coursework and student teaching, teacher candidates may be taking a many courses where they learn things in the abstract and then tend to forget or not know how to apply much of what they learned by the time they are actually in a classroom. the practices in their student teaching classroom might not resemble those described in their courses. that antiquated, fragmented program is becoming a thing of the past (scherer, 2012). many teacher education programs have changed so that they offer strong clinical experience connected to coursework. many also have strengthened their preparation for curriculum development, assessment, and differentiated instruction. we know that teachers who are fully prepared stay in teaching at much higher rates than those who lack key elements of preparation. those who have done student teaching are less than half as likely to leave after the first year as those who have not student taught. those who have had coaching, been observed in their classrooms, and seen other people teach are less than half as likely to leave within the first year. those who have had a chance to study child development, learning, and curriculum are less than half as likely to leave as those who have not had those 14 improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) opportunities (darling-hammond, 2003). being in the classroom of an effective mentor teacher for a long enough period of time, with graduated responsibilities, has a huge impact as well as a carefully managed student teaching placement. another area of the curriculum that needs addressing in the education classes is how to handle students with diverse needs. it is important for student teachers to develop skills of supporting all learners in their classrooms, because they are often placed in schools where the host teacher does not provide much needed guidance. mukeredzi and mandrona (2013) propose that teacher preparatory programs should include a course that covers student teachers’ ability to persevere, and have “resilience, stress management and most importantly creativity and flexibility” (p. 151), and such a course is to be taken before the tp exercise. issues related to supervision. according to the participant’s student handbook, student teachers are initially to be observed by the pedagogy faculty to examine the student teachers’ schemes of work and lesson plans before they start teaching and be supervised at least six times, that is a minimum of three observations per teaching subject (major and minor). the grade given at the end of teaching practice becomes part of the student teacher’s classification. this structure faces a number of challenges when it comes to the actual assignment of supervisors during tp. there are not enough supervisors to observe a total of six observations per student teacher. another issue with supervision was about communication between and among the participants in the tp exercise ranging from the tp placement office, the area coordinators, the university supervisors, the school administrators and student teachers. during tp supervisors are supposed to inform student teachers earlier in advance about the visitation and not make impromptu visits as this often make students tense. on supervision, the institutions offering teacher education should plan to have adequate staff in respective teaching areas to offer expertise feedback during tp. the tp exercise will not be meaningful if reports are not reflective and feedback does not help the student teacher improve in the areas of weakness. ayot and wanga (1987) enumerated in their book, fifteen principles “of effective supervisory feedback.” the first principle is in agreement with what nguyen (2009) points out that mentors or supervisors to be supportive of student teachers to enable them reflect-in and reflect-on practice by being “clear in their expectations of self and other” (p. 660). these principles should be made accessible to the supervisors. moreover, the student teachers should be provided with a reflection guidelines or tools tied to the essential elements of instruction (hunter, 1986). ochanji (in press) suggested several guiding questions for helping student teachers reflect on the essential elements of their teaching, including: 1) what goals did you have for your students for this lesson? 2) what learning activities did you engage your students with in order to help them make progress towards the leaning goals? 3) how effective were these strategies in helping your students to make progress towards the learning goals? 4) what evidence of student learning and/or learning difficulties did you collect from your students? 15 moses ochanji, henry o. ayot, penina kamina, samson ondigi, & john n. kimemia ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) the supervisors should have a good understanding of the relevant resources used in teaching in order to guide the student teachers towards the resources available for them in school and beyond as they consider how to adjust their lesson plans for better student learning. the purpose for the tp is not meaningful to student teachers unless the feedback is reflective of their abilities and is informative. the issue with supervision raised by student teachers about the need for subject area specific supervisors assessing them during teaching practice is a difficult one to overcome given the number of students going for tp at a given time and the vast area in which the postings occur. one possibility to ensure that the supervisors are versed with the subject content is to group them by the subject panel area such as mathematics and science education, social studies education supervisors, language education, creative art education and physical and health education. any specialist in the subject panel areas should supervise a group of subjects, e.g. chemistry, biology, physics and mathematics. when these supervisors visit a school site, they should be allowed to assess any student at that site who is teaching within the subject group of their specialty. student teacher should keep a visitation log in which the supervisors sign in to identify what subject areas they observed and assessed in during each supervisor visit. the idea of using cooperating teachers (ct) as mentors is sound, as long as, the responsibility does not go 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(1986). knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform. harvard education review, 57(1), 1–21. twigg, v. v. (2010). teachers' practices, values and beliefs for successful inquiry-based teaching in the international baccalaureate primary years programme. journal of research in international education, 9(1), 40-65. udeani, u. & ejikeme, c. (2011). practicing teacher’s perception of undergraduate preparation for science teaching in secondary schools in nigeria. journal of emerging trends in educational research and policy studies, 2(6), 531-536. usaid (2014). kenyatta university-syracuse university partnership on building capacity through quality teacher preparation. usaaid/kenya newrelease. retrieved from https://www.usaid.gov/kenya/fact-sheets/kenyatta-university-syracuse-university-partnershipbuilding-capacity. wei, r. c., darling-hammond, l., & adamson, f. (2010). professional development in the united states: trends and challenges. dallas, tx: national staff development council, 28. wyss, v. l., siebert, c. j., & dowling, k. a. (2012). structuring effective practicum experiences for pre-service teachers. education, 132(3), 600-606. https://www.usaid.gov/kenya/fact-sheets/kenyatta-university-syracuse-university-partnership-building-capacity https://www.usaid.gov/kenya/fact-sheets/kenyatta-university-syracuse-university-partnership-building-capacity providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania thomas e. walsh jr. ames community schools, u.s.a. abstract the following report evaluates a seminar provided by walsh through the bethesda lutheran church tanzanian ministry organization on teaching strategies and conversational english provided at evangelical lutheran church of tanzania (elct) secondary schools in the pare region of tanzania, africa. the staff development included training and support in the use of computer technology available at the schools, donated from the evangelical lutheran church of mecklenburg, germany. the staff development was a follow-up to earlier training sessions provided at the schools in 2006 and 2008. description of the seminar planning procedures, curriculum guide, subjects, methodology and project evaluation is presented, along with discussion about the use of technology with participants at the schools. recommendations for future delivery and use of the project materials is also discussed. the seminar curriculum materials were designed to provide tanzania teachers, with limited resources and teaching methodologies, to engage students more actively in learning and developing problem-solving skills. it is the intent the seminar experience will provide support for more organizations (e.g., student university internships and church-based sister congregations) as they come on board to support the african tanzanian communities. the staff development was provided to teachers at secondary schools representing the muslim, maasai, and christian faiths and cultures. 2 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) introduction a problem facing many teachers and schools in tanzania is supporting teachers in developing their english teaching skills and adequate resources to support delivery of instruction. english teaching is generally delivered to students in english classes and through other course content subjects beginning at the secondary level (i.e., form i iv or after seven years of primary school) in tanzania (see figure 1). if teachers are providing course content instruction they usually are given a single textbook copy with chalk and chalkboard. instruction is then provided to all students using the “chalk-talk” presentation method or involving students copying notes off the chalkboard written by the teacher from the textbook. this style of teaching was perpetuated by a teacher shortage in the country that resulted inthe recruitment of teachers to the dioceses schools who only competed their secondary education without any formal teacher preparation or training . the teacher shortage was created in part by elct dioceses staff and on-site teacher anectodal reports that these dioceses teachers seek higher paying government school positions, leave for university degree programs, and government policy resulting in the addition of secondary schools in each ward of the country. some of these inexperienced teachers also have limited english skills, which is required in their teaching at this level. figure 1. the tanzania educational system and exam protocol _______________________________________________________________________ preparation (kindergarten) – one year standard i – vii (primary) –seven years with exam after standard 7 form i – iv (secondary) – four years with exam after form 4 form v – vi (college) – two years with exam after form 6 university – three to five years with diploma (teaching diploma in three years) *national exams are given over a period of one week (standard 7) to two weeks in length (form 4 and 6). **if you attend another university outside of tanzania (e.g., u.s. or europe) a national exam must be completed to enter industry or government positions (foreign credits, inc. 2011) . _______________________________________________________________________ given these teaching circumstances, it was determined by the southeast iowa synod dioceses that a site based staff development experience was needed for teachers to develop their english skills and provide various methodologies and techniques to deliver information in a problem-solving format, which engages students thinking skills. a third seminar was provided by walsh in 2011 using revised curriculum project materials used previously for staff development. walsh provided this training experience 2006 and then again in 2008 with kittelson. the staff development provided in 2008 and 2011 included teacher training in the use of computers located at the schools, donated through funding and ongoing technology support from germany. see walsh (2008) for additional background on previous seminars. the following paper discusses the specific goals of the project, preparation, scheduling the elct schools, seminar subjects, development and use of curriculum guide, and delivery of the staff development. the use and evaluation of technology with teachers is discussed, including evaluation and recommendations for future teacher training experiences. implementation of teaching strategies based on seminar participation is evaluated. the 3 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) recommendations along with some final thoughts provide some additional considerations for organizations (e.g., student university internships outside of tanzania and church-based sister congregations) as they come on board to support the tanzanian schools. project goal and scheduling the primary goal of the project was to provide an 8-hour or longer seminar on teaching strategies and conversational english to secondary teachers at four elct school sites in the pare mountains of northern tanzania during a four to six day period. the length of time spent at each school depended on time required for transporation between schools in the north and south pare, and the presence of sunday when classes were not scheduled. the seminar provided technology instruction during or in addition to the 8-hour period, depending of the scheduling arrangement at each school, computer usage, and electricity availability. all five secondary pare dioceses schools were provided the staff development experience. the seminar days were scheduled with the pare dioceses in advance of arrival to tanzania. the schedule was then modified prior to starting the seminar at the first school site in mruma. the pare dioceses supported the scheduling time period for the month of june, when schools are on holiday break. in 2006 and 2008 the seminar was scheduled in july, when the schools were in session with students. elct schools and subjects five secondary pare diocese schools participated in the project and included travel to muruma, dindimo, manka and shighitini in tanzania, africa. teachers at usange girl’s school traveled to nearby shighitini by toyota truck to attend the seminar and were provided a stipend of $2,000 tsh ($1.33 usd) per day for travel expenses. figure 2. the teacher’s subject content area for teaching (n = 41 subject area responses) _______________________________________________________________________ humanities history and geography english (n = 4) history & k-swahili (n = 3) english & history (n = 2) history (n = 2) english & geography (n = 1) history & geography (n = 1) composition (n = 1) geography (n = 1) science mathematics and computer physics (n = 5) mathematics (n = 3) biology (n = 4) mathematics & geography (n = 1) chemistry (n = 3) computer & k-swahili (n = 1) physics & chemistry (n = 1) computer (n = 1) chemistry & biology (n = 1) chemistry, biology & geography (n = 1) civics other civics & geography (n = 1) headmaster (n = 2) civics & english (n = 1) agriculture local farmer (n = 1) _______________________________________________________________________ 4 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) based on the pare dioceses scheduling arrangements, four to six days was spent at each secondary school. dindimo included teachers who were also instructors at the teacher's college, which opened in march of 2006. most participants in 2011 were content subject teachers at the schools, shown in figure 2, and taught at the secondary school. seminars in 2006 and 2008 were also primarily teachers, but included some participants who were not teachers in attendance. shighitini had two subjects who were teacher education students at the university of dar salaam on holiday between semesters. shighitini subjects also included a school secretary and matron who were primarily interested in practicing conversation and activities to improve english skills. in 2011 one participant at shighatini was a local farmer raising crops around their home plots for subsistance and selling to local markets. in addition, headmasters at manka and didimo were able to attend part of the seminar sessions. most participants tended to be beginning male teachers who had completed form four (secondary school), form six (college) or had a diploma from the university. only four participants in 2011 were women in attendance. women in the seminar were also usually assigned the responsibity to prepare tea (chai) and a snack (e.g., peanuts or donut) during scheduled morning tea breaks. figure 3. teacher’s reported number of years teaching (n = 26 total teachers reporting) _______________________________________________________________________ mean = 11 years mode = 4 years median = 4 years range = less than 1 year to 46 years teaching experience – less than six years (n=18) = 69% _______________________________________________________________________ teachers at these schools tended to be inexperienced and lack educational training in teaching methodology for their respective content subjects as reflected in figure 3. in 2008 only seven teachers reported five or more years of teaching experience. this was substanciated in 2011 based on the fact a new generation of teachers was found at the schools in the seminar, who were not present in 2008. however, while most teachers reported less than six years of teaching experience (18 out of 26) in 2011, there were a significant number of teachers reporting more than 18 years of teaching experience (n=8), with two staff members having taught for over 40 years. in 2008 only seven teachers reported five or more years of teaching experience. the novice level of subjects at the pare secondary schools may be due to the teachers seeking employment in higher paying government schools, entering other higher paying occupations or leaving to pursue higher education. however, two teachers and the headmaster at shighitini reported in 2008 pay to be comparable at the pare and government schools, with monthly salaries starting at $120,000 tsh ($96 usd). one teacher at mruma reported monthly pay at $200,000 tsh ($133 usd) in 2011. subjects at the pare schools included students representing the muslim, maasai, and christian faiths or cultures. seminar curriculum development teachers were provided a copy of strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa (walsh, 2012) and a pen for participation. in 2011 attendees were provided a 55-page guide of activities, a revised version from the previous seminars. copies were also 5 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) given to each school headmaster. the components of the guide were revised after the 2006 seminar for activities involving cooperative learning, creating independence through studentowned strategies (criss), and the models of teaching. discussion topics and activities to promote english conversation in the context of cooperative learning were also provided. cooperative learning strategies were used grouping participants into pairs, triads or quads. teachers practiced the techniques in the context of lesson activities. criss templates were provided in the guide as a methodology to help teachers and students organize information and develop higher level thinking skills. templates included were organizers to compare and contrast information, question frame starters, problem-solution outline and lesson plan format. the models of teaching strategies using concept attainment and inductive learning involved participants in grouping information into categories or comparing and contrasting two concept ideas. further revisions to the guide were made after the 2006 and 2008 seminars provided at the schools. the revised booklet of materials was provided to the secondary teachers with activities added including think alouds (i.e., students thinking and asking questions to evaluate their understanding of their reading comprehension thinking) and anticipation guide questions where students predict answers to focus questions before and after reading text information. other added strategies included graphic organizers (e.g., time lines, venn diagrams, sequence maps, semantic and concept maps) for displaying information. these activities were added to support existing teaching practices in which most learning involves teacher’s writing sentences on the chalkboard taken from a teacher’s textbook source and students copying notes in their notebooks (i.e., “chalk-talk” teaching). it was the intent these strategies would provide techniques for teachers to improve their “chalk talk” teaching methods in the context of presenting information in a visual format, integrating concepts to help students make information connections to develop problem solving skills and improve retention of information. the latter skill is most important for teachers to maintain their teaching standing, since national tests are given to students used for promotion to the next level (standard or form) and reviewed by parents in deciding the quality of a school to determine attendance centers for their child to attend. the dioceses schools will receive (or lose) students from (to) muslim or government schools based on overall test scores of their students. information along with research support for the use of cooperative learning (bennett, rolheiser-bennett and stevahn, 1991), criss (santa, havens and valdes, 2004), and the models of teaching (joyce and showers, 1991) is provided in the literature. the revised activity guide strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa (walsh, 2012) provides additional information and references on these teaching strategies, used with seminar teachers in 2011. the seminar was conducted with the author of the curriculum materials originally in 2006 and then again in 2008 sharing the teaching assignment with a former teacher colleague kittelson. kittelson provided instruction at the north and south pare respectively including mruma and manka, while walsh taught on location at shighatini and dindimo. teachers at usange took the dali dali bus in 2008 to the seminar given at shighatini. instruction using computers was provided at the schools starting in 2008 based on the schedule of the teachers. computer instruction was determined by the availability of usable computers, software, and electricity for use. the use of the curriculum materials and technology by kittelson provided 6 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) additional insight and feedback for the seminar experience. program revisions to curriculum use and technology provided support for walsh to conduct the seminar for a third time in 2011. seminar instructional plan and use of technology participants at the schools were provided the seminar based on their information and activities provided in the student guide, strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa. a typical lesson sequence provided at the schools included:  introduction activity: completion of the class list and sharing information about the participating teacher. option to complete the people bingo “ice breaking” activity to find out more about teaching peers.  present seminar goals: 1) provide a variety of teaching strategies and tools for classroom instruction; 2) informally practice english speaking; and 3) use and integrate technology with your teaching.  confirming schedule and expectations: establish plans to meet at a scheduled time and establish expectations for participants to attend all seminar sessions. share a lesson plan in the teacher’s content area using one or more strategies of learning, including technology.  pose introductory question for discussion: how do you deliver and provide most of your teaching to students?  graphic organizers: complete anticipation guide and read about different types of graphic organizers for presenting information. use cooperative pair-sharing discussing which guide would be useful for classroom use.  maasai reading: in a jigsaw base group assign students to read two or three pages about the maasai and use selective underlining to highlight important information and facts. participants then select one activity to complete in their study groups based on their reading (e.g., problem-solution graphic, compare and contrast, or illustrator). when returning to base groups each person shares major ideas about the maasai and their selected activity.  maasai inductive data set: in cooperative pairs students group facts about the maasai in categories to share with the class. show other examples of inductive teaching in the guide. discuss how inductive teaching could be used in the teacher’s classroom.  concept attainment geography lesson: share an example of a concept attainment lesson comparing two geographical regions (e.g., iowa and tanzania). show other examples of concept attainment lesson in the guide. discus how concept attainment teaching could be used in the classroom as a teaching strategy.  lesson plan development: discuss and share an example of a lesson plan for participants to develop for sharing in their content area using one or more teaching strategies.  questionnaire: complete in the guide and use cooperative strategy corners for sharing response results. 7 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012)  discussion topics: select topic ideas based on survey results or ideas in the guide. participants record ideas using a cooperative graffiti sharing strategy.  additional activities completed (one or more): questionning strategies, risk-taker test, interview, what do i take?, and/or improve a neighborhood or village. it was found as a best practice to establish seminar and computer times earlier than anticipated, i.e., start at 9.00 to meet at 9.30, since time parameters are less rigidly followed in the tanzania culture compared with american and european practices. as part of establishing a daily meeting schedule an agreed upon time was discussed with the seminar attendees about use of technology. based on feedback from the participants, technology was scheduled during and/or after seminar as an optional activity for participation. scheduling changes and flexibility were required based on the number of usable computers and availability of electricity. participants were also requested to not use mobile phones during the seminar and given a certificate verifying participation in the seminar at completion. seminar preparation and participation a student activity guide, strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa, written by walsh was prepared prior to arrival in tanzania with funding provided by the bethesda lutheran church tanzanian ministry organization for producing 80 manuscript copies. the pare dioceses provided the number of potential participants ahead of time for planning purposes. use of the guide at the schools only required access to a chalkboard. additional items packed for the seminar included a small dictionary, packages of 8x11 lined and blank paper, pens, pencils and nametags. laminated cards showing the names of teaching strategies and cooperative learning techniques were also prepared for posting. figure 4. scheduled seminar sessions and attendance information _______________________________________________________________________ school meeting days approx. time total hrs. ave. attend hrs. mruma t – f (4) 11.30 – 1.30 8 73% + 2.5 hrs.* shaghatini/ usange m – th (4) 11.30 – 1.30 8 60% + 8.5 hrs.* manka m – w (3) 9.00 – 10.30, 11.00 – 1.30 9 83% + 15 hrs.* dindimo th – sat (3) 9.00 – 10.30, 11.30 – 1.00 (or later) 13 85% + 0 hrs* *additional hours visited after scheduled seminar for computer instruction _______________________________________________________________________ a seminar on teaching strategies to promote english conversation was provided in june 2011 at mruma, shighatinini, manka, and dindimo. teachers in the nearby village of usange traveled by toyota truck to shignatini to attend the seminar and were given a travel stipend. upon arrival at the schools an agreeable schedule meeting time was established with the 8 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) headmaster or associate academic leader and seminar participants (see figure 4). the scheduled meeting times for seminar were typically scheduled around morning tea break time (around 10.30) up until lunch break scheduled at 1.30 or 2.00 in the afternoon. use of technology was scheduled during these seminar times or as an optional “drop in session” after 2.00 in the afternoon until 4.00 or 5.00. the scheduling set up in 2011 was similar to meeting times provided in 2006 and 2008. figure 5. teachng staff and enrollment in seminar sessions at the dioceses schools _______________________________________________________________________ school site form dioceses staff no. no. of students seminar participation mruma i – vi 16 324 8 + 1* shaghatini/ i – iv 14 277 9 + 1* usange 10 na 6 + 1* manka i – iv 18 450 7 dindimo i – vi 12 280 7 total 37 + 3 * participants only attended one session _______________________________________________________________________ most teachers attended the scheduled session times, including seven teachers traveling to shighatini from usange by toyota truck. sometimes teachers would be absent for all or part of a session day to tutor students, i.e., preparing for form iv national exams, or supporting family needs, i.e., grandmother funeral. three participants elected to discontinue or were only available for one session. the greater need to support students was found at mruma, the first school site visited in early june. figure 5 provides information about the number of seminar participants for each school. in 2006 and 2008 the seminar was scheduled in july, when students were in session with teachers teaching, compared with june 2011 when teachers were on holiday break. given the differences in meeting months resulted in scheduling of longer session periods into the afternoon in july, with sessions scheduled during student classes being covered by other students or not attended by seminar participants. the differences in meeting months would supports the higher attendance found for the participants in june compared with offering the seminar in july (see figure 6). however, the total number of teachers available in june was lower; this is due to staff visiting family or holiday breaks. a majority of the participants, school teachers and support staff, at the schools attended all or most of the seminar sessions in 2006, 2008, and 2011. a majority of seminar participants attended most sessions in 2011, including additional computer meeting sessions (seefigure 6). additional factors identified causing participants to be absent from a seminar class for one or more sessions was due to:  absent from work  a long walking distance from home 9 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012)  holiday break  family events  matriculation  administrative duties (e.g., headmaster)  teaching conflict (i.e., class) or work need  decision to discontinue or join seminar after starting. teachers not available to attend the seminar could receive a copy of the seminar book left with the headmaster at each school. figure 6. seminar attendance comparisons at the dioceses schools (> 50%) school site seminar attend 2006 seminar attend 2008 seminar attend 2011 mruma 9/13 (69%) 12/19 (63%) 6/9 (67%) shighatini/ 11/23 (48%) 10/15 (67%) 15/17 (88%) usange manka 5/6 (83%) 5/10 (50%) 7/7 (100%) dindimo 9/14 (64%) 12/13 (92%) 6/7 (86%) average 34/56 (61%) 39/57 (68%) 34/40 (85%) use of technology at the schools depending on computer availability, including electricity power, instruction in the use of technology was provided during the scheduled session meeting time, i.e., mruma for two hours, or after seminar classes (e.g., 2.30 – 4.30 at shighatini) for teachers to attend on a volunteer basis. the computers were provided at the dioceses schools by the evangelical lutheran church of mecklenburg, germany and available for seminar use in 2006 with a windows operating system. annually, during the month of may, a german team visits the school sites to update and repair the desk top computers. in 2011 all the schools, except dindimo, had their operating system changed to a networked linux system. dindimo was not updated, left with three operating windows computers, due to a lack of newly acquired computer lab space being use temporarily as a classroom. given the change to a linux networked operating system, usage at the schools varied because staff training was not provided for use of the system, including knowledge of the newly installed software programs. use also varied within the schools due to assigning a full or part time computer teacher who was knowledgeable in the linux system and provided opportunity for use with teachers and students. given the differences in computer support at the schools, along with other identified issues, resulted in varying availability and access to technology for teachers and students. the status of the computer lab therefore effected seminar use with teachers. the lab at shighatini was brought up to operating conditions with the support of a parttime teacher providing password and linux system network information. after entering the system it was found that the network provided the following programs and files after login instructions were completed. charts were posted in the lab showing the major features of the 10 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) german linux system (see figure 7). student cards were also made for assigning teachers or students to a username before logging in to the computer. figure 7. linux computer system posted features at the shighatini lab linux network computer system login (type lower case letters) procedures: teacher computer terminal 1. username – teacher 2. password – linux student computer terminals 1. select tsuser# (number) assigned by the teacher 2. password – edubuntu steps to the library e-books to read in the linux folder 1. double click with the mouse the 4allfolder 2. inside the folder window select and double click the icon library ii 3. select a book folder name and double click to see the e-book cover pages 4. double click the book to read. steps to linux tool and simulation program access 1. with the mouse select and pull-down the applications window 2. select an icon category accessories, education, graphics, office, or science 3. drag the mouse to the right side of the icon and select a program. linux tool and simulation program suggestions icon category name program names / functions accessories calculator text editor education kbrunch – fractions kgeography – africa kig – geometry kpercentage – math % problems tuxpaint draw graphics openoffice.orgdraw – drawing tool office openoffice.orgcalc – spreadsheet openoffice.orgdraw – drawing tool openoffice.orgimpress – powerpoint openoffice.orgmath – formulas openoffice.orgwriter – word processing science kalzium – chemistry linux file saving and logout procedures save to teacher’s home or tsaser# home folder logout – select system in the top menu bar and pull down logout tsuser# web browser on the linux local server access – in the menu bar pull down applications, select web browser, and drag over to keweasel. when the window opens select icon:  wikipedia  the world factbook  atlas of world history  file folders: select literature (e.g., william shakespeare or ernest hemmingway) or factbook icon (e.g., philip’s atlas of world history) to pdf download the selected links. _______________________________________________________________________ 11 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) at mruma, having a full time computer teacher, the linux system was found to be fully functioning with an ink and lazerjet printer. the teacher at mruma was also providing computer instruction to students at the school. usange teachers reported their lab was functioning and being used, with mruma (and potentially dindimo) needing support to provide technology using the linux platform. for the seminar participants most teachers were interested in gaining skills in the use of word processing, spreadsheets, drawing programs, and accessing to network resources including e-books and networked contained wikipedia (internet was not available at the schools). computer use in 2008 using the windows systems with microsoft office found similar use preferences focused on individualized session activities including use of the paint program, word processing using word pad, openoffice spreadsheet, file management skills, and basic skills using the mouse and keyboard. technology skills varied among teachers with the need for basic instruction in the use of the computer keyboarding, to instruction on using the paint program and entering formulas to create a usable spreadsheet program for listing student grades and scores. some teachers preferred selecting the onscreen keyboard window to mouse click the keys on the screen rather than using the keyboard, due to limited keyboarding (typing) skills. computer resources and teaching support materials were not available at the schools, based on anecodotal information provided by assigned technology teachers. seminar discussion topics and participants feedback the “survey about tanzania” activity in strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa was completed at some school sites in 2011 and was found to be engaging for seminar participants. teachers were asked questions with responses typically shared and discussed in groups (see figure 8). the ideas are shown and grouped into topic categories. figure 8. seminar participant ideas for the “survey about tanzania” _______________________________________________________________________ question 1: what are the best things about living in tanzania? good climate and moderate temperatures security and peace geographical features support agriculture free from civil wars and political unrest kindness of the people and tendencies of lifestyle question 2: what are the major problems and challenges that need to be addressed and solved in your community? government corruption lack of employment of the youth lacking information and communication lack of social services english language problems in education computer knowledge health problems question 3: what ideas and issues would you like to discuss in class? health discuss current health practices in tanzania. discuss human diseases like hiv aids. what kind of drug abuse exists in tanzania today? economics how can conditions be improved to reduce poverty in tanzania? 12 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) what can be done to attract business and corporations to develop in tanzania? how can transportation and internet “logistics” be developed in tanzania? discuss the free market effects from globalization. discuss the influence of europe on the tanzanian economy. social issues have you or anyone you know experienced humiliation or segregation? how can the basic needs of the tanzanian people be met? how can the older and disabled people be taken care of in tanzania? environment how can the natural resources of tanzania be preserved? how can we best preserve forests and create more parks or reserves? discuss environment issues like global warming. religion and values what are the effects of western culture and lifestyles on tanzanian culture? discuss the threat of terrorism in the world. discuss religion and conflict in the middle east, and in other areas of the world. how can we educate women about early marriage? what are the effects of polygamy marriages? education how can education reduce poverty? discuss general issues in education and how it should be provided. discuss civil service education and the role of social services. how can we improve tanzanian education? government discuss corruption in government and tanzania politics. how can we prevent and avoid government corruption in tanzania? technology discuss the types of software used with the computer. what are some software programs you would like to use? _______________________________________________________________________ the responses provide insight into tanzanian attitudes about the culture and life in northern pare. the third question on the survey requested ideas and issues for discussion in class. the discussion ideas were then restated as questions for use in a cooperative graffiti activity for seminar class. seminar evaluation and implementation of strategies an evaluation was completed by seminar participants at the completion of the staff development in 2006 and 2008. a five-point scale was used rating 1-never, 2-rarely, 3-sometimes, 4-usually and 5-always for each item. figure 9. teacher evaluation for the 2006 seminar at five dioceses schools _______________________________________________________________________ item teaching dimension mean score range 1. clear instruction 4.38 (4.2-4.6) 2. adequate practice opportunity 3.69 (3.1-4.4) 3. useful cooperative learning strategies 4.19 (4.0-4.4) 13 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 4. plan to use cooperative learning 4.19 (3.8-4.4) 5. plan to use seed maker and question strategies 4.05 (3.3-4.6) 6. useful discussion topics 4.44 (4.2-4.6) 7. helpful lesson examples and models 4.53 (4.2-5.0) 8. templates are useful 4.07 (3.8-4.6) 9. able to deliver strategies with existing resources 4.21 (4.0-4.8) 10. instructor provided positive learning environment 4.45 (4.2-4.8) _______________________________________________________________________ in figure 9 the total average scores and range is shown for the five schools, based on responses from 42 teachers provided the staff development in 2006. generally, the seminar was positively received by participants and included favorable comments and suggestions. high frequency responses given on the open-ended comments and suggestion section of the evaluation form were:  useful strategies (resource) helpful in teaching, promoting education, knowledge and information (n=16).  introduce program to include other schools in tanzania and/or primary schools (n=7).  provide more time in the seminar (n=6).  clear understanding of presentation, techniques and strategies (n=5). additional suggestions in 2006 included giving teacher certificates upon completion, conducting the seminar in specific subject areas, providing time to practice strategies in the classroom, and developing more strategies or resources to promote english conversation. one participant reported difficultly understanding the english accent of the seminar facilitator. this may reflect the fact that the teachers know kiswahili and pare as their first and second language, followed by english. another teacher suggested providing the seminar in another language to improve understanding, suggesting kiswahili, french or german. the evaluation forms were given to the headmaster with average scores calculated for each item. figure 10. teacher evaluation for the 2008 seminar at five dioceses schools _______________________________________________________________________ item teaching dimension mean score kittelson walsh 1. clear instruction 4.5 3.6 2. adequate practice opportunity 4.3 3.5 3. useful cooperative learning strategies 5.0 3.6 4. plan to use cooperative learning 3.9 3.9 5. plan to use seed maker and question strategies 3.7 4.0 6. useful discussion topics 3.1 3.6 7. helpful lesson examples and models 4.1 4.0 8. templates are useful 4.3 3.3 9. able to deliver strategies with existing resources 3.9 3.4 10. instructor provided positive learning environment 4.4 3.6 _______________________________________________________________________ 14 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) at the end of the seminar participants completed a similar evaluation form in 2008. in figure 10 the total average scores and range is shown for the five schools, based on responses from teachers provided the staff development in 2008. generally, the seminar was positively received by participants and included favorable comments and suggestions. responses given on the openended comments and suggestion section of the evaluation form are grouped and summarized as follows:  computer session was interesting (and used for the first time) gaining how to use the starting and operations (7 responses).  conduct seminar annually or with longer sessions to learn more and/or practice strategies in the class (8 responses).  staff development promotes and develops english conversation through different strategies we learned about (4 responses).  need more time for the computer to learn about the internet (1 response).  instructor tried his level best (1 response).  suggest a special computer course to learn uses (1 response).  do not conduct seminar during class time (1 response).  provide seminar at central location or school (1 response).  upgraded computer knowledge in use of open office and powerpoint (1 response). a specific comment reported by a participant was: these teaching strategies are in fact very good, but seem much better if they are used in a class with few numbers of students, but in tanzania many schools have got a big number of students. a class can sometimes have up to 60 students. an evaluation form was given to the headmaster with average and mode scores calculated for each item at their school. figure 11. teacher evaluation of strategies for implementation reported in 2011 (n=29 completed evaluations) 1 (never) 2 (rarely) 3 (sometimes) 4 (usually) 5 (always) 1. i plan to use “think alouds” and anticipation guides for questioning students’ comprehension about reading information. (mode = 3, range = 2 5) |-------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.79 2. graphic organizers (e.g., time lines, sequence maps, cycles, and venn diagrams) will be drawn to show information on the board. (mode = 3, range = 1 5) |---------------------------------------------------------2.79 3. i will use semantic feature analysis (matrices) in comparing information and listing features. (mode = 3, range = 2 5) |-------------------------------------------------------------------------3.67 4. concept maps, semantic maps, and hierarchical arrays will be shown to provide information about the subject i teach. (mode = 5, range = 2 5) |---------------------------------------------------------------------------3.75 5. i plan to use a concept attainment lesson with my students when teaching. (mode = 5, range = 1 5) |-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------4.17 6. i plan to use an inductive lesson with my students when teaching. (mode = 4, range = 1 5) |--------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.93 15 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 7. i plan to use computer technology with students when i teach. (mode = 3, range = 1 5) |-----------------------------------------------------------3.14 _______________________________________________________________________ in 2011 an evaluation form was given with a focus on implementation and potential use of the strategies in the teacher’s classroom. in figure 11 (above) the total average scores are shown for the five schools, based on responses from 29 teachers, with a range of six to ten teachers responding from each attendance site. a five-point scale was rating 1-never, 2-rarely, 3-sometimes, 4-usually and 5-always was used for each item based on anticipated use of the strategy. for item seven, when asked which program or tool teachers plan to use with their students, most stated a word processing program (n=7) including use of microsoft or openoffice including powerpoint use (n=3). six participants expressed interest in using e-books for student reference or science class. two teachers reported they will not use technology with students because they have not learned about computers or have an insufficent number for a classroom. for item eight teachers were directed to rank which cooperative learning strategies they will plan to use in their classroom. teachers responded with numerical rankings or use of x’s to indicate preferences. based on the evaluation the following strategies were identified from high to low based on the number of responses:  learning together (n=21)  think pair-share or say and switch ( n=16)  corners (n=15)  jigsaw (n=15)  grafitti (n=10)  use all (n=5)  use none (n=1). when asked to rate, on a five point scale, the quality and value of the staff development training seminar in helping to improve my teaching participant responses (n=29) ranged from three to five with an average rating of 4.55. the range of mean scores between the schools were from 4.4 to 4.8. when participans were asked to identify activities about the seminar or record other comments the following positive reponses were most frequently given:  use or learn techniques and demonstration of the different strategies, methodologies or tools (e.g., graphic organizers and models of teaching) (14 responses)  cooperative learning strategies (e.g., round robin, jig-saw and graffitti) (7 responses).  facilitator presentation and members participated to share ideas (e.g., lesson plan) (7 responses)  knowledge and use of computer applications (6 responses)  discussions with the teachers (2 responses). one participant identified specific activities like the risk-taker test, models of teaching, graphic organizers, learning guides, and the maasai reading as their favorite part of the seminar training. suggestions provided by attendees included the following comments:  offer the seminar each year (2 responses)  provide rewards or monetary support for the seminar (2 responses) 16 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012)  use of the methods with larger classes (1 response) on one evaluation the certificate was identified as a positive component of the seminar, with the group at manka insisting on having their pictures taken with the certificates in their hands. another class at dindimo were taking pictures of the facilitator handing them the certificate, which provides further support for the use of this document. regarding having the seminar in june one idea expressed was as follows: however, in the future conduct the seminar when the school is in session in the real classes in the presence of the facilitator. from each evaluation form the major response ideas were recorded from each participant (n=29). recommendations curriculum guide use (walsh 2012) were effective in reaching the desired goals, along with providing flexibility for use for participants based on variation in attendance and scheduling, strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa will need additional revisions prior to its reuse. in 2006 and 2008 recommendation for revisions to the manuscript were made with changes prior to the seminar given in 2011. in 2006 discussion topics of interest reported by particpants based on completion of the “survey about tanzania” were tanzania's health issues, i.e. hiv and malaria, economic development, education issues, subject content, government politics, improving infrastructure, impact of poverty and cultural influences. similar interest in these topics were substanciated from the survey given in 2011. topics were discussed using using cooperative learning strategies including graffiti. these topics of discussion should continue to be incuded in future seminar experiences. in 2008 kittelson, provided suggestions to improve program implementation and delivery. recommended changes in lesson activities made prior to use in 2011 included improvements in the “people bingo” activity, adding a lesson plan for learning strategies (i.e., graphic organizers, think alouds, and anticipation guide), including a technology lesson plan, shortening the maasai reading, and improvement to the “improve a town or village” exercise. the lesson plans were added for use in 2011, and should be included in future seminar delivery instructional plans including the use of technology. interest in the content and issues about the maasai reading have been found to be positive in the seminar, shown by participant engagement, discussions, and documentation of written responses in graffiti groups. recommendations made in 2008 to shorten the maasai reading resulted in assigning teachers two pages to read using the jigsaw cooperative learning sharing technique for 2011. the recommended vocabulary page is still needed, particularily for maasai terms identified in the article. the models of teaching strategies with examples have been found useful for teachers in 2006 and 2008. other subject examples were added as recommended including a concept attainment lesson on world geography comparing and contrasting tanzanian and iowa (u.s.) cultures. evaluation of other concept attainment examples should be considered in future manuscript revisions. walsh and kittelson also discussed the need to use the curriculum text in a flexible manner focusing on either developing english conversation skills of the participants or to provide greater emphasis on learning teaching strategies. this was evident in the differences 17 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) found among the teachers at the schools in their ability to speak english as a third language, followed by swahili and pare. since the guide was written to provide this dual purpose, and given the amount of activities available for use during this short seminar time period, providing instruction based on the needs of the teachers was easy to provide. the use of english was generally found to be strong when revising the schools in 2011. further revisions have been made to strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa following the 2011 seminar experience. technology use involving computer lab access was not available in 2006. at this time it was recommended when the window machines with tool software programs (i.e., word processing, spreadsheet and graphics), are made available consideration on how to integrate the use of technology with the seminar curriculum should be explored. in 2008 inroads to meeting this recommendation were made with the use of word processing to type lesson plans or template activities by teachers. teachers were also using spreadsheet and graphic programs. in 2011 use of these tool programs continued, using open courseware programs, i.e., openoffice and reference e-book materials. given an increase in technology use by teachers, computer use is still limited. due to these conditions, the following recommendations are suggested:  consistent reliable electricity availability made possible with a back-up power system (e.g., generator)  availability of a traveling technician to make repairs and trouble-shoot on a regular basis  ink cartridges with at least one workable printer for students and staff  staff development on the available software tool programs including reference e-book sources  training in the linux operating system including file management (e.g., saving to a user folder)  internet access using cell tower technology. the linux system appears to be a viable network system for the school. however, one or two full or part time staff members should be assigned to facilitate use of the lab with teachers and students. posting of procedural posters (see figure 8), like those at shighatini will provide support in use of the linux system for access to programs. having two trained teachers knowledgeable in the use of the linux system would be ideal in event one staff member leaves. conclusions based on the evaluation and feedback from seminar participants future staff development plans over a longer time period in english strategies and technology should be provided to the secondary dioceses schools, or at a training center like mwangaza in tanzania. since all five secondary schools have computer labs, consideration on how to integrate the use of technology with the seminar curriculum should be strengthened using the available open courseware tool programs and e-books. kittelson successfully integrated computer spreadsheet use with a survey activity provided to teachers at manka. if the schools can access the internet via cell tower technology in the future, additional opportunities to integrate the use of the guide with technology would be possible. given the current educational training level, turnover rates of staff at the dioceses schools, and the prevalent use of teaching using “chalk talk” lecture methods teachers will need 18 providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) to be provided staff development opportunities in order to collect a “toolbox” of teaching strategies for use with their students. other reasons for providing the seminar is to develop the english proficiency of the teachers and provide teaching strategies to move teachers beyond “chalk talk” note taking delivery methods of instruction. to improve seminar attendance considerations regarding scheduling (i.e., before students arrive or during) and meeting times will need to be based on preferences suggested by the teachers. evaluation of whether to provide the seminar in june during holiday break or july, when teachers are instructing students will need to be considered. incentives providing a stipend to teachers could be provided to improve attendance. staff members required to travel to another school site should also be provided a bonus stipend to cover bus or dali dali transport. if the five secondary schools are revisited they should allocate one instructor trainer per school or pairs of schools. this would permit more time for the teacher facilitator to remain at a location to develop stronger community and cultural ties with the people, understanding of the unique dynamics of the school, provide more scheduling flexibility including classroom visits using the strategies, and access for teachers to attend the seminar. the instructor could provide computer technology support and work with teachers to implement strategies with their students, if the seminar was offered during school term. a pastor at shighitini suggested providing another future seminar for people in the community to introduce or improve english conversation. future seminars using the guide could be provided to other secondary or primary schools in tanzania, or at a training center like mwangaza in tanzania. references about.com: african history. (2008). tanzania timeline: a chronology of key events in tanzania’s history. june 24, 2008 @ http://africanhistory.about.com/od/tanzania/l/bltanzania-timeline.htm balkcom, stephen. (1992). office of research education consumer guide cooperative learning. may 7, 2002 @ http://www.ed.gov/pubs/or?consumerguides/cooplear.html. bennett, b. rolheiser-bennett, c., and stevahn, l. (1991). cooperative learning: where heart meets mind. toronto, ontario: educational connections. foreign credits, inc. (2011). ministry of education and vocational training (moevt). may 7, 2012 @ http://www.classbase.com/countries/tanzania/education-system. johnson, d. w. and johnson, r. t. (1989). cooperation and competition: theory and research. edina, minnesota: interaction book company. johnson, d. w., johnson, r. t. and holubes, e. j. (1990). cooperation in the classroom (rev. ed.). edina, minnesota: interaction book company. joyce. b. and showers, b., rolheiser-bennett, c. (1987). a synthesis of research on models of http://africanhistory.about.com/od/tanzania/l/blhttp://africanhistory.about.com/od/tanzania/l/blhttp://www.ed.gov/pubs/or?consumerguides/cooplear.html 19 thomas e. walsh, jr. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) teaching. educational leadership 41 (1): 86-97. joyce, b. and showers, b.. (1991). information-processing models of teaching. aptos, california: booksend laboratories. lyman, l. and foyle, h. (1988). cooperative learning strategies and children. eric digest. may 7, 2002 @ http://www.cricae.net/edo/fd306003.htm. national language resource center. university of minnesota. (1999). second language learning strategies. may 7, 2002 @ http://earla.acad.umn.edu/strategies-bib.html. richards, j. c. and sandy, c. (2000). passages student book 2. united kingdom: cambridge university press. ross, elinor parry. (1998). pathways to thinking: strategies for developing independent learners k-8. norwood, ma : christopher-gordon publishers, inc. santa, c. m., havens, l., valdes, b. (2004). project criss creating independence through student-owned strategies. dubuque, iowa: kendall/hunt publishing company. slavin, robert. (1990). cooperative learning: theory, research and practice. englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. university of arizona learning environment conference. (2000). using cooperative learning groups. may 7, 2002 @ http://www.u.arizona.edu/ie/edtech/strategy.html. walsh, t. e. (2006). providing staff development in english language conversation and teaching strategies at five pare evangelical lutheran church of tanzania (elct) secondary schools in tanzania, africa. southeastern iowa synod evangelical lutheran church. http://www.seiasynod.org/walsh-report.html walsh, t. e. (2012). strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa. unpublished manuscript. walsh, t. e. and kittelson, g. (2008). providing a follow-up staff development in english language conversation and teaching strategies at five pare evangelical lutheran church of tanzania (elct) secondary schools in tanzania, africa. southeastern iowa synod evangelical lutheran church. http://www.seiasynod.org/walsh-report-2008.html yates, jean. master the basics english. (1996). new york: baron’s educational series, inc. http://earla.acad.umn.edu/strategies-bib.html http://www.seiasynod.org/walsh-report.html http://www.seiasynod.org/walsh-report-2008.html “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe sibonokuhle n. ndlovu university of cape town, south africa abstract this article is based upon research that was carried in a rural school in zimbabwe during the period 2010. the research problem in this study was the relationship in teaching, learning and cognitive development as elaborated by vygotsky’s socio-cultural framework. vygotsky argues that the socio-cultural context impacts significantly on the learner’s cognitive development. this study investigated specifically the aspect of the use of the language of teaching and learning (lotl) as an aspect that significantly influences teaching, learning and consequently cognitive development. this study was a response to vygotsky’s (1978) cautioning against neglecting to consider the underlying causes that can be influential factors in the socio-cultural context and considering only surface and obvious ones. thus, the study particularly examined the impact of the use of language in teaching and learning on learners’ cognitive development, using the vygotskian theoretical conception of language and thought, in a cultural context of rural zimbabwe schooling. a case study of one rural primary school has been used and data collection involved observation of classroom teaching and learning to find out how language is used and how learners respond during the learning process. the findings of the study were that teachers simultaneously use two language codes of english and native language of ndebele as the mixed language code. use of language this way is so as to help learners who are not the first speakers of english to understand concepts being taught in different subjects. however this has been found to have limitations in the development of both languages consequently impacting negatively on concept development and failure by learners to participate fully in learning activities. the paper contributes towards an understanding of the effects of the use of language on learners learning and cognitive development specifically and suggests ways in which teachers could effectively use language to assist their learners’ learning, cognitive development and understanding of concepts during learning. 2 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) introduction as elaborated from the vygotskian framework of understanding teaching, learning and development, the unique sociocultural context plays a significant role in influencing and shaping these experiences. from this lens therefore, this research was prompted by the desire to examine the impact of the use of language of teaching and learning (lotl) as the media through which the teacher and learner interact in the classroom. vygotsky (1978, p. 62) cautioned against neglecting the underlying causes as factors that may positively or negatively impact on teaching, learning and consequently cognitive development in learners. i considered language to be one such important factor that underlies development. this issue of lotl is the subject of a long standing debate in many different sociocultural contexts and remains an ongoing debate. in the context of rural south africa, teachers were found to revert to the home language spoken by the majority learners in order to help learners in the conceptualisation process. teachers also code switch from the learners’ home language to english and vice-versa (adler, 2001; muthivhi, 2008a). in all cases however, it could be said that where the use of two language codes is not properly and effectively applied, problems result, including loss of time and, more importantly, conceptual confusion on the part of learners. the specific case of a rural school in zimbabwe presented a uniquely african situation in as far as the use of language in the class room was concerned. the single school as a case study was adequate because of its unique socio-cultural context and deeper understanding of issues at stake. the ruralness of this school in concerning language use was to the extent that even educated community members communicated with their children in their home (mother) language. english language was an additional language for both teachers and learners. most learners, especially from impoverished families, experienced english for the first time when they came to school. teachers’ and learners’ home languages were ndebele, sotho, or venda, with ndebele being the dominant language. outside the classroom both learners and teachers communicated in their home languages. it was in the classroom that english was officially used for teaching and learning and in classroom reading and writing assignments. the language policy stated that from grades one to three, the home language of learners can be used as the language of teaching and learning (lolt) and from grades four to seven english should be used as lotl (language policy, 2004). the language policy was however later amended and it stated that the language amongst the three main languages of zimbabwe that is understood by the majority of learners at a school may be the language used as the medium of instruction or lolt in schools (the education amendment bill, 2006). this meant that shona, ndebele or english could be used as lolt. the national examinations for grade seven were administered in english for all subjects except for the home language as subject, which in this case was ndebele. textbooks were written in english for all subjects with the exception of ndebele language textbooks. the situation of language in this rural school presented a unique and contradictory situation from the start. first, the contradiction was policy versus the national examination. learners at national levels were examined in english while policy stated that the language understood by learners could be used as lolt. another contradictory situation was in terms of textbooks that were written in english for all subjects except for the subject of ndebele versus policy which stated that home languages of learners could be used as lolt for all subjects. thus the issue of lolt from the start presented a complicated situation for classroom teaching, learning, and development in this school. 3 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) theoretical framework the vygotskian language development theory generally relates to explaining the processes of human development, hence his general genetic law of development (vygotsky, 1978). intertwined with this development is the aspect of language which is also core within this framework for its relationship to cognitive development. this is because language and thought processes are found to develop together during the interaction processes. muthivhi (2008a, p. 27) argued that language, “ ... is not viewed as only a container of ideas and thoughts but, essentially, as an integral part of the content of human thoughts and ideas.” this highlights the language issue as an important aspect appropriated within the context of human development and thus important in informing issues that concern teaching and learning. in this article the aspect of language and its relationship to cognitive development is important for understanding the developmental consequences resulting from the use of lotl in a specific rural school. this is important because as vygotsky (1981) explained, language is a tool that facilitates thinking and hence is very important in the learning processes and in schooling as it influences the development of learners and the way they learn. vygotsky (1962; 1986) placed great importance on language as a facilitator for development because it is the psychological tool that differentiates man from animals. it is the most important psychological tool that man uses to develop higher mental functions. it is not only a reproducer but also a shaper of ideas. thus from the vygotskian conception language and thought processes are inseparable. language and thought develop along different paths at the beginning of a child’s life; however the two different paths later come together and emerge as one (vygotsky, 1962; 1986). this is further explained and elucidated by muthivhi (2008a) to mean that the early stages of the development of the child’s thought involve use of language as a tool for mastering the social world. according to vygotsky, the internalisation of these tools leads to the development of higher thinking skills. thus, the child then uses language for interacting with other people around him or her. later this transforms into inner speech where the child uses language to self regulate his or her behaviour and thought processes. this is the process bruner (1985) explains as: language is mastered at first in collaboration with an adult or more competent peer solely with the objective of communicating. once mastered sufficiently in this way, it can then become internalised and serve under conscious control as a means of carrying out inner speech dialogues. (p. 25) luria in agreement with vygotsky (1962) also understood thought processes to be mediated by language. he argued that words themselves become tools for formulating abstractions and generalisations that facilitate the transition from unmediated sensory reflection to mediated rational thinking (luria, 1979, p. 49). this further confirms the theoretical understanding that the child first uses language to understand the world around him or her and later transforms from this and uses language in generalisations that mediate his or her thought processes. vygotsky further explained that the relation of thought to word is not a simple instantaneous event but a process, a continued movement back and forth. in that process the relation of thought to word undergoes changes which itself may be regarded as development in the functional sense (vygotsky, 1962, p. 125). this means that when there is no such process of relation of word and thought developmental changes are limited. it is therefore through the psychological tool of language that man transforms his thought processes from lower 4 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) mental functioning to higher psychological functioning. the conceptual background of the processes involved in the relation between language and thought was important for this study. it informed the researchers’ understanding of the implications for the language use in classroom teaching and learning. this thought and language process has a significant bearing on learners’ learning and their development. taking language and thought further, it is in formal schooling and specifically in classroom teaching and learning that the way language is used determines the promotion of cognitive development in learners and how they learn. this comes about through the process of mediation through the tool of language, a process that enables transformation from other regulation to self regulation. wertsch’s (1979) language game best illustrates the process of using language to help learners to transform from one level of development to the other, that is, from other regulation to self-regulation. where the learner is able to use language to monitor himself and use it to solve tasks; a level where language and thought are unified. wertsch discusses how adults can mediate in the zone of proximal development (zpd) of children and assist them in using language to solve tasks. vygotsky (1978) defines the zone of proximal development: the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by individual problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (p. 86) the actual level of development refers to those functions that have matured in a child, enabling him or her to solve problems on his or her own. potential development refers to those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturing. in other words there are two levels of development in a child, the first and second level of development. when functions at the first level have matured the child is able to solve problems on his or her own. on the second level of development, the functions have not yet matured. they are in the process of maturing. they enable the child to solve problems with assistance from an adult or others more knowledgeable on this level than the child. the zone of proximal development is the space between these developmental levels. it is where learning occurs. wertsch’s game involves mothers and their pre-school children of two years and above constructing a copy of a cargo truck through the use of a model. this problem solving task involved the mothers regulating their children’s thought processes to a point where the children reached a level where they did not need their mothers’ assistance anymore in solving the task. this means that language was used successfully as a tool to move the child to the independent level of thinking. there were four successive levels that were identified from other-regulation to selfregulation in the processes of the puzzle building tasks. at the first level the children’s understanding of the task and the interpretation of their mothers’ utterances were very limited. to express lack of understanding at this level, holzman and newman (1993, p. 68) reported that in wertsch (1985) one child of two and a half years old referred to the wheels of the truck as crackers. the mother agreed that they looked like crackers but were wheels that were supposed to make the truck. the child did not immediately take to that until the mother introduced the word circle. the child agreed that wheels were circles and mother and child continued their joint activity. this illustrates that the mother continued to mediate at the level above the child (zpd) until the child developed the concept of wheels as circles. 5 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) at the second level the task situation is better understood by the child. wertsch (1985) argued that at this stage the child begins to develop a definition of the situation. at the third level the child is capable of adequately functioning within the other-regulation stage. the child is capable of making all the inferences needed to interpret an adult’s directives to formulate a definition of the situation. at this level inferences made by the child, although still carried out at inter-psychological level, indicate that self regulation is beginning to account for much of the child’s performance. transition from other regulation to selfregulation is underway at this level. at the fourth level transition from other-regulation to self-regulation is completed. wertsch observed that at this level the child enters into an “egocentric speech” that he uses to self-regulate himself in the task situation. this is the stage where language as part of communication and language as a self-monitoring tool emerge together, making language and thought processes one. the table below summarise the levels of the child during interaction. table 1. levels of achievement of the child during interaction within the zpd level achievement levels of the child 1 the child’s understanding of the task and interpretation of the mother’s utterances is very limited. 2 the child begins to develop a definition of the task. 3 the child adequately functions within the other-regulation and self-regulation begins to take place. 4 the child enters the egocentric speech and the transition is completed. the child uses speech to selfregulates himself in the task situation. the four successive levels therefore indicate stages that the child goes through in the process of mediation through language to reach the independent level of operation. this is the level where thought and language are unified, so the child is able to solve cognitive problems on his own. the stages of language development above relate to pre-school children, interacting with their mothers in a task situation as given by wertsch. extending on language development for children at school level is muthivhi (2008a) who studied the use of venda language as lotl to grade one learners in south african. the teacher was using the venda language to teach nouns as discrete “parts of speech.” muthivhi observed that the learners were not able to distinguish between the concept of noun and the spontaneous concept of name. this showed that the lotl as used in learning was not able to make learners understand word meaning as part of the formal system of knowledge. this was because there was no difference in the use of lotl as a system of knowledge in formal school learning from its everyday spontaneous use. the learners’ learning was characterised by guessing, showing that even as venda was the learners’ home language, the teacher was not adequately using it to make them understand the concept of nouns that was taught. approaching the language issue from another angle is piaget (1957). popularly known for classifying development in stages, piaget also locates language development within stages of chronological ages of learners. he states that during the sensory-motor stage, a period of the first two years of life, a child acquires the basic functions of language. at the preoperational stage, a period from two years to seven years, a child learns the difference between the written and the spoken word. after seven years, the stage is the concrete and formal operational. the child begins to learn more complex terms and his language learning becomes complete. from understanding language development in stages and according to the 6 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) chronological ages of learners, the concrete and formal operational stage, which is the age levels of grade one to seven learners, was the main concern of the study. for this article, wertsch’s language game, muthivhi’s study on lolt in venda, and piaget’s classification of language development according to stages and chronological ages of learners, were useful in understanding language use in this particular case. this theoretical framework helped to explain how teachers were mediating learning to the learners using the particular lotl and at what levels were they mediating learning. this understanding, as informed by the above authors, was also important in terms of the observation of the interaction process using the lotl and how learners responded. this enabled the analysis of whether or not the mediation and interaction processes using language were generative to maximum learner cognitive development and effective learners’ learning. language use in teaching and learning is a very complicated issue because language generally and lolt in particular may also be influenced and interfered with by the sociocultural context of schooling. for example, school specific concepts often differ in meaning from the way they are understood in the local context. this might have negative developmental consequences for learners as muthivhi (2008b) explained: the mode of language use that children encounter in their communities and in their homes, would subsequently, be integrated by the child into his or her own mode of using language for communicating with others and, more crucially, for communicating with herself her own actions-including the actions of thinking and problem-solving. (p. 26-27) in essence, when differences exist between the way language is used at home and in the community at large and the way it is used in the classroom during teaching and learning of school specific concepts, this also has implications on the way the learner communicates with herself and the actions of thinking and problem-solving. this language dilemma was also explained by cole, et al. (1971) that it has adverse repercussion for learners’ learning and development as confusion in concept formation is experienced. explicating this language dilemma, cole explained that in the kpelle language of liberia for example, the word for medicine as used in the community has a wider range of meaning than the equivalent english term. this means that when teaching about medicine as a school specific scientific concept, it is important that the learners’ cultural concept of a term is taken into account. if this is not considered then the school specific concept of the term will be lost. this is because of the interference of language as part of culture and how it is used to refer to terms in the locality. furthermore, difference is experienced when language is used in its local context and when it is used in formal schooling in terms of purpose. when used in the local context, language is mainly for communication purposes whereas when used in the context of classroom teaching and learning, it is part of the knowledge system. in other words, it can be argued that when language is used in the local context of the learners, expressions are in the form of everyday, spontaneous forms of learning. this contrasts with formal learning, as in the classroom experience of teaching and learning, where the expression takes the higher systematised form of learning, as in the acquisition of scientific concepts. explaining this variance of the use of language in the context of formal schooling and in the out of school context vygotsky (1987) stated: 7 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) the child learns word meanings in certain forms of school instruction not as a means of communication but as a part of a system of knowledge. this learning occurs not through direct experience with things or phenomena but through words. (p. 27) the above is what muthivhi (2008b) explained that: language development in everyday life situation differs in fundamental ways from when it develops during the activities of formal school teaching and learning. language in the latter situation is used more deliberately and is mainly a subject for its own reflection. learners learn to look back, for example on the validity, accuracy, and adequacy or otherwise of their statements and answers to the questions and problems of the learning tasks, and as a result, probe their own thoughts expressed in and through language. (p. 27) in essence, how language is used in the context of formal schooling, in classroom teaching and learning, should bridge the gap between the two contexts of learning it as does in the procedures involved between transitions from everyday-spontaneous functioning to abstractscientific functioning. thus, if the way language is used in classroom teaching is not different from the way it is used in everyday situation in the locality, it would not do much in promoting learners’ ways of learning and cognitive development. the case study of a rural school in zimbabwe involved a socio-cultural context in which the learners’ and teachers’ different home languages were different from the official english language, which according to the previous language policy (language policy, 2004), was to be used as lolt. this implies that differences in meanings of terms between home languages and the english language were to be expected as there is no one to one correspondence in the meanings of terms in between different languages. the difference between home language and language that learners use at school already poses a problem in the way language might be used in the classroom. the problem posed by the situation of language in this school relates to language as used more deliberately and being a ‘subject of its reflection’ as muthivhi argued. the chances of language being used in this way were slim at this rural school. the way language is used in teaching and learning also determines how learners acquire concepts and how they participate in their learning. the experience of dilemma of language use in terms of determining how learners acquire concepts and how they learn was described by vygotsky (1962; 1986) when he presented an experiment that was conducted by tolstoy. in this experiment as described by vygotsky (1962): tolstoy was attempting to teach literacy language to peasant children by first translating their own vocabulary into the language of folktales, then translating the language of folktales into literary russian. he found that one could not teach literary language by artificial explanations, compulsive memorisation, and repetition. (p. 83) the use of lolt as described above can be likened to code-switching from one language to the other, a form of language use most prevalent in the rural south african context. in the above excerpt, tolstoy attempted to help learners understand language as used in the learners’ socio-cultural context and as used in the official russian context at school. the experiment also shows that the learning methods involved memorisation and repeating after the teacher. in the results of his experiment tolstoy, as described by vygotsky (1962), stated: 8 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) we have to admit that we attempted several times to do this and always met with an invisible distaste on the part of the children, which shows that we were on the wrong track. these experiments left me with the certainty that it is quite impossible to explain the meaning of the word using another word. when you explain any word, the word “impression” for instance, you put in its place another equally incomprehensible word, or a whole series of words, with the connection between them as incomprehensible as the word itself. (p. 83) from the results of the experiment as given by the experimenter, tolstoy’s use of language that involved translating terms from one language to the other or as used from one socio-cultural context to the other proved to not be beneficial to learners as might have been expected. learners’ learning methods that involved memorisation and repeating after the teacher also proved not useful in helping in the development of learners as was envisioned. this experiment illustrates the difficulties of classroom language use and the negative implications this might have on learners’ learning and their cognitive development when it is not their home language. vygotsky’s theoretical framework on language learning and learners’ development is useful in illuminating the analysis and discussion on whether the particular use of language in the classroom as lolt in the zimbabwe rural school case study promoted learners’ learning and development or not. methodology a case study of a rural school in zimbabwe was used to examine the use of language in classroom teaching and learning. in this particular school the classes ran in double streams, a and b streams respectively. the classes had an average of 40 learners for each grade, one to seven. observation and interview methods were used to collect data. these were completed twice during the year, as the preliminary and main observations. the researcher sat in a number of classrooms and observed how teachers used language in their lessons and how learners of slow, average and above average levels responded. during the preliminary observation which was the whole month of february in 2010, i observed both grades one a and b, three a and b, four a and b, and five a and b classes. the main observation was three months long, from august to october. thus, both during the preliminary and the main observation period, i sat and observed twelve classes. the grade one classes were observed during the preliminary and main observation periods. the teachers for these classes were school administrators. the grade six classes were not observed because the teachers of these classes did not volunteer to be observed. the same teachers who were observed during teaching were interviewed as follow up to what was observed during teaching and learning. this allowed individual teachers to explain why they used language the way they did. the observation and interview methods used enabled the gathering of data that was useful in understanding how language was used in classroom teaching and learning and the impact this had on learners’ learning, their cognitive development and concept formation. data collected was analysed using theoretically informed interpretations and discussed using the vygotskian theoretical framework on language and thought. findings 9 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) in every classroom that was observed teachers used a code-mix of two languages, the ndebele, which is the home language of the majority of learners in the school and most of the teachers, and english language which is the official language for teaching and learning according to the previous policy (language policy, 2004). these two languages were not used in the sense of code-switching from one language to the other within other socio-cultural contexts in south africa. it was a new language use experience where the two languages of ndebele and english were mixed together in a single sentence, resulting in a sentence of mixed codes. the extract below is of a grade seven science lesson showing how all the teachers used the mixed language code of ndebele and english and how learners were responding in their learning. date of observation: 12 october 2010 lesson: environmental science topic: the human heart. (science textbooks were given out and learners started opening them……) teacher: (close those books ayaliphambanisa) close those books they are confusing you. (we are talking about a pump. is there anyone who knows ukuthi impompi kuyini?) is there anyone who knows what a pump is? we use it every day. (you use it everyday uma limpotshelwe zimota, liyayisebenzisa uma limpotshelwe ngamabhasikili.) you use it every day when cars have punctures, when bicycles have punctures). (who can tell me ukuthi impompi kuyini?). who can tell me what a pump is? (demonstrating pumping with his hands) learner: (hesitating) yimpompi, it’s a pump. teacher: ye, yimpompi. what do you use impompi for? yes, it’s a pump, what do you use the pump for? learners: (no response) teacher: (repeats the question) isebenzani i-pump? what is the work of the pump? learner: (unsure) iyampompa, it pumps. teacher: yes, what happens is that impompi iya-puller umoya; yes what happens is that the pump pulls the air. (demonstrating). nxa umpompa uyabi-releaser umoya. when you pump it releases the air. namhla sizakhuluma about a different form of pump, a natural pump called a heart. today we are going to talk about another form of a pump called a heart. according to you, ucabanga ukuthi kuyini i-heart?. according to you what do you think a heart is? learner: inhliziyo (a heart) teacher: yes, inhliziyo. inhliziyo is a very important pump in our bodies. yiyo eyenza uthole i-blood enyaweni lwakho, uthole i-blood ekhanda. yes, the heart is a very important pump in our bodies. it is the one that makes you get blood in 10 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) your feet, in your head and in every part of the body. it’s the one eyenza uthole igazi. it’s the one that makes you get blood in every part of your body. nxa iheart itshaya laphana isithi tha, tha, that, sithi yikutshaya kwenhliziyo. if the heart is beating, tha, tha, tha, we get what we call heart-beat .say heart-beat. class: (chorusing) heartbeat. teacher: (kuyini iheartbeat?) what is the heart-beat? learners: (no response) teacher: i-heart-beat isitshela the rate at which the heart is pumping. the heart beat tells the rate at which the blood is pumping blood (writing the statement on the board). teacher: there are places emzimbeni lapho esikwanisa ukuyibona, siyizwe iheart-beat. there are places in our bodies where we can see and feel the heartbeat. where are those places in the body lapho esithola khona i-heartbeat? where do we find those places in the body? edwin! learner: (edwin) here (pointing to beginning of the palm of his hand). teacher: yes, lapha hantsho. here isn’t it? (also points to the palm his hand) where else? learners (no answer) teacher: there is the most important place lapho etshaya khona kuzwakale kungaphi? there is the most important place where the heart beat is felt, where is it? learners: (no response) teacher: esifubeni, isn’t it? in the chest, isn’t it? (observation: 12 october 2010) the code mixing, in the excerpt above, was common in all classes that were observed and it was in this same way that learners were responding, giving one word answers, short phrases and sometimes not responding totally when a question was posed. learners were giving one word or short phrase answers to the teachers’ questions both in english and ndebele. the teachers accepted one word or short phrase answers; they did not encourage the learners to say the sentences in full both in ndebele and in english. this kind of methodology has negative impact on language development. this is because learners will not learn to develop complete sentence structures for each language. this will lead to poor communication, lack of confidence in manipulating and expressing themselves and consequently a lag in cognitive development. below is a 11 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) table summarising how language was used in selected classrooms from grades one to seven in the school and how learners responded in each class. table 2. language of teaching and learning and of learners’ responses date grade area of learning and topic language of teaching and learning one word/short responses in ndebele one word/short response in english sentence response in ndebele or english 23 feb 2010 5 religious studies: jesus’ friends ndebele & english 4 3 nil 26 feb 2010 1 english: sounds, words and sentences ndebele & english 7 7 7 sentences in english 12 oct 2010 7b science: the human heart ndebele & english 8 7 nil 21 oct 2010 2a religious studies: forgiveness ndebele & english 4 4 nil as already highlighted, the ‘code-mix’ language use due to english as the lolt presented a new dimension of language use in classroom teaching and learning. this type of language use is different from other studies that examined the use of english south african socio-cultural contexts. in this case the official language code of english was mixed together in one sentence with the ndebele language code. this is a new version of lolt that was used in this specific rural context of schooling in zimbabwe. mixing the two languages codes however can complicate or impede language development in learners. this is because neither of the two languages is properly promoted in the process of learning. this was evident in the lessons observed as learners responded with one-word answers and short phrases in both the ndebele and english languages. this even occurred at grade seven levels, where learners are expected, in developmental terms, to communicate in full sentences (table 2). there were eight one-word and short phrase responses in english and seven in ndebele respectively in the grade seven lesson. in both the grade five and seven lessons, there were no responses from learners to teachers’ questions in full sentences in either ndebele or english. teachers in both grade five and seven classes accepted one word and short phrases from learners and did not encourage full sentences either in ndebele or english. the grade one learners, who responded in english sentences, were in fact repeating these sentences after their teacher in the matching exercises. the general trend in all grade five and seven classes was that the average and above average learners responded in phrases. slow learners gave a one-word answer to the questions. responding in one-word and short phrases, especially at grade five and seven levels was an indication that learners had problems with explicitly expressing themselves in both of the two languages. this was because one-word or short phrase responses came from learners in both english, which was not the home language of learners, and in ndebele, their home language. this demonstrated that the use mixed coding with these languages produced complications for learners’ in their use of language in learning. thus, this language use situation had negative developmental consequences for learners. 12 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) from follow-up interviews, it emerged that the reason teachers were using language in a mixed-code of the children home language and the official language of english was to help learners to understand concepts that were taught. the argument was that exclusive use of english language would result in lack of misunderstanding of the concepts as english was not the learners’ home language and learners were only exposed to english at school. the interview excerpt with a grade five teacher below attests: interviewer: you were using a mixture of english and ndebele languages in your teaching. what explanation can you give about that? teacher: the mission of language, in reality for the grade five’s, we are suppose to use english. then the mother language should come where you find that learners do not understand what you are talking about. but then if you noted, i was doing a mix of languages because had i used english only throughout, at the end i would be talking to myself. so that problem i talked about that there was no learning for quite some time, it killed the children. interviewer: but there is a situation where the subject has terms for its concepts in which one cannot use another language for them. if you use another language, that concept is lost, what do you do to make up for that? teacher: yaa, i understand because in english they say there is no one to one correspondence with other words. you may find that you can explain the concept in english and is understood by an english speaker, but when you bring it to our african tradition; you find we don’t have that concept. but then in explaining it, unless you show them that here is what i am talking about. like the tax-collector is something like the messenger of a local chief. we don’t have them now. even if you say it is someone who collects taxes, children do not know about taxes. so you just hope it would end up being understood as you continue teaching. (teacher interview, 2010) in the interview the teacher explained that if he were to teach using only english he might find himself speaking alone as learners are lost in their attempts to understand him. he understands that english has no one-to-one correspondence with words in ndebele. for example, the word “tax collector” in the story he presented in his lesson was difficult to explain to learners. even if he had used a ndebele term related or similar to it, such as “chief’s messenger,” that would still pose problems because children did not know about chief’s messengers and taxes. when the researcher brought up the problem of teaching concepts translated directly from english to ndebele, the teacher acknowledged the contradiction that some concepts in english may only be understood by mother tongue english speakers because they are not found in the african context. here the teacher raises a pertinent issue related to the contradictory conditions of schooling in zimbabwe, namely the difficulty of translating concepts which apply to everyday life conditions in essentially western socio-cultural settings into a rural african socio-cultural setting. here the teacher argues that his learners may find it difficult to comprehend a concept such as tax collection or tax collector, which has little practical bearing on or relevance to their particular rural socio-cultural setting. he claims that 13 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) he might want to use a potentially similar concept, one pertinent to the socio-cultural context of the learners, that of chief’s messenger. by doing this, he hopes that learners were able to understand the target concept through appropriate contextualisation. the teacher is however aware of the inherent contradiction as he notes that “we don’t have messengers now.” this suggests that even the traditional ndebele lifestyle is fast disappearing, with examples such as “chief’s messenger” also becoming unfamiliar to today’s children as this role no longer exists. discussion in the classroom situation, language development occurs in the same manner as it does between the mother and child in the interaction game by wertsch previously described. the role of the teacher is as that of the mother in probing and prompting the learners in a manner that facilitates independent functioning. independent functioning of learners as probed and prompted by the teacher should enable learners to make meaningful construction in the learning process. this therefore becomes a reciprocal process whereby the teacher as the “more knowledgeable other” facilitates while learners in turn make meaningful constructions that develop their language acquisition, thought processes and problem solving skills. when teachers in this school used the mixed language code in their lessons, it was determined that this method created limitations on the part of learners. in response to teachers’ questions learners gave one word or short phrase answers both in ndebele and english. the teacher did not encourage learners to respond in complete sentences, but accepted one word answers and short phrases given as correct answers by learners. this suggested that learners had limitations in the use of both languages to effectively communicate and express themselves in full sentences during their learning. this would have long term negative implications on learners’ further learning. they would not be able to express themselves in interviews for work nor would they effectively engage in debates or discussions in their future lives. after teaching about a human heart in a science lesson the grade seven teacher asked a question in mixed code, “who knows what a pump is?” a learner responded in a short statement that “it’s a pump” in ndebele. since the learner responded in such a short statement in ndebele, it is unclear whether the learner understood the whole question asked in the mixed language code or if he understood the question by identifying the ndebele words that he understood. this leaves the issue of conceptual clarity in teaching and learning unclear. also when a learner at grade seven level gives a short statement for an answer, it is evident that language use, as implemented in this lesson, did not demonstrate the development of a system of knowledge in learners. thus the learners could not explicitly use either language to express ideas as required and expected in formal schooling. therefore mixed code language use in this context did not significantly contribute to learners’ learning and cognitive development. explaining the relationship of learning in first and second language learning, vygotsky argued that the home language of learners lays a foundation for the learning of the second language. this means teachers should initially use the learners’ home language to teach concepts so that it lays foundation for the learning of the second language which is english. in the case, where the two languages were simultaneously used, it implies that there was no foundation laid for the learning of the second language for learners. at the same time the experiences of learners using solely their first language in response to teachers’ mixed codes were also limited in their ability to learn the two languages at the same time. from the vygotskian theory on how language and thought are both pre-requisites for the development 14 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) of each, this means that the learners were not only losing out in language development, but also in thought processes since thought and language are inseparable. vygotsky argued extensively to explain how language and thought are inseparable. he explained that acquisition of abstract-scientific concepts, a highly systematised way of acquiring school knowledge, requires explicit linguistic use (vygotsky, 1962). the way language was used for teaching and learning in this case study did not facilitate the development of abstractscientific functioning as evidenced by the way learners used language in learning. this had negative developmental consequences for cognitive development and the way of learning for learners. as the mixed language code was used during classroom teaching and learning, there was minimal learner-participation on the part of learners. this was manifested by total nonresponses to teachers’ questions by learners that were experienced in all classes observed except the grade one class. as illustrated in the wertsch language game, using language to support a pre-schooler to move from inter-psychological functioning to intra-psychological involved interaction between the pre-school learner and mother. in this case there were several times when there was no interaction between teacher and learners as learners failed to respond to teachers’ probing. this suggests that the movement from inter-psychological to intra-psychological functions that occurs through use of language was in stagnation in these learners. this results in delayed development consequences for learners cognitively. it also deprives the learners of active participation in their learning that serves to promote and facilitate cognitive development. there were problems regarding literary translation of concepts from one language to the other during the use of mixed language code. during this time concepts were lost to learners instead of being understood better as it was envisioned. for example, the grade five teacher failed to effectively bring the concept of tax-collector to learners because there was no one-to-one correspondence for the term “tax-collector” in english and in ndebele. as experienced by cole, et al. (1971), complications arise when the meaning of terms in formal school learning are different from meaning of the terms as used in local context of learners. in the context of the kpele community of liberia for example, the term “medicine” was difficult to explain to learners because in the local community the term had conceptual meaning that was different from its use in formal learning. this means that if a teacher uses the home language of learners to explain the term, it may present a different concept altogether when taught in english. with such terms and such experiences in communities, a mixed language code would cause even more confusion in conceptualisation. this confusion may be realized to a serious extent in the case where two language codes are consistently used as this further complicates the meanings of terms. the evidence of this grave implication of the use of two languages simultaneously in terms of concept formation is experienced differences found in the use of terms in the local context compared to their use in formal schooling. the grade five teacher, for example, had problems in explaining the term “tax collector” explicitly to learners because of this. there was a gap between the use of the term in the locality and the experience of learners with the term. at the end of the day, learners would not be able to probe their own thoughts as expressed in and through the language (muthivhi, 2008b). lack of probing of own thoughts as expressed in and through language because of lack of term-correspondence and variance of language as used in the locality compared in formal schooling results in negative developmental consequences. negative development consequences might include, among others, poor expression in both local and official language resulting from literal translations, 15 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) or lack of problem-solving skills both in the locality and at school due to the inability to probing one’s thoughts. this inhibits reflection on the part of learners. thus the learners’ thought processes of these particular learners lag behind due their inability to understand terms used during classroom teaching and learning. the concept of zone of proximal development (zpd) as a factor for the promotion of development and facilitation of an effective learners’ way of learning, from muthivhi’s (2008b) perspective dictates that language acquisition and its use follows the same procedure as that involved in the acquisition of everyday spontaneous concepts and scientific functions. as applied to the zimbabwe case study, the simultaneous use of two languages in this school did not enable learning to be pegged at the zpd of learners to promote their development. this is because the home language of ndebele was already acquired by learners, meaning that the aspect of language in which the home language of ndebele was used to explain terms, had already matured in learners and did not help learners in development. their learning english as a foreign language is the language that had not matured in learners. this in turn played a role in the development of learners and their way of learning. however this was not adequate as the other aspect of language was expressed in ndebele language which had already matured in learners, thus zpd of learners was not fully utilised. as explained in the wertsch’s language, development in the child was only promoted and facilitated when the mother mediated at the level above the child’s level of development, that is, at the child’s zpd. in the case of the specific school, lack of mediation at the zpd of learners was due to the use of the two languages, one that was already acquired and matured in learners as their home language and english as an additional language simultaneously. that is tantamount to using languages at a spontaneous level, which is only for communication and not as a system of knowledge. using lotl in that way does not contribute significantly to the learners’ learning and development. recommendations for improvement for learners to develop language competence and effectively use it to learn and express themselves clearly in classroom activities, teachers could initially use the children’s home language to lay the foundation for learning english. vygotsky’s emphasis on the role of a home language in the acquisition of a second language was mentioned as the role played by the home language in providing the foundation for the learning of a second language (vygotsky, 1986). the reason for this is that word meanings are already developed in the home language. to help learners develop language competence for school learning, teachers could reorganise their lolt in such a way as to start with using the learners’ home language without mixing it with english. when learners have mastered the basics of the second language, english, then english language can be gradually introduced and ultimately used as the lolt. for the above to be effectively implemented in the school where the study was carried out and the zimbabwean rural schools generally, teachers should abide by the previous policy (language policy, 2004) which stated that learners should be taught in their home language from grades one to three and english should be introduced at grade four levels. this policy of language is most appropriate if language use is to improve in this case school and in zimbabwean schools generally. this policy is consistent with the vygotskian theory that home language provides the foundation for the foreign language. when learners at grade four are then taught in english, they will learn it effectively as the home language in the previous grades has laid the foundation for its learning. when learners get to grade seven levels they 16 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) could then successfully complete the national examination presented in english with the exception of shona and ndebele subjects. again rather than code mixing the languages, teachers should code switch from one language to the other for slow learners. english should be used exclusively for those learners who are above average learners so that they develop english language skills beginning the early grades. they might have problems at first but would later adjust to learning in english. this would allow them to develop english language competencies that are necessary to write the national examinations. from the studies carried out in south africa on language use (adler, 2001; muthivhi, 2008b) code switching, if done appropriately and skilfully has a positive potential to improve classroom teaching and learning, although further research on its viability and effectiveness is still necessary. thus, if code switching rather than codemixing can be tried out in this zimbabwe school, it might go a long way to improving the quality of classroom learning activities in the school. again when teachers use the first language of learners, this aligns with the amended language policy that allows them to use the home language of learners as lotl (education amendment bill, 2006). using the home languages of learners would build a strong foundation for the learning of english. as vygotsky explained that the home language lays the foundation for the acquisition of a foreign language. support with regards to using home language of learners in classroom teaching and learning, is already in place as the minister of education stated that the ministry of education for the first time is planning to have textbooks printed for the ‘marginalised’ indigenous languages, such as kalanga, tonga, nambia and sesotho. this means that for the first time textbooks for those languages are produced for school use (hansard, 2010). the statement by the minister suggests a positive prospect for language learning as textbooks would be provided in the different home language of learners. the provision of textbooks in home language would thus support the use of home language of learners which presently is difficult, especially for learners which ndebele is not their home language, but rather sesotho or venda. this change holds promise for improved language learning in other schools besides the zimbabwe case study. these are schools where the home languages of learners include a range of minor languages like tonga, khalanga or bemba. conclusion this article discussed the language use in the case of a rural school in zimbabwe, and how this had negative developmental consequences for learners. the teachers used a mixed code of the learners’ home language of ndebele and the foreign language of english. english was identified as new language in its use as the lolt as it was not previously used or experienced in other’ socio-cultural contexts in zimbabwe. language mixed code use in the classroom developed because teachers thought it was a way to help learners understand concepts, since english was not their first language. it was found however that the use of mixed language code for teaching and learning had unintended negative developmental consequences for learners. using language this way did not help the development of both the ndebele language, the home language of learners and english, the foreign language. this was evidenced when learners gave one word answer or short phrase answers in both ndebele and english when they responded to teachers’ answers. this occurred because home language was not used as a foundation on which to teach english as a foreign language as explained by vygotsky (1962; 1986). the use of the two languages on a horizontal basis made it impossible for one language to be the foundation 17 sibonokuhle n. ndlovu __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) of the other. this resulted in learners failing to explicitly use either language to express themselves in their learning. this had adverse negative consequences for the communication skills in learners as it resulted in limitations in areas where self expression is required, such as in interviews and debate circles. again this kind of language use hindered learners’ active participation in their learning. lack of active participation in learning had negative developmental consequences in that learners had to rely solely on teachers for information. lack of active participation again on the part of learners negatively affected their development as they did not experience learning at the zpd because such interaction with teachers was necessarily limited due to mixed code teaching. this inhibited the students’ development of thought processes that occur through mediation using the psychological tool of language. again through the process of imitating their teachers, learners may develop a communication system where they also code-mix the two languages together in spoken or written language. this would have adverse effects as code-mixing of two languages may contradict linguistic principles and laws. this further confuses students’ attempts to learn either language to the point of mastery. on a positive note, when code mixing is used for teaching and learning, the issue of time factor, whereby there is loss of teaching time as concepts are first taught in one language and then the other, is not experienced. this is because the teacher does not need to continuously repeat himself in either of the two languages. from the findings therefore it can be concluded that code mixing as in the simultaneous use of the home language of learner and english for classroom instruction has developmental limitations on learners’ learning and their cognitive development. this may be compared with other multi-language use experiences in different socio-cultural contexts within south african. it may be argued that the implementation of mixed code language use developed as a result of the contradictions experienced in schooling lolt regulations and consequently demonstrated a negative impact on english language use as a medium of instruction. while the new amended policy (education policy amendment, 2006) stated that the home language of learners can be used, examinations at grade seven are exclusively in english except in the subject of shona and ndebele. this ambiguity led to mixed code language use as teachers understood that if they exclusively taught in learners’ home language, it would hurt students at grade seven level when they take the national exam. therefore this awkward language use may be viewed as an outcome of the contradictions in school policy and implementation in zimbabwe. the vygotskian theory on language development is applicable to the zimbabwean context. it is could be used to inform the design of the curriculum and language policy. for example, as guidance in understanding the relationship between learning a foreign language and home language could result in the expansion of language lessons that better prepare students for the grade seven national exam. thus the vygotskian theory is useful to the zimbabwean context through these recommended curriculum adjustments that would make it useful to the learners in question. this language use change would also consider zimbabwe’s unique context including its various ethno-linguistic based traditions and constructs. references adler, j. (2001). teaching mathematics in multilingual classroom. london: kluwer academic publishers. 18 “to think so as to speak” the influence of the language of teaching and learning on thought processes: the case of a rural primary school in zimbabwe __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) bruner, j. (1985), vygotsky; a historical and conceptual perspective. in j.v. wertsch (ed.), culture, communication and cognition: vygotskian perspectives, (pp. 21-34), cambridge, cambridge university press. cole, m. & gay, j. (1971). the cultural context of learning and thinking: exploration experimental ant. new york, basic books. government of zimbabwe, (1984). language policy. harare, zimbabwe: government printers. government of zimbabwe, (2006). education amendment bill. harare, zimbabwe: government printers. holzman, l. & newman, f. (1993). lev vygotsky: revolutionary scientist. london: routledge. luria, a.r. (1979). the making of mind, cambridge, mass: harvard university press. ministry of education, (3 march, 2010). hansard, parliamentary debate [david coltart’s official website post], retrieved from: http://davidcoltart.com/?p=2151. muthivhi, a. e. (2008a), socio-cultural case study of the schooling system in venda, south africa. (unpublished thesis). university of the witwatersrand, johannesburg, south africa. muthivhi, a. e. (2008b). language policy, classroom practice and concept learning in a grade one tshivenda classroom, southern african review of education. 14(3), 2335. piaget, j. (1954). the construction of reality in the child. new york, basic books. vygotsky, l. s. (1962). thought and language. massachusetts: miti press. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge: mass, harvard university press. vygotsky, l. s. (1981). the genesis of higher mental functions. in j.v. wertsch (ed.). the concept of activity in soviet psychology. new york: sharpe. vygotsky, l. s. (1986). thought and language. (rev. ed.). cambridge, ma: harvard university press. wertsch, j. v. (1979). from social interaction to higher psychological processes, in human development, 22(1), 1-22. wertsch, j. v. (1985). vygotsky and the social formation of mind. cambridge ma: harvard university press. http://davidcoltart.com/?p=2151 editors-note editorial note global teacher education initiatives, sustainable development and poverty alleviation strategies in africa. greetings to all scholars and researchers! you are welcome to the maiden issue of the african journal of teacher education, a publication of spread corporation (canada) in this first outing by ajote, you’ll find original research paper that adress the issue theme of global teacher education initiatives, sustainable development and poverty alleviation strategies in africa. three studies in this edition represent north, north east and east africa and the rest cover west africa. the themes are as broad as they are stimulating and illuminating. i would like to acknowledge the assistance of my graduate staff, kathy dimmick, bloomsburg university of pennsylvania, usa; and the ajote’s editorial review board, some of who reviewed the many manuscripts submitted for publication. i like also to thank those who are not on the editorial board but who were glad to volunteer to review for this issue of ajote. and to you the readers, thanks for your patience and support. this work continues only with your great support and help. please continue to submit your manuscripts and ask your colleagues to be part of ajote. respectfully, w.e. obiozor, ed.d.  (editor-in-chief) bloomsburg university bloomsburg, pennsylvania 17815, usa. academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university gladys nakalema mbarara university of science and technology, uganda joseph ssenyonga mbarara university of science and technology, uganda abstract the study examined academic stress, study habits and academic performance of 196 (113 males and 83 females) undergraduates of mbarara university of science and technology in uganda using a cross-sectional survey research design. findings showed that daily academic hassles were found to be the most stressful (m = 3.11; sd = 0.96) while personal problems were reported as the least stressful (m = 2.27; sd = 0.86). first year students experienced greater academic stress from financial hardships (χ 2 = 10.71; p = .03), academic overload/time (χ 2 = 10.23; p = .04) and social expectations (χ 2 = 10.79; p = .01) than the continuing students. motivation was the most used study habit (m = 6.52; sd = 1.18) among the respondent, while studying a chapter was the least common study habit (m = 3.86; sd = 1.35) among the students. faculty of development studies students had better study habits (χ 2 = 8.75; p = .03) than other faculties/institute based on grade performance. the gpa/cgpa 4.40 5.00 category had superior study habits (χ 2 = 11.47; p = .01) than the other gpa/cgpa categories. age (or =. 88) was a significant predictor of having supplementary exams. our results highlight the need for strategic interventions focusing on reducing academic stressors and improving the study habits of the undergraduates considering the uniqueness of the different faculties and year of study for improved academic performance. key words: uganda tertiary education, uganda education, uganda higher education, academic stress, study habits, academic performance and university students introduction for many undergraduate students, university life is a major transition in their lives since they are accorded the chance to decide what to do without the undue influence of their parents. the students make various decisions regarding all aspects of their lives such as academics, social life, and leisure activities (baker, 2003). however, amidst the new found freedom students have to struggle to meet the expectations of their parents which include expectations related to their academic performance (smith & renk, 2007). in addition, society believes 2 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) that graduating from a high-ranking university is a “passport” to a good job, high salaries, and high social status (ang & huan, 2006). as a result, the students are indirectly subjected to a variety of stressors mainly linked to academic success (sreeramareddy, shankar, binu, mukhopadhyay, & menezes, 2007). the academic stress faced by most students is attributed to poor study habits, such as poor time management (macan, shahani, dipboye, & phillips, 1990), studying for exams (baldwin, wilkinson, & barkley, 2000), and coursework (robotham, 2008), which may eventually lead to poor academic performance. in order to overcome the pressure from academic stress the students have to employ suitable coping strategies like in any other stressful situation (smith & renk, 2007). there are various coping strategies used by students when experiencing academic stress. some resort to avoidant coping; alcohol/drug abuse, denial and behavioral disengagement; while others cope actively through acceptance, planning, and positive reframing and taking the necessary steps to overcome the academic stress (sreeramareddy et al., 2007). academic performance is mainly a function of students’ study habits referring to the student’s way of study whether systematic, efficient or inefficient (abid, 2006). the study habits that influence the academic performance of a student include: time management, setting realistic academic targets, setting rewards on completion of a task, revision, organization of materials, and notes-taking during lectures (fontana, 1995; good & brophy, 1986). hence, study habits are coping strategies used by students to overcome academic stress so that they can meet the demands imposed on them by the academic environment. this is reaffirmed by studies (struthers, perry & menec, 2000; aluja & blanch, 2004) which show that study habits positively correlate with academic performance. the academic performance of university students currently is explained in terms of success or failure of course units, number of courses failed or passed (goldfinch & hughes, 2007), and the quality of the grades obtained in terms of the grade point average (gpa) or cumulative grade point average (cgpa) (bernold, spurlin, & anson, 2007). in some ugandan universities some students are experiencing poor academic performance for example in a study conducted by kyoshaba (2009) at uganda christian university, it was noted that while other students perform well, a substantial number of students performed poorly. mbarara university of science and technology (must) is no exception to high failure rates. over the past five years, many supplementary examinations were registered per semester (atibuni, 2012). this clearly shows the levels of academic performance of the undergraduates at that time. however, there is limited knowledge about the must students’ academic-related stress levels and the study habits that may partly explain the observed academic performance of the students. the main aim of this study, therefore, was to determine the effect of study habits and academic stress on the academic performance of undergraduate students of mbarara university of science and technology during their adjustment to university life. academic stress of university students baker (2003) noted that the undergraduates are faced with many new interpersonal, social, and academic demands during the transition from secondary school life to university, which is stressful for many of them. the immediate challenges that students face are the decisions they have to make about the presented career paths in addition to developing and negotiating new relationships, getting novel ideas that challenge their past-learnt views, and moving away from home (lumley & provenzano, 2003). baker further noted that adjustment during the transition period is linked to the way the undergraduate copes with that stress which affects academic motivation and performance. deberard, spielmans, and julka (2004) emphasize that the potential buffer for stress during the transition into university life is social gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 3 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) support from friends, peers, and religious peers that provide insulation from the harmful impact of stress. in the academic environment, high expectations, information overload, academic pressure, unrealistic ambitions, limited opportunities, and high competitiveness are some of the common sources of stress that create tension, fear, and anxiety in students (sinha, sharma, & nepal, 2001). in a study by dahlin, joneborg, and runeson (2005), undergraduate students indicated experiencing the highest degree of pressure from studies. misra, mckean, west, and russo (2000) pointed out that students have found the requirement to meet assessment deadlines as a major source of stress. students report experiencing academic stress with the greatest sources of academic stress coming from taking and studying for exams, grade competition, and the large amount of content to master in a small amount of time (kohn & frazer, 1986). course load versus time available has also been cited to be a stressful factor in the academic environment (zeidner, 1992). studies reveal that students perceive course load to be high in their first year of study, and that the perception of course load positively correlates with exam stress (mani, 2010). in their study, talib and zai-ur-rehman (2012, p. 129) found out that majority of the students (53%) claimed that course load is the source of their stress which in turn affected their gpa. further students report that the prospect of having to sit for examinations is stressful because of the pressure to review all the learned material within a given period of time (mani, 2010). mani explains that it is not the examination itself that induces stress but the fact that the possibility of failing or passing the exam can shape the course of one’s academic career and professional life. besides the course load and exam preparation, there are course demands that may induce academic stress depending on the nature of the course that the student is undertaking (bernold, spurlin, & anson, 2007; kuhn, kranz, koo, cossio, & lund, 2005). research conducted to explore factors that lead to academic related stress of medical students cite academic demands like variable hour shift for clinical rotations, sleep deprivation in addition to the curriculum overload (kuhn, et al., 2005). psychology students reported that stress emanating from the supervisory process while in field placement was due to the individual differences between the trainee and the supervisor (dodds, 1986). further research by talib and zai-ur-rehman (2012) showed that there was a significant difference in the perceived stress between engineering students and management science students. the engineering students had a higher mean academic stress score than the management science students. in their study on sources of stress among college students, ross, niebling, and heckert (1999) found that daily hassles related to interpersonal relations were the most often reported source of academic stress among the college students. this can be attributed to personal issues such as the individual differences in values, beliefs, situational intentions, and goal commitments that greatly influence one’s perceived stress (davonport & lane, 2006). jou and fukada (1996) confirmed this as their research findings illustrated a positive correlation between interpersonal problems and other stressors implying that the more interpersonal problems students had, the more stress they were likely to face. personal factors were recognized as a challenge that influenced their coping mechanisms and eventual levels of stress (bang, 2009; zeidner, 1992). when students do not have adequate personal resources like finances to deal with the stressful event, they may experience heightened distress (bang, 2009). research also shows that several students deal with the pressure of finding a part-time job to meet their financial demands and create a bridge to professional life after their studies. in addition to the academic hardships, the students are faced with stressors arising from their part-time jobs (ross et al., 1999). stecker (2004) found that nursing students who were more likely to have jobs during their academic training reported higher levels of stress than medicine, pharmacy, 4 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) dentistry, and graduate students. baldwin, wilkinson, and bradley (2009) emphasize that student workers experience greater stress during midterm and final examinations periods of the academic year than during any other time. this arises from absenteeism from class due to the demand to be at work. according to robotham (2008, p. 736), 30% of working students, missed lectures and 20% failed to hand in course work on time due to work commitments. such an imbalance can be quite stressful and may lead to poor academic performance in the struggle to maintain one’s job. poor academic performance often generates negative feedback about the students’ performance; consequently leading to stress, anxiety, and depression (ang & huan, 2006). this is evidenced by the fact that students from low social economic status were found to be more stressed by having to meet parental expectations (zeidner, 1992). furthermore, students were more sensitive to remarks from significant others like teachers and parents in their lives (ang & huan, 2006). the social expectations that male students should be superior even in academic performance presented a stressful environment for male students (bang, 2009). in addition to that, students’ own academic expectations and performance were found to be associated with higher levels of academic stress (abouserie, 1994). the environment in which students live contributes to the levels of academic stress for example the cultural context and demands from their peers. the environmental demands are quite different from one student to another (zeidner, 1992). kuh (2000) highlighted the important characteristics of a supportive academic environment as one that provided support to students to succeed academically and socially. such an environment enables the students to meet the non-academic demands and provides support that enhances the student’s relationship with fellow students, faculty staff, and institutional administration. the inability to be able to integrate in the academic and social environment may cause psychological distress to the students (parker & jones, 1999). ross et al. (1999) emphasized the fact that stress levels varied basing on the year of study. the first year students were more prone to greater stress compared to other years of study. this resulted from the absence of a social support framework and the transitional nature of college life that requires adjustment to the new environment amidst new responsibilities and challenges. at times, the first year students are leaving home for the very first time and therefore need to adjust to the newfound freedom as well as maintain a high level of academic performance (robotham, 2008). on the other hand, shaikh et al. (2004, p. 346) found that senior students experienced higher levels of stress that is 95% and 98% for fourth and final year students respectively due to the academic demands like having supervised clinical rotation. furthermore, that final year students are required to write their research dissertations that exposes them to additional stress. in addition to stress levels varying across the year of study, misra, mckean, west, and russo’s (2000) research findings suggest that stress levels vary by gender of the students. levels of academic related stress differed among male and female students with female students being more prone to more academic stress than their male counterparts (abouserie, 1994; bang, 2009; misra & mckean, 2000; rayle & chung, 2008). females experienced higher levels of academic stress because of negative appraisals of the stressful event and focus on the emotional challenges in the wake of the stressful event. male students are trained to display strength and machismo in the face of challenges right from their young age (misra & mckean, 2000). however, female students performed better than the male students and had better gpas than male students even in case of significant stress (talib & zia-ur-rehman, 2012). despite all the sources of stress in the academic environment, the future of the students depends most on high academic performance. it is estimated that 10 to 30 percent of the students experience academic related stress that affects their academic performance gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 5 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) (sinha, sharma, & nepal, 2001, p. 105). academic stress is documented to have several negative effects not only to the academic performance of the students but also to their wellbeing. academic stress is seen to interfere with the students’ way of life, cognitive processes, and adaptive behaviors such as class attendance (lumley & provenzano, 2003). studies have shown that there is a positive association between academic stress, depression, and physical illness, which these associations decrease with the provision of informational support (fisher, 1994). other forms of coping mechanisms used by students include sports, music, hanging out with friends, sleeping, or going into isolation (shaikh, et al., 2004). students with higher problem-solving appraisals reported better psychosocial adjustment to university life, had lower levels of stress while studying, and better academic performance than their counterparts with lower problem solving appraisals (baker, 2003). more specifically, male students use more active coping, positive reframing, planning, and accepting the stressor where as female students use more emotion focused strategies like venting, self-blame, and behavioral disengagement (davonport & lane, 2006). the choice of coping mechanisms used is accounted for by the difference in the gender role expectations and sex role stereotypes where females are taught to focus on emotions and seek social support whereas males are trained to take outward action to deal with the stressful situation (bang, 2009). many college students may find the academic experience very stressful, attributing it to various poor study habits such as poor time management that may include not allocating time properly or last minute cramming for exams. this is frequently discussed as a source of stress and poor academic performance (macan, et al., 1990). in addition, very often students are urged to start working on large tasks well before due dates. the large tasks are broken down into small ones, which are achievable on a regular schedule. students who regularly ignore these techniques find themselves in great distress before exams (brown, 1991). this results in the students having increased stress due to pressure and as a result students engage in emotional and cognitive reactions to stressors more frequently (misra & mckean, 2000). generally, students appreciate the fact that examination grades are the most important aspect of their school life. however, the process of preparing for examinations was reported to be the most stressful event of their school life (ang & huan, 2006; ang, et al., 2009; dobson, 1980). study habits of university students study habits are strategies and methods of purposeful learning, usually centered on reading and writing. effective study skills are essential for students to acquire good grades in school, and are useful in general to improve learning throughout one's life, in support of career and other interests (aluja & blanch, 2004; elliot, godshall, shrout, & witty, 1990). study habits include skills that enable a learner to systematically plan, access, record, organize, encode, and use information on their own in order to achieve a certain goal (dodge, 1994). time management, setting realist academic targets, setting rewards for completion of a task, revision, note taking, and organization of materials are critical study habits that have an impact on a learner’s academic performance (fontana, 1995; good & brophy, 1986). nagaraju (2004) emphasizes that the level of motivation and attitude towards test taking significantly contribute to the quality of one’s study habits and, in turn, their academic performance. life at the university involves juggling many things like reading books and chapters, meeting paper/coursework deadlines, and participating in the usual university extracurricular activities making the students feel like there is not enough time to complete all their work adequately (macan, et al., 1990). 6 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) time management is seen as a predictor of academic performance since it involves goal setting and prioritization, control of time available, planning, organizing task, and time control. females were better at time keeping than their male counterparts (misra & mckean, 2000). lammers, onwuegbuzie, and slate (2001) found out that only 53% of the undergraduates performed appropriate study habits with notable weakness in time management skills. research indicates that a person engaging more frequently in time management behaviors will report fewer physical and psychological symptoms of stress (macan, et al., 1990; misra & mckean, 2000). students have a general tendency to procrastinate completion of coursework and preparation of exams until the very last moment, a phenomenon that declines as the exams period comes closer (brinthaupt & shin, 2001). poor time management behaviors, like last minute cramming for examinations, are seen to lead to distress and poor academic performance (blumner & richards, 1997). culler and hollan (1980) in their study of test anxiety, academic performance, and the effect of study-related behavior, noted that study time management was significantly correlated to academic performance. britton and tesser (1991) also confirmed that there was a positive relationship between time management skills and grade point average. concentration is a key ingredient in various disciplines of study (talib & zia-urrehman, 2012). students in the upper quartile had fewer problems with concentration than those in the lower quartile (slate, jones, & harlan, 1998). winne and nesbit (2010) emphasize that one’s interest in something influences their concentration on it. hence, there is need for emphasis on the choice of academic program right from the first year at the university (goldfinch & hughes, 2007). slate and colleagues (1998) reported motivation, note taking, and time management as the identified strong study habits of their study participants. the motivation indicators included students attending class regularly even when it was not required. in some cases students are intrinsically motivated by the utility in the course (simons, dewitte, & lens, 2004), interest in the course, and their involvement in sharing ideas and decision-making. on the contrary, incentives and prizes for good academic achievement motivate some students externally (schmakel, 2008). schmakel’s (2008) study findings indicated that the mere recognition for good achievement and grades motivated students to study better in order to maintain or improve the good grades. cramming when studying subject matter is one thing and the ability to remember the studied material is another (hansen & hansen, 2008). research results indicate that students prepare for examinations differently. if the students expect that they will be asked to reproduce the subject matter, less effort is put on comprehension than review for an exam in which they expect to have to solve a new problem (bangert-drowns, kulik, kulik, & morgan, 1991). often students tend to use passive strategies when reading such as memorization with little emphasis on understanding main points of the information in order to only reproduce it on the upcoming examination (gettinger & seibert, 2002). for longer retention of studied material, hansen and hansen (2008) recommend that student use active strategies when reading such as highlighting main points, visualizing the material, and teaching the material to others. post secondary learners are expected to possess independent skills that will enable them to accomplish tasks like reading assignments on their own (slate et al., 1998).when reading a chapter, one is expected to read, learn, and understand the content (hansen & hansen, 2008). the authors further emphasize that when reading, scanning through the chapters will help the student identify the important ideas to be highlighted. the majority of undergraduate students did not employ this skill, since most of these students reported that gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 7 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) they often “read” several pages without knowing what was on them (jiao & onwuegbuzie, 2001). reading for the purpose of identifying the main points may facilitate academic performance, but should not substitute for deep information processing and understanding of subject matter (blumner & richards, 1997). it was also revealed that many undergraduates do not have the necessary study habits to achieve good marks in written assignments and examinations resulting in a low cgpa (durkin & main, 2002). the authors discovered that 60% of the business information technology students did not have references for the essays despite the prior instructions given. undergraduate students were found to limit informationseeking techniques, only relying on reading textbooks for completing assignments and reading through lecture notes during examination periods (kakai, ikoja–odongo & kigongo– bukenya, 2004). hansen and hansen (2008) emphasize the need to analyze textbook reading with lecture notes taken in class for comprehensive understanding of the course materials. note taking is a valuable primary way of creating records of subject matter presented in class for later review (pressley, yokoi, meter, etten, & freebern, 1997). lammers et al. (2001) found that there were weaknesses in note taking among undergraduates. abowd et al. (1998) noted that there was laxity among students in note taking in anticipation of accessing the notes after class. student may even stop attending classes on discovering the source of lecture notes given by their lecturers (durkin & main, 2002). nonis and hudson (2010) declared that access to good notes is not enough but should be complemented with better time management to yield a good cgpa. peverly et al. (2007) found that the quality of notes taken by students significantly and positively related to test performance. test taking strategies employed before and during the test are vital predictors of students’ academic performance (gurung, 2005; jiao & onwuegbuzie, 2001). research findings show that students heavily rely on the review of lecture notes in preparation for a test (peverly et al., 2007). at times students opt for cramming subject matter when they find the content abstract or have little time to prepare for the test or examination (brinthaupt & shin, 2001). as a result, during test preparation students are overwhelmed by high levels of test anxiety where thoughts like “i am never going to get this” derail them from appropriate test preparation strategies (pressley et al., 1997). on the other hand, research shows that students’ levels of test anxiety were reduced when they were trained in test taking strategies (beidel, turner, & taylor-ferreira, 1999). in addition, research findings indicate that students engage in poor study habits such as studying in the presence of distractions. these include studying with the television or music on, studying in a high traffic area such as the kitchen, or spending as much time on study breaks as time spent on studying (beidel et al., 1999), interruption by friends, daydreaming, or poor concentration (gettinger & seibert, 2002). such poor study habits may even cause them to drop out as documented by goldfinch and hughes (2007), who documented that students who withdrew from studies in their first year of study had little confidence in their skill to organize and take notes, time management, and spoken communication at the start of the year. furthermore, it was also revealed that many undergraduates do not have the necessary study habits to achieve good grades in written assignments and examinations resulting in a low cgpa (durkin & main, 2002). female students were found to have better study habits (suneeta, muktesh, & snehalata, 2010), especially those with higher academic ability, than their male counterparts (elliot et al., 1990). in this study, study habits were significantly related to course grades and semester gpa. aluja and blanch (2004) pointed out that the better the study habits of a learner the higher the academic achievement. they also further suggested that the effect of study habits on academic performance was mediated by several factors such as personality and aptitudes among others. as a result, helping learners resolve 8 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) their physical, emotional, social, and academic difficulties and helping them understand their learning strengths and weaknesses would enable them to improve their study habits (abid, 2006). however, students with poor study habits are unable to balance their social activities with the study requirements, which may increase their levels of stress (aluja & blanch, 2004). several studies concluded that study habits account for 15% of the variance in undergraduate students’ grades, that is, study habits such as time management, prioritization, test taking, recording, and reviewing notes from classes were related to good test performance (aluja & blanch, 2004; onwuegbuzie, slate, & schwartz, 2001). aluja and blanch further emphasize that students with good study habits usually show more socially balanced behavior and a higher sense of responsibility and therefore find it easier to alleviate academic stress. overall, the contribution of study habits in improving academic performance, despite other individual differences was unquestionable and should therefore be regarded as a strong pillar of academic success (crede & kuncel, 2008). academic performance of university students academic performance is the single indicator of the quality of time a student spent at school. over the years, academic performance at different levels of education is measured in terms of examination performance (kyoshaba 2009). university academic performance is a factor of earlier pre-university training (mckenzie & schweitzer, 2001). atibuni (2012) who noted that students undergo rote memorization, drill, and practice in order to pass exams for university entry further emphasizes this. such efforts may actually pay off because study findings indicate that there is a significant relationship between advanced secondary level results and university academic performance (kyoshaba, 2009). furthermore, society has placed undefined demands on students to perform well while in school right from secondary level (goldstein & thomas, 1996) to university level (ang & huan, 2006). this practice is reinforced by the belief of academia and employers that high school grades are the best predictors of university performance and that university performance is the best indicator for job performance (kuncel, crede & thomas, 2005; smits, melienbergh, & vorst, 2002). the academic performance of university students is measured using the grade point average and cumulated grade point average (gpa), which are in consideration of semester course work and final examinations (plant, ericsson, hill, & asberg, 2005). the student’s gpa is considered a summary of his or her learning and is therefore used to make important decisions about him or her (kuncel, et al., 2005). hence the emphasis that a good gpa is a gate-pass to better life opportunities for good jobs, better salaries, and higher education (ang & huan, 2006). from the gpa, university degrees are further classified; that is first class honors (4.40-5.00), second class upper division (3.60-4.39), second-class lower division (2.80-3.59), and a pass degree (2.00-2.79). while the degree class of an individual is seen as summative assessment of academic achievement, a student with an overall average mark of 60% may attain a second-class upper degree, while one with 59.9% may have a second-class lower degree that poses definite inequalities in employment opportunities. as a result, the need to include performance indicators on the university transcripts was considered in the united kingdom in order to consider the individual differences between students (smith & naylor, 2001). the course of study presents evident differences in the academic achievement of university students. the academic performance of students pursuing science-based courses is of a flat distribution where as those pursuing humanities belong mostly to first class and second-class upper honors (yorke, 2009). research findings revealed significant differences regarding personal characteristics such as gender and marital status. female students were found to perform better than male gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 9 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) students do especially in their first year of study (surridge, 2008). however, mcnabb, pal, and sloane (2002) noted that although females perform better on average than their male counterparts, they are significantly less likely to obtain a first class degree. in addition, mellanby, martin and o’doherty (2000) reported that there was a concern that the final degree classifications awarded to women at oxford university and cambridge university were on average lower than those awarded to men. smith and naylor (2001) documented that married students had a better academic performance than non-married students did. earlier research by astin (1973) suggests that the living environment of students has an impact on academic performance, that is, the experience and support system in the residential area affects academic achievement. this was confirmed by blimling (1989) that students in on-campus residence halls had a gpa advantage compared to those in off-campus residence halls. however, snyder (2009) found no statistical significance in the relationship between marital status, residence on/off-campus, and academic performance. working students were documented to struggle to maintain a good academic performance (robotham, 2008). plant et al. (2005) revealed that the time spent at work was associated with a lower gpa. furthermore, the majority of the students believed that having a job might interfere with their academic work and in turn their academic performance (krause, hartley, james, & mcinnis, 2005). in conclusion, university life requires the students to find a balance in their life while considering timetables, meeting coursework deadlines, self regulated learning, and other social responsibilities (atibuni, 2012). while striving towards academic success in the face of academic, social, and personal demands, students have to set priorities in light of their resources to avoid stressful situations. the study habits of the students therefore help them maximize the available resources like time, finances, social and familial support, and institutional administration to maneuver their potential stressors. in light of the poor academic performance of must education students (atibuni, 2012), there is an inevitable need to explore the levels of academic stress and the study habits used by the students to overcome stressful events to improve performance, hence the goal of this study. methods sample. this study was mainly quantitative using cross-sectional survey research design. only undergraduates from the faculty of medicine, faculty of science, faculty of development studies, and the institute of computer science who were present on the data collection days took part in this study providing a response rate of 58.16%. the study sample comprised of 196 undergraduates students of which 47 (24.0%) were from the faculty of medicine, 29 (14.8%) from the faculty of science, 73 (37.2%) from the faculty of development studies, and 47 (24.0%) from the institute of computer science. in addition 113 (57.7%) were male and 83 (42.3%) were female. respondents from first year of study were 64 (32.7%), 60 (30.6%) in their second year of study, 55 (28.1%) in the third year of study, 16 (8.2%) were in fourth year, and only one student was in fifth year of study. most of the respondents 158 (80.6%) resided outside the university hostels, while 38 (19.4%) were university residents. the majority of the respondents 177 (90.3%) did not have employment; leaving only 9.7% of students employed. procedure. an introductory letter from the dean of the faculty of science , must was obtained to enable the researchers to seek permission from the faculties and institute within the university to carry out the research. after obtaining permission from the faculty/institute deans/director, the researchers then contacted the lecturers who taught compulsory course units attended by all students in the same course and year. the researchers 10 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) first explained to the lecturers the purpose of the study and all the relevant details concerning the study. the researchers also answered any concerns related to the study. during the compulsory lectures, the researchers explained to the students the purpose of the study so as to motivate them to participate in the study. the researchers also emphasized that their responses were going to be handled with confidentiality during the data collection, report writing, and dissemination of findings. the researchers then selected every n th student basing on their seating arrangement and obtained the consent of the selected respondents to participate in the study. a self-administered questionnaire containing a brief preamble explaining the purpose of the study was given to the respondents to complete. the researcher was present during the data collection process to rectify any concerns raised by the respondents. completed questionnaires were collected from the respondent with his/her signed consent form. the researcher rescreened the questionnaires for any unanswered items. only 196 completed questionnaires were used for analysis. instruments. academic stress is a student’s interpretation of the present demands, challenges and threats in the academic environment in relation to available personal resources for coping (siegel, 2008). a 53-item student-life stress scale by zeidner (1992) was adapted to determine the academic stress levels of the university students. items described the levels of stress as a result of course requirements and demands, personal problems and impediments, campus environment and administration, financial concerns, academic overload and time pressure, daily academic hassles like academic exams and course instruction, and social milieu. items are rated on a 6-point likert-type scale (1= not at all to 6 = to the utmost degree). the range of the scores of the student-life stress scale is 1 to 6 corresponding to the likert scale. the average score per subscale and the overall scale were determined to establish the level of academic stress of the students. the internal consistency (cronbach alpa) of the 53-item student life stress scale was .94 (zeidner, 1992) and .93 for the current study. study habits can also be defined as the student’s pattern of behavior, whether systematic or unsystematic, efficient or inefficient, adopted in pursuit of their studies (abid, 2006). the 50-items study habits inventory scored using a yes-no dichotomy was used to collect data about the study habits of the undergraduate students (college of redwoods, 1994). the inventory had seven subscales including concentration, remembering, time management, studying a chapter, listening and taking notes, and test taking. all items in the study habits scale had a pre-set answer which was either yes or no depending on whether it is a desirable study habit on not. therefore, respondents were expected to tick yes or no depending on whether they agreed or disagreed with the item. for each correctly answered study habit, the respondent scored one and for incorrect responses zero was awarded. the scores for the overall study habits ranged from 0 to 50. the higher the score the better the study habits of the students. for this study, the internal consistency of the study habits scale was cronbach alpha .79. the academic performance of university students is measured using the gpa or cgpa, which are in consideration of semester course work and final examinations (plant, ericsson, hill, & asberg, 2005). the student’s gpa is considered to be a summary of his or her learning and is therefore used to make important decisions about him or her (kuncel, et al., 2005). academic performance was measured using the students’ current gpa or cgpa and the number of supplementary examinations completed by the students since joining the university. university academic performance is classified based on a 5-point scale as first class honors (4.40-5.00), second class upper division (3.60-4.39), second class lower division (2.80-3.59), and a pass degree (2.00-2.79). gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 11 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) data analysis. spss 16 was used to analyze the study data. mann-whitney test and kruskal wallis, pearson correlations and regression tests were used to determine relationships among the study variables. results the students experienced an overall academic stress to some degree (m = 2.77; sd = 0.73). daily academic hassles were the most stressful (m = 3.11; sd = 0.96), while personal problems (m = 2.27; sd = 0.86) were reported as the least stressful (see table 1). table 1. academic stress levels of university students (n =196) stress factor range m (sd) overall academic stress 1.13-4.94 2.77(.73) course requirements 1.00-5.54 2.96(.91) personal problems 1.00-5.14 2.27(.86) campus environment 1.00-5.00 2.38 (.80) academic overload and time 1.13-5.00 2.93 (.88) financial concerns/hardships 1.00-5.83 3.02 (1.08) daily academic hassles 1.17-5.50 3.11(.96) social milieu or expectations 1.00-5.40 2.62 (.91) the average score (m = 33.14; sd = 6.61) of the respondents on the study habits scale was well above average basing on the scoring range (0-50) on the study habits scale. motivation was found to be the most commonly used study habit (m = 6.52; sd = 1.18) among the respondents, while studying a chapter was found to be the least common study habit (m = 3.86; sd = 1.35) among the respondents (see table 2). table 2. study habits of university students type of study habit range m (sd) overall study habits 11-45 33.14(6.61) concentration 0-7 4.69 (1.64) remembering 0-7 4.61(1.55) organizing time 0-7 4.30 (1.56) studying a chapter 0-7 3.86 (1.35) listening and taking notes 1-6 4.28 (1.18) taking test 1-7 4.88 (1.48) motivation 3-8 6.52 (1.18) most of the respondents 107 (54.6%) at the time of the study had a gpa/cgpa range between 3.00-3.59 which is second lower class categorization of a degree, 54 (27.6%) were between 3.60-4.39, 24 (12.2%) were between 2.00-2.90, and 11(5.6%) were between 4.405.00. in addition, 26% of the respondents had taken a supplementary examination. faculty of medicine had the highest number of supplementary examinations (n = 20). the number of supplementary examinations was in the range 1-12. students from the faculty of development studies had better overall study habits (χ 2 = 8.75; p = .03), scored highest on concentration (χ 2 = 11.26; p = .01), and organizing time (χ 2 = 11.06; p = .01) compared to students’ scores from other academic units. female students had significantly higher scores at organizing time compared to the male students (u = 3717; p = 12 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) .01). the faculty of science students were better at listening and taking notes compared to students from other academic units (χ 2 = 10.27; p = .016). students with gpa/cgpa range of 4.40-5.00 had better study habits scores (mean rank = 119.55) than students with other gpa/cgpa ranges (χ 2 = 11.47; p = .01). on the contrary, students with gpa/cgpa ranging 3.60-4.39 had better remembering scores compared to students in other gpa/cgpa categories (χ 2 = 7.93; p < .05). daily academic hassles were more stressful for students who were not employed (u = 1186.5; p < .05). financial concerns caused academic stress among non-resident students (u = 2124.5; p = .01), first year students (χ 2 = 10.71; p = .03), and students from the faculty of development studies (χ 2 = 13.86; p< .05) compared to continuing students. first year students experienced the most academic stress from academic overload (χ 2 = 10.23; p =.04), and social expectations (χ 2 = 18.38; p < .01) compared to continuing students. faculty of medicine student experienced higher academic stress from academic overload (χ 2 = 10.38; p < .02) and course requirements (χ 2 = 10.79; p = .01) compared to students in other faculties. table 3. predictors of having a supplementary exam predictor or wald p age .88 5.58 .02 faculty 12.83 .01 medicine .24 7.24 .01 science .30 4.37 .04 development studies .99 < .001 .98 cgpa 7.15 .07 2.00-2.90 .19 1.97 .16 3.00-3.59 .21 2.03 .16 4.00-4.40 .64 .13 .70 total study habits 1.01 .08 .78 total academic stress 1.01 3.70 .06 constant 61.18 3.91 .05 note. nagelkerke r square = .23 the likelihood of having a supplementary exam was high among students from the faculties of medicine and science respectively. in addition, the likelihood of having a supplementary exam was found to be significant based on age. the model accounted for 20.4% of the variance of the supplementary exams obtained by the university students. discussion in considering academic stress among university students, first year students experienced the most stress from the perception of academic overload. this was attributed to the fact that these university students must deal with the transition into university life as well as meet the academic demands. misra and mckean (2000) confirmed these findings as they emphasized that students experienced stress because of the pressure to meet assessment deadlines amidst other responsibilities. daily academic hassles were reported to be the most stressful. this finding disagrees with findings for example from zeidner (1992), who used the same instrument and reported that students experienced most stress from academic overload and academic evaluation procedures. the present study’s findings agreed with previous findings of ross et al. (1999) who also reported daily academic hassles as the most stressful among university students. gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 13 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) as must has a relatively small student population compared with other public universities; it makes constant monitoring of students performance by the academic staff and university administration easy. as a result, the students are under pressure to obtain good grades to meet the personal and social expectations and are therefore sensitive to feedback from the people in their lives (ang & huan, 2006). this will result in higher levels of stress mainly from daily academic hassles, like a competitive environment and the pressure to obtain good grades, among others. therefore, emphasis on developing and implementing strategies of how to deal with the inevitable academic hassles must be made right from the orientation of students’ first year and throughout their stay at the university. unexpectedly, personal problems such as perceived prejudice, religious activities, relationship problems, and medical problems were found to be the least stressful factor in the academic environment. this finding agrees with zeidner (1992) whose study’s findings revealed that the least salient stressors among university students were personal, familial, social, and administrative factors. first year students experienced higher levels of stress than continuing students. this finding affirms results by ross et al. (1999) who revealed that stress levels varied based on the year of study of the students, with first year students being more prone to stress followed by the continuing students. most of the time first year students are leaving home for the very first time and therefore need to adjust to the new-found freedom as well as how to maintain a high level of academic performance (robotham, 2008). during these adjustments the first year students have to conform to the particular campus values, culture and traditions, at the same time adjust to the new mode of instruction and pursue academic interests, which often can be very stressful as pointed out by several researchers (zeidner, 1992; krause et al., 2005). furthermore, students perceive course load to be high in their first year of study that in turn causes exam stress (mani, 2010). shaikh et al. (2004) varied somewhat to this study’s findings; as they found those continuing students in their final year of study also experienced higher levels of stress. this posits that the perceived academic stress is not only dependent on the year but also the nature of the course of study, for example, medical students had higher levels of stress from course requirements plausibly caused by a combination of academic and clinical work. among study habits of university students, motivation was identified as the most commonly used study habit. study motivation was found to be a positive influence on general study habits of students (crede & kuncel, 2008; nagaraju, 2004). most students display extrinsic motivation for obtaining good grades (crede & kuncel, 2008; schmakel, 2008). motivation indicators measured in this study included not giving up on a difficult assignment, enjoying learning, and belief in the ability to obtain better grades, and others. motiviation may be the most commonly identified because at the university, students are motivated to study hard so that they can get good jobs and eventually have a better life (ang & huan, 2006). studying a chapter as a study habit reflected the student’s ability to do independent study through personal reading of textbooks and other academic materials beside the lecture notes. studying a chapter was the least used study habit in this study and confirms previous study findings that students had passive reading strategies like rote memorization and reviewing texts without knowing or understanding what one is reading (gettinger & seibert, 2002; jiao & onwuegbuzie, 2001). furthermore kakai and colleagues (2004) found out that undergraduate students had limited information-seeking techniques exemplified by only relying on reading their lecture notes for final examinations and their textbooks for completing assignments. however at university level, students are expected to do independent study to enable them complete course work assignments with little or no help and enhance their knowledge base on the subject matter (slate et al., 1998). hansen and 14 academic stress: its causes and results at a ugandan university _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) hansen (2008) recommend that students should highlight main points, learn, and understand content when reading. it is therefore important that students are encouraged to improve their information-seeking strategies to enhance their ability to study independently and enhance their knowledge in addition to the lecture notes given. in this study, female students were found to have relatively better study habits than the male students with statistically significant differences observed as per organizing time. these findings affirm previous findings where females had better study habits (suneeta et al., 2010). in addition misra and mckean, (2000) particularly noted that females have better time management skills with regards to control of time available, planning and organizing tasks and time control. female students were also more recognized for taking good lecture notes, proof reading work, and having the ability to recall more facts from lectures than the male students. faculty of science has over fifteen course units per year where as the bachelor of development studies has seven course units per year. the course overload in the faculty of science programs may account for the low scores on the study habits scale because it is likely that these students may be overwhelmed with academic concerns such as coursework deadlines and attending lectures. students with high cgpa/gpa, as expected, scored highest on study habits. several research findings have continuously expounded on the fact that high achievers have better study habits than low achievers, which explains their continuous good academic performance. this is because study habits are positively related to the academic performance of students (aluja & blanch, 2004; culler & hollan, 1980; elliot et al., 1990). in addition, the ability of students to employ appropriate study habits influences how much they are able to recall and accurately demonstrate during a test or examination, which is the yardstick of academic performance. therefore students with poor study habits can benefit from study habit training on goal setting, prioritization, note taking, and reading skills (jiao & onwuegbuzie, 2001). there were several predictors of academic performance of university students considered in this study. students with gpa/cgpa 4.40-5.00 were found to have better study habits than the other gpa/cgpa categories. this study finding confirms previous research that study habits positively correlate with academic performance (aluja & blanch, 2004; onwuegbuzie et al., 2001). furthermore, students with particularly higher gpa were found to have better study habits than those with lower cpa (lammers et al., 2001) the likelihood of having a supplementary exam increased depending on age and faculty. the regression model accounted for 23% of the variance of the supplementary exams obtained by the university students with faculty of science and faculty of medicine being more at risk of having a supplementary exam. this could be attributed to the course load of the faculties compared to the other faculties. the course load in the faculty of science could account for the possibility of performing poorly as the students may fail to juggle their academic work and the university life (mani, 2010). medical students having a higher risk of obtaining a supplementary exam could be attributed to the stressful academic demands like variable hour shift for clinical rotations, and sleep deprivation in addition to curriculum overload (kuhn, et al., 2005). as a result, university students should supported closely through study habits, time management, and stress skills training so that they can handle both the academic demands and university life in general. regarding age, results indicated that the older the student the more likely they were to take a supplementary exam. gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga 15 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) there were some limitations to the study findings on academic stress, study habits, and academic performance. first was that the results were based on a small sample of undergraduates. the researcher received 196 completed questionnaires from the respondents with 58.1% response rate. also some respondents such as the third year and fifth year bachelor of medicine and bachelor of surgery students, fourth year bachelor of medical laboratory science, and bachelor of pharmacy students who were all in their clinical years and research semester. as a result, generalization to other universities cannot be made basing on this study predictions unless the traits are similar to target population. finally, issues related to academic stress, study habits, and academic performance are assumed to also affect all university students including postgraduate students. however, this study only considers undergraduate students. therefore, the research findings cannot generalizable to postgraduate students. conclusions this study confirms the existing body of information about undergraduates regarding the academic stress, study habits, and academic performance. academic environment exposes undergraduate students to stressful situations. first year students experience greater levels of stress than continuing students. study motivation was the strongest study habit, while studying a chapter is the weakest study habit of the university students. a majority of the students on average had a current gpa/cgpa in the second-class honors degrees. the nature of the course (academic program) students are pursuing can predict the academic performance of the university students as evidenced by the high number of those who took supplementary exams in the faculty of medicine and faculty of science. therefore, students pursuing medical and science-based programs at must are more likely to perform poorer than those who are pursuing humanities programs due to the comparatively higher course load and subsequent academic demands. the likelihood of having a supplementary exam was also higher among older students. references abid, h. c. 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(1992). sources of academic stress: the case of first year jewish and arab college students in israel. higher education, 24, 25-40. ajote: what the arts teach and teacher, candidate, and learner roles and competencies winter/spring 2013 vol. 3, no. 1 editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) winter/spring 2013 issue. this issue includes perspectives on the arts in education and teacher, candidate, and learner roles and competencies. the first three articles discuss the role of fine arts and music in the curriculum. the opening article by david wandera demonstrates the effective use of hip hop music to teach literacy in kenyan schools followed by stephen olusoji’s proposal of how to incorporate music education more effectively that is reinforced with bojor enamhe’s article which calls for increased support and integration of fine arts education in nigeria’s education systems. this section is followed by in depth studies on teacher roles and competencies. one study, by michael o. ogundele and patricia a.o. etejere, looks at teachers’ competencies and utilization of computer technology in nigeria schools. another study, by florence kinuthia, donald kombo, and maureen mweru, assesses preschool educator attitudes and proposes initiatives to improve teacher morale and productivity in preschool education in kenya. a third study, by sibonokuhle ndlovu and azwihangwisi e. muthivhi, documents dire socio-economic and political factors that create barriers to maintaining academic standards in a rural zimbabwe school district. the final two articles include a study on pre-service teacher or teacher candidate management competencies by josta l. nzilano and a survey study on learner-leader perspectives and competencies in botswana conducted by victor y. mgomezulu, nathalis g. wamba, and lester b. shawa. this issue provides unique and comparative works in education by bringing together education interests from a wide array of countries and education fields. the ajote summer and fall 2013 issues are in progress. we encourage the submission of high quality academic papers that promise to engage our audience in the many forms and forums of african education. the summer issue is scheduled for release in august 2013 and the fall issue is scheduled for november 2013. please continue to share ajote with colleagues and students to increase awareness and engagement in african education. submissions on african education from all fields and regions on the continent are welcome. as always a heartfelt “thank you” to ajote’s editorial board, whose members consistently provide thorough and timely blind peer reviews. if you are interested in becoming an editorial board member, please e-mail your request, along with your cv, to ajote at ajote2011@gmail.com. sincerely, dr. jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 3, no. 1 (winter/spring 2013) mailto:ajote2011@gmail.com ajote: voices in african education (fall 2013) ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 3 no. 3 (fall 2013) ajote editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) “voices in african education” fall 2013 issue. this issue focuses on related issues of teacher education, teachers’ classroom effectiveness applied to a range of content areas, and academic stress on university campuses. ajote: voices in african education, fall 2013 issue includes educational experts from ethiopia, ghana, nigeria, and uganda. their voices reflect the growing continental commitment to furthering education studies across africa. this issue opens with a discussion about non-science primary teachers’ roles and needs in teaching ghana’s basic science curriculum. abigail m. osuafor and josephine n. okoli provide perspectives from science primary teachers and non-science primary teachers as they skillfully develop a balanced description of pros and cons regarding this issue. solomon o. makinde , omawumi o. makinde, and oludare a. shorunke’s article continues this discussion on teacher preparation and effectiveness in the classroom as they analyse the level of information communication technology (ict) literacy of secondary teachers in lagos state, nigeria’s schools. their findings reflect the growing role of ict that necessitates teachers’ preparation in the use of various ict modalities in and outside the classroom. the next two articles address recent policy and programs changes in ethiopian education related to teacher education. these authors articulate the political in the educational and the diverse voices found in education’s political context. in shoeb amhad’s study he provides a brief overview of ethiopian education’s history, but focuses primarily on changes from 2003 to the present. he discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the various new teacher education programs, both preparation and in-service and describes with expertise the ideological and practical links amongst the various new policies, structures, and resulting programs. dereje t. birbirso’s article also exams the new policies and resulting programs by using the in-service training programs of english foreign language teachers as a case in point. this article highlights the need to consider teacher work conditions and environments and their roles in supporting effective teacher preparation especially as it impacts english foreign language teachers’ proficiency and effectiveness in the classroom. the ajote fall 2013 issue’s final article by gladys nakalema and joseph ssenyonga investigates the causes and results of university students’ academic stress on a ugandan university campus. their analysis and insights on the varying course loads and social and economic contexts that impact student stress levels and their strategies to cope with stress are applicable to many campuses in africa’s university systems. this issue presents expert voices from several countries and shares many common areas of interest in teacher education today. the ajote winter/spring 2014 issue is in process and we thank our many valuable contributors and readers for their support. it is our mission to provide an international forum for african education experts from across the continent. as ajote is an open access, free journal the editorial board and editor-in-chief give their time and expertise without monetary compensation to the journal. the editorial board members’ dedication to education excellence is demonstrated through the high academic standards reflected in every article published. please remember to share this issue and others with your colleagues. ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 3 no. 2 (summer 2013) the summer 2014 issue is scheduled as a “special issue on indigenous education”. articles in this issue will address indigenous education structures and practices and its continued role within african societies including the ways it contributes to national formal and informal education curricula. please share this special issue call for papers. your support of ajote has expanded our content coverage as we reach more readers from around the world in our effort to promote african education. we encourage and welcome paper and book review submissions on african education in all fields and from all regions of the continent. as always a sincere thank you to ajote’s outstanding editorial board, who consistently provide thorough peer review of paper and book review submissions. if you are interested in becoming an editorial board member, please e-mail your request, along with your cv, to ajote at ajote2011@gmail.com. sincerely, professor jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo mailto:ajote2011@gmail.com early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation and problems: way forward early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a way forward nkechi obiweluozor university of benin, nigeria abstract early childhood education is a starting point for a child’s development and the key foundation of the nigerian educational system. this type of education is recognized by the nigeria national policy on education (frn 2012). in the national policy provisions were made stating the objectives and guidelines taken by the government to achieve meet early childhood education goals. this policy encourages and endorses private participation in the provision of pre-primary education. this article examines the implementation of the policy, pointing out the purposes of early childhood education, achievements made so far, current problems, and recommendations to address these problems. keywords: early childhood education, nigeria national education policy implementation, nigeria early childhood. introduction in every modern society it is believed that education is the key to national development and there is a need to maintain every level of education especially the pre-primary stage, because it is the bedrock upon which all other educational levels build. once a child misses that early stage it is usually difficult for the learner to get back to the basics. pre-primary education is a common practice in most societies; they make provision for early childhood education programs of various types for children below the official school age (usually 6 years) mainly to prepare them for the rigors of primary education and beyond. it should be noted that not everyone is in support of early childhood education. robinson and robinson (1968) hold the view that young children are not mature enough to learn complex task or skills that are required of them in the pre-school programs. they also argue that the love and warmth of a mother is more important than any educational program. on the other hand some research evidence shows that early childhood education has a positive influence in children’s affective, conceptual and social development in later years (baker 1973; gormley, gayer, phillips and dawson 2005; rolnick and grunewald 2003). 2 early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a way forward ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) despite the different views on early childhood education by scholars, the national policy on education (frn, 2012) stipulates that it should be included in mainstream education. formal education begins from pre-primary education as provided in day-care centers and nursery schools to children aged 3 through 5 years. it is enriched by the informal traditional upbringing given to children from 0 through 3 years which makes them ready for school. although the government is not directly involved in the establishment of day-care centers and nursery schools, it maintains oversight for the:  provision and distribution of policy guidelines for the establishment and management of pre-primary institutions;  production and development of appropriate national curriculum and textbook in nigerian languages;  approval of relevant supplementary reading materials and teachers/instructions’ manual;  provision and approval of appropriate certification of work done and training received. despite all these the national policy appears to face some challenges in its implementation and there is need for revisiting these program provisions. early childhood education pre-primary education is the education given to younger learners before the age of entering primary education (6 years). early childhood education or pre-primary education is defined by the national policy on education (frn, 2012) as education given educational settings for children aged 3 through 5 years in preparing their entry into primary school. it includes “ota akara’’ popularly named in some parts of the country, the crèche, the nursery and the kindergarten. these types of education settings are currently provided by private entrepreneurs. early childhood education can be traced to the efforts of prominent european education experts like: john amos comenius (1590-1690), j. j. rousseau (1782 – 1788), johann heinrich pestalozzi (1748-1827) and friedrich froebel (1782-1751). these experts championed the right of children to early education. many educationist and scholars including maduewesi (1992) and fafunwa (1967) support and advocate for the views held by these earlier educators that there is need for good early childhood education to help students’ develop their full potentials. the first pre-primary education was founded in 1816 by robert owen. the early experts in childhood education were anxious to see the children of the rich and the poor have the opportunity and privilege to be educated. with the phasing out of infant classes, some parents began to feel the need for nursery schools; the demand for nursery education was however very low in nigeria until recently. a study for the provision of nursery education in lagos conducted by makinwa–adebusoye (1981) showed that only 7.7% out of 948 parents send their children to nursery education or a group care center. in a similar study conducted by orebanjo (1981) showed that working mothers in ile-ife which is a semi-urban area, prefer keeping their children with members of the extended family for childcare rather than sending them to day care centers or nursery schools. this invariably showed that parents at that time did not value pre-primary education. consequently the need arose for educational administrators, educational planners, policy makers, as the then military governments of nigeria realized the need for pre-primary education in the country and gave official recognition to it in the national policy on education (1977) and revised 1981, 1998; subsequently revised again under elected civilian governments in nkechi obiweluozor 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) 2004, 2007, and 2012. the operational objectives of pre-primary education as stated in the national policy of education (frn 2012) include: i. effecting a smooth transmission from the home to the school; ii. preparing the child for the primary level of education; iii. providing adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents are at work; iv. inculcating in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature and environment, art, music and playing with toys, etc; v. develop a sense of co-operation and team spirit; vi. inculcating social norms; vii. learn good habits, especially good health habits; and viii. teaching rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes, forms etc. through play. policy guidelines for implementation as stated in the npe (2012) the implementation guidelines state by the government in order to achieve these objectives are as follows: (a) to establish pre-primary sections in existing public schools and encourage both community and private efforts in the provision of pre-primary education. (b) to make provision in teacher education programmes for specialization in early childhood pre-primary education. (c) to ensure that the medium of instruction is principally the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community; and to this end will: i. develop the orthography of many more nigerian languages and ii. produce textbooks in nigerian languages. (d) to ensure that the main method of teaching at this level shall be through play and that the curriculum of teacher education is oriented to achieve this, regulate and control the operation of pre-primary education. to this end the teacher, pupil ratio shall be 1:25. (e) set and monitor minimum standard for early childhood centres in the country; and (f) ensure full participation of government communities and teacher associations in the running and maintenance of early childhood education facilities.(frn, 2012) while the national policy on education (frn, 2012) specifies the guidelines for operating preprimary education in nigeria; it did not specify the care and support requirements for children 0 through 3 years of age. this is a major gap that has left the operation of early childhood care and pre-primary education more in the hands of private operators without adequate guidelines or standards. the comprehensive education analysis jointly undertaken by nigeria’s federal government, united nation educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco), united nations children emergency fund (unicef), and united nations development programme (undp) in 1997 revealed the enormity of this problem and underscored the urgent need for government action to provide adequate policy provision for child health care and educational programming to enhance early childhood education. also a pilot study of early childhood care facilities and practices by the nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc) and unicef as well as the education sector analysis by the federal ministry of education, unesco and other development partners such as dfid, usaid, world bank, and jica further paint a grim picture of the situation on the ground. 4 early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a way forward ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) in august 2004, the nerdc with the support from unicef convened a meeting of experts and stakeholders in early childcare to agree on the minimum standard for operating childhood care centers in an integrated way in nigeria. this effort resulted in the production of what is today the national minimum standards for early childcare centers in nigeria. furthermore, research evidence from many fields of study showed that the care and support received by a child in terms of good health, nutrition and psycho-social care and protection are crucial in the formation and development of intelligence, personality and social behavior. over the years, early childcare in nigeria has metamorphosed from a single sector approach to a multi-sector pursuit, converging interventions in health, nutrition, care, stimulation, protection, and participation of the child. however, an analysis of the current situation indicates that, to a great extent, the nigerian child suffers deprivation from lack of good social services in terms of poor nutrition, health care, and access to safe water and sanitation, general protection from environmental hazards and insecurity. all of these gave justification for the formulation of national policy for integrated early childhood development in nigeria (iecd), which was officially launched in october 2007. this provided early childhood care and development in nigeria to adopt an integrated approach for the care and support given to children aged 0 through 5years. this is a holistic approach in which the federal ministry of education collaborates with other ministries including, health, environment and housing, women affairs, information and communication, finance, agriculture, and water resources, as well as the national planning commission to provide interventions for the cognitive, physical, social, moral, and emotional development of the child. purpose of pre-primary education the importance of pre-primary education cannot be overemphasized; it enables children to improve on their self-confidence since they are given opportunity to interact with their peers and adults too. pre-primary education enhances independence and helps curb the tendency of children that are highly aggressive during group activities. children’s interactions with their peers and adults help to widen their scope of understanding and they also gain mastery of the world around them. pre-primary education is vital to the child, parents and society because it permits smooth transition from home to school, because it enables the child to feel free to interact with other people outside his immediate family members. the pre-primary school helps to sharpen the children’s cognitive domain through learning rhymes and songs; while playing on the slides and swings help in physical development and build their muscles. structured play with building blocks and puzzles, baby dolls, and teddy bears helps in emotional development of the children. at the pre-primary school stage, children learn to share and co-operate with others instead of developing the selfish tendencies. exposure to pre-primary education goes a long way to teach each child how to understand and manage their emotions. the provision of pre-primary education assists working class parents who have no relation or house help to take care of their children while they are at work. the children will be exposed to reading and writing. statistical research has shown that children who have experienced early childhood or pre-primary programs are more likely than other children to remain in primary school and achieve good results (unesco, 1995). nkechi obiweluozor 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) nigeria’s national policy on education has made some tremendous achievements in the area of the official recognition of pre-primary level of education in the policy document and this has made it possible for the establishment of pre-primary schools in nigeria. this has raised the status of pre-primary education to the lime light and it is no longer a backyard issue. as rightly stated by maduewesi (1992) that recognition of the importance of pre-primary education by the federal government has led to a new awareness of the importance of young children as a group requiring and desiring care. the government stated that it will encourage private efforts in the provision of pre-primary education. today private individuals have been allowed to set up nursery schools. critique of national policy on education pre-primary education the goal by the government was for the national policy on education’s development plan in pre-primary education to be distributed effectively, but there are many flaws in the plans process and implementation as discussed in this section. one area is in provision and distribution of policy guidelines for the establishment and management of pre-primary institutions. one major problem was the federal government’s decision to facilitate the objectives of pre-primary education by the granting permission for private establishments of pre-primary education in the country, but not the participation of the public schools in their establishment. presently there are many ill-equipped, substandard pre-primary schools scattered all over the country. this is as a result of lack of supervision and inspection to ensure that standard and quality are maintained. it is assumed that with the amount of money being charged by these commercial institutions that the facilities should be of high standards, but the reverse is the case. therefore there is a need for the federal, state, and local governments to put measures in place to ensure standards. this is because the pre-primary level is bedrock for a smooth transmission to the primary school. if the foundation is faulty it will naturally affect the superstructure. the policy ironically failed in this aspect. secondly, currently there is no provision in teacher education programs for specialization in early childhood education. unfortunately significant provision is yet to be made in any public or private teacher training institution in nigeria for the production of professional teachers in early childhood education. most tertiary institutions in nigeria run teacher education b.ed. programs that will lead the graduate to secondary or primary school teacher in subject areas other than early childhood education. such specialists in early childhood are few and because of low wages and job insecurity associated with the private institutions, many otherwise interested teachers cannot afford to take these positions. the government to date has not effectively addressed the lack of early childhood teacher education. thirdly, the npe (2012) ensures that the communication medium of early childhood institutions is principally the mother tongue (mt) or language of the immediate community (lic) and orthography and textbooks of nigerian languages will be produced to enhance mt and lic. ironically, in most of pre-primary schools in nigeria the medium of instruction is principally the english language. as far as mother tongue instruction is concerned, emenanjo (2001) notes the value attached to native language as regards to protection, preservation, promotion of nigerian culture, as well as its role in promoting interethnic unity that enhances human dignity and subsequently helps promote national unity and integration in the country. this policy supported 6 early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a way forward ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) by the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria and justified in the national policy on education. the use of english language for a child to the neglect of his mother tongue has a negative influence on the child’s cultural background which the policy is meant to protect. contrary to this most parents want their children to be immersed in the english language as early as possible because of the perceived advantages and belief that knowledge of english accelerates the teaching process for children entering the primary and other levels of the educational system. but on the other hand, evidence shows that, if children are taught with their mother tongue, they learn and develop faster intellectually, cognitively, and psychologically (fafunwa, 1984). the policy has failed in the aspect of language implementation. the question is, does it mean that the teachers teaching those children do not speak their native language? how do we promote culture when our children cannot speak their mother tongue or language of the immediate community? this question is for the policy makers to review and address. fourth, the npe ensures that the main method of teaching at this level shall be through play and that the curriculum of teacher education is oriented to achieve this. as a result of the government inability to regulate and control private establishment and operation of pre-primary education in the country, some schools employed teachers who are neither trained to teach nor know how to handle or relate to children. moreover there is no standard curriculum to guide the activities of these teachers. such people without teaching pedagogy cause the children to lose interest in education as they are unable to present the teaching and learning experiences to children in a stimulating, sequential, and logical manner as prescribed by robinson and robinson (1968). lastly, the input of government in terms of the financial aspect in pre-primary education has been very negligible as stated by maduewesi (2001). pre-primary education is recognized by the federal government in the national policy on education, which stated that financing education shall be a collective effort responsibility of the three tiers of government, but it is found that there is no financial provision for education at the pre-primary education level. the only time the government financed education at that level was through the early child care (ecc) project of the nerdc which was founded through the collaboration of unicef and federal government of nigeria and other international agencies prior to 2001 (maduewesi 2001). the way forward despite the criticism discussed above, there should be effective implementation strategies not just a policy on paper. if the pre-primary education is to benefit from this national policy there is a need for the federal, state, and local governments to ensure that the necessary educational facilities are available in both rural and urban areas. through the various departments of the ministries of education implementation of effective monitoring, supervising, and inspecting of pre-primary school facilities should be mandated. if any of the private entrepreneurs does not meet the national standards or specifications for pre-primary schools, then they should be closed down and their license revoked until the owners meet the quality and standards required to maintain effective pre-primary education. the federal government in conjunction with tertiary institutions, institute of education, and colleges of education should take positive steps to produce adequate numbers of teachers and specialists in early childhood education. this will help in the methodology and the teaching nkechi obiweluozor 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) curriculum of early childhood education. in addition each state of the federation should add a nursery section in their existing publicly funded primary schools. government should ensure that pre-primary school proprietors implement the policy statement on the medium of instruction in their institutions to maintain the mother tongue or language of the immediate community as the medium of instruction. to support this implementation, government should encourage and facilitate the writing of textbooks in nigerian languages beyond the three major languages (hausa, igbo, yoruba). this will enhance the children’s cultural identity development. government should ensure that the main method of teaching in pre-primary institution is through montessori play and that the curriculum of teachers training colleges is oriented to achieve this. conclusion evidence has shown that the pre-primary school has a positive influence on a child’s educational background later in life; therefore the national policy statement should be effectively implemented to achieve and maintain its objectives and goals. for this to be possible, the government should provide adequate facilities, fund, and encourage teacher training programs in early childhood education program. additionally, there should be effective control in the establishment and approval of nursery schools. as with primary and secondary schools, approval should be given to a nursery school building plans before their constructed in order to monitor the standard of facilities. these facilities should be inspected before students are admitted into the schools and monitored and maintained to ensure quality pre-primary learning institutions. references baker, g. (1973). the effectiveness of nursery school on the affective and conceptual development of disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged children. development psychology, 2: 140. fafunwa, a. b. (1967). history of education in nigeria. london: george alien and unwin. emenanjo, e.n. (2001). languages, npe/ube in multilingual nigeria: implementation strategies. nae seminar series, lagos: the nigerian academy of education. federal republic of nigeria (1977). national policy on education. lagos: federal ministry of information. federal republic of nigeria (2012). national policy on education (4 th ed.) lagos: nercdc press. gormley, w.t., ted, g., phillips, d., & dawson b. (2005). the effect of universal pre-k cognitive development. development psychology, 41: 872-884. maduewesi, e.l. (1992). implementation of educational policy in pre-primary and primary education: achievements and short comings, in a. ndu (ed.) educational policy and implementation in nigeria. awka: mekslink publishers. 8 early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a way forward ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 4 (fall 2014/spring 2015) makinwa-adebusoye, p.k. (1981). female work situation and early child-care and education in metropolitan lagos. paper, national workshop on working mothers and early childhood education in nigeria at niser, ibadan, sept. 13-16, 1981. orebanjo, d. (1981). early child care problems of working mothers with implication for social policy. paper, national workshop on working mothers and early childhood education in nigeria at niser, ibadan, sept. 13-16, 1981. robinson, h. b. and robinson, n. m. (1968). the problem of timing in pre-school education, in hess. r.d. and bear, r.m. (eds.) early education. illinois: aldine publishing co. rolnick, a. & grunewald, r. (2003). early childhood development: economic instructional approaches on young children’s achievement and motivation. child development, 66: 209-223. unesco (1995). hppt://:www.unesco.com. ireh&ogo differentiating instruction to meet the needs of diverse technical/technology education students at the secondary school level.   maduakolam ireh, ph.d school of education and human performance winston-salem state university winston-salem, nc, united states of america & ogo. t. ibeneme, ph.d. department of vocational education nnamdi azikiwe university awka, anambra state, nigeria abstract effective teaching requires fostering success for all students, and to help them become productive, problem-solvers, and self-directed learners. this is more so in technical/technology education where learners do not all learn the same thing in the same way or on the same day. as such, technical education teachers must consider each learner based on needs, readiness, preferences, and interests. this paper gives insights on how to effectively achieve this success in the classroom, through the use of differentiated instruction (di)-an approach that enables teachers to plan strategically as well as provide a variety of options to successfully reach all students.  differentiated instruction allows teachers to meet learners where they are and offer challenging and appropriate options for them to achieve success. the paper highlights other areas where this teaching technique could be applied toward students’ motivation, engagement, and academic growth. the authors also explain the three elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated: content, process, and products. other issues concerning the teaching-learning process are also discussed in the paper.  introduction one of the primary goals of effective teaching is to foster success for all students and to help them become self-directed, productive problem-solvers, and thinkers. these attributes are necessary to be successful in life, not just at school. as such, schools are expected to provide these opportunities within the curriculum to help students practice and develop these skills. however, the balancing act is dealing with standards and classrooms containing diverse, heterogeneous groups of learners who have different socioeconomic backgrounds, different life experiences, interests, learning styles, and multiple intelligences. learners do not all learn the “same thing in the same way on the same day.” consequently, teachers must consider each learner within the learning community based on needs, readiness, preferences, and interests. in order to effectively do this, teachers need to adopt a philosophy that enables them to plan strategically as well as provide a variety of options to successfully reach targeted standards, goals, and objectives.  differentiated instruction (di) allows teachers to do so; meets learners where they are; and offers challenging, appropriate options for them in order to achieve success. what is differentiated instruction differentiation is not at all a new concept. the one-room schoolhouse is a prime example of teachers differentiating to meet the needs of all students. differentiated instruction is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse needs and differing abilities of students in a classroom (gregory, 2003; tomlison, 1999). by its nature, differentiation implies that the purpose of schools should be to maximize the capabilities of all students. differentiated instruction integrates what we know about constructivist learning theory, learning styles, and brain development with empirical research on influencing factors of learner readiness, interest, and intelligence preferences toward students’ motivation, engagement, and academic growth within schools (tomlinson & allan, 2000). the intent of differentiating instruction is to maximize each student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is, and assisting in the learning process. to differentiate instruction is to recognize students’ varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, interests, and to react responsively. differentiation may be made by teachers based on what they know about students’ learning preferences (i.e., intelligences, talents, learning styles), allowing students’ choices in working independently, with partners, or as a team; or providing varied work spaces that are conducive to various learning preferences (i.e., quiet work spaces, work spaces with tables instead of desks). of the utmost importance to the teacher who differentiates is providing a learning environment and opportunities that exclude no child. tomlinson (2001) identified three elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated: content, process, and products (figure 1). (adapted from oaksford & jones, 2001)   additionally, the following guidelines are provided to help technical/technology education teachers at the secondary school level form an understanding and develop ideas around differentiating instruction. content: several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. these include acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. the variation seen in a differentiated classroom is most frequently the manner in which students gain access to important learning. access to the content is seen as key. align tasks and objectives to learning goals. designers of differentiated instruction determine as essential the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives. goals are most frequently assessed by many high-stakes tests and frequently administered standardized measures. objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in a continuum of skills-building tasks. an objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels. instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. the instructional concepts should be broad based and not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. teachers must focus on the concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. the content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students but be adjusted by degree of complexity for the diversity of learners in the classroom. process: flexible grouping is consistently used. strategies for flexible grouping are essential. learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas followed by small group or pair work. student groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. grouping of students is not fixed. based on the content, project, and on-going evaluations, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process as one of the foundations of differentiated instruction. classroom management benefits students and teachers. teachers must consider organization and instructional delivery strategies to effectively operate a classroom using differentiated instruction. products: initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential. meaningful pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. assessments may be formal or informal, including interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures. incorporating pre and on-going assessment informs teachers to better provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students. students are active and responsible explorers. teacher’s respect that each task put before the learner will be interesting, engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. each child should feel challenged most of the time. vary expectations and requirements for student responses. items to which students respond may be differentiated for students to demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding. a well-designed student product allows varied means of expression, alternative procedures, and provides varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring. critical elements of differentiated instruction   most important to differentiated instruction are the elements of choice, flexibility, on-going assessment, and creativity resulting in differentiating the content being taught, how students are processing and developing understanding of concepts and skills, or the ways in which students demonstrate what they have learned and their level of knowledge through varied products. teachers determine at the onset of their planning what their students should know and what each child should be able to do at the conclusion of the lesson or unit. when differentiating the content aspect of a lesson, teachers may adapt what they plan for the students to learn or how the students’ will gain access to the desired knowledge, understanding, and skills (tomlinson & allan, 2000). instead of varying the learner objectives and lowering performance expectations for some students, teachers may differentiate the content by using texts, novels, projects, demonstrations, simulations, or individual assignments at varying readiness levels. teachers may choose to differentiate the content by using flexible grouping, affording students to work in groups using books or other resources as a means for developing understanding and knowledge of the topic or concept. some students may choose to work in pairs, small groups, or independently, but all are working toward proficiency on the same performance standards or curriculum objectives. differentiating the performance measure or product component of a lesson means affording students various ways of demonstrating what they have learned from the lesson or unit of study. differentiation of assessments or products may be constructed in various ways by the teacher such as using choice boards (with predetermined options), or the use of open-ended lists of potential product options from which students’ select or contract for their final product. the purpose of the product (regardless of its format) is for students to demonstrate or exhibit what they have learned in the lesson or unit. differentiated products challenge students at all levels to make decisions, be responsible for their own learning, as well as afford them opportunities to demonstrate what they know through products that are representative of their unique learning preferences, interests, and strengths. all students can work toward demonstrating what they have learned through varying representations on the basis of their unique interests. each individual is assessed using established criteria (typically, a rubric) by the teacher assessing students’ mastery of the knowledge and skills outlined within the lesson or unit. this approach to assessing students’ knowledge not only yields reliable assessment of their knowledge and skills but also provides evidence of each individual’s value to the learning process within the classroom. guidelines that make differentiation possible   clarify key concepts and generalizations to ensure that all learners gain powerful understandings that serve as the foundation for future learning. teachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure all learners comprehend. use assessment as a teaching tool to extend versus merely measure instruction. assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode, and help to pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning. emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design. the tasks, activities, and procedures for students should require that students understand and apply meaning. instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or equipment for different students in the classroom. engaging all learners is essential. teachers are encouraged to strive for development of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. vary tasks within instruction as well as across students. in other words, entire session for students should not consist of all drill and practice, or any single structure or activity. provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks. a balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. based on pre-assessment information, the balance will vary from class-to-class as well as lesson-to-lesson. teachers should assure that students have choices in their learning.   getting started   starting differentiation may begin with the creation of learning profiles; simple profiles of each student containing pertinent information specific to learning preferences, family structure, favorite hobbies and interests, and other aspects of interest. each profile may also contain specific grade-level information for each child such as assessment scores. these individual student profiles are central to a teacher’s inspiration in planning engaging, student-centered differentiated lessons and instructional activities. the teacher uses these individual student profiles to plan flexible groupings and build tiered lessons that address the unique talents and abilities of each student without sacrificing rigorous curriculum standards and performance expectations. figure 2 represents a model (gregory & chapman, 2007) that can be used to help teachers make decisions about differentiated instruction and assessment in technical/technology education classrooms at the secondary school level. the model has six phases: standards (statements of outcomes or expectations clearly specifying what students should know, be able to do, or be like after the learning experience), content (identification of facts, skills, concepts, behaviors, etc students will learn), activate (design of opportunities to activate prior knowledge and pre-assess so that the teacher is more knowledgeable to begin planning the learning—may be done 2 to 3 weeks in advance), acquire (make decisions about what new information and skills students need to learn and how they will acquire the knowledge and retain it), apply/adjust (opportunity for students to practice and become actively engaged with the new learning in order to understand and retain it), and assess (decide how students will demonstrate knowledge and competencies). planning for differentiated learning 1. standard: what should students know and be able to do? assessment tools for data collection: (logs, checklists, journals, agendas, observations, portfolios, rubrics, contracts, etc.   essential questions: 2. content: (concepts, vocabulary, facts) skills:   3. activate:  focus activity                         pre-assessment strategy pre-assessment prior knowledge & engaging the learners ·  quiz, test ·  surveys ·  k. w. l. ·  journals ·  arm gauge ·  give me 5 ·  brainstorm ·  concept formation ·  thumb it   4. acquire:  total group or small groups ·  lecturette ·  presentation ·  demonstration ·  jigsaw ·  video ·  field trip ·  guest speaker ·  text grouping decision: (t.a.p.s.  random, heterogeneous, homogeneous, interest, task, constructed)   5. apply adjust       ·  learning centers ·  projects ·  contracts ·  compact/enrichment ·  problem based ·  inquiry ·  research ·  independent study   6. assess             diversity honored (learning styles, multiple intelligences, personal interests, etc) ·  quiz, test, ·  performance ·  products ·  presentation ·  demonstration ·  log, journal ·  checklist ·  portfolio ·  rubric ·  metacognition figure 2:  the six step planning model for differentiated learning. (adapted from gregory & chapman, 2007)   the success of efforts to differentiate instruction will lie with teachers. however, some teachers will lack either the necessary knowledge or skills. just as each student has a level of readiness, each teacher has a personal knowledge base and comfort level that will either help or retard a move toward differentiated instruction. to help teachers prepare to make the change, schools should provide resources on differentiated instruction and time for teachers to discuss them. teachers may need training in strategies--such as curriculum compacting and learning centers--that can be used to support differentiation. typically, such training should focus on concrete details about how to differentiate instruction because their concerns often focus on the time and amount of organization needed to implement the approach. for example, gregory and chapman (2007) stress the importance of teacher use of pre-assessments as a planning tool for differentiated instruction. some teachers may need support in how to develop on-target assessments in a time-efficient manner and also in use of the information generated to determine what will be taught--and how--to individual students.   obstacles to differentiating instruction there is no doubt that most first-year teachers experience many problems during the transition from student to teacher. pedagogical issues, lack of administrative support, and the need for both materials and appropriate planning times are common concerns of most first-year teachers, whether they have been trained as regular or technical/technology education teachers. unique to technical/technology education teachers’ first-year experiences, however, is the pedagogical demand for differentiated instruction for special learners. in addition, they are faced with many obstacles, including difficulty in planning lessons and in adapting their teaching methods to allow for differentiation. once in their own classrooms, the undertow for new teachers to "teach to the middle" is profound, both because of the complexity of teaching and because of peer pressure to conform to the "the way we do it here."   implication for technical/technology education in nigeria   differentiated instruction is characterized by a variety of classroom characteristics: teachers begin where the students are; teachers engage students in instruction through different learning modalities; a student competes more against himself or herself than others; teachers provide specific ways for each individual to learn; teachers use classroom time flexibly; and teachers are “diagnosticians,” prescribing the best possible instruction for each student. although these characteristics may seem ordinary or familiar, the real question is why are many teachers unable to include these characteristics in their repertoire of instructional strategies? and how can teachers be helped to acquire these skills and implement them in their classrooms? to successfully implement differentiated instruction in our schools, two events must occur. first, universities must develop pre-service programs that provide prospective teachers a meaningful understanding of the elements of differentiated instruction. second, school leaders must provide all teachers encouragement, support, and nurturing--all delivered through effective professional development that is founded on competent training and effective mentoring that is conducted by experienced, skilled professionals. technical and technology education teacher-preparation programs and schools in nigeria should set clear expectations for teachers’ growth in student-centered, responsive instruction; provide clear models for differentiated curriculum and differentiated instruction in action; provide mentoring that helps teachers reflect on student needs and appropriate responses; ensure teachers' comfort in implementing a growing range of instructional strategies that invite differentiation and facilitate its management; and provide early partnerships with teachers who practice differentiation. the support principals provide teachers as they begin to differentiate instruction is critical. it is not enough to declare that differentiated instruction is going to be the order of the day. principals are responsible for creating and supporting the overall school environment that support differentiated instruction. as the school's instructional leader, they have a critical role to play in arming teaching staff with both the will and knowledge needed for effective implementation of di. moving toward a differentiated approach, as with any significant change in practice, requires teachers to work harder and take risks. thus, the principal’s support and encouragement will be especially important during this process. teachers will need more than moral support from the principals. because an understanding of what approaches and activities are developmentally appropriate for the students, subject area expertise; an understanding of cognitive theory (i.e., how students' minds work) along with instructional strategies that align with these; and knowledge of the processes involved in differentiating instruction affect a teacher's readiness to effectively implement a differentiated approach to instruction, it is important that technical school/college principals assess the competence of teachers both as a whole and as individuals regarding each of the areas.   conclusion can differentiated instruction be the answer to meeting accountability and performance standards for at-risk and marginal students within our technical schools/colleges? alone, probably not, but combined with continuous assessment, responsive educational programs that provide necessary interventions and remediation for our most struggling students, as well as positive school, home, and community supports for students, it may indeed be the closest alternative we have in our secondary/technical schools that will enable professionals to truly be attentive and effectively responsive to all learners.     references   benjamin, a. (2006, spring). valuing differentiation leadership compass. retrieved july 23, 2008, from www.naesp.org/contentload. do?contentid=1917. gregory, g. h. (2003). differentiated instructional strategies in practice: training, implementation, and supervision. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. gregory, g. h., & chapman, c. (2007). differentiated instructional strategies; one size doesn't fit all (2nd ed). thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. howard, l., & james, a. (2003). what principals need to know about teaching differentiated instruction. alexandria, va: national association of elementary school principals and educational research service. oaksford, l., & jones, l. (2001). differentiated instruction abstract. tallahassee, fl: leon county schools. tomlinson, c. a. (1999). the differentiated classroom: responding to the needs of all learners. alexandria, va: the association for supervision and curriculum development. tomlison, c.a. (2001). how to differentiate instruction in mixed classrooms (2nd ed). alexandria, va: ascd. tomlinson, c., & allan, s. d. (2000). leadership in differentiating schools and classrooms. alexandria, va: association of supervision and curriculum development. (eric document reproduction service no. ed469218) walther-thomas, c., brownell, m. t., waldron, n., & mcleskey, j. (2001, january). helping schools include all learners. intervention in school & clinic, 175-181. wormelli, k. (2003). differentiating instruction: a modified concerto in four movements. ld online, retrieved from www.ldonline.org/article/5679.         _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) the role of arts education in nigeria bojor b. enamhe cross river university of technology, nigeria abstract this article explores the meaning of arts and education from different perspectives. after a careful exploration of the meaning of arts, the paper highlights the role of art in education with special reference to nigeria. art empowers individuals with creative skills that widen the base of participation in the society, create jobs, self reliance, identity, communicates by creating, recording and transferring ideas. it builds and perpetuates social, religious, political and economic stability. on the basis of this, suggestions are offered for developing art education in nigeria. art education is a basic and very important aspect of our education and should not be treated otherwise. art should be given premium like other subjects in the school curriculum. it should reflect a study of all ages, as this is vital in the development of individuals. keywords: art education, nigeria education, art management. 2 the role of arts education in nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) introduction education in nigeria is vital and has been adequately challenged. the survival of this engine house which services the country should be a concern. according to afigbo, “education is the aggregate of ideas, methods, institutions, facilities and personnel designed and deployed by society to teach its members how to get through life by doing or by nursing and realizing set goals” (2004). if the house is shaky, what happens to the rooms? arts in education translate the ideas of educational system into reality. it is to be noted that, it is one thing to introduce a subject in school, and another to successfully implement it. the state of art has for many years been a source of concern due to neglect. this neglect runs across primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. art organizations are not left out of it; some of these impacted organizations are museums, cultural centres, national theatres etc. sharing in this plight, uzoagba explains the situation, “if a proper understanding of art education has been made and better instructions on art followed in our schools and colleges much would have been done to redeem the subject from the neglect it has always suffered in our society (2002, 40). art is an important aspect of culture, social, economic, political and other and other aspects of society.. art education enables students to become creative arts practitioners (ajekeye, 1982, 2-3). students learn to develop the necessary imaginative, intellectual, theoretical and practical skills to equip them for continuing personal development and professionalism (ajibade, enamhe and oloidi, 2011,2006). art informs and provides visual, tactile and more practical learning environments. in the primary and secondary level of education, art teaching is in the service of general development of the pupils, which actually starts with drawing and illustrations in demonstrations of events which are supposed to be read out. but, instead of reading out, the illustrations speak on their own and leave lasting impressions in the pupils. definitions it becomes necessary at this stage to define the key terms in this study. art is a visual language whose statement records man’s response to a multiplicity of environmental stimuli. such stimuli can be social, political, cultural or even religious in closed or open societies (enamhe, 2007, p. 7). lazzari and schlesier consider art as, “strictly human phenomenon” (2008, p. 3-4). from the above, the definitions of art cannot be absolute and may not apply to some cases, situations medium that is used to express ideas about our human experiences and the world around us” (lazzari and schlesier, 2008, p. 4 ). art implies the quality, technique, expression, production of aesthetic significance. according to uzoagba, “art is a human conception made manifest by the skillful use of a medium. it signifies a doing, a making, a fashioning or putting together, and it usually implies that the thing is accomplished by human skills” (1982, p. 4). art is a broad and complex word which has defied attempts by experts to define in simple language. however from the definitions given, it therefore means that in this context, the definitions are properly conceived to take care of this presentation. education has been viewed from plato in the distant past and in schofield, linking training habits and virtue to education, whereas to milton, education is more general. it is completeness and generosity, the capability to perform justly, skillfully in magnanimously in all offices, both public and private, in all circumstances (schofield, 1982, p. 3). the term education can be used in three ways to mean a process, a system and a goal. it is a planned process for purposeful learning (ukpong, 2004, p. 269). 3 bojor b. enamhe in nigeria, education is carried out in three levels: the primary, secondary and tertiary levels. these levels are supposed to groom pupils into realizing their potentials. nigeria as a developing nation is interested in developmental imperatives whose goals and philosophies are associated with the importance of the system to the needs of the individuals and society. it is stated in the national policy of education (npe) section 1:7 that, “educational activity will be centred on the learner for maximum self development and fulfillment; (and) efforts will be made to relate education to overall community needs.” these goals and philosophies are meant to develop young people into effective citizenship but have proven difficult to achieve. the role of art the significance of art in the development of a child cannot be debated, art is a tool subject. it is the child’s lingua franca, through art the child’s understanding and thoughts are made clearer. other subjects require visuals and illustrations to back up the process of learning. to support the importance of learning from visuals, ajibade and elemi carried out a study on the importance of visuals in primary and secondary schools in calabar, cross river state, nigeria. they discovered that students performed better using visuals and illustrations to learn than those who learnt without them (2012, p. 161). they explained that, teaching and learning is a complex process that can be reinforced with learning aids which stimulate, motivate as well as arrest learner’s interest. whenever the eyes and ears are used together, there are always better results recorded. visual art arouses interest so it leaves an impression on the pupils. it helps the pupils to concentrate on and remember their work; they share experiences and active participation in class. visual arts find practical use in other subjects in schools. some use illustrations and experiments for clarity so the students need to know how to draw (enamhe, 2001, p. 154). pupils who partake in art classes seriously perform better in illustration. ajakey explains, “creative art is a correlation of all other subjects in school, for it influences their successful teaching through sketches or illustrations” (1982, p. 3). art as a subject may compensate for the education of persons who are not science inclined. the roles of art to the society are numerous: art promotes our cultural heritage and creates identity. nigeria is known for her traditional art cultures of nok, ife, benin, igbo ukwu, owo, esie, etc. through art works the history of nigeria is documented. nigerian traditional arts have survived the test of time with recorded history of the oldest art discoveries south of the saharan. stoker, in uzoagba confirms the skills, creativity, and dexterity of nigerian artists, “certain periods in the cultural transition of nigeria have a worldwide reputation of works of art created by nigerians of centuries past. these are described in every encyclopedia of world art…” (uzoagba, 1982, p. 90). the challenges in life have opened a better creative instinct merging the traditional and the modern for contemporary. art is very useful in everyday life and indeed so much with us, around us and within us. within the past decade, there is increased interest in social activities in nigeria’s older cultural products; for example, argungu fishing festival in kebbi and leboku (new yam) festival in cross river were reshaped to showcase contemporary ideas and realities. before now nigeria is a mono-causal economy centered on oil for export. to overcome the challenges of underdevelopment in the country, other sectors of the economy are forced to catch up with the demands and one of sectors is art and culture. this sector under tourism has the target of being “a major foreign exchange earner, a major employer of labour, and income distributor, a catalyst for sustainable rural development and poverty alleviation” (national 4 the role of arts education in nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) planning commission, 2007, p. 133). according to aniakor, modern works of art are relevant to the potential of arts and culture for export trade and promotion primarily because they have begun to enjoy international recognition and patronage (2001, p. 17). artifacts, art activities, festivals and art organizations are tourists’ delight, so need to be harnessed adequately to meet the demand. giant strides have been made in nigeria especially since 2005 when calabar and abuja carnivals started in earnest referred to as, “africa’s biggest street party and nigeria’s tourism destinations.” art products in colors, shapes, lines, forms, and textures are exhibited in costumes, apparels, masquerades, and dances in a variety of styles, body markings, and decorations etc. the benefits of art are numerous and can be seen in all aspects of life, i.e. politics, religion, social and the economy. challenges of art in education although some problems facing art are already embedded in the discussion, so far, nevertheless, more need to be disclosed. art in the past was not recognized as an important subject in schools (ajakeye, 1982, p. 2). parents continue to discourage their wards from studying art insinuating that art is for lazy people and for those who cannot do well in life. this continues to affect the number of students who are offered the subject in the three levels of education in nigeria. statistics from a study carried out by lawson and ajibade shows that out of the 2,866 school graduates in a selected group of secondary schools between 1998 – 2002, only 219 students took art as a subject (2003, p. 27-32). this is a clear indication of the dearth of artists in the labor market. also in tertiary institutes some research on the population of art students in tertiary institutes also reveals a dearth of students, for example at the bachelor of arts program of the department of visual arts and technology, calabar, nigeria (ajibade, enamhe and oloidi, 2011, p. 203). long term experience shows that students fear the subject because of drawing classes, which is a major course in the art department. another related study affirms the fact that the drawing aspect of art programs in many institutions of higher learning nationwide remains an area of academic phobia for some students (enamhe and echeta, 2010, p. 83). art is not just drawing, drawing is an aspect of it and it can be learned and understood like english language. silent problems faced by many students are the fact that art materials are expensive so they cannot afford to buy them. it is a practical subject which also requires materials to work with and from. students of cross river university of technology, calabar, visual arts department demonstrated recently for at least a week leaving the department locked up in protest as they demanded arts materials. students were scheduled to start examinations on the 4th of june 2012 for the first semester of the session, but they refused to do the examinations because of poor facilities (accommodation space) and lack of art materials. for students and instructors the lack of facilities, i.e. a conducive environment, such as a studio with good lighting, water, and all material requirements in an art studio is viewed as necessary for effective learning. the students demonstrated and they expected the school authority to respond. the school authority responded by making promises of providing materials and space. with this, the students returned back to school and did their examinations. however, this is recorded as a drawback to both the students and the authority. explaining further is the aspect of timing. hours and days were wasted which affected the academic calendar for the semester. the students were 5 bojor b. enamhe advised to have a proper channel of communication which will have positive results for subsequent issues. conclusion and the way forward art in education is very important part of our educational system. therefore, it should be given adequate consideration. this should start from the very beginning that is, the primary schools. the subject should be introduced in all schools and it should be a compulsory subject. with the dynamic nature of children when encouraged, success will be achieved. improvisation of local materials is necessary. this will ease the challenge of lack of money to purchase materials. schools should be able to train pupil’s artistic experience to acquire and control local materials and tools. this can stimulate creative interest and create power of imagination. the after effect may create a forum for displaying local resources and local artists. art materials can be supplied to students free by schools as motivation. exhibitions, conferences, seminars and workshops should be frequently organized for exchange of ideas and awareness. regular art activities will stimulate people’s responsive power. through art exhibitions, the audience gets informed seeing the art objects and mingling with the artist who produced the works. when art conferences, seminars and workshops are organized, participants hear and learn more about art, which will arouse new interest in art or create new knowledge in art activities. in order to achieve results, since tertiary institutions that offer art do so with the intent of producing creative artists to sustain and revive art education. the society of nigerian artists (sna) should carry out their objectives, which among others, includes “to protect and promote nigerian artistic heritage by fostering the understanding and appreciation of arts in nigeria, by upholding a high standard of efficiency in art, and defending the moral and material interest of artists in nigeria.” other associations, like the nigerian society for educations through art (nsea), the national gallery of art (nga), and the national council for arts and culture (ncac) are usable vessels to promote the arts. they can organize regular exhibitions and conferences for artists. government should develop policy guidelines in favor of art in education. the subject should be compulsory in all primary and secondary schools. this can be supervised by the different primary school management boards and the secondary school management boards. the curriculum for fine arts should be structured in such a way that pupils will enjoy their classes by including participatory activities in arts. this usually resembles play activities which children will delight in. in this way art education becomes easily accepted because of the nature of activities incorporated in the scheme. we must observe that arts has a key role to play in the growth and development of the nigerian economy and therefore needs to remain critical in developmental processes. this means that government needs to effectively render her commitment to arts, to enable the sector achieve its roles. educational policies as guidelines to developing education in nigeria, the federal ministry of education, and all stake holders should adopt workable policies which will revive the educational sector. art will automatically benefit if the education sector is properly provided for through the ministry of education and other stakeholders. 6 the role of arts education in nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) references afigbo, e. (2004), “education and the crisis of the nigerian polity: keynote address,” in education for sustainable democracy: the nigeria experience. ed. adiele afigbo, calabar: university of calabar press. ajakeye, g.( 1982). questions and answers on art and crafts for teachers: grade ii certificate examination. ekiti, nigeria: omolaya press. ajibade, b. and n. elemi (2012), “the importance of visual illustrations in recommended primary and secondary school textbooks in calabar,” journal of educational and social research, 2(1), 161 – 170. ajibade, b. and i. lawson (2003), “the limitations of teaching and learning fine and applied arts at tertiary level in cross river state,” global journal of educational research, 2(1&2), 27 – 32. ajibade, b., b. enamhe and w. oloidi (2011), “is fine arts inevitable requisite for bachelors degree in visual arts?: notes from the admission policy of a nigerian university,” mediterranean journal of social sciences, 2(3), 203 – 212. aniakor, chike c. (2001), “culture and tourism as aid to development in nigeria,” nigeria magazine. enamhe, b. and c. echeta (2010), “drawing as an instrument of professional excellence in visual arts: problems and prospects,” global journal of social sciences, 9(1), 83 86. enamhe, b. and e. echeta (2007), “visual arts: the hub in the wheel of communication,” global journal of humanities, 6(1), 7 10. enamhe, b. and c. echeta (2001), “barriers to understanding fine arts,” journal of educational issues (jei), 3, 7 14. national planning commission (may 2007). national economic empowerment and development strategy 2 (needs 2). abuja, nigeria: national government publication. schofield, h. ( 1981). the philosophy of education: an introduction. london: unwin educational books. the federal republic of nigeria (2004). the national policy on education (npe). abuja: ministry of education. ukpong, e. (2004), “integrating education into nigerian national development strategies,” in education for sustainable democracy: the nigerian experience. ed. adiele afigbo, calabar: university of calabar press. 7 bojor b. enamhe uzoagba, i. ( 1982). understanding arts in general education. onitsha: africana press. rukundo&magambo effective test administrationin schools: principals and good practices for test administrators in uganda. aloysius rukundo & dr. justine magambo university of science and technology, mbarara, uganda. abstract to establish academic achievement in any public school, teachers have to construct, administer and score tests or examinations. for a valid and reliable assessment of academic achievement, the tests should yield similar and consistent results/grades for comparable groups of students. the validity and reliability of assessment are dependent on many factors among which are administrations of the measurement. this paper focuses on test administration principles and good practices in schools; highlighting principles and good test administration practices and concluding with a summary of the suggestions that, if followed, lead to successful test administration in a any given public school system. introduction assessing the quality and quantity of learning has been, and always will be, a regular feature of classroom practice in every public school. for teachers to establish whether their pupils have been learning, they have to set, administer, score and grade examinations. testing provides information about the examinees' abilities and performance. it also enables meaningful observations and comparisons to be made of the kind of behaviour learners acquire during the teaching-learning process (child, 1997; farrant, 2000). similarly, performance by students should reflect similar grade, in the same test, and similar results should be obtained by groups of comparable candidates using the test on other occasions, even when marked by a different examiner. this kind of result may only be obtained if among others the test is carefully administered; implying that the quality of test management and administration ensures its validity and reliability (walklin, 1990). it is, therefore, incumbent upon persons entrusted with the management of tests to learn the principles and good practices of test administration to ensure these qualities of a test are upheld in testing. when test administrators are not conversant with the principles of test administration, the overall aim of examination process fails and more often than not, the examiner and the examinees suffer the consequences. across the world, a number of scholars have documented vast and interesting literatures regarding principles of test administration and good testing practices in schools. gronlund and linn (1990), for example, suggest that tests can be successfully administered by any conscientious teacher or test administrator, as long as the prescribed testing procedures are rigorously followed. they maintain that test administration becomes simple if: i.    the pupils are motivated to do their best, ii.   test administration directions are followed closely, iii.  time is accurately kept, iv.  any significant events that might influence test scores are recorded, and v.   testing materials are collected promptly. in nigeria, different approaches of test administration are adopted by different examination bodies. a number of stakeholders, including the federal state and local governments, non-governmental organizations and concerned individuals amalgamate their efforts for successful test administration in the public schools. in addition, punitive measures for those individuals who commit offences during the examination process have been put in place. the punitive measures range from imprisonment to monetary fines, depending on the type and magnitude of the offence committed during the examination process (jegede, 2003; nwahunanya, 2004). related to punitive measures, according to adewale (2008); if less emphasis is placed on paper qualification and continuous assessment encouraged, irregularities during examination administration can be eliminated, and consequently, the examination administration process can be more effective. the situation in uganda, regarding examination administration does not greatly differ from other countries. however, in uganda, examination management, national assessment and administration depends on the level of learning and the purpose of the examination coordinated by a national body. at the highest level of learning, universities have the autonomy to manage their respective examinations. it is, therefore, the responsibility of each university to put guidelines for administration of its examinations in place and to follow such guidelines. for secondary schools and colleges, the examination process is entrusted with the examining body, the uganda national examinations board (uneb). conscious of the need to obtain information on what learners actually learn in school, many countries now operate what are variously called national assessments, system assessments, learning assessments, or assessment of learning outcomes (greaney & kellaghan, 1996). in uganda the education policy review commission (1989), reported lack of reliable and up-to-date data on educational indicators. the only assessment information that was used for monitoring and evaluation was based on public examinations such as primary leaving examination (ple), the uganda certificate of education (uce) examination results. however, public examinations are done only at the end of a cycle of education and are designed to serve primarily as instruments for certification and selection of learners into institutions of higher learning (uned, 2010). in his study conducted on behalf of the uneb, ogwang (2007) stipulates that the process of examination administration is an uphill task, as it is sometimes marred by irregularities. this is why the uneb concedes that tracking down examination irregularities is a management feat: that it requires a lot of additional resources, both human and monetary ones to curb examination malpractices. kagoro (2008) in his study conducted for the uneb agrees with ogwang and contends that an examination supervisor is the overall officer responsible for the smooth and proper conduct and supervision of examinations. he asserts that the examination administration should ensure that the rules and regulations on the conduct and supervision of examinations are followed. in any case, the examination processes in uganda is tailored towards achieving high validity and reliability of any examination. this is why effective supervision of examinations is a very crucial element in the administration of public examinations. the officers involved in the administration of examinations must ensure that examinations are conducted in accordance with the laid down rules to maintain credibility of the system (uneb, 2004). principles of test administration the paramount guiding principle in administering any classroom test is that all examinees should be given a fair chance to demonstrate their achievement of the learning outcomes intended or planned. this implies physical and psychological environment in which the examination is taking place has to be conducive for the examinee to facilitate the achievement of the testing outcome. the factors that might interfere with validity of the measurement also have to be controlled. even though the evidence regarding the effects of physical and environmental conditions on test performance is inconclusive, examinees should be as relaxed as possible and distractions should be eliminated or minimized. whereas distractions during testing are known to have little effect on the scores of students, they may have profound effect on especially young children (gronlund & linn, 1990; mehrens& lehmann, 1999; linn & miller, 2005). another principle is students having positive attitudes towards a test. people are likely to perform better at any endeavor, including test taking, when they approach the experience with a positive attitude. unfortunately, teachers frequently fail to help students develop positive attitudes toward tests. students are not likely to perform at their best when they are excessively tense. thus, the experience of test anxiety among some students (thorndike, 1977; mehrens & lehmann, 1999; linn & miller, 2005). it is imperative that test administrators are qualified enough and trusted persons. this is to ensure that tests are properly managed to obtain valid and reliable results. test administrators need to have the opportunity to learn their responsibilities as a prerequisite to accurate test results (united states department of labour, 1999). it should also be noted that a well prepared test is easy to administer, and the reverse is true with a poorly prepared test. it is equally important to realize that a successful test administration exercise is a product of test planning. cheating is most likely to occur in a poorly planned test, thus, proving a challenge to test administration (fontana, 1995; mehrens& lehmann, 1999; cottrell, 2001; linn & miller, 2005). however, a good test administration irrespective of the test preparation is paramount. good test administration practices good testing practices rest in the hands of the examiner, who should ensure the testing exercise, runs smoothly. the period before the test, during the test and after the test should be effectively managed to realize a highly efficient testing period. period before the test security of testing instruments: all test materials used in the assessment process, whether paper-and-pencil or computer-based must be kept secure. lack of security may result in some test takers having access to test questions before the test, thus, compromising the quality, and invalidating their scores. to prevent irregularities, test administrators should, for example, keep testing materials in locked rooms or cabinets and limit access to those materials to staff involved in the assessment process. test security is also a responsibility of test developers to ensure the test is not compromised over time. to maintain their security, test developers should introduce new forms of tests periodically (gronlund & linn, 1990; united states department of labour, 1999). related to security of tests, testing authorities should endeavor to open cartons containing test materials and inspect the contents to verify that appropriate test levels and quantities have been received. after inspection of the testing materials, they should be securely stored since examination monitors may during unannounced visits inspect these materials to ascertain the seals have not been tampered with before the due date (gronlund & linn, 1990). after securing an adequate number of tests, the following considerations should be part of prior preparation checklist: a.) examinees and parents have been notified regarding the test date and time. b.) candidates have been reminded to bring materials necessary for the test. c.) all students with special needs (e.g. glasses and hearing aids) have been considered before the start of the test. d.) all adequate invigilation has been planned. e.) examination administrators have read appropriate test administration procedures such as timing, examination regulations and test modifications. f.) the rooms where the test is to be conducted have adequate ventilation and lighting and have been properly arranged. g.) seats are arranged in such a way that candidates cannot look at each other's work. h.) candidates have been thoroughly prepared for the examination by suggesting to them ways of studying, giving them practice tests like those to be used, teaching them test-taking skills and stressing the value of tests as for improving learning (gronlund & linn, 1990; national college testing association, 2010). i.) when all is set for the exam, secure the room, including the writing "testing in progress, do not enter". period during the test the proper preparation for examinations may not produce the desired results if the conditions during the test are mishandled. it is the cardinal duty of the test administrators or institutions to ensure that conditions during testing ensure successful testing (gronlund and linn (1990). the following are guidelines that need to be observed to ensure required conditions for successful testing are fulfilled: observe precision in giving instructions or clarifications when an examiner announces that there will be "a full three hours" to complete the test and then talks for the first fifteen minutes, examinees feel that they are being unfairly deprived of testing time. besides, just before a test is no time to make assignments, admonish the class, or introduce the next topic. in other words, examinees are mentally set for the test and will ignore anything not pertaining to the test for fear it will hinder their recall of information needed to answer the questions. thus, the well intentioned remarks fall on "deaf ears" and merely increase anxiety toward the test and create hostility toward the teacher. avoid interruptions at times, an examinee will ask to have an ambiguous item clarified, and it may be beneficial to explain the item to the entire group at the same time. all other distractions outside and inside the examination room should be eliminated, where possible. the challenge, however, is that more often than not, the distractions are beyond the test administrators' reach! avoid giving hints to students who ask about individual items if the item is ambiguous, it should be clarified for the entire group. if it is not ambiguous, refrain from helping the pupil to answer it. the challenge is that at times, refraining from giving hints to examinees who ask for help may be difficult especially for new comers in the field of testing. nevertheless, giving unfair aid to some students decreases the validity of the test results and lowers class morale. discourage cheating when there is good teacher-student rapport and students view tests as helpful rather than harmful, cheating are usually not a problem. under other conditions, however, it might be necessary to discourage cheating by special seating arrangements and careful supervision. candidates receiving unauthorized assistance from other examinees during an examination have the same deleterious effect on validity of test results and class morale as does receiving special hints from the teacher. we are interested in pupils doing their best; but for valid results, their scores must be based on their own unaided efforts. careful proctoring of the testing session, such as, periodically walking around the room and observing how the students are doing is also of paramount importance in preventing cheating. the obstacle is that many teachers define proctoring as "being present in the examination room". they consequently become physically present but spend their time reading a novel, writing a letter or marking and scoring previous tests. the best way to proctor an examination is to observe students doing the test and not being preoccupied at one's desk (gronlund & linn, 1990; mehrens & lehmann, 1999). another way of discouraging cheating is discouraging students from using any form of communication devices, either in the room where the test is being administered or while on a supervised break, such as a bathroom visit. it would be better if students are reminded earlier that they may not use any devices including but not limited to cellular telephones, pagers, audiocassette players, radios, personal digital assistants, video devices, associated headphones, headsets, microphones, or earplugs while taking an examination. ensure that no eating takes place in the examination hall students should not be allowed to bring any food items in the examination room, unless it is on proven medical grounds. under such circumstances, it is advisable that special arrangements are made in advance for purposes of securing a designated area where the food items could be kept, to avoid distracting those who do not require the food items. identify each examinee to prevent a situation where someone may attempt to take the examination on someone else's behalf students should, therefore, be informed in advance to bring with them their identity cards and/or examination cards (mbarara university of science and technology, must, 2008). handle emergencies appropriately if an examinee becomes ill during the examination, and must leave the examination hall, they should not be allowed to return. the test administrator is advised to make a comprehensive report about the candidate's situation to make it possible for authorities to consider a retest for such a candidate, to be scheduled for another time. inform students on progress of testing it is the responsibility of the test supervisor or invigilator to keep the students informed of the time remaining (e.g., writing the time left on the blackboard at 15-minute intervals (mehrens & lehmann, 1999). period after the test orderliness is needed for a successful testing process until all the test materials are securely in the hands of the test administrators. after the completion of the examination, the following are expected; a) all test materials and documents, both used and unused should be collected and accounted for. they may be kept in a secure and lockable facility. b) count through candidates' scripts to ensure their number corresponds with the names on the examination attendance register. counting also eliminates scenarios where the attendance register shows a student attended an examination but his or her script is not available. conclusions tests or examinations are among the components of the teaching-learning process in any public school system, and it is conducted at all levels of learning in different institutions in nigeria, africa and the globe. established examination bodies have set regulations and procedures in the administration of the tests or examinations to individuals, whether in the classrooms or designated settings. just as classroom environment is vital for teaching-learning and personal educational growth and development of the individual, so is participation in examinations. therefore, during test administration process; a) all examinees should be accorded a fair chance through the provision of conducive physical and psychological environment. b) candidates involved in the examination should develop positive attitudes, adhere to the rules, and therefore conduct themselves decently during the examination. c) the teachers' roles must be recognized because they contribute to the success of examination or test administration. d) to realize a smooth test administration exercise, the period before, during and after the test should be carefully managed. references child, d., (1997).psychology and the teacher, (6th ed.) london and new york: continuum. cottrell, s., (2001). teaching study skills and supporting learning, (1st ed.) new york: palgrave. farrant, j.s., (2000). principles and practice of education, (new ed.). london:longman. fontana, d., (1995). psychology for teachers, (3rd ed.). new york: palgrave. greaney, v., and kellaghan, t. (1996) monitoring the learning outcomes of education systems. washington: the world bank. gronlund, n.e., and linn, r.l., (1990). measurement and evaluation in teaching. new york: macmillan. jegede, 0. t., (2003). checkmating the unabated crisis of examination malpractices in nigeria educational system, nigeria education sector analysis, 1992, information bulletin (1). kagoro, t., (2008). assessment considerations for special needs candidates at primary leaving, uganda certificate of education and uganda advanced certificate of education examinations , kampala: the uneb. linn, r.l., and miller, m.d., (2005). measurement and assessment in teaching, (9th ed.). new jersey: pearson. mbarara university of science and technology., (2008). examination regulations for semester system, 2008-2011 . mehrens, w.a., and lehmann., (1999). measurement and evaluation in education and psychology , (4th ed.). new york: wadsworth. nationalcollege testing association, (2010). professional standards and guidelines, http://www.ncta.testing.org/resources. nwahunanya, c., (2004). examination malpractice: a threat to the credibility of distance education, distance education at the crossroads in nigeria. ogwang, s.g., (2007). the persistence of malpractice in examinations conducted by uganda national examinations board at ple, uce and uace levels , kampala: the uneb. thorndike, r.l., (1977). measurement and evaluation in psychology and education, (4th ed.). new york: wiley. uganda national examinations board. (2004). regulations on the conduct and supervision of uce and uace examinations , kampala, uneb press. united states department of labour., (1999). a review of principle of assessment, http://www.hr-guide.com walklin, l., (1990). teaching and learning in further and adult education, cheltenham: stanley thornes. web support http://www.uneb.ac.ug/index.php?link=departments&&key=nape challenges in the application of e-learning by secondary school teachers in anambra state, nigeria sabina nwana nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria abstract this is an empirical research study which investigated the challenges in the application of e-learning in secondary schools in onitsha north lga, anambra state, nigeria. two hundred and twenty-five (225) teachers in public secondary schools were used as the sample for the study. a self-developed instrument (tiuelm) on the availability and use of e-learning materials was used for data collection. the instrument contained 25 items. the reliability co-efficient of the instrument stood at 0.88. the data collected were analyzed using frequency distribution and mean. the findings revealed: acute shortage of e-learning materials such as on-line/internet-connected computers, e-mail facilities, multimedia television, multimedia computer and digital library. it was also revealed that the few available ones such as off-line/ordinary computers, scanner, printer and ready-made courseware are not utilized because the teachers lack the knowledge and skills of computer application. the only material identified as available and in use is the telephone. it was recommended among other things that, the government should embark on a massive computer training program for teachers. teachers should be trained and retrained through in–service training, seminars, workshops and conferences for acquisition of the knowledge and skills needed for e-learning application in secondary schools in nigeria. 2 challenges in the application of e-learning by secondary school teachers in anambra state, nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) introduction in this age of information and communication technology (ict), there is growing concern for the use of ict resources such as the computer, scanner, printer, intranet, internet, e-mail, videophone systems, teleconferencing devices, wireless application protocols (wap), radio and microwaves, television and satellites, multimedia computer and multimedia projector in curriculum implementation. in e-learning, curriculum content in the form of texts, visuals, e.g. pictures, posters, videos, audio/sound, multicolor images, maps, and graphics, can be simultaneously presented online to students in both immediate locations (classroom model of e-learning) and various geographical distances (distance education model of e-learning). e-learning in education is the wholesome integration of modern telecommunications equipment and ict resources, particularly the internet, into the education system. tracy (1995) defines the internet as the international network of communications in which computers in the wide area network (wan) talk to each other. shavinina (2001) defines ict as all the digital technologies, including: computer, scanner, printer, telephone, internet, digital satellite system (dss), direct broadcast satellite (dbs), pocket-switching, fiber optic cables, laserdisc, microwaves, and multi-media systems for collection, processing, storage and dissemination of information all-over the world. e-learning as an aspect of ict is relatively new in nigeria’s educational system. it is a departure from the conventional approach in curriculum implementation. the main purpose of e-learning is to transform the old methods and approaches to curriculum implementation and not to silence the curriculum or to extinguish or erase the contents of curriculum. e-learning is driven by the curriculum. it should follow the curriculum and should not rob the curriculum of its essence. e-learning should ensure effective pedagogy and curriculum implementation in the computer age. according to nicholls and nicholls (1980), mkpa (1987), and offorma (2002), curriculum implementation is the planning and execution of the contents of curriculum in order to bring about certain changes in the behavior of the learners and the assessment of the extent to which the changes take place. the primary purposes of implementation is to achieve the objectives of instruction, and achieve retention and transfer of knowledge. e-learning is an instructional medium that permits alternative approaches to curriculum implementation in an ict age. richmond (1997) observed that, there is a great link between the curriculum and ict and that there are three major areas that technology can influence learning, including: i. presentation, demonstration and the implementation of data using productivity tools. ii. use of curriculum – specific applications such as educational games, drills and practice, simulations, tutorials, virtual laboratory visualizations and graphics, representations of abstract concepts, musical composition and expert systems. iii. use of information and resources on cd-rom, online encyclopedia, interactive maps and atlases, electronic journals and other references. similarly, the role of ict in curriculum implementation is recognized by the nigeria national policy on education (frn, 2004, p. 53) where it stated that, “the government shall provide facilities and necessary infrastructures for the promotion of ict and e-learning.” it is against this background that the researcher intends to find out the extent of availability and use of e-learning materials by teachers in secondary schools. statement of problem the call for application of e-learning in secondary education is to infuse and inject efficiency and 3 sabina nwana _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) effectiveness in curriculum implementation. however, in developing countries like nigeria, e-learning is challenged with the problem of material devices such as computer, computer laboratories, internet and e-mail facilities, videophone systems and teleconferencing devices, fax and wireless applications, digital library, digital classrooms, multimedia systems and the problem of multimedia courseware development among others (global information technology report, 2005) . other studies indicated that there is dearth of trained teachers for e-learning, lack of facilities, infrastructures and equipment (ikemenjima, 2005; and jegede & owolabi, 2008). the problem is that e-learning in secondary education is challenged by the new technologies in terms of availability and use. it is against this background that the present study is carried out to determine the extent of availability and use of e-learning materials. second, it seeks to identify possible strategies for availability and use in curriculum implementation. purpose this study examines: 1. the availability of e-learning materials for curriculum implementation in secondary schools. 2. the extent of application and/or use of the available e-learning materials by teachers. 3. the strategies for improving e-learning application in secondary schools. research questions 1. what are the e-learning materials available to secondary school teachers for curriculum implementation? 2. to what extent are the available e-learning materials currently used by the teachers? 3. what are the strategies for improving the use of e-learning materials in secondary schools? methodology the study employed a survey research design. the population was all the teachers in the (13) thirteen public secondary schools in onitsha north local government area of anambra state, nigeria. the sample for the study was comprised of 225 teachers who were randomly selected from the total population of 525 teachers. the instrument for data collection was a self-developed 25-item questionnaire titled, “teachers’ identification and use of e-learning materials” (tiuelm). it was structured on a four-point scale and has three sections (a-c) which sought information on the three research questions. the face and content validation of the instrument were established by two experts each in the curriculum and measurement and evaluation units of the department of educational foundations at nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. the reliability of the instrument was determined using the pearson product moment correlation. a reliability coefficient of 0.88 was obtained, an indication that the instrument was reliable for data collection. the copies of the questionnaire that were administered by the researcher were returned and used for computation. the data collected were analyzed using frequency distribution and mean. since the items were structured on a four-point rating scale, the decision rule was based on the mid-point of the scale, 2.50. therefore, items with mean scores of 2.50 and above were regarded as agreed or positive responses while items with below 2.50 were regarded as disagreed or negative responses. results 4 challenges in the application of e-learning by secondary school teachers in anambra state, nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) research question 1. what are the e-learning materials available to secondary school teachers for curriculum implementation? table 1 mean responses on the availability of e-learning materials for curriculum implementation n = 225 s/n items: availability of materials sa a d sd x decision 1 off-line/ordinary computers 52 138 23 11 3.03 av 2 telephone/wireless applications 191 32 02 0 3.84 av 3 on-line/internet computers 0 0 04 221 1.02 na 4 scanner 43 119 40 23 2.81 av 5 printers 46 152 19 08 3.05 av 6 e-mail facilities 0 0 10 215 1.04 na 7 multimedia television 0 0 03 222 1.01 na 8 multimedia projectors 0 0 0 225 1.00 na 9 digital library 0 0 0 225 1.00 na 10 ready-made courseware: cd-rom, etc 35 116 57 17 2.75 av table 1 columns are labeled as follows: s/n = item number; items: availability of materials = do you believe the following item (as listed by s/n) is available; sa = somewhat agree it is available; a = agree it is available; d = disagree it is available; sd = somewhat disagree it is available, x = mean score of responses for this item; decision = overall respondent outcome based on the mean score for the item. the “decision” is av which means available or na which means not available. table 1 shows that items 1,2,4,5 and 10 with mean ratings of 3.03, 3.84, 2.81, 3.05 and 2.75 are available. they include: off-line or ordinary computers, telephone and/or wireless applications, scanners, printers and ready-made courseware. the respondents affirmed that items 3,6,7,8 and 9 with mean ratings of 1.02, 1.4, 1.01, 1.00 and 1.00 are not available. they include: on-line or internet connected computers, e-mail facilities, multimedia television, multimedia projectors, and digital library. research question 2. to what extent are the available e-learning materials used by the teachers? table 2 mean responses on the use of available materials n = 225 s/n items: use of available materials sa a d sd x decision 11 off-line/ordinary computers 0 04 08 213 1.07 niu 12 telephone/wireless applications 193 30 2 0 3.85 iu 13 scanner 0 0 5 220 1.02 niu 14 printers 0 04 06 215 1.06 niu 15 ready-made courseware: cd-rom, etc 0 0 0 225 1.00 niu 5 sabina nwana _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) table 2 columns are labeled as follows: s/n = item number; items: use of available materials = to what extent do you believe the following available item (as listed by s/n) is used by the teachers; sa = somewhat agree it is used; a = agree it is used; d = disagree it is used; sd = somewhat disagree it is used, x = mean score of responses for this item; decision = overall respondent outcome based on the mean score for the item. the “decision” is either iu which means in use or niu which means not in use. table 2 indicates that items 11, 13, 14 and 15 are available but not in use. they have mean ratings of 1.07, 1.02, 1.06 and 1.00. however, the only material available and in use is item 12 that is telephone and/or wireless applications with mean rating of 3.85. research question 3. what are the strategies for improving the use of e-learning materials in secondary schools? table 3 mean responses on the strategies for improving e-learning applications n = 225 s/n items: strategies for improvement x decision 16 massive computer literacy program for teachers. 3.81 agree 17 adequate provision of online computers/e-mail. 4.00 agree 18 connection of classrooms/auditorium to the internet. 3.91 agree 19 procurement of multimedia systems. 3.75 agree 20 provision of incentives for courseware development. 4.00 agree 21 provision of digital libraries. 3.97 agree 22 employment of computer technicians for routine repairs. 3.70 agree 23 provision of standby generators for regular power supply. 3.88 agree 24 provision of security for safeguarding e-learning materials. 3.67 agree 35 training & retraining of teachers through seminars, workshops, and/or conferences. 3.94 agree table 3 addresses research question 3 on the strategies for improving e-learning applications in curriculum implementation. the table shows that all the respondents agreed that variables 17, adequate provision of online computers and e-mail, and 20, provision of incentives for courseware development, with mean ratings of 4.00 and 4.00 respectively will promote e-learning applications in curriculum implementation in secondary schools. the table also shows that all respondents somewhat agreed or agreed that items16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25 with mean ratings of 3.81, 3.91 3.75, 3.97, 3.70, 3.88, 3.67 and 3.94 respectively will promote e-learning applications in curriculum implementation in secondary schools. discussion the findings from research question 1, table 1 indicate the availability of five out of the ten items listed for e-learning applications. the five that are available are: off-line or ordinary computers, telephone or/and wireless applications, scanner, printers and ready-made courseware. this 6 challenges in the application of e-learning by secondary school teachers in anambra state, nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) supports the findings of akinola (2005) in which only five out of the twelve ict tools needed for business education were available. this study is also consistent with the findings of ikemenjima (2005) and jegede and owolabi (2008) that there are infrastructural deficiencies and shortage of facilities, including: computers, computer laboratories and online-classroom for the study of computer education in secondary schools. similarly, the findings agree with the research reports of ololube, ubogu, and egbezor (2007) that ict infrastructures and facilities are not available for instructional delivery in nigerian tertiary institutions. the findings are also in line with the global information technology report (2012, p. xxiii) which revealed that nigeria ranked 112 out of 142 countries surveyed for network readiness to participate and benefit from ict development. research question 2, table 2 addresses the use of the available e-learning materials for curriculum implementation. the respondents affirmed those items 11, off-line or ordinary computers; 13, scanners; 14, printers; and 15, ready-made courseware: cd-rom, etc., were available but not in use as indicated in the mean ratings of 1.00 for each of them. the respondents indicated that the only material available and in use is item 12, telephone or wireless applications with mean rating of 3.85. this confirms the results of effiong (2005) and jegede and owolabi (2008) that ict materials such as computers, computer labs, printers, scanners, e-books, textbooks, workbooks and books on ict are not available and not in use in nigerian secondary schools for computer education. again, the findings agree with that of seiden (2000) and uhaegbu (2001) for nigeria which revealed a low level of usage of ict equipment and facilities in secondary schools. however, as a comparison, the findings are contrary to that of becker (2000) that found us primary and secondary schools use computers in all subjects, particularly in the teaching of languages and mathematics. research question 3, table 3 indicates that the vast majority of respondents agreed with items 16 through 25 as measures to take to improve e-learning application in curriculum implementation in secondary schools. providing a massive computer literacy program for teachers had a mean score of 3.81. adequate provision of online computers and e-mail facilities had a mean score of 4.00. connection of classrooms and auditoriums to the internet had a mean score of 3.91. procurement of multimedia systems had a mean score of 3.75. provision of incentives for courseware development had a mean score of 4.00. provision of digital libraries had a mean score of 3.97. employment of computer technicians for routine repair had a mean score of 3.70. provision of standby generators for regular power supply had a mean score of 3.88. provision of security for e-learning materials had a mean score of 3.67. training and retraining of teachers through seminars, workshops, and conferences had a mean score of 3.94. the findings agree with sundarajan (2005), evoh (2007), and nwana (2008a, 2008b, 2009a, 2009b) that teachers should have adequate training for computer education. also, that necessary facilities and e-learning materials should be provided for effective curriculum implementation in secondary school. conclusion e-learning means electronic learning. it is a computerized and digital type of education in which texts, audio or sound, pictures, images, graphics and videos can be simultaneously presented online to students. two models of e-learning are the classroom and distance education models. e-learning enhances curriculum implementation through the development and use of multimedia courseware relevant to teaching-learning situations. some multimedia coursewares include learning activity package (lap), power point slides, and diskettes. software may be ready-made or teacher developed instructional software. problems hindering e-learning were identified as 7 sabina nwana _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) follows: a dearth of videophone and teleconferencing systems, massive computer illiteracy, difficulties in the internet application and use, difficulties in the use of world wide web (www), and problems associated with e-mail. other factors include the opportunities for development and use of courseware, the high cost of digital libraries, cost of internet connection, cost of computer and its accessories, lack of multimedia systems, epileptic or inconsistent power supply, techno-phobia and resistance. in conclusion, the government should mount an intensive e-learning training program for teachers, as well as adequately provide all the materials needed for e-learning application in curriculum implementation in secondary schools. recommendations for prospective and effective e-learning in view of the problems hindering e-learning in nigeria, the following recommendations are offered for prospective and effective e-learning:  the government of nigeria should embark on a massive computer literacy training program nation-wide particularly for teachers and learners at all levels. this should be accomplished through in-service training of teachers, workshops, seminars, and conferences. for students computer education should be a compulsory subject at all levels.  all classrooms and auditoriums in nigeria should be connected to the internet in order to enhance web-based instruction. the government should do this by paying internet connection fees to internet service providers (isp) to provide internet services.  videophone, teleconferencing and multimedia systems e.g. multimedia computers and multimedia projectors should be provided in adequate quantities by the government of nigeria for effective e-learning in secondary education.  teachers in nigeria should be motivated and encouraged to develop and use multimedia courseware and software relevant to teaching and learning. the government should motivate teachers through provision of adequate funds for courseware development.  the government of nigeria should provide digital libraries in every educational institution. the library is the highest reservoir of knowledge and no educational institution can do without it. ensure that each digital library has a server for storage, retrieval, uploading and downloading of information.  the government of nigeria should employ technologists and technicians to take care of internet facilities and equipment and to carry out routine repairs within education facilities.  the government should set up standby generators and uninterruptable power supplies (ups devices) to tackle the problem of epileptic or inconsistent power supply in order to support the use of electronic equipment for e-learning. references akinola, c.i. (2005). the challenges of reform, information and communication technology in business education, curriculum and information technology. business education book of readings, 3(5) 120 – 125. becker, h.j. (2000). who’s wired and who’s not: children’s access to and use of computer technology. journal of children and computer technology, 10(2) 44-49. 8 challenges in the application of e-learning by secondary school teachers in anambra state, nigeria _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) dutta, s. & bilbao-osorio, b., (eds.). (2012). the global information technology report 2012: living in a hyperconnected world. geneva: world economic forum and insead. effiong, j.e. (2005). business education in the era of information and communication technology: issues, problems and prospects. business education journal, 5(1) 3 – 7. evoh, c.j. (2007). policy networks and the transformation of secondary education through icts in africa: the prospects and challenges of the nepad e-schools initiative. international journal of education and development, 3(1) 24 – 30. federal republic of nigerian (2004). national policy on education. lagos: nerdc press. jegede, p.o. & owolabi, a.j. (2003). computer education in nigerian secondary schools: gaps between policy and practice. meridian: a middle school technology journal, 6(2) 1 – 11. retrieved from http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/sum2003/nigeria/nigeria.pdf. mac-ikemenjima, d. (2005, april). e-education in nigeria: challenges and prospects. a paper presented at the 8 th un ict task force meeting. dublin, ireland. mkpa, m.a. (1987). curriculum development and implementation. owerri: totan publishers, ltd. nicholls, a & nicholls, h. (1980). developing curriculum: a practical guide. london: george allen. nwana s.e. (2008a). information and communication technology (ict) in education: the place of teleconferencing. journal of adult education studies (jaes), 3(1) 86-91. nwana s.e. (2008b). technological innovations in education: the multi-media projector paradigm. multidisciplinary journal of research development (muljored), 11(1) 67-72. nwana, s.e. (2009a). computer education: a must for the development of the girl-child in nigeria society. journal of adult education studies, 3(2) 38-44. nwana, s.e. (2009b). impediments to effective implementation of the national open university in an age of computer technology. journal of research and production, 15(1) 180-188. offorma g.c (2002). curriculum implementation and instruction. onitsha: uni-world educational publishers. ololube, n.p., ubogu, a.e., & egbezor, d.e. (2007). ict and distance education programmes in a sub-saharan african country: a theoretical perspective. journal of information technology impact, 7(3) 181-194. http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/sum2003/nigeria/nigeria.pdf 9 sabina nwana _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) richmond, r. (1997). integration of technology in the classroom: an instructional perspective. saskatchewan school trustees association ssta research centre report, 97-02. seiden, p.a. (2000). where have all the patrons of ict gone. reference and user services quarterly, 39(3) 2-10. shavinina, l.v. (2001). a new generation of educational multimedia: high intellectual and creative educational multimedia technologies. new york: mary ann liberty publishers. sundarajan, a. (2005, november). ict and education: challenges and practices. i4d: information for development. retrieved from http://www.i4donline.net/nov05/digitallearning.asp. tracy, l. (1995). the internet companion. new york: addison-wesley publishers. uhaegbu, a. (2001). the information user: issues and themes. enugu: john-jacobs publishers. http://www.i4donline.net/nov05/digitallearning.asp obidike-etal teachers’ awareness of the existence and the use of technology to promote children’s literacy instruction obidike, ngozi, d., ph.d. early childhood & primary education faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka-nigeria drngoobidike@yahoo.co.uk       anyikwa, ngozi, e., ph.d. early childhood & primary education faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka ngozianyikwa@yohoo.com   enemou, joy o., ph.d. early childhood & primary education faculty of education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka enemuojoby@yahoo.com abstract this paper examined the awareness of teachers of nursery and primary schools on the existence of the technological resources that could be used to support children’s literacy instruction, as well as the use of such technological resources for enriching children’s literacy instruction. the study was carried out in awka local government education zone in anambra state, nigeria. two (2) research questions guided the study. five (500) nursery and primary school teachers were selected as the sample for the study using simple random sampling technique. questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection which was analyzed using mean scores. the findings, among others, were that both the nursery and primary school teachers are able to identify the technological tools that could be used to enhance literacy instruction in children but are not aware of how such resources could be used. suggestions for improvement were provided. introduction   literacy instruction traditionally refers to the teaching of basic literacy skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking. in today's digital world, however, technology has contributed to an expanded understanding of literacy. besides this, children of information age also use technology skills for communicating, investigating, computing, accessing and using information, thinking critically about messages inherent in news media and understanding and evaluating data. as policymakers and educators ponder what to be literate in a digitized society means, most educators today agree that literacy instruction, at the minimum, should include computing skills, identification and usage of audio-visuals in the classroom, assistive technology devices of all kinds, etc. all these tools are needed in preparing teachers for the instructional activities in our public schools. according to jordan (2009), a large body of research exists on preparing teachers to teach, use, and integrate technology in the classroom. though this body of research does not directly relate to the questions posed in this study, comparisons can be made to teacher education. for instance, several of these studies report that teacher preparation programs fail to properly prepare teachers for using and integrating technology into classroom teaching (e.g., doering, hughes, & huffman, 2003; panel on educational technology, 1997; u.s.congress, 1995) and that novice teachers report high anxiety in the use of technology in the classroom although they frequently use technology outside of the classroom in personal contexts (e.g., laffey & musser, 1998). this is a related factor, as teachers need to consider the many technologies available to them and how they could be used and integrated into everyday teaching of the curriculum (mckenzie, 2001). an important reason for reviewing these studies is to point out that teachers may or may not be equally reluctant or ill equipped to use technology for mentoring purposes. if integrating technology into everyday teaching is a challenge for novice teachers, using technology as a mentoring tool may prove to be equally challenging. furthermore, progressive educators see a greater role for technology in the literacy classroom; they believe that technology has the potentials to motivate children to reading and writing. for example, meyer and rose (2000) observed that new technology has the potential to revitalize reading instruction and to make reading more relevant to the lives of children growing up in the electronic age. this is in line with the observation of bruce and peyton (1999) that teachers of young children can use technological network-based approaches to literacy instruction to support authentic reading and writing, collaboration, student-centered learning, writing across the curriculum and the creation of classroom writing activities. according to holum and gahala (2001) the technological network-based tools that teachers can use to promote children’s literacy instruction include: audio booksprofessionally recorded, unabridged versions of fiction or nonfiction books on tape children can listen to and follow along silently with the printed version level. electronic bookselectronic texts that are available on cd-rom, the internet, or special disks presented visually. anderson-inman and horney (1998) noted that electronic books are searchable, modifiable (i.e. font sizes can be increased to meet the needs of the reader), and enhanceable with embedded resources (e.g., definitions and details). online textschildren’s texts materials that are available on the world wide web. electronic talking bookselectronic texts that provide embedded speech. the speech component offers a digitized reading of general sections, as well as pronunciations of specific words within the text; it supports and coaches students as they read the text of the story (leu, 2000). programmed reading instruction various types of software programs, computer-assisted instruction, and integrated learning systems, that offer programmed reading instruction for students. this skills-based instruction ranges from letter recognition to phonics instruction to vocabulary building. word processingtools that allow many students to write and edit their work more easily. word-processing tools such as spelling checkers are useful aids that improve the quality of children writing. desktop publishing of children work an extension of word processing, in which children learn to format text, plan the layout of pages, insert charts and graphics, to produce a professional-looking final copy of their reports, stories, and poems . multimedia composingvarious software programs allow students to insert images, sounds, and video, thereby creating complex, multilayered compositions. for students who have difficulty with writing, multimedia composing presents a means of self-expression and provides support for development of reading and writing skills. online publishing of student work online publishing of students' work through the school's web site. in developed countries, classrooms often have their own web pages, which can display student assignments and extracurricular writing. according to karchmer (2000), publishing online is a motivating factor when completing classroom assignments.  internet-based communication: e.g. using electronic mail (e-mail), electronic bulletin boards, and e-mail lists to promote children reading and writing skills. such internet-based communication can be with peers, adults, or professional experts from around the world. educational researchers and practitioners alike assert that the potential of new technologies for learning is likely to be found not in the technologies themselves but in the way in which these technologies are used as tools for learning (means & olson, 1995; owston, 1997; valdez et al., 1999). in literacy instruction, technology has both traditional and authentic uses (singh & means, 1994). a traditional use of technology is skills reinforcement; for example, children who need additional practice in reading might work individually on computers equipped with reading-comprehension software. an authentic use of technology on the other hand, is using it as a tool to accomplish a complex task; for example, children who are creating a written report might use the internet for research, word-processing software to write and format the text and hypermedia software to add images. technology is an area of the curriculum, as well as a tool for learning, in which teachers must demonstrate their own awareness and capacity for learning. in other words, for effective and meaningful teaching in the present information age, the demonstration of teachers’ awareness and competencies for instructional use of information and communication technology (ict) cannot be underscored. if teachers are aware of the use of it in literacy instruction, children are likely to benefit from their knowledge. therefore, bearing in mind the existing ict-poor school environments in nigeria, a developing country, and the vastness of ict capabilities, the question that comes to mind include: are teachers of young children aware of the existence and the use of technologies to promote children’s literacy instruction?  this is the question that presents the problems of this study. this paper, therefore, tries to find out the extent to which teachers of young children in the public school system are aware of the existence and the use of technological resources to promote children’s literacy instruction. specifically, the study tries to find out if any difference exists in the nursery and primary school teachers’ awareness as to the existence and the use of technologies to promote children’s reading and writing skills.    research questions   the following research questions guided the study: 1.      what are the technological tools that can be used to enhance children’s literacy instruction? 2.    to what extent are nursery and primary school teachers aware of the use of the existing technological tools to promote children’s literacy instruction?   methodology the study is a survey research conducted in public primary schools and public nursery schools in awka local government educational authorities in anambra state. the population was made up of primary and nursery school teachers in the area. based on the 2008/2009 school year, these populations are 233 nursery school teachers and 2763 primary school teachers.     sample out of 102 public nursery schools and 121 public primary schools in awka local government education authority, twenty (20) schools each were selected using simple random sampling. while five (5) teachers each where selected from each nursery school, twenty (20) teachers each were selected from the primary schools making a total of 500 teachers.   instrument for data collection questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. it was developed based on the two (2) research questions for the study. the questionnaire comprised two sections containing 20 items which were structured using a four point rating scale ranging from strongly agree (sa) to strongly disagree (sd). ten items present the existing technological resources that promote children’s literacy instruction while the other ten items are on the teachers’ awareness of the use of the resources.  the split–half method was used to ascertain reliability after the validation of the instrument by four experts from the departments of childhood education and educational technology. the questionnaire was once administered to twenty (20) nursery and primary school teachers in onitsha local government education authority for pilot testing. the person product moment correlation co-efficient was computed between the two sets of scores and that gave reliability co-efficient of internal consistency of 0.82. a score of 0.92 was obtained when the spearman brown formula was applied. data analysis the data collected were analyzed using mean scores to answer the research questions. any item with a mean score of 2.55 was regarded as ‘agree’ (a) while a mean score less than 2.55 was regarded as ‘disagree’ (d).   table 1 the extent of awareness of the existing technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction.               n = 500 s/n items                                x                             x   the technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction are nursery  teachers remarks  primary teachers remarks 1 audio books 2.67 a        2.77 a 2 electronic books 2.98 a        2.86 a 3 online texts 2.67 a        2.75 a 4 electronic talking books 2.69 a        2.55 a 5 programmed reading instruction 2.58 a        2.59 a 6 word processing 2.87 a        2.80 a 7 desk top publishing 2.47 d        2.56 a 8 multimedia composing 1.45 sd        2.40 d 9 online publishing 2.48 d        2.81 a 10 internet communication 2.49 d        2.20 d   grand total 2.56          2.63   table 1  indicates that the mean ratings of both the nursery and primary school teachers on the identification of the  technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction is higher than the cut –off point of  2.55. this implies agreement to the items.   table 2 the awareness of nursery and primary school teachers on the use of technologies that promote children’s literacy instruction.   n = 500 s/n items             -                x                   x   to what extent can the following technological tools be used in literacy instruction nursery teachers remarks primary teachers remarks 1 audio books can be used to promote students’ interest in reading and improve their comprehension of the text.   2.83   a   2.60   a 2 electronic books can be used to provide children with the opportunity to have a deeper understanding to concepts and new words in the book.   1.97   sd   2.02   d 3 online text can be used to provide children with the opportunity to have on-theweb reading materials.   2.67   a   2.68   a 4 electronic talking books can be used to teach children pronunciation and how to read as they read the story.   2.78   a   2.56   a 5 programmed reading instructing can be used to enhance letter recognition, phonics instruction and vocabulary building in children.   1.92   sd   2.00   d 6 word processing can be used to help   children to write and edit their work more easily. 1.98 sd 2.56 a 7 desktop publishing can be used to provide children the opportunities to format text, plan the layout of pages, and insert charts and graphics in the work.   1.96   sd   2.55 a 8 multimedia composing can be used to provide children the opportunity to integrate visual and aural components in their school work.   1.89   sd   1.01   sd 9 online publishing can be used to provide children the opportunity to publish their work in web site.   1.74   sd   2.56 a 10 internet-based communication can be used to help children to communicate their ideas to their peers or adults who have agreed to answer their e-mail questions.   1.88   sd   2.00   d   grand total 2.16   2.25   table 2 reveals that the mean ratings of both the nursery and primary school teachers on the awareness of the use of technologies to promote children’s literacy instruction are less than the cut –off point of 2.55.   discussion the findings of this study, generally, shows that both the public nursery and public primary school teachers could identify the technological tools that could be used to promote children’s literacy instruction but were not aware of the use of the identified resources to promote children’s literacy instruction. in other words, the teachers are not aware of how the resources could be used in promoting reading and writing skills in children. this supports the research which shows that nigeria is very much behind in the use of information and communication technology (ict) in education (obagah, 2002; ali, 2003, and osumah, 2003). according to the research, only 6% of schools in nigeria have any form of ict and only 7% of educators (teachers, administrators and technicians) have skills for operating ict. these poor figures are dimmed by those of the united states, for instance, where ict capacity is 83% and infrastructure in schools is 95.3%. the study equally reveals that there is no significant difference in the mean scores of the public primary school teachers and the public nursery teachers in their awareness of the use of the technological resources to promote children’s literacy instruction. this result can also be attributed to the lack of ict facilities across all the levels of our educational system. as of now, ict plays very limited role in all aspects of nigerian education. the use of technological resources in nigerian education must be re-emphasized and the technological resources provided at all levels of the system especially in the nursery and primary education levels since they are the preparatory grounds for further educational advancement. however, school administration should mobilize staff and students so that their attitude to the use of ict is focused and directed towards meaningful programs and projects in the community, using it as a tool for research, teaching and learning, rather than as toys or gadgets for decorating offices and boardrooms. it is necessary to point out that, although there is no difference in their mean responses both on the identification and the awareness of the use of the resources to promote children’s literacy instruction, their points of similarity differ. in table 1, while the nursery school teachers disagree that online publishing and desktop publishing cannot be used to promote literacy instruction in children, the primary school teachers agree that the resources could be used. furthermore, in table 2, while the nursery school teachers are not aware of how word processing, online publishing, multimedia composition, and desktop publishing could be used in enhancing literacy instruction in children, the primary school teachers were aware of this process. the differences in their opinions may be as a result of individual technological experiences and training of the nursery and primary school teachers, and not as a result of a group experience.   recommendations   based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: technological training needs of nursery and primary school teachers should be identified. they need to be trained on how to manage and use technologies to promote literacy instruction. funding: the state education board should provide fund to schools to procure the needed technological tools for student instruction in the nursery and primary schools. computers, audio-visual materials, and other forms of gadgets are required for global education, and nigerian children should not be left behind. internet facilities should be installed in all nursery and primary school classrooms or libraries, and adequate numbers of computers and educational software provided. nursery and primary school teachers should endeavor to participate in evaluating online educational materials for use in classroom instruction. arrangements and provisions should be made for all teachers to participate in the ongoing professional development on literacy and technology for public schools. curriculum planning and delivery: another important step in implementation of technological instruction and training in nursery and primary schools is curriculum planning and delivery. to begin, we recommend that teachers have a basic understanding of the technological resources and a commitment to make the curriculum and learning accessible for all learners. through an effective training by the educational authorities, such knowledge skill would be useful in designing effective lessons in the classroom. thus, the use of technology for instruction must be embedded in the general school curriculum, and teachers mandated to acquire the knowledge and teach accordingly. parent education and involvement: parents are another valuable resource for teachers building a technology resource curriculum and delivery. there are at least two important ways that parents can be a resource: as advocates and as volunteers. some of the parents have computers and other technological devices at home. the may need to undertake training where needed so that they can support their children with their homework. by educating parents about the technology activities going on in the classroom, teachers can develop a support system of informed individuals who can assist with and advocate for technology instruction. teachers should think about ways to inform parents about their children’s classroom activities. notes sent home, parent-teacher conferences and presentations, and school board meetings are all excellent opportunities to engage parents and  have them even donate assistive technology resource materials, volunteer in the classroom and provide support at home. a few possibilities are helping to prepare materials, monitoring kids during lessons, helping with technology, donating equipment, and supporting homework assignments (hall, strangman, and meyer, 2009)   conclusion   this is concerned about the awareness and existence of technological resources that promote children’s literacy instruction among public nursery and primary school teachers. in order to put these resources into effective and appropriate use is probably not known to these teachers, though on few selected items assessed, the public nursery school teachers showed more awareness of instructional technology devices than the public primary school teachers. in this regard, the authors want to reemphasize that teacher education training institutions have an obligation to consider ways that technology could support and enhance the knowledge and practices of novice teachers in the nursery and primary schools. given that children or young people today gather information and access knowledge in a much different way than people of past generations (prensky, 2005); failure to integrate technology and to consider critical ways that novice teachers use and learn from technological resources, such as the internet, could be considered irresponsible. furthermore, we are living in a digital age where the use of technological tools for communication is vital. students now attending colleges and universities could be considered digital natives, or children who have been born and raised with the language of computers, video games, and the internet, and who are native speakers of technology (prensky, 2001). nigerian government and stakeholders in education should, therefore, consider updating and upgrading the national curriculum with educational technology, for the development of our students in this digital age.                                                                                                references   ali, a. (2003). developing bases for distance learning: some of the neglected issues. hongkong journal of education, 24 (1). anderson-inman, l., & horney, m. a. (1998). transforming text for at-risk readers. in                                            d. reinking, m. c., mckenna, labbo, l.d. & kieffer, r.d. (eds.), handbook of literacy and technology: transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 1544). mahwah, n.j: lawrence erlbaum associates. bruce, b., & peyton, j. k. (1999). literacy development in network-based classrooms: innovation and realizations. international journal of educational technology, 1(2). retrieved july 29, 2010, from http://www.outreach.uiuc.edu/ijet/v1n2/bruce/index.html doering, a., hughes, j., & huffman, d. (2003). preservice teachers: are we thinking with technology? journal of research on technology in education, 35, 342-361. hall, t., strangman, n., & meyer, a. (2003). differentiated instruction and implications for udl implementation. wakefield, ma: national center on accessing the general curriculum. retrieved july 29, 2010, from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstructudl.html jordan, t.m. (2009), using web resources to support novice teachers in literacy instruction. retrieved august 31, 2010, from  http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/etd/image/etd3082.pdf holum, a. & gahala, m.a. (2001). critical issue: using technology to enhance literacy instruction. north central regional educational laboratory, learning point associates. karchmer, r. a. (2000). understanding teachers' perspectives of internet use in the classroom: implications for teacher education and staff development programs. reading and writing quarterly, 16 (1) 81-85.  laffey, j., & musser, d. (1998). attitudes of preservice teachers about using technology in teaching. journal of technology in teacher education, (6) 223-241. leu, d. j. (2000). literacy and technology: deictic consequences for literacy education in an information age. in m. l. kamil, p. b. mosenthal, p. d. pearson, & r. barr (eds.), handbook of reading research: iii (743-770). mahwah, n j: lawrence erlbaum associates. means, b., & olson, k. (1995). technology's role in education reform: findings from a national study of education reform. washington, dc: office of educational research and improvement, u.s. department of education.  http://www.ed.gov/pdfdocs/techrole.pdf meyer, a., & rose, d. h., (2000). learning to read in the computer age . http://www.cast.org/udl/index.cfm?i=18 mckenzie, j. (2001). head of the class: how teachers learn technology best. american school board journal, 188(1), 20-23. obagah, j. (2002). networking challenges: the case of nigeria. london: new world  press. osumah, u. (2003). internet in nigeria: a status report. journal of information. 32, (1). owston, r. d., & wideman, h. h. (1997). word processors and children's writing in a high-computer-access setting. journal of research on computing in education, 30(2), 202-220.  retrieved july 29, 2010, from http://www.edu.yorku.ca/~rowston/written.html panel on educational technology. (1997). summary of findings and recommendations from report to the president on the use of technology to strengthen k-12 education in the united states. president’s committee of advisors on science and technology (2000) in. r. d. pearson (ed.), technology and learning (3-19). san francisco: jossey-bass. singh, r., & means, b. (1994). technology and education reform. retrieved june 12, 2010, from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/edreformstudies/edtech prensky, m. (2005). listen to the natives. educational leadership, 63(4), 8-13. u.s. congress, office of technology assessment. (1995). teachers and technology: making the connection (ota-her-616). washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. wood, j. m. (2000) literacy: charlotte's web meets the world wide web. in d. t. gordon (ed.), the digital classroom: how technology is changing the way we teach and learn (117-126). cambridge, ma: harvard education letter .     ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) the relevance of music education to the nigerian educational system stephen olusoji university of lagos, nigeria abstract this paper highlights the importance of music education to the nigerian educational system. it identifies the prospects, problems and proffered possible solutions to them. in achieving its objectives the study uses ethnographic and qualitative methods with simple percentages for eliciting and collation of data. the paper suggests that the society, the curriculum planners, and the government have much to do so music education is appreciated in nigeria. it proposes as part of its recommendations that the government provide necessary facilities and personnel for music to thrive as a vocational subject; and that parents and the larger society must become educated on the usefulness of music as a career subject worth pursuing by pupils. keywords: music education, nigeria education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) introduction from time immemorial, various types of cultural heritage were passed on to the next generation through informal educational methods. one of this is music. in the pre-independence years, music education had remained largely informal in nigeria, it was transmitted through the various traditional media such as traditional festivals, work songs, moonlight plays, lullabies and children nursery rhymes, court music, apprenticeship under a well-known traditional musicians and others (andrew, 1998; ekwueme, 1983; euba, 1982; nketia, 1974). with the advent of western education, which came through the christian missionaries in collaboration with the british colonial government, in the early part of twentieth century, the curriculum of the missionaries was geared towards literary education as they focused on the arts including, music, drama, and poetry among others, in their efforts to evangelize to the “natives”. in this way the awareness for formal music education was raised through the inclusion of music in the school curriculum. the media houses also helped to raise the importance of music education through various talks on the theory and historical values of music education. with the awareness brought about by western education, nigeria has been able to produce well-known music scholars like, professor fela sowande, ayo bankole, lazarus ekwueme, akin euba, and akpabot sam, to mention but few. the major questions that are asked in this paper are: (a) what are the roles of music education in the society? (b) is the stigmatization of traditional musicians as beggars and people of lower status still prevalent today? (c) why are pupils usually discouraged by their parents from choosing music as a career? (d) what are the major problems confronting music as a subject in the nigerian educational system? the above questions and other issues are germane to this study. in collecting data for the study, ethnographic and quantitative and qualitative methods were employed using simple percentages as basis for analyzing qualitative collected data in a quantitative presentation. theoretical framework the main focus of this paper is the importance of music education to the nigerian society. this subject cannot be adequately discussed without looking at the philosophical and sociological premise of music as an art and its relevance and implications to the society. according to plato in his book the republic, speaking of the old athenian education about 450 b.c. he said: musical training is a more potent instrument than any other because rhythm and harmony find their way into the secret places of the soul, on which they might fasten imparting grace and making the soul graceful of him who is rightly educated. while reimer (1970) opined that: until music education understands what it really has to offer, until it is convinced of the facts that it is necessary rather than a peripheral part of human culture, until it “feels in its bones” that its value is a fundamental one it will not have attained the peace of mind which is the mark of maturity (p. 3). 2 stephen olusoji ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) the quotations above emphasized the importance of music as an integral and indispensable part of ancient civilizations and contemporary societies. what then is the place of music and musicians in traditional african society? the role of music in traditional african society music is a product of the behavior of human groups whether formal or informal (blacking, 1973, p. 58). the caption above from blacking aptly sums up the roles and functions of music in any society and this is also true of the african society. “from the cradle to the grave” the african eats, sleeps, and wake-ups with music. it passes on musical art through oral and informal sources either during festivals, gathering in the village square, court music, and so on. other avenues for showcasing music that could also offer opportunities for tapping musical knowledge are through observation or direct participation in musical activities at home and school. the traditional musicians in some parts of africa, especially in nigeria, are treated with disdain, regarded as belonging to the lowest echelon of the society as they are given various derisive tags such as beggars, ne’er do well, and people not to be associated with in the society. perhaps, these commonly held views of music and musicians had rubbed onto music and its usefulness as a career subject worth studying by pupils. fafunwa (1971) opined that: there is much truth in the saying, a cultureless people are a hopeless people. the teaching of music and art in african schools is still considered as a frill by many an educator. yet there is hardly any other subject through which the artistic and creative genius of a people can be more easily expressed and perpetuated. art and music touch the spirit and soul of the child and african art and music form the focus of the african culture (p.74-75). the aforementioned excerpt captures the essence of improper propagation of music education in africa and how music is a spiritual art to the africans and that it enhanced and developed its artistic and creative mind. however, vidal (2008) in an analytical review of major problems confronting music education in nigeria within the last century stated that: i) that formal music education was institutionalized in the schools at the beginning to serve the interests of the missionaries and colonial administrations. ii) that the type of music education introduced was alien to nigerian culture and traditions. iii) that attempts to correct this though, successful with other subject did not yield much success in music, thus making music lag behind other subject such as language, literature, drama in terms of cultural development and orientation. iv) that research was not carried out into the contents and teaching methods of the music of cultures and societies of nigeria. v) that efforts were again made after independence to make education, including music education functional and relevant to the needs of nigeria and the african child. vi) that necessary structures were not put in place to concretize the new ideas on music education. studies similar to the one above by vidal were carried out by faseun (2001), adegbite (1999), okafor (1988), omibiyi (1987) and sowande (1962). 3 the relevance of music education to the nigerian educational system ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) contemporary problems facing music education in nigeria this researcher made an attempt to find out the major problems facing the study of music in nigerian secondary schools and tertiary institutions and the perceptions of the society about music as school courses. in the quest to find out and solve problems bedeviling the educational sector, a total number of 104 students of the university of lagos, lagos state university, and musical society of nigeria, music school offering music as a course were given a questionnaire and participated in the study. this consisted of 45 females and 59 males with ages ranging from 16-24 years. the questionnaire was designed to cater for two categories of students of the aforementioned institutions: a. those transiting from secondary to higher institutions and are in their first year, and b. those in the middle and final years. those in the first category (a) were asked questions such as: (a) why they choose music as a career? (b) whether they encountered any objections from their parents for choosing music? (c) did they choose music as the last resort after failure to make entry requirements for other courses? (d) whether they did music in their secondary schools; (e) what was their musical background; whether they sang in the church choir, came from a family of musicians, participated in any form of communal musical activities, etc. (f) what was their role model in music? those in the second category (b) were asked more matured questions such as: (a) what the public perception of school music and music scholars is? (b) whether the traditional stigma attached to music and music practitioners has reduced? (c) what they intend to achieve with their music education, (e.g. to be a pop star? to promote serious music?) (d) whether the training given to them in nigerian institutions prepares them to compete and fit properly into the saturated labor market; and also compete favorably with their peers studying other disciplines and on the global stage? and (e) students were asked to comment on the provision of facilities and education structures and availability of competent instructors. the questionnaires were personally distributed by the researcher to the respondents who were guided on how to properly answer them. after completion and collation by the researcher, the responses were analyzed and the frequencies were then used as percentages. findings findings from the study showed that: (a) students had problems convincing their parents about their choice of music as a career. 79% of the population said their parents disliked music as a career for their wards. it was particular visible in the responses of the female respondents whose parents felt it is a profession for men not women, while others had problems drawing lines between music as vocation and avocation. (b) the findings also indicated that most respondents choose music out of frustration of not making the required grades for their first choice courses and their attempt to get admission to the university in any other available courses with a lower requirement. 65% of respondents had positive responses to the question (c) above for category a respondents. 4 stephen olusoji ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) (c) the age-long stigma attached to music is still quite prevalent in contemporary times, as undergraduates still encountered derogatory remarks from the society on their choice of music as a course and profession. (d) as a follow-up to the aforementioned, most of the respondents generally chose pop icons, both local and international, as their role models and would rather chart and pursue their career in popular music because of the immediate financial rewards rather than a career in classical music. (e) students showed total disappoint regarding the training, facilities, and instructors in most nigerian institutions. a total of 65% of the respondents were of the opinion that facilities used for instruction were inadequate and obsolete; 35% opined that more competent and well-trained instructors should be employed; and 40% expressed that the curriculum should be broadened to cater for and accommodate different areas of interest of students as some would like to specialize in areas, such as, studio management, entrepreneurial or music business, music therapy, and other specializations that were not currently offered in most nigerian institutions. recommendations in this paper, we have looked at the problems confronting music education in nigeria. we found out about problems of supporting music education. some ways these problems can be adequately tackled are by the tripartite parties of parents-society-government. we recommended that parents should be properly enlightened about the usefulness of music education and should allow gifted pupils to pursue a career in music. we also propose that the mass media should do more to promote music education by offering programs that will show the ideals of music education. likewise, guidance counselors must double their efforts in giving proper advice to pupils and parents on career choice and paths. the society should be educated on the usefulness of music education and its benefits to the society. finally, government should not neglect the arts and should do more to fund it for “art they say is life.” the curriculum planner should also look at the contents of music curriculum and include local content that would make music education more relevant and meaningful to the society. references adegbite, a. (1999). the place of music in nigerian school curriculum. the performer ilorin journal of the performing arts, 1(2) p. 60-67. andrew, h. (1998).the role of music in the society: the ethnomusicological perspectives. in a.c. north and d.j. hargreaves (eds.), the social psychology of music, (pp. 123-138). new york: oxford university press. blacking, j.d. (1973). how musical is man? london: faber and faber. ekwueme, l.e.n., (1993). nigerian music since independence. the economic and social development of nigeria since independence, (june), p. 320-331. 5 the relevance of music education to the nigerian educational system ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) euba, a. (1982). introduction to music in africa. in r. olaniyan (ed.), african history and culture. (pp. 224-236). lagos: longman press. fafunwa, a.b. (1971). history of higher education in nigeria. new york, ny: macmillan and coy. faseun, f. (2001). public perceptions of music as a school subject in contemporary nigerian schools. in m.a. omibiyi-obidike (ed.), african art music in nigeria, (pp. 83-92). ibadan: stirling-horden publishers (nig.) ltd. nketia, j.h.k. (1974). the music of africa. new york, ny: w.w. norton and company inc. okafor, r.c. (1988). focus on music education in nigeria. international journal of music education november, 12, p. 9-17. omibiyi-obidike, m.a. (1987). whiter music education in nigeria. an unpublished paper. presented at the first national conference of nigerian association of music educators at awka, nigeria. reimer, b. (1970). a philosophy of music education. englewood cliff, nj: prentice-hall international. sowande, f. (1962). music education in nigerian schools. nigeria magazine, 73, n.p.. vidal, a.o. (2008). music education in nigeria: entering the 21 st century with a pragmatic philosophy. journal of the association of nigerian, p. 1-19. ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas experienced by physical education teachers in tanzania ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas experienced by physical education teachers in tanzania stephen mabagala university of dar es salaam, tanzania abstract the purpose of this study was to explore the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas (ecmd) experienced by physical education (pe) teachers. the study also sought to explore the influence of demographic and institutional characteristics on the ecmd experienced by pe teachers. the experience of pe teachers is unique because of the nature of their duties in and outside the classroom and school environments where there are a lot of interactions. the study utilized descriptive survey design and was conducted in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges that had pe and sport programs. purposive sampling was adopted to select pe teachers, students and heads of institutions and data were collected through questionnaire. results revealed that pe teachers faced ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas in their duties (m =3.4, sd = .79). ecd facing pe teachers differed significantly across institutional location [t (411.33) = 2.453, p =.015)], institutional ownership [f (3, 788) = 5.01, p =.002)] and type of institution [(t (50) = -2.45, p = .019)]. there were no significant differences across age categories [f (4, 47) = .500, p = .736)], educational levels [f (3, 48) = 1.648, p = .191)], gender [t (50) = .383, p = .703], marital status [t (50) = .439, p = .663] and teaching experience [f (3, 48 =.638, p =.594]. it was concluded that ecd are prevalent in secondary schools and teachers colleges. pe teachers whose institutions are located in urban areas face more ecd than those located in rural areas. religious and military-owned institutions face less ecd than government and privately-owned institutions. moreover, pe teachers in secondary schools face more ecd than those in teachers’ colleges. it was recommended that there is a need to strengthen professional development courses for teachers and emphasize the teaching of moral and professional ethics in the teacher education programs; and improve the teaching and learning environment. keywords: ethical conflict, moral dilemma, tanzania physical education, physical education teachers. introduction one of the demands of any profession is to maintain acceptable professional standards (hinds, 2005). in the teaching profession, teachers’ professional behaviors inside and outside the classroom have far reaching impacts on their behavior and their overall performance and thus the learning outcomes (bennell & akyeampong, 2007). consequently, teachers need to be aware of their moral and ethical responsibilities in their relationships with students (melo, 2003). this relationship is of an unequal and dependent nature. the nature of teaching also lends itself to being of an ethical and moral nature because of the complexity of the teachers’ tasks. the complexity stems from the variety of tasks that a teacher performs. for example, teachers need to be able to act on the spot, respond effectively and fairly to students, deliver engaging lessons in a limited amount of time, and assess various levels of students’ work and abilities (melo, 2003). as for physical education (pe) teachers, their experience is unique because of the nature of their duties in and outside the classroom and school contexts. for example, during instruction, there is physical handling of the learners and shouting especially when demonstrating and assessing a skill. moreover, other than being classroom teachers, pe teachers, most often double as the sports coaches. this aspect compels them to travel outside school with their students. this creates the teacher (coach/trainer) learner relationship which most often is a multidimensional and continual relationship that flourishes within and outside the school. through participation in pe and school sport, both students and teachers get very close to each other and break some social barriers. this makes both pe teachers and students to be free with one another and may develop some bonds. moreover, sports demand minimal clothing which can lead to unintended intimate desires. thus, all these lead to ethical issues that need to be addressed (pehlivan, 1998). purpose of the study determine the prevalence of ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas experienced by physical education teachers in their implementation of the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania. find out whether demographic and institutional variables influence the ethical conflicts and moral dilemma that pe teachers face. research hypotheses ho1: the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ across their demographic variables. ho2: the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ in relation to their institutional variables. methods and procedure the study employed a descriptive survey research design to gather data. in this study, the dependent variables were ethical conflicts and dilemmas. the independent variables were the demographic factors (age, gender, marital status, years of teaching experience and educational level) of pe teachers. other independent variables were institutional (ownership, type and location) characteristics. the study was carried out in tanzania in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges that had physical education and sport programs. participants a sample of 792 respondents participated in this study, and it comprised 52 pe teachers, 720 students and 20 heads of institutions. respondents were selected based on presence of pe programs and involvement in pe lessons as the case for teachers and students. the heads of institutions were selected because of their administrative role and functions of overseeing teachers’ conduct and discipline. instruments the instruments used for data collection were closed-ended questionnaires. participants responded on a 5-point likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5), agree (4), no opinion (3), disagree (2) to strongly disagree (1). after respondents had filled in the questionnaires, responses were rearranged as most prevalence (5), high prevalence (4), prevalence (3), low prevalence (2), and least prevalence (1). the highest score on each item indicated the prevalence of conflicts and dilemma while the least score indicated absence or little conflicts and dilemmas. data analysis data collected from the questionnaires were coded and analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) program, version 19. data were calculated in percentages, means and standard deviations for easy interpretation of the information. independent t-test and one-way analysis of variance (anova) were also calculated to test significant mean differences between variables at 0.05 level of significance and the tukey post hoc test was employed to further explain significant mean differences. results ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas (ecmd) facing pe teachers in tanzania the results of participants’ responses with regard to the types of ethical conflicts and dilemmas facing pe teachers in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges in tanzania are presented in table 1. table 1.  descriptive data on ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers ethical conflicts and moral dilemma students pe teachers      heads      total   m sd m sd m sd m sd lack of teaching and learning resources 4.20 .56 4.35 .43 4.19 .33 4.25 .44 policy changes and lack of support 3.95 .43 3.99 .57 3.76 1.23 3.90 .74 lack of training in the codes 3.96 .42 3.48 1.36 3.70 1.34 3.36 1.39 lack of cooperation from parents and community. 3.37 1.41 3.37 1.22 2.75 1.29 3.36 1.39 compromise of teaching responsibilities with private duties. 3.33 1.32 2.75 1.41 3.55 .89 3.29 1.32 pressure to win and fear of defeat 3.18 1.37 3.17 1.31 3.45 1.00 3.19 1.36 desire for recognition and promotion 3.11 1.25 3.27 1.30 3.40 .88 3.12 1.25 mismanagement of school resources 2.84 1.40 3.08 1.34 2.80 1.32 2.85 1.39 abuses in supply/purchase of materials and equipment for pe and sports 2.86 1.38 2.56 1.36 2.75 1.29 2.83 1.38 poor relationships with students. 2.83 1.35 2.56 1.11 2.85 1.31 2.82 1.33 abuses in assessment and evaluation 2.76 1.38 2.58 1.38 2.45 .83 2.74 1.36 substance abuse among students 2.92 1.37 2.52 1.24 3.00 1.26 2.71 1.36 verbal and physical abuse. 2.74 1.40 2.37 1.24 2.55 1.28 2.71 1.39 sexual harassment and abuse. 2.71 1.38 2.37 1.22 2.80 1.20 2.69 1.37 total 3.05 .91 3. 02 .97 3.04 .77 3.04 .79 table 1 indicates that overall, pe teachers in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges in tanzania experience ethical conflicts and dilemmas (m = 3.04, sd = .79). findings further indicate that lack of teaching and learning resources was ranked highest (m =4.25, sd = 44), policy changes and lack of support was ranked second (m =3.90, sd = .74), lack of training in the codes (m = 3.36, sd = 1.39) and lack of cooperation from parents and community (m = 3.6, sd = 1.39) were ranked third and fourth respectively, compromise of teaching responsibilities with private duties was ranked fifth (m =3.29, sd =1.32), pressure to win and fear of defeat was ranked sixth (m = 3.19, sd =1.36), and desire for recognition and promotion was ranked seventh (m = 3.12, sd = 1.25). ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers across demographic variables the research objective was to find out whether demographic variables influence the ethical conflicts and moral dilemma (ecmd) that pe teachers face. the hypothesis stated that the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ across their demographic characteristics. the hypothesis was further split into sub-hypotheses that captured age, educational level, gender, marital status and teaching experience of pe teachers. age categories. results on the responses of ethical conflicts and dilemmas facing pe teachers across their age categories are presented in table 2. table 2. descriptive data for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers across age categories age groups n mean sd 25-30 years 19 3.01 1.08 31-35 years 8 2.96 .57 36-40 years 6 3.20 .55 41-45 years 10 2.97 1.19 46+ years 9 2.96 .1.07 total 52 3.02 .97 table 2 shows there were irregular pattern of variations within age categories, with only respondents of age 36-40 years reporting prevalence of ethical conflicts and dilemmas (m =3.20, sd = .55) and four other categories reporting less prevalence of ecd. in order to determine whether the mean differences were significant or not, a one-way anova was used to test for differences among the five age categories. results are presented in table 3. table 3. one-way anova to test the statistical significance difference between means of the ecd facing pe teachers across their age categories   sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 1.980 4 .495 .500 .736 within groups 46.495 47 .989     total 48.475 51       * p < .05 results in table 3 show that there were no significant differences in ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers across their age categories [f (4, 47) = .500, p = .736)]. therefore, the null hypothesis that the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ across their age categories was not rejected. this implies that the ethical conflicts and dilemma faced by pe teachers were not influenced by age. educational levels. the second sub-hypothesis stated that the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ across their education levels. results are presented in table 4. table 4. descriptive data for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers across their educational levels education level n mean sd certificate 4 3.45 .56 diploma 15 2.90 .77 degree 31 2.62 1.02 postgraduate 2 3.70 1.84 total 52 3.02 .97 table 4 shows that postgraduate holders had the highest mean (m = 3.70, sd = 1.84) followed by certificate holders (m = 3.45, sd = .56). on the other hand, degree holders reported low prevalence (m =2.62, sd = 1.02) followed by diploma holders (m= 2.90, sd = .77). to determine whether the mean differences were significant or not, a oneway anova was computed. results are shown in table 4.47. table 5. one-way anova to test the statistical significance difference between means of the ecmd facing pe teachers across their educational levels   sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 4.526 3 1.509 1.648 .191 within groups 43.948 48 .916     total 48.475 51       * p < .05 results in table 5 show that there were no significant differences [f (3, 48) = 1.648, p = .191)] in the ethical conflicts and dilemma facing pe teachers across their educational levels. based on the above results, the null hypothesis that the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ in relation to their education levels was not rejected. gender. the third sub-hypothesis stated that the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ in relation to their gender. results are presented in table 6. table 6. descriptive data and t-test for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers by gender gender n mean sd t-value male 41 3.03 .96 .703 female 11 3.01 1.06   total 52 3.02 .97   * p < .05 table 6 shows that both male and female respondents reported prevalence of ethical conflicts and dilemmas (m = 3.03, sd = .96 & m = 3.01, sd = 1.06 respectively). the mean difference was very minimal indicating that their opinions concerning ecd facing pe teachers was similar. in order to determine whether the mean differences were significant or not, an independent t-test was computed. results reveal that there was no significant difference [t (50) = .383, p = .703]. therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in ethical conflicts and dilemma facing male and female pe teachers was not rejected. both male and female respondents reported the same opinions concerning the ethical conflicts and dilemmas facing pe teachers. the findings imply that both female and male pe teachers experienced the same ethical conflict and dilemma in their responsibilities. marital status. the fourth sub-hypothesis stated that the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ across their marital status. results are shown in table 7. table 7. descriptive data and t-test for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers across marital status marital status n mean sd tvalues single 15 3.04 .97 .663 married 37 3.01 .99   total 52 3.02 .98   * p < .05 results in table 7 reveal that pe teachers who were single scored relatively higher (m = 3.04, sd = .97) than those who were married (m = 3.01, sd = .99). this implies that single pe teachers faced ecd more than married pe teachers. but, this difference was not significant [t (50) = .439, p = .663]. thus, the hypothesis that there would be no significant differences between the ethical conflicts and dilemmas facing pe teachers across their marital status was not rejected. teaching experience. the fifth sub-hypothesis stated that the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ in relation to their teaching experience. results are presented in table 8. table 8. descriptive data for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers across their teaching experience teaching experience n mean sd 1-5 years 30 3.01 1.01 6-10 years 9 2.89 .88 11-15 years 4 3.15 .37 over 15 years 9 3.04 1.16 total 52 3.02 .98 table 8 shows that pe teachers with teaching experience of 6-10 years reported lower (m = 2.89, sd = .88) experience of ethical conflicts and moral dilemma than others. in order to determine whether the mean differences were significant or not, a oneway anova was computed as shown in table 9. table 9. one-way anova to test the statistical significance difference between means of the ecmd facing pe teachers across their teaching experience   sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 1.859 3 .620 .638 .594 within groups 46.616 48 .971     total 48.475 51       * p < .05 results in table 9 reveal that there were no significant differences [f (3, 48 =.638, p =.594)] in the ethical conflicts and moral dilemma facing pe teachers with varying years of teaching experience. therefore, the hypothesis that there would be no significant difference between the ethical conflicts and dilemma faced by pe teachers in relation to their teaching experience was not rejected. all pe teachers irrespective of their teaching experience reported that ethical conflicts and dilemma were prevalent. institutional variables. the research objective was to find out whether institutional variables influence the ethical conflicts and moral dilemma that pe teachers face. it was hypothesized that the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers would not significantly differ in relation to their institutional characteristics. the hypothesis was further subdivided into three hypothesis that captured location, ownership and type of the institution. institutional location. the sub-hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference in the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers in relation to their location. results are shown in table 10. table 10. descriptive data and t-test for ethical conflicts and dilemmas facing pe teachers by their institutional location location n mean sd t-value urban 583 3.08 .94 .015 rural 209 2.91 .83   total 792 3.04 .91   * p < .05 table 10 indicates that pe teachers in urban areas experienced more ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas than those in rural areas. to determine whether the observed difference was significant or not, an independent t-test was computed. results show that there was significant difference [t (411.33) =.2.453, p =.015)] in ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers in urban areas (m = 3.08, sd = .94) and pe teachers in rural areas (m = 2.9, sd = 83). therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the type of ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers in urban and rural areas was rejected. pe teachers in urban areas experienced more ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas than pe teachers in rural areas. institutional ownership. the sub-hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference in the ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers in relation to their institutional ownership. results are presented in table 11. table 11. descriptive data for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers by their institutional ownership ownership n mean sd government 695 3.07 .94 private 17 3.17 .79 military 50 2.80 .43 religious 30 2.51 .73 total 792 3.04 .91 results in table 4.53 indicate that pe teachers in private and government institutions reported prevalence of ecmd whilst pe teachers in religious and military-owned institutions reported less prevalence. results in table 11 also show that pe teachers in private institutions relatively faced ecmd more than pe teachers in other institutions, whilst pe teachers in religious-owned institutions faced relatively low prevalence of ecmd. to determine whether there were significant differences between the observed means or not, a one-way anova was computed. results are presented in table 12. table 12. one-way anova to test the statistical significance difference between means of the ecmd facing pe teachers by institutional ownership   sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 12.285 3 4.095 5.01 .002 within groups 644.032 788 .817     total 656.317 791       * p < .05 the findings in table 12 show that there were significant differences [f (3, 788) = 5.01, p =.002)] in the ecmd faced by pe teachers across their institutional ownership. to further examine the differences, a post hoc test was conducted and results are shown in table 13. table 13. tukey hsd post hoc results for ecmd facing pe teachers across institutional ownership ownership (i) ownership (j) mean difference (i-j) std. error sig. government private -.09752 .22193 .972 military .26777 .13237 .180 religious .56499* .16858 .005 private government .09752 .22193 .972 military .36529 .25382 .475 religious .66252 .27444 .075 military government -.26777 .13237 .180 private -.36529 .25382 .475 religious .29722 .20878 .485 religious government -.56499* .16858 .005 private -.66252 .27444 .075 military -.29722 .20878 .485 *. the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. table 13 reveals that a statistically significant difference was found between government-owned institutions and religious-owned institutions (.56499, p = .005). however, there was no significant difference between private institutions and government, military and religious institutions. there was also no significant difference between military-owned institutions and government, private and religious-owned institutions. furthermore, there was no significant difference between religious-owned institutions and private and military-owned institutions. based on the above results, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference between ethical conflicts and moral dilemma faced by pe teachers across institutional ownership was rejected. significant differences were noted between government and religious-owned institutions. the reason for this may be due to the quality of services that teachers, and pe teacher in particular, get from the owners of the institutions. type of institution. the sub-hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference in the ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas faced by pe teachers in relation to their type of institution. the findings are presented in table 14. table 14. descriptive data and t-test for ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas facing pe teachers by their type of institutions type of institution n mean sd t-value secondary 136 3.08 .95 .000 t/college 656 2.82 .66   total 792 3.04 .91   * p < .05 table 14 indicates that pe teachers in secondary schools experienced more ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas than those in teachers’ colleges. in order to determine whether the difference in means was significant or not, an independent t-test was computed. results show that there was significant difference [t (266.847) = -.829, p =.000)] in ethical conflicts and dilemmas faced by pe teachers in secondary schools (m = 3.08, sd = .95) and pe teachers in teachers’ colleges (m = 2.82, sd = .66). therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in ethical conflicts and moral dilemma faced by pe teachers in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges was rejected. pe teachers in secondary schools faced more ethical conflicts and moral dilemmas than pe teachers in teachers’ colleges. discussion the findings of this study have revealed that ecmd are prevalent among pe teachers in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges, and are related to both institutional and personal factors. ethical conflicts which were of institutional nature were those concerning lack of teaching and learning materials, policy changes, ignorance of the codes and lack of training in the codes, and lack of cooperation from parents and community. those of personal nature were compromise of teaching responsibilities with private duties and desire for recognition and promotion. pressure to win and fear of defeat could be a result of both institutional and personal factors. the pe teacher can be put under pressure by the school administration to win trophies and not just be mere participants in competitions. this can force pe teachers to train students with only one focus of winning at all cost to please the administration and gain recognition or promotion. these findings concur with other studies such as those of anangisye and barrett (2005) who identified mismanagement of school resources as one of the ethical conflicts befalling teacher professionalism and ethics. the findings are also in line with those of van nulland and khandalwal (2006) who identified mismanagement of school funds and resources, and abuse in supply and purchase of materials as serious ethical conflicts experienced by teachers. the findings of the study have revealed no significant difference in ecmd facing pe teachers across their demographic variables of age, educational level, gender, marital status and teaching experience. these findings are in line with those of holloman (1999), and zhao and bi (2003) and luk, et al (2010) who found no statistically significant difference between the variables of ethical dilemma and demographic variables. the findings have also indicated significant difference in ecmd facing pe teachers by their institutional variables of location, ownership and type of institution. the findings are in line with those of sumra (2004) who observed that teachers in rural areas feel that teaching is a respected profession whereas teachers in urban areas where teachers are the lowest earning professionals; there is less respect for the profession. as for religious-owned institutions, luk and shek (2006) found out that high levels of religious involvement are related to psychological well-being. as discussed earlier, private institutions are less controlled than all other institutions. this could be the reason for higher prevalence of ethical conflicts and dilemmas in private institutions. conclusions and recommendations physical education teachers in tanzania face ethical conflicts and dilemmas related to institutional and personal nature. lack of teaching and learning resources are the major ethical conflicts for pe teachers. additionally, pe teachers do not get training for the teachers’ professional code of ethics and conduct. there is therefore, a need for the government to emphasize professional development courses among (pe) teachers and improve the funding of the education system in order to improve the standard of teaching pe in schools and colleges. references anangisye, w.a. l., & barrett, a. (2005). “professional identity and misconduct: perspectives of tanzanian teachers,” southern african review of education (sare) with education with production (ewp), 11, 5-22. ary, d., jacobs, l. c., & razavieh, a. (2002). introduction to research in education. (6th ed.). belmont, ca: wadsworth/thomson learning. balci, a. (2001). research in social sciences: method, technique and principles. ankara: pegem publishing. bennell, p., & akyeampong, k. (2007). teacher motivation in sub-saharan africa and south asia. london: department of international development. cooper, r. (2006). ethical problems and their resolution amongst uk community pharmacists: a qualitative study. unpublished phd dissertation. nottingham, uk, university of nottingham. fowler, f. j. (2001). survey research methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. hinds, h. (2005). oecs generic teachers’ code of ethics. castries, st. lucia: oecs education reform unit/education, training, technology and management consulting (tecsult). holloman, h. l. (1999). factors related to burnout in first year teachers in south carolina. unpublished phd thesis, university of south carolina. luk, a. l., & shek, d. t. l. (2006). “changes in chinese discharged chronic mental patients attending a psychiatric rehabilitation program with holistic care elements: a quasi-experimental study,” tsw holistic health and medicine, 1, 71–83. luk, a. l., chan, b.p.s., cheong, s. w., & ko, s. k. k. (2010). “an exploration of the burnout situation on teachers in two schools in macau,” social indicators research, 95, 489-502. melo, p. (2003). “ethical conflicts in teaching: the novice teacher’s experience,” connections, 175-189. orodho, j. a. (2009). elements of education and social science research methods (2nd ed.). maseno-kenya: kanezja publisher. pehlivan, i. (1998). management of professional and organizational ethics. ankara: pegem publishing. sumra, s. (2004). the living and working conditions of teachers in tanzania: a research report. dar es salaam: hakielimu. retrieved on 27th june 2011 from http://old.ei-ie.org/healthandsafety/file/%282005%29%20living%20and%20working%20conditions%20of%20teachers%20in%20tanzania%20en.pdf. van nuland, s., & khandelwal, b. p. (2006). ethics in education: the role of teacher codes canada and south asia. paris: unesco. zhao, y., & bi, c. (2003). job burnout and the factors related to it among middle school teachers. psychological development and education, 1, 80-84. the challenges of technical and vocational education in mitigating climate change induced catastrophes in nigeria titus a. umoru kwara state university, nigeria a.u. okeke nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria abstract this article focuses on the challenges of technical and vocational education in mitigating climate change induced catastrophes in nigeria. the concepts of climate change and related areas were discussed in the paper including the causes and effects of climate, as well as, issues of prevention, preparation and adaptation processes. the roles that technical and vocational education may play in preparing citizens to prevent, adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change are presented. these include technical assistance; conducting research with a view to improve the quality of predictions of future changes to regional and environmental conditions; and changing the attitudes of citizens through education and public enlightenment to achieve a balance between ethics and the management of the environment. in light of these issues, the authors view technical and vocational education as an effective and significant tool in ameliorating the effects of climate change. it is recommended that technical and vocational education practitioners use their understanding of science and technology to deal with challenges posed by climate change in nigeria. 2 the challenges of technical and vocational education in mitigating climate change induced catastrophes in nigeria ____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) introduction the threat posed by climate change is a global problem. it is a topical issue, generating heated debate and concerns among governments, scientists, environmentalists, and advocates of a better society. indeed, the controversy trailing the debate all over the world is mind boggling and perplexing. for instance, the 2009 copenhagen climate conference on climate change was inconclusive due to disagreements on funding commitments by governments. whereas the developed countries are at least coming to an agreement on how to confront the challenges posed by climate change and how the effects can be mitigated, countries like nigeria are having differing perspectives on what really constitute climate change and whether its threat is worth investigating. not long ago the issue of economic meltdown swept across the globe with some experts claiming that nigeria was immune to the shock of such financial crises. it is important to note that the complexity of this contemporary world is being shaped by the challenges of globalization and nigeria can no longer afford to be complacent. the united nations, of which nigeria is a member, with other international organizations as partners, are in the forefront to make the world a better place for habitation through several innovative and encompassing projects. one such example is the climate change knowledge network (cckn), a project that tracks the impact of economic change and climate on india’s agricultural sector. this is pursued jointly by the international institute for sustainable development (iisd), the center for international climate and environmental research (cicero) and the tata energy research institute (teri). according to o’brien and leichenko (2000), the project is innovative because it uses the concept of “double exposure” which refers to the fact that climate change and globalization are occurring simultaneously, and that regions, sectors, ecosystems and social groups are often confronted by the impact of both processes. however, in the context of related national issues, overcoming climate change and the adverse conditions that it may precipitate have the inclination to be fractured by many ills tormenting nigeria today, such as poor planning and implementation, inadequate resource allocation, corruption, outdated curriculum, and poor governance practices. technical and vocational education is an inescapable component of the intellectual capital required for any meaningful effort aimed at tackling the climate change issue and its associated problems. technical and vocational education, if properly positioned, can provide tools which will support nigeria in strengthening knowledge, skills, attitudes and the capacity for adaptation to a changing and vulnerable physical environment. nigeria is currently faced with increasingly chronic degradation of natural resources, greater prevalence and severity of natural and man-made disasters, such as desertification, oil spillage, flooding, internal social conflicts, and the potential displacement of persons. in this context, this article focuses on the role of technical and vocational education in mitigating the effects of global warming, including conceptual issues, causes and effects of climate change, prevention and preparation, and adaptation to climate change. concept clarification, definitions, and issues global climate change is a term that refers to the exploration of both the question of whether the climate of the entire planet might be changing and why, and what the impact of those changes might have on investments in companies that may be affected by global changes in climate (wikinvest, 2010). “the united nations framework convention on climate change” (1997) 3 titus a. umoru and a.u. okeke ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) indicated that climate change is the change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. global environmental change encompasses many issues. according to the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) (2000), climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or land use. sometime in the middle of the 20 th century the first increase in the earth’s temperature was observed. since then global warming has become a major worry for humanity. many scientists are predicting that global warming could result in powerful storms, crop failures, rising sea levels, and volcanic eruptions in the foreseeable future. these apocalyptic predictions are becoming common knowledge. as a result of the impact of climate change on nations and communities, vulnerability, adaptation and prevention issues are germane to this study. similarly, ipcc (2001, p.2) defines vulnerability as “the extent to which climate change may damage or harm a system’s sensitivity, but also on its ability to adapt to new climate conditions.” furthermore, in the ipcc (2000) report, vulnerability was defined as: the extent to which a natural or a social system is susceptible to sustaining damage from climate change, and is a function of the magnitude of climate change, the sensitivity of the system to changes in climate and the ability to adapt the system to changes in climate. hence, a highly vulnerable system is one that is highly sensitive to modest changes in climate and one for which the ability to adapt is severely constrained (p. 3). adaptations to climate is the process through which people reduce the adverse effects of climate on their health and well being, and take advantage of the opportunities that their climatic environment provides (smith, burton, klein, & wandel, 2000). furthermore, they explained that adaptation to climate change includes all adjustments in behavior or economic structures that reduce the vulnerability of society to changes in the climate system. the climate zones can be separated into four, to include: dry lands and desertification, rainforest, highlands, and the flood plains. it is estimated that half the earth’s surface of about 6.45 billion hectares is composed of dry lands. the dry lands are comprised of arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas which are very prone to desertification. climate factors such as rain, temperature, wind, and evaporation cause aridity of the soil, while soil degradation is human induced. good examples of human induced soil degradation are tree felling, pollution, and overgrazing which cause desertification. on the other end of the continuum, the tropical rainforest is usually hot and humid. this area witnesses 10-11 months of rain yearly, falling mostly in the afternoons. the rainforest is very important because it is a major source of the earth’s oxygen through the abundant and diverse plants it supports. another benefit of these plants is their use as drugs to fight disease and illness. the highland climate zones according to wikinvest (2010) are mountainous areas. their altitude help is a determinant to their climate and weather. generally, the average temperature of each month is about 5-6 o c for each 1000 meters of elevation above sea-level. days are generally warm due to solar irradiation and during nights temperatures drop to very low levels. plants and trees are small and are adapted to withstand sub-zero conditions. finally, the fourth climate zone 4 the challenges of technical and vocational education in mitigating climate change induced catastrophes in nigeria ____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) is the flood plains. these are areas of land over which a river or sea water flows or is stored in times of flood. as a result of heavy and consistent rain the land is unable to absorb it and flooding occurs which may cause rivers to overflow their banks. this happens with rivers across nigeria. the concept “technical and vocational education” according to the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco) (2001) is a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. according to unesco’s document, “revised recommendation concerning technical and vocational education,” technical and vocational education is further understood to be: a. an integral part of general education; b. a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work; c. an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for a responsive citizenship; d. an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable development; e. a method of facilitating poverty alleviation (p. 1-2). causes and effects of climate change according to wikinvest (2010), since the industrial revolution, average global temperature has risen by one degree fahrenheit. accordingly, the causes of climate change are the increased intensity of solar energy or the cyclicality of earth’s temperatures, volcanism, oceanic circulation cycles, biosphere impact, ultraviolet radiation variability, reflectivity, rotational variation, solar systemic change, galaxy position variability, and human influence. the impact of change in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, gas and other green house emissions are the reasons that the globe is steadily warming even if it is seemingly slow. there are a number of other human induced climate changes that can be categorized under the following headings of pollution, desertification flood. the consequential effects of this continued accelerated climate change as predicted by scientists are listed below:  melting polar ice caps will cause rising sea levels and coastal flooding, melting glaciers and warmer temperatures in mountain regions will lead to decreased snow melts, intensifying water scarcity.  the influx of cold water from the poles will interact with warming ocean water to cause oceanic temperature fluctuations across the globe, possibly causing global ecological damage as sensitive keystone organisms (plankton, for example) die in their new environments, leading to organism that are higher in the food chain (tuna, for example) increasing in scarcity.  warmer air and water would cause more powerful hurricanes as it allows more water to evaporate and creates faster winds, making hurricane season more dangerous.  rapidly changing ocean salinity from polar fresh water could interact with the temperature fluctuations in the ocean to disrupt or even shift the gulf stream, an underwater current that is responsible for modern climate conditions. 5 titus a. umoru and a.u. okeke ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) the nigerian economy is vulnerable to damages caused by these upheavals. the negative impact of global change particularly in the insurance industry could be monumental. insurance companies stand to lose in the case of damages caused by powerful natural disasters by bearing the brunt of the cost of reconstruction. agricultural companies and those reliant on agriculture would be affected by reduction in food production and rise in production costs. increasing water scarcity occasioned by severe weather changes, i.e., melting glaciers and declining winter precipitation, could impact negatively on the industries that use water as inputs. such companies that must contend with the rising cost of water include steel, paper, iron, petroleum, textile and chemical companies. also contemplated is the vulnerability of the population to a potential scarcity of potable water. the clamor to turn away from energy that releases greenhouse gases will mean less use of coal powered production and gas powered vehicles. thus, demands will decrease and prices of oil and coal will fall thereby lowering the income of nigeria that is dependent on oil exports. technical and vocational education objectives and the climate change challenge the intellectual framework of this section is built on revealing the objectives of technical and vocational education and creating a prism from which to view those objectives that could impact the challenges of climate change in nigeria. in november 2001, unesco adopted a recommendation concerning technical and vocational education. the document directed member states, including nigeria, to take whatever legislative or other steps necessary to give effect to the principles set forth in their recommendation. these ambitious goals set by unesco and the international community, together with regulatory bodies and academic institutions, were aimed at ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programs. the various technical and vocational education curricula of tertiary institutions in nigeria approximate that of unesco’s principles and are updated frequently. the objectives of technical and vocational education were clearly conceived by the planners and stated very expressly to show the direction of change envisioned for all countries of the world. the document specifies in concrete terms how to create open and flexible educational structures to cater for upward mobility in learning and work. it also abolishes barriers between levels and areas of education, education and the world of work, and between school and society. in particular, section 5 (b) (unesco, 2001, p. 2) is noteworthy. it envisages the objectives to, “lead to an understanding of the scientific and technological aspects of contemporary civilization in such a way that people comprehend their environment and are capable of acting upon it while taking a critical view of the social, political and environmental implications of scientific and technological change.” the implication therefore is that technical and vocational education through these objectives is given the necessary empowerment and mandate to provide quality technical and vocational education and training to effectively help students and workers develop their knowledge in science and technology across occupational areas including those that address climate change related challenges. the rest of this article is dedicated to exposing the various climate change issues that technical and vocational education may impact. those issues are as follows:  prevention, preparation and adaptation;  supporting governments, schools and communities;  technical assistance; 6 the challenges of technical and vocational education in mitigating climate change induced catastrophes in nigeria ____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012)  research programs;  changing attitudes and ethics;  vulnerable populations in nigeria. prevention, preparation, and adaptation though scientists agree that some of the effects of climate change can no longer be stopped, they believe that the process may be harnessed or slowed by stopping global warming. the way towards this goal is to halt the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. according to meludu (2010) the most industrialized african countries, such as south africa, generate 8.44 metric tons of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide per person, and the least developed countries, such as mali, generate less than a tenth of a metric ton of greenhouse gas carbon dioxide per person. there is no doubt that technical and vocational education is an integral part of science and also a partner in the global education for all initiatives. technical and vocational education is therefore, a tool that can be used in partnership with other agencies to prevent climate change where possible or prepare citizens to adapt to climate change. the professionals in technical and vocational education are directly involved through effective participation in environmental and climate change induced sectors as forestry, fishery, oil and gas, and mining. technical and vocational education can be employed to increase clean energy jobs and to provide professional services in the maintenance of machines, appliances, and vehicles so that reduction in greenhouse gas emissions are achieved. technical and vocational education practitioners could play a vital role in public education and citizen engagement to prepare it for climate changes, so that people may adapt to the changes that cannot be avoided. areas that need the services of technical and vocational education workers are education and information on good eating habit, i.e. avoiding prepackaged foods, soft drinks, and fast foods. apart from dietary issues of high content of fat, sugar, and calories, resource materials and energy are depleted in producing the packaging for these foods. secondly, people could be advised to travel differently, i.e. walking and riding bicycles to reduce the use of cars and buses that use gasoline. thirdly, practitioners could be involved in creating awareness for a “green” culture. supporting governments, schools, and communities through an inclusive curriculum technical and vocational education practitioners can play a major role in supporting governments, schools and communities through building capacity for the promotion of environmentally sustainable programs. such programs will increase public understanding of the interdependence between their environment, their community and country, and their lives. a child-based, facility-based, and skills-based curriculum could be designed by technical and vocational education experts to empower students’ preparedness in natural disaster risk reduction techniques. other ways that technical and vocational education content may be integrated are:  promotion of specific disciplines, for example, ensuring a skilled and educated workforce in taxonomy and systems, who can competently document the changes and patterns in biodiversity.  integrating timely communications, including awareness concerning projects and developments in every area of climate change. 7 titus a. umoru and a.u. okeke ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012)  including environmental and climate change issues as prominent topics in school curriculums to benefit their communities.  establish interdisciplinary studies with technical and vocational education experts who can partner to benefit from methods, background, and overall experiences of professionals in their various fields of specialization.  advisory role, as a discipline technical and vocational education, has the capacity to make valuable impact as advisors to improve the services of government agencies like the nigeria environmental standards regulation and enforcement agency. technical assistance technical and vocational education professionals are well equipped to provide technical assistance to consumers, businesses, and home owners to enable them to make choices that will assist in reducing green house gas emissions. specific areas that need technical advice include, consumer purchasing decisions, transportation options, the of refrigerators and air conditioners with programmable thermostats and avoiding the purchase of second-hand refrigerators and air conditioners, the use of smart meters, the use of energy saving lighting options, and the use of solar energy options. research programs the scientific community has embarked on multi-disciplinary projects in global change research. according to mcbean and mccarthy (2007), programs have emerged to answer questions of global significance aimed at reducing scientific uncertainties and improving the quality of predictions of future changes to global and regional environmental conditions, thereby ensuring better management of the earth’s ecological resources. technical and vocational education professionals can be partners in this effort. it is important to collaborate in research so that governments and agencies in nigeria do not waste resources through the development of incompatible actions or through ineffective policy and development plans that are not effective in achieving climatically sustainable development. changing attitudes and ethics humankind is part of nature. many planning decisions on how to integrate human activities into the environment for the purposes of culture and aesthetic values need to be clearly understood. the planning of houses in our cities, building of parks, forest maintenance, farming systems, all are processes that should be influenced by ethics. how forests are managed depends on how furniture workers go about their work and the same can be said of agricultural workers. technical and vocational education professionals can change the attitudes of people through education programs so that a balance between ethics and management of the environment may be achieved. vulnerable people and places in nigeria according to watson, zinyoera, and moss (2007), africa is the continent most vulnerable to the impacts of projected changes because widespread poverty limits adaptation capabilities. for example, nigeria, particularly the farming sector, relies on the quality of rains during the rainy season. thus food security is an important issue as climate change increases the incidence of drought and represents a very serious threat. according to downing, ringius, hulme, and 8 the challenges of technical and vocational education in mitigating climate change induced catastrophes in nigeria ____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) waughray (2007), in africa drought hazard and vulnerability are likely to be the most damaging locus of impacts of climate change. in nigeria, people living in arid or semi-arid areas, coastal areas that are flood-prone, and oil producing states face more challenges and need the services of technical and vocational education professionals to enable them adapt to their environment. conclusion and recommendations the havoc caused by climate change induced catastrophes all over the world has the potential to change the progress of nations and foreclose the hope of future generations for a better life. when we hear about hurricanes like katrina; earthquakes in italy, japan, haiti, and china; tsunamis in japan and southeast asia; and oil spillages in the gulf of mexico; we are quick to count our blessings and proclaim that such disasters are not our fate. but now we have devastating erosion menaces across nigeria with desertification in the north, dumping of toxic waste in koko, oil spillage and floods in the south, lead gas poisoning in nasarawa. this may just be just the beginning. how prepared are nigeria’s emergency response related agencies and, in fact, the technical and vocational education professionals? technical and vocational education professionals, as part of the scientific and technological community, are well positioned to tackle the challenges of climate change. arising from this study, the following recommendations are presented: 1. technical and vocational education practitioners should use their understanding of science and technology to deal with challenges posed by climate change. 2. governments (national, state, and local) should be assisted by technical and vocational education professionals to make the required legislation that will give effect to the principles set forth by unesco. 3. technical and vocational education curricula should be reviewed and revised continually to ensure that students are empowered in natural disaster risk reduction techniques. 4. continued research aimed at improving predictions of future climate changes should be pursued by technical and vocational education professionals. references downing, t., ringius, l., hulme, m., & waughray, d. (2007). adapting to climate change in africa: mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change. climate change, 2(1), 19-44. inter-governmental panel on climate change (2000). presentation of robert watson, chair, intergovernmental panel on climate change. sixth conference of the parties to the united nations framework convention on climate change. the hague. inter-governmental panel on climate change (2001). climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation vulnerability. contribution of working group ii to the third assessment report of the inter-governmental panel on climate change. geneva: unep/wmo. 9 titus a. umoru and a.u. okeke ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) meludu, n. t. (2010). effect of climate variation on food availability, stability, accessibility and changes in consumption pattern. conference proceedings of the 4 th annual conference of the school of vocational and technical education, federal college of education, oyo, nigeria. mcbean, f. & mccarthy, j. (1990). narrowing the uncertainties: a scientific action plan for improved prediction of climate change. in j.t. houghton, g.j. jenkins and j.j. ephraums (eds.), climate change, the ipcc scientific assessment, (pp. 315-328). great britain: cambridge university press. digitized by the digitization and microform unit, unog library, 2010. o’brien, k. & leichenko, r. (2000). double exposure: assessing the impacts of climate change within the context of globalization. global environmental change, 10, 221-232. smith, b., burton, b., klein, r. j. t., & wandel, j., (2000). an anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability. climate change, 45, 223-251. united nations framework on climate change, (1997). kyoto protocol to the united nations framework convention on climate change: text. bonn: united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc). watson, r. t., zinyoera, m. c., & moss, r. h. (2007). the regional impacts of climate change: an assessment of vulnerability. a special report of ipcc working group ii. cambridge: cambridge university press. wikinvest, (2010).concepts: global climate change. retrieved from: http://www.wikinvest.com/concept/global-climate-change. http://www.wikinvest.com/concept/global-climate-change microsoft word ndani&kimani volume 1 no. 1 * pages 34 47 * october 2010 factors influencing early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya mary n. ndani, phd. kenyatta university, nairobi-kenya ndanimn@yahoo.com elishiba n. kimani, phd. kenyatta university, nairobi-kenya elishibakimani@yahoo.com abstract early childhood development (ecd) centres comprise one of the immediate social and physical environments influencing children’s development, that bronfenbrenner (1986, 1989) terms microsystems. the microsystems are made up of personal qualities of the people therein (particularly teachers) and the physical environments. in order for ecd centres to provide the necessary conditions for children’s holistic development, teachers should be well motivated and physical facilities conducive for working and learning. the sample of the study was comprised of 40 ecd centres and 46 ecd teachers. preschool teachers’ motivation questionnaire and an observation checklist were used to collect the primary data. secondary data were obtained from various records in the ecd centres. among the key findings was the revelation that the motivation levels of more than 50% of the teachers were below average. the study recommended that the ministry of education and communities work together to improve ecd teachers’ terms and conditions of service as well as the learning/teaching environment. mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 35 factors influencing early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya background to the study the need for a holistic development of children is appreciated all over the world. consistently, united nations’ convention on the rights of the child (uncrc, 1989), african charter on rights and welfare of the child (oau, 1990) and the government of kenya (republic of kenya, 1998) recognize the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for its physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development. this implies that care givers should provide adequate and appropriate care to children, since developmental deficiencies that occur during this stage are difficult to reverse (pipes & trahms, 1993). unfortunately, increased urbanization, introduction of formal education, the universal use of the money economy and the multiplicity of the roles of mothers, pose challenges in the use of the traditionally effective childcare systems. consequently, early childhood development (ecd) centres have been accepted by contemporary societies worldwide as an alternative child care system. these centres comprise one of the immediate physical and social environments experienced by young children that bronfenbrenner (1986/1989, cited in black and puckett 1996) terms microsystems. the microsystems are made up of the personal qualities of teachers, other caregivers and peers therein, as well as the quality of the physical environment to which the child is exposed. they also comprise of the activities, roles and interpersonal relationships experienced by the developing person, all of which have an influence on children’s development. however, “evidence abound that the teacher is the most important single factor in determining what a school (ecd) experience will be like for children” (read, gardner and mahler, 1993 p. 41). thus, creating conditions that motivate ecd teachers to initiate positive interactions with children and a physical environment that is conducive both to teachers’ work and children’s development is essential. to create these conditions, ecd centre communities who sponsor about 70% of the ecd centres in kenya (republic of kenya, 1998) need to participate to address what herzberg, mausner, & snyderman (1959) termed ‘hygiene’ factors or ‘job context’ needs. these include physical working conditions, salary, benefits, job security, and interpersonal relations. demonstrating the importance of hygiene factors, research (howes, smith & clanlinsky 1995; love, ryre & faddis, 1992; and essa, 2003) has reported that preschool teachers whose ‘hygiene’ needs are satisfied, become warm, sensitive and nurturing. the teachers in these studies showed great responsiveness, gave encouragement to children and used less negative disciplinary techniques. as a result, children developed positive emotional adjustments and their cognitive, language and social skills were enhanced. additionally, the children displayed fewer behavioral problems and became socially competent. ultimately, the amount of adult interaction with children became greater and more beneficial, and children had friendlier interactions with peers. these positive child outcomes clearly demonstrate the need to motivate teachers. the key factors influencing ecd teacher motivation therefore needed to be investigated in order to guide early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 36 communities in areas where they need to concentrate their efforts. this was important because most preschool teachers reportedly worked in what herzberg described as an “unhealthy psychological work environment”, including unclear terms and conditions of service (makoti, 2005), and low irregular salary averaging ksh.2000 a month (ngome, 2002, waithaka, 2003 and makoti, 2005). heavy workload was also considered to be a de-motivating factor as ngome (2002) found unmanageable pupil enrollment to contribute to the 54.56 percent rate of preschool teacher attrition. in addition, studies had shown that most centers lacked the necessary facilities, equipment and materials that would promote teacher motivation and holistic development of children. according to ngome (2002), most public centers supported unfriendly work conditions characterized by windowless, rough mud walled and floored classrooms, and others that were iron-sheet walled and roofed. in such classrooms, temperatures went very high or very low, ventilation was inadequate, dust was a problem and children were easily distracted. most of these classrooms were also congested. (gakii, 2003 and ng’asike, 2004). further, findings of the ministry of education science and technology (moest, 1999) had revealed that on average, preschools even within primary school compounds were worse off than their lower primary counterparts, in terms of provision and appropriateness of facilities. statement of the problem as illustrated in the background, the need for care that would lead to the holistic development of the child is appreciated globally and a corresponding right granted (uncrc, 1989, oau 1990 and republic of kenya, 1998). to secure this right the conditions necessary for optimal development of children need to be secured within children’s microsystems among which are ecd centres (bronfenbrenner 1986/1989, cited in black and puckett 1996). to do this, communities need to focus on two important aspects of the preschool microsystems: the teachers and the physical learning environments. in particular, the teachers have been found to play a critical role in children’s development (read, gardner and mahler, 1993; howes, smith & clanlinsky, 1995; and essa, 2003). the effectiveness of the teachers on the other hand depends on the existing levels of motivation. unfortunately, research findings in kenyan ecd centres have revealed some prevalent unfavorable conditions for teacher motivation. to enable ecd communities to prioritize the areas that require urgent intervention in ensuring the conditions necessary for optimal development of children, there was a need to establish the extent to which preschool teachers were motivated, as well as the factors that motivated and those that de-motivated them. this was the gap that this study was set to fill. research objectives the objectives of the study were to: i. establish preschool teachers’ motivation levels. ii. explore preschool teachers’ motivators and de-motivators. iii. come up with recommendations for policy action and interventions. conceptual framework bronfenbrenner (1986) advocates that the physical facilities, equipment and materials present in the environment in which children live, and the interpersonal relationships of the persons with mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 37 whom they interact, influence children’s development. ecd teachers are among the most important persons in children’s interpersonal relationships. one of the most important influences on the children’s psychosocial environment therefore is the level of ecd centre teacher motivation. relevant strategies should therefore be geared towards motivating teachers and providing a child-friendly environment. satisfying teachers’ hygiene needs, including favourable terms and conditions of service, a manageable workload, ‘good’ remuneration as well as providing an adequate physical working environment is expected to result in motivating them (herzberg, mausner & snyderman, 1959). this, in turn, is likely to result in teachers becoming effective in stimulating and nurturing children, responding sensitively to their needs, encouraging them and using few negative disciplinary actions. consequently, teachers would achieve the ultimate psychosocial development goals in children: the development of high cognitive and language skills, positive emotional adjustment and social competence. the relationships between these variables are illustrated in figure 1. figure 1: conceptual framework: influences of teacher motivation key: shaded area relationships between the study variables. unshaded area expected teacher and child outcomes not included in this study. early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 38 methodology the methodology followed in this study is briefly described below under the sub-headings: research design, study locale, target population, sampling technique and sample size, research instruments and data analysis techniques. research design the study employed an ex-post-facto research design and yielded mainly descriptive data. the variables studied were as shown in table 1. ecd teacher social context factors terms and conditions of service level of remuneration workload (child – teacher ratio) social relationships ecd physical environments facilities equipment materials space sanitary condition teacher motivation table 1: study variables independent variables consisted of ecd teacher social context factors and physical environments. the dependent variable was the level of teacher motivation. study locale the research was carried out in thika district of central province, kenya. the district was chosen because it encompassed the following characteristics: 1) large geographical area; 2) high population, albeit unevenly distributed; 3) pre-schools of the four categories of sponsorship: public, private, local authority (la) and faith led, or religious organizations (ro); 4) varied economic potential and ecological zones, that is, thika municipality, ruiru and juja zones with diverse residential areas ranging from upper middle class to informal settlements, high potential rural areas – comprising kariara and kigoro zones, moderately low agricultural potential zone of mitubiri and the semi-arid zones of kakuzi and ithanga. target population the target population for the study consisted of all ecd centres and teachers in the district. according to the records, the district had a total of 764 preschools of which 390 were found in the identified participating zones. out of the 390 pre-schools, communities sponsored 99, private mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 39 individuals 189, local authorities 36 and religious organizations 66. the samples from this population and sampling techniques are discussed in the section below. sampling techniques and sample size stratified random sampling with purposive selection of the strata and simple random sampling using the lottery technique were employed in the study. this was to ensure representation of all desired categories of strata; socio-economic potential (high and low zones), the geographical context (rural and urban), and the preschool sponsorship. using these methods, a total of 40 preschools and 46 teachers were sampled. the number of sampled preschools per zone and category were as illustrated in table 2. table 2: number of sampled preschools per zone and category zone public private l.a r.o. total number of schools kariara 1 1 1 _ 3 kigoro 1 1 1 _ 3 thika municipality 2 7 _ 2 11 ruiru 2 6 _ 1 9 ithanga 1 _ 1 1 3 kakuzi 1 1 _ 1 3 mitubiri 1 2 _ _ 3 juja 2 2 _ 1 5 total 11 20 3 6 40 research instruments the data were collected using preschool teachers’ motivation questionnaire and the preschool physical environment check list. the instruments were constructed by the researchers. to check for consistency in their content, the split-half test of reliability was carried out. the relevant instruments analyzed for this purpose were administered to 10 teachers. scores from even numbered items were correlated against scores obtained from odd numbered items. data collected in the pilot study were analysed using spearman’s correlation coefficient at the significance level of alpha = 0.05. the instrument was found to be reliable. to ensure validity, expertise of two peers who were familiar with the study area was sought. these were asked to check whether the items in the instrument were viable to collect the intended data. additionally, the researchers conducted all the study in person in order to ensure systematic validity. the data collected were analysed as discussed in the following section. the level of preschool teacher motivation was measured using a six-point likert scale. this scale was used to rate 19 motivation variables adapted from herzberg’s study. teachers’ level of motivation was obtained by calculating the mean z-score. the statistic is a standard score with a early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 40 mean score of zero (0) and a standard deviation of one (1). using this statistic, a raw score above the mean attains a positive z-score and that below the mean a negative z-score (orodho, 2004). scores above the mean were therefore considered high and those below it low. this statistic was also applied to the data on preschool physical environments. to get the average suitability of the environment, the scores of the different aspects were summed up and the z-score of the totals obtained. any score above the mean z-score was taken as high, denoting suitable environments, while those below were considered low and therefore unsuitable environments. summary of results and recommendations the study established that the preschool teachers’ satisfaction levels were quite varied as shown in table 3. among the factors that ranked highly as satisfiers were: teachers relationship with children, with a frequency of 43(93.5%), their relationship with the community with 36(78.3%) and recognition received from the community for good work, which had 34(73.9%). this suggests that social relationships were important in influencing teacher motivation. table 3: preschool teachers’ ranking of motivation factors na dissatisf fairly d. neutral fairly s. satisfied motivation factors f.(%) f.(%) f.(%) f.(%) f.(%) f.(%) teacher’s relationship with children. (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 3 (6.5) 43 (93.5) teacher’s relationship with the community. (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 1 (2.2) 9 (19.6) 36 (78.3) recognition received from community for good work. (0.0) 2 (4.3) 1 (2.2) (0.0) 9 (19.6) 34 (73.9) age of children in class. (0.0) 3 (6.5) 7 (15.2) (0.0) 6 (13.0) 30 (65.2) number of hours worked daily. (0.0) 4 (8.7) 6 (13.0) (0.0) 8 (17.4) 28 (60.9) teacher’s relationship with school management. 4 (8.7) (0.0) 2 (4.3) (0.0) 15(32.6) 25 (54.3) number of children in class -(0.0) 5 (10.9) 9 (19.6) (0.0) 9 (19.6) 23 (50.0) physical conditions of the classroom (0.0) 3 (6.5) 6 (13.0) (0.0) 16(34.8) 21 (45.7) supply of teaching materials (0.0) 8(17.4) 5(10.9) (0.0) 12(26.1) 21 (45.7) physical conditions of the school (0.0) 4 (8.7) 5(10.9) (0.0) 19(41.3) 18(39.1) societal expectation on teacher’s performance (0.0) 5 (10.9) 5(10.9) 1(2.2) 17(37.0) 18 (39.1) support the teacher gets from the community 2 (4.3) 3 (6.5) 4 (8.7) (0.0) 20(43.5) 17 (37.0) parent’s expectation of children’s performance 3 (6.5) 1 (2.2) 6(13.0) (0.0) 19(41.3) 17 (37.0) mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 41 effect of community on teachers’ experience on teaching 3 (6.5) 2 (4.3) 10 (21.7) 6 (13.0) 13(28.3) 12 (26.1) one’s pay compared to others 1 (2.2) 14(30.4) 8(17.4) 1(2.2) 17(37.0) 5 (10.9) provision of house allowance 16 (34.8) 21 (45.7) 3 (6.5) 1 (2.2) 2 (4.3) 3 (6.5) provision of retirement benefits 18(39.1) 20 (43.5) 2 (4.3) 2(4.3) 1 (2.2) 3 (6.5) amount of salary received (0.0) 21 (45.7) 9(19.6) 2(4.3) 12(26.1) 2 (4.3) status of preschool teachers in kenya (0.0) 17 (37.0) 16(34.8) 1(2.2) 10(21.7) 2 (4.3) aggregate 47 (5.4) 133 (15.2) 104 (11.9) 15 (1.7) 217 (24.8) 358 (41.0) key: i. na=not applicable. it applies to cases where the teacher is also the proprietor of the school or did not have an answer iv. fairly s=fairly satisfied ii. dissatisfy= dissatisfied v. f=frequency iii. fairly d=fairly dissatisfied vi. %=percent to collate the factors identified above as leading to satisfaction and dissatisfaction, teachers were asked to list five “things” that they liked and five that they did not like in their schools in order of priority. from the teachers’ responses, good interpersonal relationships had the highest frequency in all the five priority levels, followed by good working conditions. salary and other benefits took third and fourth positions, respectively, as summarized in table 4. p r i o r i t y 1 2 3 4 5 motivators f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%) f (%) good interpersonal relationship 19 41.3 24 52.2 21 45.7 13 28.3 5 10.9 good working conditions 9 19.6 11 24.0 8 17.4 7 15.2 4 8.7 salary 8 17.4 2 4.3 4 8.7 5 10.9 0 0.0 other benefits 3 6.5 3 6.5 1 2.2 7 15.2 1 2.2 good management 3 6.5 3 6.5 1 2.2 2 4.3 1 2.2 personal convenience 3 6.5 0 0.0 5 10.8 1 2.2 4 8.7 workload 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 2.2 1 2.2 4 8.7 no response 1 2.2 3 6.5 5 10.8 10 21.7 27 58.6 f= frequency; %= percent table 4: preschool teachers’ identified motivators early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 42 the interpersonal relationships were comprised of teachers’ relationship with children, parents, other teachers and the management committee or employer, with frequencies descending in that order. this meant that most preschool teachers were comfortable working with children and related well with other key players in the preschool microsystems. such a social environment was conducive to children’s psychosocial development. the working conditions, on the other hand, described both physical and social environments in the ecd centres. qualities such as well-painted classrooms, adequate play area and clean compound facilitated teachers’ contentment with the physical environment. availability of equipment and the supply of teaching/learning materials also contributed to teachers’ satisfaction with the physical environment. the majority of the ecd teachers who were contented with the social environment were the study respondents drawn from coffee plantations whose workers were from different parts of kenya. they expressed satisfaction with plantations managers’ concern in their welfare, opportunity to be with people from different parts of the country and being allowed to grow crops on company farms. further, some teachers found the conditions favorable because of fewer working hours (6 hours per day), and still others because of non-interference from management, which they put as, the “freedom to run the centres the way they want”. the amount of salary and increments received motivated only 6(13%) teachers from 4 centres, while the others who cited salary as a motivator were happy about being paid on time and during the school holiday. the prioritized teacher motivators therefore, were consistent with the ranked levels. in addition to salary, fringe benefits that motivated preschool teachers included having a feeding programme from which they got a share of the snack or food, free tea, opportunity for in-service capacity building and free staffing housing. personal convenience and manageable workload were also found to motivate teachers though to a low degree. personal convenience included being near home, being near a town or living in an area where basic necessities are affordable. those who were in public preschools within primary schools were also motivated by an expectation that the kenya teachers service commission will eventually employ them. the few who were contented with the workload credited their position to manageable numbers of children in class. some findings of this study concur with others done in kenya on teacher satisfaction. makoti (2004), for example, found good conditions and terms of (private) preschool teachers’ service to be a source of motivation. karugu (1980) and ngaroga (1985) specifically found working near home and relationships with pupils and other teachers to satisfy teachers in kigumo division and nairobi province respectively. their findings are in harmony with the personal convenience and interpersonal relationships discussed above. while the two studies limited the motivating interpersonal relationships to teachers and pupils, this study found a more extensive range of the same. further, waithaka (2003) found good learning atmosphere, management and salary paid on time to be satisfiers among thika municipality preschool teachers. in addition to the above, this study identified community recognition for good work, manageable workload and fringe benefits as motivators of preschool teachers. among the things that de-motivated ecd teachers were low salary, poor physical working conditions, heavy workload, poor or inexistent terms of service and poor interpersonal relationships in that order, as shown in table 5. mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 43 p r i o r i t y 1 2 3 4 5 de-motivator f (%) f f f f salary 24 (52.2) 10 (21.7) 12 (26.0) 7 (15.2) 8(17.4) physical working 5 (10.9) 10 11 9 (19.6) 12 workload 5 (10.9) 6 (13.0) 4 (8.7) 7 (15.2) 4 (8.7) other terms of service 1(2.2) 4 (8.7) 4 (8.7) 5 (10.9) 2 (4.3) interpersonal relationships 6 (12.9) 4 (8.7) 2 (4.3) 3 (6.5) 1 (2.2) others 1 (2.2) 3 (6.5) 2 (4.3) 2 (4.3) (0.0) no response 4 (8.7) 9 (19.7) 11 (24.0) 13 (28.3) 19 (41.3) nb: f= frequency; %= percent table 5: preschool teachers’ de-motivators low salary emerged as the greatest de-motivator with 24(52.2%) of the teachers placing it in the first priority and also having the highest percentage among all the other four levels of priority. consistently, the amount of salary received was rated very low in the likert scale (see table 3) with 21(45.7%) teachers being dissatisfied, 9(19.6%) fairly dissatisfied and only 2(4.3%) satisfied. other factors related to low salary and contributing towards lack of motivation included parents’ failure to pay fees on time and frequent withdrawal of children when parents lose their casual jobs in the ecd centre vicinity. these, coupled with delayed and irregular payment of salary, lack of salary increments, and failure to compensate for putting in extra time, further de-motivated the teachers. those who disliked the physical working conditions ranked poor and unmaintained facilities first, followed by inadequate outdoor play equipment, and lack of learning materials. this seemed to contradict the relative higher ranking of physical facilities as a motivator in the likert scale. the contradiction is, however only apparent as the two pieces of data served to emphasize the importance of physical facilities in teacher motivation. thus, teachers appeared to like working in ecd centres with good facilities. consequently, good working conditions ranked second in prioritization of the motivating factors just as in the de-motivating ones, with 9(19.6%) and 11(23.9%) teachers placing it in the first and second priority, respectively, among motivators, and 5(10.9%) and 10(21.7%) among de-motivators. on the workload, teachers were de-motivated by failure to break for holidays, continuous admission of children up to the end of the school term and long working hours. failure to break for holidays was reported by teachers in plantations. those discontented with the “open” admission were mainly from privately sponsored preschools. they claimed that the practice made their planning very difficult because children were at different levels. to add to their disappointment, they were blamed when the lately admitted children did not perform well in interviews for entry into primary schools. concerning the workload, some teachers were unhappy about the number of working hours. these were mainly the teachers who arrived in ecd centres very early in the morning in order to receive children dropped by parents on their way to their work places. the teachers also waited for the parents to pick up children in the evening on their way home. their dissatisfaction early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 44 arose owing to the apparent lack of appreciation from their employers and lack of compensation for the extra time. other de-motivating terms of service included lack of letters of appointment, and by extension, lack of clear terms of employment, leave entitlement and conditions of termination. employers’ failure to consider teachers’ welfare by denying them sick and maternity leaves, for example, was found to greatly de-motivate teachers. having uncooperative parents and being harassed by management were also found to demotivate the teachers. the foregoing findings are in agreement with other empirically based literature on teacher motivation in respect to de-motivating factors. in their study on the contribution of the quality of school facilities towards teacher attrition, buckley, schneider, & shang (2004) reviewed a number of such literatures. these studies showed that teachers were de-motivated by low salary. in some of them, for example tye & o’brien (2002), teachers in the united kingdom and california who were considering leaving the profession ranked salary considerations as the most important factor driving their decision. gritz & theobold (1996) also quoted by buckley et al (2004), similarly found that compensation is the most important influence on the decision to remain in the profession for male and experienced female teachers. dolton & klaauw (1995) also reportedly found higher teacher attrition rate in the u.k. to be driven by poor salary relative to non-teaching jobs. studies done in kenya (ngaroga, 1985; gatheru, 1987; ngome, 2002 and waithaka, 2003) all concur with these findings that teachers at all levels of the school system are de-motivated by low salary. furthermore, other teachers have been found to be dissatisfied with physical facilities. for example, a survey of k-12 teachers in washington, d.c. cited in buckley, et al (2004) found out that facility quality is an important predictor of the decision of teachers to leave their current position. to emphasize the importance of the physical environment, the above study cites hanushek, kain and rivkin (2004) who asserted that teachers might be willing to take lower salaries in exchange for better working conditions. this statement may appear like an exaggeration, but its not, considering that the quality of school buildings affect the quality of teacher life and educational outcomes. while the kenyan teachers may not appreciate this, poor “indoor air quality” (iaq) reportedly leads to “sick building syndrome” which in turn increases student absenteeism, reduces student performance and affects both learners and teachers’ health (kennedy 2001; leach, 1997; smedje & norback 1999, among others, cited in buckley, et al 2004). teacher dissatisfaction with the workload concurs with rosenholtz & simpson (1990, cited by buckley et al 2004) in their revelation that the burden of non-teaching obligations affects new teachers’ commitment. further, the study by ngome (2002) identified high workload as one of the factors contributing towards high teacher attrition. in summary, both aspects of the preschool microsystems investigated were found to be inadequate to support children’s development. in 55% of the preschools, the physical environment was below average in suitability, and 52.2% of the teachers had below average levels of motivation. teacher motivators were found to comprise mainly of work context factors. these included good interpersonal relationships, good working conditions, timely salary payment and being paid during the school holidays. other benefits such as feeding in ecd centres, regular opportunities for in-service capacity building and good management were also mentioned. teachers’ de-motivators were also work context factors including: low salary, poor mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 45 physical working conditions, high workload, unclear terms of service and poor interpersonal relationships. consequently, given the mandate of the ministry of education to manage all levels of education in kenya, this study recommended that the ministry not only improves but also harmonizes the terms and conditions of service of all ecd teachers in the country. some of the required intervention may be in the form of intensified community participation, since it is communities that shape the job contexts. in particular, communities need to establish friendly relationships with ecd teachers and to appreciate the services they give to their children. the relationship between the level of community participation and that of the preschool microsystems (physical environment and teacher motivation), however, needs to be empirically established before recommending it as a remedy. early childhood development teachers’ motivation in thika district, kenya ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 46 references black, j.k. and puckett, m.b. (1996). the young child: development from prebirth through age eight (2 nd ed.). englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice hall, inc. buckley, j., schneider, m., and shang, y. (2004). organizing for effective early childhood programs and practices. critical issue, cambridge: harvard family research project posted by the national clearinghouse for educational facilities retrieved on march 19 2007, from www.edfacilities.org. essa, e.l. (2003). introduction to early childhood education ( 4 th ed.). canada: thomson delmar learning. gakii, m.c. (2003). preschool teacher factors that influence the teacher child relationships in miringa mieru divisions, meru central district, kenya. unpublished m.ed thesis, kenyatta university. gatheru, j. (1987). a study of factors that contribute to lack of satisfaction among primary school teachers. unpublished m.ed thesis, university of nairobi. herzberg, f. (1966). work and nature of man. new york: world publishing herzberg f., mausner b. & snyderman b. (1959). the motivation to work. newyork: johnwiley & sons inc. karagu, g. k. (1980). an investigation of job satisfaction-dissatisfaction among elementary school teachers and head-teachers in nairobi, kenya, and a comparison of their perceptions on fourteen selected job-factors from herzberg’s two-factor theory. unpublished phd thesis, kenyatta university. love, j. m., ryler, p. and faddis, b. (1992). caring environments program quality in california’s public funded child development programs. staff: child ratio. (report on the legislatively mandated 1990-91 study). portsmouth, rmc research co-operative. makoti, n.m. 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(2002). quality of training and attrition of early childhood development teachers in kenya. manuscript submitted for publication. organization of african unity, (1990). the african charter on the rights and welfare of the child. nairobi, kenya. orodho, j.a. (2004). elements of education and social research methods. nairobi: masola publishers. pipes p.l. and trahms, n. (1993). nutrition in infancy and childhood. fifth edition st. mary n. ndani & elishiba n. kimani ajote vol. 1. no. 1, 34-47 47 louis missouri: mosby year book, inc. read, k., gardner, p. and mahler, b. (1993). early childhood programmes. human relationships and learning. florida: harcourt brace jovanovich college publishers. republic of kenya, (1998). master plan on education and training 1997 2010. nairobi: jomo kenyatta foundations printer. united nations (1989). convention on the rights of the child. the general assembly of the united nations; 20 th november. waithaka, e.n. (2003). a study of preschool teacher job satisfaction by type of school sponsorship in thika municipality. unpublished med thesis, kenyatta university. integration and innovation in early childhood education in nigeria: implications for quality teacher production. onu, v. c., ph.d department of educational foundation university of nigeria, nsukka. obiozor, w.e, ed.d. department of exceptionality programs bloomsburg university of pennsylvania, usa agbo, o. e. department of educational foundations university of nigeria, nsukka. ezeanwu chiamaka university of nigeria, nsukka abstract this survey research studied integration and innovation in early childhood education and implications for quality teacher preparation. the study was a descriptive survey research, with one hundred and twelve (112) sampled preschool teacher. eight research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. early childhood programme instrument on integration and innovation (ecpai) was constructed, validated and used in eliciting responses from the respondents. the data collected were analyzed using percentage, mean, and paired sample tests. the study revealed a significant difference in the opinions of public and private preschool teachers toward integration and innovative practices in early childhood education in nigeria. it was equally revealed that are early childhood education (ece) programme in nigeria is influenced by traditional, uncreative approaches. thus, training and retraining of focus teachers and stakeholders in ece was highly recommended. introduction the years before a child reaches kindergarten are among the most critical in his or her life to influence learning (ed.gov, 2010); and this becomes a challenge and commitments to the parents, teachers, community and government, to ensure that these young children receive appropriate training in their early stages of life. early childhood education programmes are highly recognized and promoted in developed societies to give children the opportunity to learn phenomenal amount of experiences at home and surrounding environments. heward (2009) explained in this scenario that children grow and develop in orderly ways, learning to move about their world, communicate, and play. as their ability to manipulate their environment increases, so does their level of independence. nigeria is currently facing a challenging time in providing g her young citizens' quality education. some important issues facing nigeria's policy makers include ineffective planning and implementation of programmes, accountability, and management of scarce resources, shortage of highly qualified early childhood teachers, undefined curriculum and inclusion. in agreement with the above, mindes (2007) added that early childhood educators' challenges are enormous and they include parent partnership, respect for cultural diversity, appropriate early intervention assessment, and linking curriculum and assessment practices appropriately. in the world summit in 2001, the secretary general of the united nations reaffirmed the world's commitment to ensuring that every child has a right to the best possible start in life. he identified good quality education, opportunities to develop his or her full potential, and an enabling environment to make positive contribution to the society in meaningful ways as the thematic areas. on the contrary, the recently released results of the senior secondary school examinations in nigeria would continue if stakeholders do not tackle the challenges facing the sector. ademilola in tell (2010) reported that the performance of students in west african examination council (waec) and neco examinations has not been impressive in recent times. in the last 2009 neco/gce, only 1.8 percent of the 236, 613 that sat for the examinations across 1,708 centers in the country had five credit passes, mathematics and english inclusive. whilst out of the 1,373,009 candidates that took the senior secondary certificate examinations, 25.99 percent of them had five credit passes in five subjects, mathematics, and english inclusive. this dismal performance was also observed in may/june 2009 neco results. ademilola stated emphatically that at the fore of these challenges facing the educational sector in nigeria is the poor quality of teachers. in his own right, peter okebukola, former executive secretary of national universities commission (nuc), in a report by the daily sun newspaper said many teachers are exceedingly weak in the subjects they teach. besides, he further argued that very little is done to train and retrain teachers in the country and this takes its toll on the performances of teachers. this training gap creates vicious cycles that negate the necessary early childhood educational foundations, and inevitably later education. the importance of teachers and the roles they play in any educational system cannot be over-emphasized. teachers are usually linked to issues related to teaching-learning goals, learning achievement, organization of programmes, and the performance of the educational system which involves an analysis of the role of teachers their behaviours, performance, remuneration, incentives, skills and how they are used by the system (federal ministry of education and youth development, 1994). the national policy on education (1981), in recognition of the importance of teacher quality, states, "no education system can rise above the quality of its teacher". it is a shared view that the quality of any education system depends largely on the competence, commitment and motivation of the teachers (mbanefoh, 2002). in the same vein, the 1993 summit of the nine high population developing countries held in new delhi, india was emphatic about the relevance of qualitative teacher production in the success of universal basic education. in line with the aforementioned, ede (2003) opined that the success of any system of education depends to a large extent on the number of teachers and their quality, their devotion to duty and their effectiveness on the job. in sum, talking also on the role of teachers in the development of africa, fafunwa (in ede, 2003) noted that of all the educational problems that beset the african countries today, none is as persistent or as compelling as the one relating to the training of the competent teacher… indeed the overall problem of preparing the future citizens of africa cannot be effectively accomplished without aid of competent teachers. in this regard, the responsibility of government on pre-primary education according to the national policy on education (2004) shall be to promote the training of qualified pre-primary schoolteachers in adequate number, contribute to the development of suitable curriculum, among others. however, maduewesi (2003) observed that teacher preparation which was promised in the national policy on education is not being implemented thus nursery school curriculum is not actually being planned by qualified teachers that are adequately trained for that level (early childhood/pre-primary education). early childhood/preprimary education according to the national policy on education document is the education provided in an educational institution to children prior to their entering the primary school. it includes the crèche, the nursery, and the kindergarten (npe, 2004). ibiam and ugwu (2009) defined it as the education designed to develop the habits, altitudes and skills needed for primary education. maduewesi (2005) believes it encompasses the care, development, and education of children below the age of six years. the earliest years of a child's life are very critical. they influence how the rest of childhood and adolescence unfold. yet, in most developing countries, including nigeria, the policies, programmes and budget of the nations have not reflected the seriousness with which the matter ought to be addressed. research reports have confirmed that children from conception to six years of age undergo radical mental and physical development. in addition, those children, if given good care during early childhood, are more likely to benefit from later education and other social services, and become more productive, healthy, and law abiding citizens (unicef in ibiam & ugwu, 2009). research has also shown that the last three months of prenatal life and the first two years after birth are the most critical periods of brain growth because more than half of the adult brain weight is added at this time (fgn/unicef, 2001). as such, children need more stimulation and learning opportunities beyond the scope of their parents and ordinary teachers. to achieve these ideals, training in integrative and innovative thinking strategies needs to be introduced in early childhood teaching practices to enhance quality teaching and teacher production. quality in education embraces all function and activities of teaching and academic programmes, research and scholarship, staff, students, facilities, equipment services to the community and academic environment (unesco, 1998). the national research council's 2001 synthesis of research on preschool education (in sacks and ruzzi, 2005) concludes that teachers with strong intellects, education, and training are effective preschool teachers. specifically, teachers with at least a bachelor's degree are correlated with programmes leading to higher quality programmes. the cost quality and child outcomes study (in sacks and ruzzi, 2005) showed a clear impact of the quality of the preschool on children's performance through second grade. children attending higher quality preschools had better language, math and social skills than those attending a lower quality one. those at risk of school failure benefited the most from attending a higher quality preschool and were most negatively affected by attending a lower quality one. the study also showed the closeness of the relationships between children and preschool teachers to have a significant and lasting impact on academic and social abilities. there is now a strong consensus on the many benefits of preschool. sacks and ruzzi stated that studies have shown that attending a high quality preschool programme not only increases children's readiness for kindergarten, but also causes positive long-term improvements in participants' school performance and social outcomes. among the documented results of preschool education are lower rates of grade retention, increased rates of high school graduation and less likelihood of being convicted of a crime for both juveniles and adults. preschools have the greatest impact on children living in poverty and those who do not speak english at home. (perry preschool study, in sacks and ruzzi, 2005). it therefore remains a puzzle as to why preschool programmes in nigeria are not receiving adequate attention. sacks and ruzzi reported on two popular innovative model approaches applicable to preschool education. the first is the montessori philosophy built on the belief that children are highly capable learners who need minimal teacher input to learn from their environments. key elements of the montessori method are mixed age classrooms (integrated), student autonomy in choosing learning tasks and experiential learning. the second innovation is strong parent involvement to further the goals of promoting critical thinking and collaboration among young children. this one is popularly known as reggio emilia approach. it is focused on strong home-school relationships, long-term projects, the recognition that children possess multiple symbolic languages, and the role of the child's environment as teacher (sacks and ruzzi, 2005). teachers are expected to be continually engaged in the process of learning about young children, both through ongoing professional development and through careful observation of the children in their classes. the teachers then reflect together on what they have learned and use such experience as a basis for future activities intended to expand on initiatives of the child. in this way, the reggio emilia approach bases its success not on formal curricula, but on an approach to educating children that give the children themselves a significant role in determining classroom activities. marcon (2002) research further shows that children who attend preschool programmes that emphasize child-directed activities do significantly better academically in later schooling than children whose preschool experience is more academic and teacherdirected. integration is another concept that applies to the general planning of the pre-primary educational programme in order to create harmony between goals and objectives; as well as programmes and outputs there from (adaralegbe, 1992). it is used with a view to synchronizing the needs of the individual citizens and learners, as well as the society at large in relation to the environment and the harsh reality of the socio-economic realities of the modern worlds within the limit of available resources to the education sector. the question is: can nigeria be said to have achieved this? a good number of nursery schools in nigeria are still run by private individuals despite the government lip service of getting involved. the programmes are still faced with the challenges of providing quality training and recruitment for teachers on a continual basis, provision of learning materials that are age appropriate and a nationally accepted curriculum for teaching the children. in a survey of nursery schools in nigeria, ejeh (2006) noted that nursery schools in nigeria currently operated on university campuses, schools premises, premises of industrial and business organizations, church premises, town halls, and residential buildings must be assessed for quality assurance in all sectors of the curricula, including aesthetics. the facilities and equipment are considered generally poor and ineffective; yet, only wealthy individuals can afford to send their young ones to the institutions. in another survey on nursery school and caregivers, ezirim (2004) noted that of the 1,429 teachers in nursery schools surveyed in the south eastern part of nigeria, below 20% of the observed centers have teachers who with nigeria certificates of education (nce), much less university degrees. many were high school graduates who were waiting to complete the requirement for university education. these high school graduates were using the nursery school as a temporal workplace (stopover); as a result, the school proprietors and proprietresses pay them low wages. furthermore, these often inexperienced, undermotivated teachers have too much workload, therefore, resulting in the children receiving ineffective education and inadequate care, which is bound to affect their eventual growth and intellectual development. the issues, therefore, lies on whether there are integrative and innovative practices in nigerian early childhood education system; as well as the views of preschool teachers concerning such practices. research question the following research questions guided the study. to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to use of instructional materials in early childhood education (ece)? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers in respect of need for formal academic instructions in early childhood education (ece)? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to assessment of preschool children based on their interest, needs, and abilities? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to availability of hands-on materials? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to training needs of preschool teachers? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to use of whole group instruction and rote learning strategies? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to availability of appropriate curriculum? to what extent will there be percentage and mean difference in the opinion of early childhood teachers with respect to integration of families and the communities in pre-primary education? hypotheses the following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study at .05 probability level. ho1 there is no significant difference in the mean scores of public and private preschool teachers with respect to teaching qualifications. ho2 there is no significant difference in the mean scores of public and private preschool teachers with respect of years to teaching experiences. ho3 there is no significant difference in the mean scores of public and private preschool teachers' overall responses measured by early childhood programme instrument on integration and innovation (ecpai). method this study is a descriptive survey research, designed to elicit information on the quality of early childhood programmes and practices in public and private owned preschool establishments in nsukka urban area. the administration of early childhood programme assessment instrument on integration and innovation (ecpai) was conducted by the researchers and other research assistants in nsukka urban, area of the study. the sample for the study was drawn from pre-primary schools in nsukka urban. early childhood centers in twelve (12) primary schools in nsukka town were selected using purposive random sampling procedure. the researchers due to fewer numbers of preschools and preschool teachers in nsukka administered 112 copies of ecpai to all available target respondents in the sampled schools. the ecpai, a nine-item, four points likert-type scale was used in scoring responses to the research instrument. it was constructed and validated to elicit responses from preschool teachers on the quality of instructional materials, need for formal academic instructions, teaching and learning strategies, availability of hands-on material, training need of teachers, appropriate curriculum, and integration practices. to ensure the face and content validity of ecpai, copies of the instrument were evaluated by experts in early childhood education, and educational psychology. clear guidelines, the purpose of the study, and research questions were provided and informed participants of the evaluation procedure. the experts' comments were used in modifying the items and improving the overall adequacy of the instrument; thereby making for clarity, appropriateness of language, expressions, and instructions to the respondents. a trial testing was equally conducted on ten preschool teachers in a pre-primary school other than the sample for the study, who responded to the initial draft of ecpai. the overall responses of the respondents helped the researchers determine further item clarity and conciseness, inter-item correlation and reliability coefficient of the instrument. in order to estimate the internal consistency of the ecpai instrument, data obtained from the trial testing was subjected to cronbach procedure for reliability analysis, which is apt for non-dichotomously scored likert-type scale measurement. the normal cronbach alpha of 0.81 obtained, indicated high internal consistency of ecpai items. ecpai items were analyzed; thus, items with corrected item-total correlation of less than .3 that boosted the reliability index were deleted. after the administration of esaq by the researchers, responses to the measuring instrument were collated and analyzed statistically. the research questions for the study were answered using percentage and mean statistics, while the hypotheses were tested using paired samples tests. the four-point scale of strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d), and strongly disagree (sd) was used in measuring individual responses. the reversed phrased items were given proportionate interpretation in negative order of 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively. the mean rating of 2.50 determined based on the measuring scale informed decisions to either agree or disagree with the research questions since each item mean could either fall below or above 2.50. results the results of the study are presented as follows: research questions table 1: the percentage and mean rating of early childhood teachers sa a d sd no item description p (%) p (%) p (%) p (%) mean decision 1 any instructional material will do for children in early childhood 20.7 15.3 37.8 26.1 2.31 disagree 2 children in nursery school do not need formal academic instructions 9.9 15.3 39.6 35.1 2 disagree 3 whole group instruction and learning by cramming are not appropriate for nursery children 14.5 22.7 40 22.7 2.30 disagree 4 assess nursery children based on their interest, needs and ability is not necessary 7.3 15.5 31.8 45.5 1.85 disagree 5 our school does not have materials that will assist nursery children to develop their talent 20 21.8 20 38.2 2.24 disagree 6 our teachers have not been trained on how to work with children 5.5 7.3 28.2 59.1 1.59 disagree 7 we do not have a curriculum to use in teaching nursery children 12.7 12.7 29.1 45.5 1.93 disagree 8 no need to teach children in our culture by involving the parents and community in our nursery schools 9.2 12.8 30.3 47.7 1.83 disagree 9 i have not received training in how to work with nursery children 8 13.4 38.4 40.2 1.89 disagree f= frequency p= percentage data presented on table 1 above shows that the mean responses of respondents to all the items are well below the mean rating 2.50. these findings seem to suggest that all the respondents conversely agreed that appropriate instructional materials, formal academic instructions, use of teaching and learning strategies, use of hands-on materials, training of teachers, appropriate curriculum, and integration of families and communities are essential to early childhood education in nigeria. the 63.9, 74.7, 62.7, 77.3, 58.2, 87.3, 74.6, 78, and 78.6 percentage ratings on disagree and strongly disagree responses further underscore the importance of innovative and integrative teaching practices in early childhood education. hypotheses table 2: mean and standard deviation scores on teachers responses to ecpai mean n sd std. error mean pair 1 teacher qualification public 4.33 51 .476 .067 teacher qualification private 3.39 51 1.218 .171 pair 2 teaching experience public 20.11 36 6.265 1.044 teaching experience private 5.42 36 4.305 .718 pair 3 public overall responses 18.98 50 4.488 .635 private overall responses 16.68 50 4.901 .693 data displayed on table 2 above show a mean rating of 4.33, and sd score of .476 for public preschool teachers, and a mean rating of 3.39 and sd score of 1.218 for private preschool school teachers with respect to teacher qualification. table 2 also shows a mean rating of 20.11 and sd of 6.265 for public preschool teachers, and a mean rating of 5.42 and sd of 4.305 for private preschool teachers with respect to years of teaching experiences. a mean rating of 18.98 and sd of 4.488 for private preschool teachers, and a mean rating of 16, 68 and sd of 4.901 for private preschool teachers with respect to overall responses to ecpai were equally obtained. thus, these results seem to suggest that public preschool teachers were better qualified, more experienced and different in their overall responses to ecpai. table 3: paired samples test scores on preschool teachers responses to ecpai mean sd t df sig. (2-tailed) correlation sig. pair 1 teacher qualification public teacher qualification private .941 1.302 5.160 50 .000 .011 .936 pair 2 teaching experience public teaching experience private 14.694 6.187 14.251 35 .000 .362 .030 pair 3 public overall responses private overall responses 2.300 6.296 2.583 49 .013 .103 .478 ho1 there is no significant difference in the mean scores of public and private preschool teachers with respect to teaching qualifications. data depicted on table 3 above clearly indicates that public preschool teachers are more qualified than the private preschool teachers. this assertion is predicated on t-computed value of 5.160, which is obviously greater at .000 level of significance. thus, the null hypothesis is rejected for an alternative hypothesis of significant difference in the mean qualification scores of public and private school teachers. ho2 there is no significant difference in the mean scores of public and private preschool teachers with respect to years of teaching experiences. likewise, the public preschool teachers are markedly more experienced than their counterparts in the private sector. this is because the t-calculated value of 14.251 is highly significant at .000 probability level. thus, the null hypothesis is rejected for an alternative hypothesis of significant difference in the years of teaching experience of public and private preschool teachers. ho3 there is no significant difference in the mean scores of public and private preschool teachers' overall responses measured by early childhood programme instrument (ecpai). statistical results shown on table 3 above once more clearly indicate that in all parameters measured using ecpai that public preschool teachers were different in their opinion of early childhood integrative and innovative programmes. this is due to the t-computed value of 2.583, which is greater at .013 level of significance. public preschool teachers are not significantly related with private preschool teachers in all ramification of assessment using ecpai (as shown by .011, .362, and .103 coefficient scores in table 3 above). thus, the null hypothesis is rejected for an alternative hypothesis of significant difference in public and private preschool teachers' overall responses measured by early childhood programme instrument (ecpai). discussion the findings of the study have shown that there is a difference in the teaching qualifications of public and private preschool teachers. data on table 2 and 3 indicate that public preschool teachers were significantly more qualified than the private preschool teachers. while all the 51 public preschool teachers were qualified with nce and b.ed certificates, six had ssc, five had tcii, three had an ordinary diploma, the rest had nce, b.ed and above certificates. in addition, the paired samples correlation score with respect to teaching qualification clearly confirmed that there is no relationship between public and private preschool teachers studied. these findings lend credence to some survey studies conducted by ezirim (2004); the national research council's 2001 synthesis of research on preschool education (in sacks and ruzzi, 2005; mbanefoh, 2002; & maduewesi, 2003). their findings suggest that teachers with strong intellects, education and training are more effective preschool teachers. specifically, those teachers with at least a bachelor's degree are correlated with activities leading to higher quality programmes. thus, while public schools have more qualified preschool teachers and less involvement and establishments in early childhood education, the private preschool teachers should be put to quality trainings in order to upgrade their qualifications. results in table 2 and 3 also show that public preschool teachers were significantly more experienced than the private preschool teachers. this finding is supported by the national policy on education (1981); mbanefoh (2002); ede (2003); and fafunwa (in ede, 2003). their findings summarily suggest that a successful system depends to a large extent on the competence of her teachers, their devotion to duty, and their effectiveness on the job. competence is a product of skillfulness, experience and motivation to duty. thus, there is an urgent need to constantly train and retrain preschool teachers, particularly private preschool teachers, on a termly basis in order to foster an increasing teaching experience that long years of practice endows those in the public sector. results on table 3 show that public preschool teachers responded significantly different in their opinion of use of integrative and innovative approaches for early childhood education. the integrative and innovative skills measured by the ecpai instrument are as follows : use of appropriate instructional materials; need for formal academic instructional; appropriateness of whole group instruction and rote learning; availability of hands-on materials; assessment based on interest, needs and ability; availability of ecd curriculum; family and community involvement in ece and training/re-training needs of preschool teachers. the higher mean score obtained by public preschool teachers in overall responses indicated their perception of integration and innovation as very needful in ece. this finding is seriously supported by the findings of ejeh (2006); mindes (2007); marcon (2002); unesco (1998); and sacks and ruzzi (2005). their findings suggest that children do significantly better in an ecd programme that is child-directed, is less academic, has strong parental involvement to further the goals of promoting critical thinking and collaboration among young children, respects cultural diversity, uses appropriate early intervention assessment, and links curriculum with assessment practices appropriately. nevertheless, the researchers observed that preschool teachers studied acknowledged the use of a whole group instrument and rote learning strategies; which invariably contradicts the findings of marcon (2002) and sacks and ruzzi (2005) studies. the need to innovate teaching practices in nigerian preprimary institutions by modifying or doing away with the traditional teacher directed academic approach for a more result-oriented, child directed approach is imperative. the latter will make for an enabling environment where the need, abilities, interests and talents of the child are identified through individual instruction and assessment, and then maximized through teacher facilitated but unlimited learning activities that uses hands-on materials. conclusion a good number of nursery schools in nigeria are administered by private individuals despite the policies requiring governmental intervention and involvement in the early childhood education administration. the early childhood development programme in nigeria is confronted with challenges of training, recruitment and certification of early childhood caregivers. provision of continuous capacity building trainings, learning materials that are age appropriate and a nationally accepted child-friendly curriculum for teaching preschool children are indispensably needed. on the other hand, strong home-school partnership, long-term projects, the recognition of multiple symbolic languages possessed by children, and the role of child's environment as teacher must be prioritized. it is understood that early childhood education should not be solely based on formal curricular, but on child-directed education. nigeria should reflect on early childhood policies and practices in developed nations like the united states to improve on current system. the united states government under president obama has shown commitment to providing the support that young children need to prepare to succeed later in school. the president supports a seamless and comprehensive set of services and support for children, from birth through age 5 via empowerment and urging american state governments to impose high standards across all publicly funded early learning settings, develop new programs to improve opportunities and outcomes, engage parents in their child's early learning and development, and improve the early education workforce (ed.gov, 2010). such strides are evident in the public education laws and policies in america, like the no child left behind, elementary and secondary education act of 1965, as amended, title v, part d, subpart 14, sec. 5542; u.s.c. 7269a, among others. recommendations in consonance with the national research council's and eager to learn: educating our preschoolers' recommendations (in sacks & ruzzi, 2005), the following recommendations are apt for producing high quality teacher for early childhood education (ece) in nigeria. capacity building workshops should be organized to train or retrain preschool teachers so as to address the observed gaps in and discrepancies between teacher qualification and experiences. ece teachers should have a minimum of nce qualification with specialized ece courses. teacher preparation programmes should give them better knowledge of children's development and of appropriate pedagogy for young children. ece teachers should go through supervised student teaching or internships ece programmes should have qualified supervisors there should be more research into effective preparation practices for an ece teacher. federal and state agencies should fund curriculum development, field-testing, and assessments for ece. minimum standards for ece programme should be developed nationwide. states should monitor evaluate/update periodically the implementation of developed programmes/content standards. this should be a task for all state ministries of education. the federal government should fund high-quality preschools for all children. states should develop a single career ladder for ece teachers with adequate work incentives. ece programmes should be integrative, through formation of strong alliance with families and the community. ece programmes should be innovative, through child directed teaching and learning process. references adaralegbe, a. (1992). integration and innovation in nigerian education. nigeria academy of education. nerdc press. brede kamp, s. and copple, c. (2002). develop mentally appropriate practice in early childhood programmes (3rd). washingtond.c.: natural association for the education of young children ede, f. (2003). the role of teacher education in national development. eha-amufu school of education journal,3,1. ed.gov (2010). prepare my child for school: early childhood education. retrieved june 20, 2010, from http://www2.ed.gov/parents/earlychild/ready/resources.html#eci. ezirim, m. (2004). a survey of nursery schools caregivers in the south eastern states of nigeria. unicef zone a office. federal ministry of education and youth development. (1994). in mbanefoh, n. (2002). the universal basic education: a prospective view of teacher production. philosophy and education. onitsha: africana -fep publisher ltd. fgn. (1981). national policy on education. (3rd edition). lagos: nerdc. fgn. (2004). national policy on education. (4th edition). lagos: nerdc heward, w.l. (2009). exceptional children: an introduction to special education. upper saddle, nj: pearson education, inc. ibiam, j. & ugwu, g. c. (2009). government quality control measures in pre-primary education: problems of implementation and the way forward. review of education: institute of education journal. university of nigeria, vol. 20, no 1. maduewesi, e. j. (2003). curriculum & practice in early childhood education. owerri: cape publishers int'l ltd. maduewesi, e. j. (2005). benchmarks and global trends in education in education. benin city: zekol graphics. marcon, r. a. (2002). moving up the grades: relationship between preschool model and later school success. in sacks, l. & ruzzi, b. b. (2006). early childhood education: lessons from the states and abroad: 2005. paper prepared for the new commission on the skills of the american workforce july 2005 . national center on education and the economy, 2006. mbanefoh, n. (2002). the universal basic education: a prospective view of teacher production. philosophy and education. onitsha: africana -fep publisher ltd. mindes, gayle. (2007). assessing young children. (3rd ed.). ohio: merrill prentice hall. perry preschool study. (2004). in sacks, l. & ruzzi, b. b. (2006). early childhood education: lessons from the states and abroad: 2005. paper prepared for the new commission on the skills of the american workforce july 2005 . nationalcenter on education and the economy, 2006. sacks, l. & ruzzi, b. b. (2006). early childhood education: lessons from the states and abroad: 2005. paper prepared for the new commission on the skills of the american workforce july 2005 . nationalcenter on education and the economy, 2006. tell. (2010). why students fail, page 44-45 may 17. unesco. (1998). higher education in the 21st century: vision and mission. world declaration on higher education for the 21st century and framework for priority action. paris: unesmo. unicef.(2001). the state of the world's children 2001. unicef. anyanwu parental relationship as a correlate of psychological wellbeing of south eastern adolescents anyanwu joy. i department of educational foundations university of nigeria, nsukka. anyajay4zion@yahoo.com abstract the study investigated influence of parental relationship on the psychological wellbeing of southeastern adolescents. a descriptive survey design was adopted for the study with 4000 (2000 males and 2000 females) adolescents in senior secondary ii from schools in abia, enugu, imo and anambrastates of nigeria as the sample. a questionnaire whose reliability coefficient was 0.60 was used to collect information. the result showed that: the adolescents have more emotional and social than personal problems; among others. the finding lends credence to videon's (2005) report that parents (mothers and fathers) have a lot of influence on adolescent psychological wellbeing. it was recommended that guidance counselors should handle each adolescent problem with full knowledge of the cultural milieu and gender of clients in addition to organizing family seminars on parenting practices and parent/adolescent relationship. introduction adolescence encompasses the period ranging from ages 10 to 21 years. this is a period when young children are developing into adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. it has three stages namely; early adolescent from 10 to 14 years, middle adolescence from 15 to 17 years and late adolescence from 17 to 21 years. (igbo in onwuasoanya, 2008). it is a period of the life cycle between childhood and adulthood with some unique characteristics connected with development and marked by dramatic challenges that require adjustment to changes in self, in the family and peer group. (santrock, 2004). in terms of changes in self, the adolescent experiences physical growth, sexual maturation, intense emotional, social, cognitive and personal development. this developmental period is described as a time of storm and stress; conflict and crises of adjustment and a stage of alienation from adult society. adolescents experience frustration, self-doubt, stress, pressure and feelings of rejection and failure as they go through the physical developmental stages and the search for self, (hahn and payne, 2001) generally, adolescents are in two categories; the early and late developers or maturers. early maturation starts at the ages of 10 and 12 for the girls and boys respectively. it is marked by physical development of primary sex characteristics or reproductive organs such as ovaries and testes among others in girls and boys respectively (payne and isaacs 2002). there are also gradual changes in the timbre and pitch of voice, facial and body hairs for boys and development of breasts and expansion of hips for girls referred to as secondary sex characteristics. (donnelly, eburne, and kittleson,2001). research has shown that early physical maturation has positive effect on boys as they are said to be more relaxed, poised, less dependent, more attractive to and popular with their peers. they are equally higher in self esteem. for the girls, however, early maturation appears to result in negative evaluations leading to feelings of isolation, submissive behavior and less popularity with and leadership of their peers. (symons and blythe in de adams 1993). the ability to accept these physical changes and cope with different situations in life; to regain that sense of normalcy or psychological wellness after going through or encountering difficulties marks psychological balance or well being (igbo in onwuasoanya,2008). psychological well being according to (erikson in myers 2002) is the development and functioning of the mental abilities such as perception, memory and awareness of things happening within the adolescents' environment. socialization plays a major role in personality development and psychological wellbeing of adolescents through parenting practices in the family which is the first social institution the child encounters. this is confirmed by ochiagha (1995) in her report that the value system(which is an aspect of personality) of any individual, is linked to such individual's socialization experience and may vary based on the person's culture, location or status in social structure, membership of reference groups and gender. in an earlier report, blos in de anda and smith (1993) stressed the importance of the cultural milieu and social stratum in personality formation and posited a reciprocal influence between the individual and the environment. supporting the influence of socialization and gender difference in experiences, piccinelli and wilkinson (2000) reported in their study on gender difference in depression, that the prevalence of depressive disorder is higher in females than in males. it begins according to them in mid puberty and persists through adulthood with adverse experiences in childhood and socio-cultural roles with related adverse experiences as the predisposing factors. theoretically, the psychoanalytic theorists stated that adolescent development is a recapitulation of earlier infantile stages of development through the re-experiencing of either the oedipal or pre-oedipal conflicts. (freud,1973). two tasks according to the psychoanalysts must be accomplished during adolescence for psychological development and maturity which include detachment from the opposite sex parent as an incestuous love object and establishing a non antagonistic, non-dominated relationship with the same sex parent. this process of detachment may result in negativism and hostility towards parents and other authority figure at a time (freud, 1973). blos agrees with the psychoanalysts' that adolescence is a transitional period that involves a recapitulation of earlier familial patterns of interaction and added that individuation in adolescence requires a normative regression which involves returning to or reenacting the previous set rules or less advanced ways of behaving. to him regression to earlier ways of behavior is normal in adolescence although parents may misinterpret this regression as irresponsibility or immaturity engendering turmoil, volatile behaviors and anxiety in the adolescent. if unmanaged, it may result to use of defense mechanisms such as withdrawal, secrecy, fantasy and compensation. it may also lead to adolescent problems of drug abuse and addiction, crime and school dropout. in effect, relationship in the family affects psychological growth and well being of adolescents. looking at family relationship from the career perspective, roe (1972) in her theory, of career development, stated that three parental attitudes such as: a.) emotional concentration on the child by being over demanding or overprotecting b.) avoidance of the child emotional rejection or neglect of the child. c.) acceptance of the child casual acceptance or loving acceptance of the child, affect adolescents' personal and vocational lives. roe stated that children reared in rejecting homes are aggressive and defensive towards others and generally enter occupations that deal more with things than with individuals (thereby exhibiting avoidance behavior). on the other hand, children reared in accepting homes may have primary interests in persons or non persons but will not be aggressive. this tends to suggest that children who were accepted in their homes are psychologically well. in her studies on parental control, baumrind in berger (2005) stated that three parental child rearing practicesauthoritarian, authoritative and permissive parenting influence adolescent psychological wellbeing. authoritarian parenting is not only a restrictive and punitive style that insists on rigid adherence to rules, respect for work and effort, it also lacks warmth. parents use physical punishment for offenders to enforce obedience and emphasize the power of their roles as parents. authoritarian parenting places firm limits and control over the adolescents and allows little verbal exchange. consequently, adolescents from such homes acquire socially incompetent behaviors. authoritative parenting is marked by parental warmth, use of rules and reasoning or induction to promote obedience and keep discipline. such parents use verbal and non-physically punitive measures to correct a child than physical punishment, they are equally consistent in their words and actions over time. authoritative parenting allows extensive verbal giveandtake with their adolescent children. thus, adolescents from such homes are self reliant, socially responsible and have socially competent behavior. permissive parents may be indifferent or indulgent. permissiveindifferent parents exhibit inconsistency in their use of rules. they are generally uninvolved in the lives of their adolescent children. permissive indifferent parenting develops in adolescents socially incompetent behavior especially lack of self control. the permissive indulgent parent is highly involved with their adolescents but place few demands or controls on them. the parents allow their adolescent children to do what they want and every request of the child is met by the parents who relate with the children more like peers. this type of parenting can lead to socially incompetent behaviorlack of self control. the adolescent may be self indulgent, have few friends and never learn to abide by rules and regulations. these parenting styles as stated earlier affect adolescent behavior and development. for example, lerner, noh and wilson (1998) in a study of 14 to 18 year old adolescents with authoritative parents reported that they had more social competence and fewer psychological and behavioral problems than those with indulgent or neglectful (permissive) parents. while adolescents with permissive parents have less social competence and more psychological and behavioral problems than any group of adolescents in the study, those with authoritarian parents were obedient and conformed well to authority but had poorer self concept than other adolescents. in a similar study of 10,000 high school students, adolescents whose parents are accepting, firm and democratic, are more self reliant, less anxious and depressed and less likely to engage in delinquent behavior than youths with parents using other parenting styles. the report went further to state that, the influence of authoritative parenting held for adolescents of different ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds irrespective of their family structure. in another study on paternal and maternal influences on the psychological well being of chinese adolescents, shek (2003) assessed adolescent's perception and satisfaction with parenting styles, parent-adolescent conflict, perceived parent and adolescent communication and related feelings. perceived parent-adolescent relationship and mental health were assessed using rating scales and structured interviews. the report showed that both paternal parenthood qualities (ppq) and maternal parenthood qualities (mpq) generally had significant concurrent and longitudinal correlations with adolescents' mental health. paternal parental quality predicted changes in adolescents' life satisfaction, hopelessness, self esteem, purpose in life and general psychiatric morbidity. the report also stated that adolescents' mental health rather predicted changes in maternal parental quality and not paternal parental quality. the report concluded that relative to maternal qualities, paternal qualities were generally found to exert a stronger impact on adolescent psychological wellbeing. the problem psychologists consider adolescence as a period of self search and identity formation. it is equally viewed as a period of conflict with parents as they attempt to define who they are. from the literature reviewed, proper parenting practice and parent-adolescent relationships at home would lead to better sense of self which translates into good personal and social adjustment, while poor parenting and parent-adolescent relationship leads to social incompetence. the question then is; how well do parents and adolescents in south eastern states of nigeria relate; has this relationship any influence on adolescents' psychological wellbeingpersonally, socially and emotionally. these are the problems of this study. purpose of study the general purpose of the study was to establish the relationship between parental relationships and adolescents' psychological wellbeing in south eastern states of nigeria. specifically the study investigated whether there are gender and state differences in psychological well being of adolescents from these areas. research questions: the following research questions guided the study; to what extent do parents relate well with their adolescent children? are the adolescents psychologically well personally, socially and emotionally? is there gender difference in adolescent psychological wellbeing? is there any state difference in adolescent psychological wellbeing? what is the relationship between parental relationship and adolescent psychological wellbeing? methodology the study was designed as a correlation survey, covering the south eastern geopolitical zone of nigeria. the zone consists of five states, namely; abia, anambra, ebonyi, imo and enugu states but only four states namely; abia, imo, enugu and anambra were used for the study. the states which are stratified into educational zones are all igbo speaking and were in east central state of nigeria before the states creation. they however have different cultures and value systems. the population for the study comprises of senior secondary school students (ss 11) from one educational zone of each of the four states chosen comprising awka education zone in anambrastate, enugu education zone of enugu state, umuahia education zone in abiastate and owerri education zone of imo state. these zones were chosen because they are the state capitals and families of differing academic and socio-economic status reside there. the sample is 4,000 adolescents randomly selected from 4 schools in each of the state education zone. this is further subdivided into 2,000 males and 2,000 females from 4 girl's and 4 boy's schools from each of the four educational zones. the instrument for data collection is a 4 point scale questionnaire with items to elicit information on parent/child relationship, personal, social and emotional wellbeing of the adolescents. mean scores were used to answer the research questions. a mean of 2.50 and above indicate good parent/child relationship and adolescent psychological wellbeing while a mean score below 2.50 indicate poor parent/child relationship and adolescent psychological wellbeing. pearson correlation coefficient was used to ascertain the relationship between parent/adolescent relationship and adolescent psychological well being. result the result of the data collected from the respondents and analyzed is presented in tables 1 to 5. preliminary analyses: means and standard deviations of the responses of all the items on parent-adolescent relationship are presented on table 1. the result shows that scores for 9 out of the 12 items were more than the criterion means value of 2.50. this indicates that parents generally relate well with their adolescent children. the mean and standard deviation scores of respondents on adolescents psychological wellbeingpersonal, social and emotionalis presented in table 2. the result shows that on personal adjustment, the mean score of 4 out of 9 items were below the criterion mean of 2.50; socially, the mean scores of 6 out of the 14 items were below the criterion mean while 2 out of the 8 items of emotional wellbeing were below the criterion mean of 2.50. this indicates that the adolescents generally seem to be more socially and emotionally than personally well psychologically. mean and standard deviation scores on psychological well being of males and females are presented in table 3. from the table, while the females are maladjusted in 3 areas of personal, 9 areas of social and 6 areas of emotional wellbeing; the males have problems in 5 areas of personal, 8 areas of social and 8 areas of emotional wellbeing. it implies that there is gender difference in psychological wellbeing of the adolescents. table i  – mean responses on parent-adolescent relationship. items                                                                    xd                  sd                  rem 1. my parents makes me feel wanted and needed         3.46                .84                   agree 2. talk to me in a warm loving way                                   3.33                .82                   “ 3. encourage me to bring my friends home                     2.84                .86                  “ .    and try to be pleasant to them. 4. ignore me as long as i don’t bother them.                    1.94                1.09                disagree 5. care about what i would like when they make            3.21                1.01                agree    plans (e.g. food and clothes) 6. punish me severely when they are angry                    2.52                1.10                “    or annoyed. 7. make it easy for me to tell them things                          3.09                  .91                 “     that are important to me 8. make me feel ashamed and guilty                                2.91                1.09                “        when i misbehave. 9.  ignore me when i ask for help.                                      1.71                .19                   disagree 10. disgrace me in front of my peers                                 2.51                1.07                “      when i misbehave. 11. make me feel what i do is important                             2.86                1.09                agree 12. say unkind things to me.                                              1.90                  .99                 disagree   table 2 – mean responses on psychological wellbeing of adolescents.             items                                                x                     sd                  remark personal 1. easily get annoyed over minor issues 2.40                1.07                disagree 2. always forgetful                                        2.25                1.11                “ 3. always stay alone                                    2.92                .93                   agree 4. presents untidy appearance.                 3.34                .95                   “ 5. does not say the truth always                2.51                1.08                “ 6. gets frightened easily                             2.15                1.10                disagree 7. takes things that are not mine               2.19                1.16                “ 8. always influenced by what people say 2.50                1.18                agree 9. afraid to speak to mates                         3.16                .97                   “      social 10. does not stand for truth always               3.20                .88                   agree 11. always finding fault with peers                 2.61                1.06                “ 12. does not exercise my rights                     2.99                1.02                “ 13. often talk about other students                 2.48                1.003              disagree 14. usually has ‘i don’t care’ attitude             2.22                .98                   “ 15. never like mixing with opposite sex         2.44                1.16                “ 16. finds dissatisfaction in associating            2.72                1.09                agree        with other students.                               17 threatens to beat friends always               2.35                1.24                disagree 18. very gentle with classmates                        2.49                1.14                “ 19. tends to quarrel a lot                                    2.29                1.22                “ 20 finds no pleasure in outdoor activities        2.75                1.15                agree 21 makes self unapproachable                          3.10                .89                   “ 22 not friendly to other people even staff         3.06                1.00                “ 23 not disturbed by criticism                                2.73                1.04                “     emotional 24. feels tensed always                                     2.55                0.93                agree 25. looks unhappy all the time                         2.88                .95                   “ 26. uneasy when i am with people                  2.83                .97                   “ 27. feel depressed                                              2.48                1.04                disagree 28. makes a lot of noise to be noticed.             2.96                1.10                agree 29. always day dream                                          2.57                1.06                “ 30. always talk alone                                            2.78                .18                   “ 31. feels self pity                                                 2.43                1.09                disagree   table 3: mean responses on gender differences in adolescent psychological wellbeing.                                                                                 male                                       female items                                               x         sd      rem.               x         sd      rem. personal 1. easily annoyed over minor issues          2.40    1.13    disagree        2.47    .99       disagree 2. always forgetful                                          2.42    1.13    “                       1.96    .99       “ 3. always stay alone                                      3.10    .87       agree              2.62    .96       agree 4. presents untidy appearance                    3.60    .81       “                       2.95    1.03    “ 5. does not say the truth always                  2.60    1.15    “                       2.26    .90       disagree 6. get frightened easily                                  2.23    1.67    disagree         1.97    .99       “ 7. take things that are not mine                   2.11    1.20    “                       2.20    1.11    “ 8. always influenced                                      2.59    1.13    agree              2.35    1.24    “ by what people say 9. afraid to speak to mates.                         3.26    .85       “                       3.10    1.09    agree      social adjustment 10. does not stand for truth always            3.34    .85       agree              3.08    .83       agree 11. always finding fault with peers              2.61    1.12    “                       2.53    .990    “ 12. does not exercise his/her rights           3.00    1.02    “                       3.05    .94       “ 13. often talks about other students.          2.42    1.01    disagree         2.54    .96       “ 14. usually has ‘i don’t care’ attitude.         2.31    1.02    disagree         `12.07 .82   disagree 15. never likes mixing                                   2.36    1.14      “                     2.46    1.20      “        with opposite sex    16. finds dissatisfaction in associating       2.62    1.16    agree              2.80    .99       agree      with other students. 17. threatens to beat peers always            2.43    1.23    disagree         2.07    1.21    disagree 18. very gentle with classmates                   2.33    1.19    “                       2.70    1.04    agree 19. tends to quarrel a lot                               2.34    1.25    “                       2.25    1.21    disagree 20. finds no pleasure                                    2.84    1.22    agree              2.57    1.05    agree in outdoor activities  21. makes self unapproachable                 3.19    .713    agree              3.00    1.07    agree 22. not friendly to other people                    3.03    .98       “                       3.20    .99       “ 23. not disturbed by criticism                       2.57    1.08    “                       2.93    .94       “ emotional 24. feels tensed always.                             2.69    .89       “                       2.34    .97       disagree 25. looks unhappy all the time                    2.95    .23       “                       2.76    .98       agree 26. uneasy when i am with people            3.03      .98      “                       3.20     .99        “ 27. feels depressed                                     2.86    .91       “                       2.89    .91       “ 28. makes a lot of noise to be noticed        2.72    .99       “                       2.23    1.05    disagree 29. always daydream                                  2.80     1.07    “                       3.12    1.14    agree 30. always talk alone.                                   2.54    1.07    “                       2.62    1.07    “ 31. feels self pity                                          2.79    .91       “                       2.73    1.10    “ mean above 2.50 =agree,  mean below 2.50 = disagree. .   table 4a: mean responses on psychological well being from abia and anambra states                                                                               abia                               anambra       items                                           x       sd     rem.           x       sd     rem.      personal 1. easily get annoyed over minor issues       2.15    1.24    disagree         1.93    .96       disagree 2. always forgetful                                              2.45    .96       “                       2.25    1.06    “ 3. always stay alone                                          3.33    .69       agree              2.40    1.08    “ 4. presents untidy appearance.                       3.40    .99       “                       3.60    .50       agree 5. does not say the truth always                      2.70    .94       “                       3.15    1.05    “ 6. gets frightened easily                                   2.18    .84       disagree         2.93    1.44    “ 7. takes things that are not mine                     2.24    1.22    “                       1.78    .80       disagree 8. always influenced                                         3.15    .86       agree              3.13    1.34    agree      by what people say   9. afraid to speak to mates                               3.58    .61       “                       3.13    .88       “      social adjustment 10 does not stand for truth always                  3.00    .89       agree              3.50    .58       agree 11. always finding fault with peers                  2.36    .02       disagree         3.18    .50       “ 12 does not exercise his/her rights                 3.15    .71       agree              3.58    .81       “ 13 often talk about other students                   2.33    .95       disagree         2.68    1.07    “ 14 usually has ‘i don’t care’ attitude               2.42    1.02    “                       1.93    .88       disagree 15 never like mixing with opposite sex          2.30    1.23    “                       1.98    1.25    “ 16 finds dissatisfaction in associating           3.21    .89       agree              2.85    1.27    agree        with other students.                                    17 threatens to beat friends always               2.18    1.398  disagree         2.75    1.87    “           18. very gentle with classmates                      2.67    1.13    agree              2.15    .87       disagree 19. tends to quarrel a lot                                  1.90    2.41    disagree         1.13    .18       disagree 20 finds no pleasure                                         3.27    .57       agree              3.48    .97       agree        in outdoor activities 21 makes self unapproachable                        3.24    .86       “                       3.03    .92       “ 22 not friendly to other people                         2.79    .92       “                       3.15    .77       “           23 not disturbed by criticism                            2.55    .03       “                       2.48    1.13    “ emotional 24. feels tensed always                                   2.36    1.02    disagree         3.30    .79       agree 25. looks unhappy all the time                        3.27    .83       agree              3.30    .79       “ 26. uneasy when i am with people                 2.70    .94       “                       3.10    1.22    “           27. feel depressed                                            2.09    .91       disagree         2.90    1.26    “           28. makes a lot of noise to be noticed.            3.06    .96       agree              2.38    1.35    disagree 29. always day dream                                       2.39    .93       disagree         3.03    1.05    agree 30 always talk alone                                         2.91    .97       agree              3.15    .77       “           31. feels self pity                                               2.39    .86       disagree         2.58    .84       “     table 4b: mean responses on psychological well being from enugu and imo states                                                                               enugu-                                      imo      items                                           x       sd     rem.           x       sd     rem.      personal   1. easily get annoyed over minor issues       2.54    1.02    agree              2.52    .95       agree 2. always forgetful                                              2.16    1.10    disagree         2.41    1.30    disagree 3. always stay alone                                          2.89    .90       agree              2.96    .97       agree 4. presents untidy appearance.                       3.33    1.00    “                       3.15    .90       “ 5. does not say the truth always                      2.37    1.06    disagree         2.45    1.14    disagree 6. gets frightened easily                                   2.05    1.00    “                       2.00    .82       “ 7. takes things that are not mine                     2.41    1.18    ”                       2.70    1.06    agree 8. always influenced                                         2.23    1.14    “                       2.48    1.08    disagree      by what people say   9. afraid to speak to mates                               3.18    .99       agree              2.63    1.07    agree      social adjustment 10 does not stand for truth always                  3.34    .83       “                       2.70    1.06    agree 11. always finding fault with peers                   2.47    1.10    disagree         3.19    .91       “ 12 does not exercise his/her rights                 2.95    1.01    agree              2.56    1.27    “ 13 often talk about other students                   2.45    .94       disagree         2.67    1.23    “ 14 usually has ‘i don’t care’ attitude               2.18    .91       “                       2.44    1.25    disagree 15 never like mixing with opposite sex          2.41    1.15    “                       3.07    .95       agree 16 finds dissatisfaction in associating           2.51    1.12    agree              2.93    .77       “        with other students.                                    17 threatens to beat friends always               2.17    1.22    disagree         3.04    1.08    “           18. very gentle with classmates                      2.53    1.13    agree              2.33    .95       disagree 19. tends to quarrel a lot                                  2.35    1.22    disagree         2.41    1.21    “ 20 finds no pleasure                                        2.45    1.20    “                       2.96    .97       agree        in outdoor activities 21 makes self unapproachable                        3.05    .96       agree              2.96    .97       “ 22 not friendly to other people                         3.04    1.06    “                       2.93    .95       “ even staff       23 not disturbed by criticism                            2.63    1.10    “                       2.78    1.04    “ emotional 24. feels tensed always                                   2.58    .86       agree              2.48    1.00    disagree 25. looks unhappy all the time                        2.69    .94       “                       2.89    1.04    agree 26. uneasy when i am with people                 2.90    .93       “                       2.56    .883    “ 27. feel depressed                                            2.65    1.02    “                       1.96    .75       disagree 28. makes a lot of noise to be noticed.            2.10    1.05    disagree         3.15    1.12    agree 29. always day dream                                       2.52    1.00    agree              2.89    .88       “ 30 always talk alone                                          2.51    1.22    “                       2.07    .77       disagree 31. feels self pity                                               2.55       .88      “                      2.32     .89           “   table 5: inter-corelation of parent/adolescent relationship and adolescent psychological wellbeing.                                                               parental relationship items   1          2          3          4          5          6          7          8          9          10        11        12 adolescents pwb personal 13    -.058       .213*   .245** .163** .210** .143** .269** .148** .021    .172     .021     .172** 14     .128*     .160** .243** .043    .021    .362** .100*   .181** .299** -.053   .132** .190** 15     -.031      -.038   .355** -.052   .071    -.206**.109*   -.022   -.166**-.257**-.108*  .124** 16     -.239      .274** .048    -.149**.180** -.208**.261** .043    -.362**-.110*    .093  -.144** 17     -.080      -.074   .316** .311** -.187**.337** -.200**-.090   .427** .175**   .080  .302** 18      .008      .010    .265** .154** -.144**.304** -.009   .196** .330** .100*   .117*   .190** 19      .059      .176** .217** .174** -.136**.441** .128*   .173** .374** .301** .378**   1.93** 20      -.042     .032    .250** .313** .144*   .249** .073    .244** .149** .211** -.070     .007 21        .091    -.105*  .347** .071    .217** .253** .101*   .26**    -.017   .073    -.150**  .009 social 22        .280** .183** .233*   -.235**.342** .027    .377** .294** -.203**-.192**-.006   -.129* 23        .127*   .258*   .122*   -.082   .024    .194** .177*   .214** .079    -.106*  .355** -029 24        .115*   -.087   .185** .125*   .033    .340** -.019   .206** .233** .168** .138** -.184** 25        -.168**.051    -.050   .034    -.109*  .046    -.052   .092    -.051   -.017   .050    .143** 26        -.025   .034    .116** .246** -.059   .125*   .111*   .400    .404** .066    .071    .368** 27        -0.37   .087    .333** -013    -.124*  .251** .012    .181** .171** .243** .202** .140** 28        -.025   .099    .068    -.031   -.050   .145** .075    .072    .082    .060    .023    .036 29        -.029   .106*   .072** .223** -.184**.194** -.089   -.002   .161** .082    .279** .041 30        -.051   -.182**.100*   .327** -.021   061     -.079   .020    .126*   -.053   .009    .040 31        .053    .263** .102*   .106*   -.009   -.115**-.097   .038    .059    -.059   .184** -.025 32        .123*   .151*   .074    -.023   -.046   .230    .020    .247** .009    .253** .033    -.077 33        .146** -.059   .339** -.249**.127*   .274** .153** .140** .089    .087    .229** .001 34        .023    -.148**-.161**-.298**.186** .217** -.058   .069    -.106*  -.463**-.143**. 072 35        .016    -.038   -.239**-.320**.037    -.118   -004    .067    -.273**-.284**.125*   -.244** emotional 36        .071    .047    .200** .069    -.018   -.190**.097    .082    .007    .236** .052    .003 37        .056    .121    .338** -.022   -.017   .258** -.064   .170** .146** .060    .220** .075 38       -068     .003    .137** -.058   .000    .202** -130** .044    .109* -.179**. 240**  .184** 39        .152** .277** .054    .118*   .218** -023    .226** .202    .183** .048    -.224**.184** 40        .047    .010    -.064   .039    -.117*  -.029   .086    .121*   .089    .000      .035  -.060 41        .214** .142** -.089   -.214**.106*   -.074   .210** .135** -.124*  -.195**  .091  -.128* 42        .073    .160** .080    -.204**.125*   .072    .102*   .008    -.098*  -.204**  .020    .057 43        .048    .011    .107    -036    .009    .109*   .085    -.152   -.078   -.129*    .028  -.054 * not significant at 0.05 level, p < .05 ** significant at 0.05 level. tables 4a and 4b contains the mean and standard deviation scores on state difference in adolescent psychological wellbeing. from the tables, adolescents from all the four states presents untidy appearances and are afraid to speak to mates. while adolescents from abia, enugu and imo states always stay alone, those from abia and anambra are influenced by what people say. adolescents from enugu and imo easily get annoyed over minor issues and anambra adolescents get easily frightened. in the social sphere, all adolescents do not stand for truth always, exercise their rights, finds dissatisfaction in associating with other students, makes self unapproachable, and not friendly to other people. while adolescents from abia and enugu are very gentle with classmates, those from imo and anambra are not. abia, enugu and imo adolescents are not disturbed by criticisms while those from anambra are. adolescents from abia, anambra and imo finds no pleasure in outdoor activities, always finds fault with and threatens to beat peers, those from abia tends to quarrel a lot. emotionally, adolescents from all the states always look unhappy and uneasy with people. those from abia, anambra and enugu always talk alone and day dreams; abia and imo makes a lot of noise to be noticed, enugu and anambra adolescents feel self pity. on parental relationship, it is observed that parental relationship predicted adolescent psychological wellbeing personal, social and emotional. for instance, parents encouraging their adolescent children to bring their friends home, ignoring adolescents as long as they do not bother the parents and punishing them severely when they misbehave, predicted adolescent personal and social adjustment. in the same vein making adolescents feel ashamed and guilty when they misbehave, ignoring them when they ask for help and saying unkind things affects their personal adjustment while making adolescents feel important in the home predicts their social adjustment. discussion the study investigated the influence of parental relationship on the psychological wellbeing of southeastern adolescents. from the findings, the adolescents have more emotional and social than personal problems. socially, the respondents in this study do not stand for truth always, finds faults and do not associate with others. emotionally, they always day-dream and seek attention via negative attitudes. these attitudes may be as a result of poor management of adolescent regressive behaviors by parents which make them withdrawn, fantasize and compensate by being noisy. this finding supports videon's (2005) report that parental (mothers and fathers) relationship with adolescents have a lot of influence on the adolescents' psychological wellbeing. on the influence of gender on psychological wellbeing of adolescents, the males seem to adjust better than the females. although both groups are afraid to speak to their mates, females do not stand for truth and are influenced by what people say more than the males. the findings seem to support the report of symons and blythe in de anda and smith (1993) that while the boys are more prided, less dependent, attractive and popular with peers, girls have feelings of isolation, submissive behavior (may be as a result of criticisms) and less popular with peers. lending credence to this finding, utum (2004) in her study on perceived parental acceptance/rejection as a correlate of creativity among primary school pupils, found that there is gender difference in creativity and attributed this to the acceptance and freedom given to the boy child to express himself and explore his environment. lack of acceptance she continued, leads to rejection which undermines the security of the childespecially the girl child. the issue of acceptance and lack of it for the male and female children starts early in life and is based on the fact that the igbos value male children more since they are the ones to carry on the family name and lineage. this however, is detrimental to the psychological health of the children. the fact that female respondents in this study present untidy appearance more than the males is surprising. it may be due to the fact that the current fashion trend among the adolescents is multicolorthey use multicolored hair attachments and in dressing/clothing. some adolescent girls, parents complain, wear torn and washed-faded jeans, all in the name of fashion. there are state differences in adolescent psychological well being. while enugu and anambrastate adolescents have less personal problems, abia and imostate adolescents have less emotional problems. generally, all the adolescents neither stand for the truth at all times, exercise their rights, nor find pleasure in associating with other students. the state differences may be as a result of their different cultures. it is generally believed that anambra state is the home for commerce, business and industry for both old and young person's; their food and ceremonies are equally peculiar to them, so they encounter more social and emotional problems in the course of the business transactions. it may also be the consequence of authoritarian and/or permissive parenting which produces socially incompetent children according to research reports. imo and abiastates are known for education, and their culture is equally peculiar to them. hence, they encounter less emotional problems. the fact that they also experience social problems may equally lie on parental practices which may be either authoritarian or permissive. enugu state on the other hand is more agrarian than educational or commercial. they, however, have their own peculiar culture and less personal adjustment problems. this report supports blo et al's view that the cultural milieu and social situation where an individual is reared, determines the person's personality. conclusion and recommendations from the findings of this study, in spite of the fact that parents generally seem to relate well with their adolescent children, they (adolescents) experience personal, social and emotional problems which differ according to gender and state. it is, therefore, recommended that each adolescent problem should be handled by guidance counselors with full understanding of the cultural milieu of origin and gender of the client. besides, the igbos' conception of the importance of male and female children that leads to differential parental practices should be cognitively restructured through discussion programmes in the media. family counselors should not only relate with parents of their adolescent clients with psychological problems but equally organize family seminars on this issue to reduce the social and emotional problems of the adolescents with particular reference to the girls. references berger, k. s(2005). the developing person through the life span. new york; worth publishers. de anda, d & smith, m (1993); differences among adolescent, young adult and adult callers of suicide helplines. social work, 38, 421-28 donnelly, j.w,eburne, n, & kittleton, m, (2001). mental health: dimensions of self esteem and emotional well being. boston: allyn and bacon. freud, s. (1958) psychoanalysis; basic writing new york; random house. hahn, d.b & payne,w.a (2001) focus on health (5th ed) new york, mcgraw-hill lerner, r, noh, r.e & wilson, c (1998). the parenting of adolescents and adolescents as parents: a developmental contextual perspective . university of wisconsin madison. myers, d.(2002). exploring psychology (5th ed.) new york, worth publishers. onwuasoanya,p.n (2008) (ed.) counseling psychology for nigeria. nsukka: great express publishers ltd. payne, v.g & isaacs, l.d (2006). human motor development: a lifespan approach (5th ed.) new york: mcgrw-hill. piccinelli, m & wilkinson, g (2000). gender difference in depression, critical review british journal of psychiatry 177, 486-492. santrock, j.w (2004) educational psychology (2nd ed) new york: mcgraw-hill. shek, d. t (1999) paternal and maternal influences on the psychological wellbeing of chinese adolescents. genet. soc. gen. psychological monogram 125(3); 269-296. videon, t.m (2005) parent-child relations and children's psychological wellbeing. do dads matter? journal of family issues 26(1) the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects emmanuel newman national college of teacher education, ghana abstract in year 2008, 38 publicly-owned teacher training institutions (ttis) that offered certificate programs to prepare teachers for basic schools in ghana, were elevated to tertiary status and redesignated as colleges of education (coes) to offer tertiary programmes. since the elevation and re-designation of ttis as colleges of education, the institutions have faced various challenges which threaten the consolidation of their status as tertiary institutions. these challenges which border on governance, regulation, management, autonomy of the colleges among others, must be critically examined and addressed to enable the institutions to discharge their mandate effectively. this paper examines the challenges and prospects of colleges of education as they evolve into tertiary education institutions. keywords: colleges of education ghana, teacher training institutions, ghana tertiary education introduction education plays a crucial role in fostering self development as well as the development of human capital for national socio-economic development. teacher education plays a crucial role in preparing individuals to facilitate the teaching and learning process in schools. in fact, the european union (2012) determined that “within educational institutions, teaching professionals are the most important determinants of how learners will perform; and it is what teachers know, do and care about that matters.” over the past forty years , teacher education in ghana has undergone a number of modifications these modifications are a result of policy changes which are aimed at producing well trained teachers to meet the educational needs of the country at various times . these changes have resulted in the production of different cohort of teachers with different types of certificates (anamuah-mensah, 2006). colleges of education (formerly known as teacher training institutes) initially offered 2-year post-middle certificate “b” programs , followed by 4-year post-middle certificate “a” and 2-year post–secondary certificate “a” programs . the 2 the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) 2-year program was later extended to a 3-year program, which ran alongside the 4-year certificate “a” programs until it was curtailed in the 1980s (addo-obeng, 2008). in the early 2000s, following a comprehensive review of the educational system in ghana, the government published a white paper and declared that “all teacher training colleges will be upgraded into diploma-awarding institutions and be affiliated to the education oriented universities” (government of ghana , 2004). in this regard, 38 teacher training colleges operating at a level equivalent to level 4 of the international system of classification of education (isced 4) were re-designated as colleges of education (coe) to offer tertiary education in 2008. prior to their elevation and re-designation as tertiary institutions, the then teacher training institutions (ttis) were under the ghana education service (ges). this is the agency responsible for pre-tertiary education. the ttis were directly supervised by the teacher education division, one of the divisions of the ghana education service. thus funding, appointment of staff and determination of requirements to enroll in the institutions were the responsibilities of ges. however, the assessment and certification of the products of ttis has been the responsibility of the institute of education of the university of cape coast. the institute of education has over the years collaborated with the teacher education division to develop and constantly evaluate the curriculum of pre-university teacher education in ghana (opare, 2008). the colleges of education act, act 847 was passed to give legal backing to the new status of the institutions in 2012. the institutions have therefore been placed under the national council for tertiary education (ncte), being government agency responsible for the regulation of tertiary education institutions in ghana. since the re-designation of ttis as coes in 2008, the institutions have faced challenges regarding supervision, infrastructure, governance and autonomy. this article therefore examines the challenges faced by the colleges of education as they consolidate their new status as tertiary education institutions. recommendations are also proffered to facilitate the strengthening of colleges of education as attractive options in tertiary education in ghana. research questions the study was guided by the following research questions:  what are the issues affecting the autonomy of colleges of education?  what are the governance challenges facing colleges of education?  what is the state of human and material resources of colleges of education?  how could colleges of education be positioned to function effectively as tertiary education institutions? methodology this work covered colleges of education and supervisory bodies of tertiary education institutions. primary data were collected from seven principals, a vice-principal of colleges of education and a senior staff of teacher education division through in-depth open ended interviews. secondary data was collected through analysis of books, articles, papers and documents available at the national council for tertiary education and the national accreditation board as well as other sources. qualitative methods were predominantly employed in the analysis of data. 3 emmanuel newman _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) the concepts, teacher education, autonomy, non-university tertiary institutions, tertiary education institutions and governance of tertiary education institutions, are assessed in this section to provide the basis for examining the main issues in colleges of education. postsecondary non-tertiary institutions are institutions that provide learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare learners for the labor market as well as entry into tertiary institutions. such category of institutions aim at equipping individuals with knowledge, skills and competencies lower than the level of complexity characteristic of tertiary education institutions (unesco, 2011). post secondary non-tertiary institutions are classified as isced 4 institutions. tertiary education institutions aim at learning at a high level of complexity and specialization than isced 4 institutions. tertiary education institutions comprise institutions which are labeled as short-cycle tertiary, bachelor or equivalent, master or equivalent and doctoral or equivalent, respectively (unesco, 2011). tertiary education builds on secondary education, providing learning activities in specialized fields of education (unesco, 2011). non-university tertiary education institutions are career-focused institutions which prepare students for the world of work. they normally provide academic programs of shorter duration and concentrate on imparting practical skills required for specific occupational fields. these institutional types may be established to provide trained manpower to specific government ministry, department or agency. colleges of education are non-university tertiary education institutions and could be placed on level 5 of the international system of classification education. unesco (2011) states that, “isced 5 institutions are often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competencies. typically, they are practically-based, occupationally-specific and prepare students to enter the labour market. however, these programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes. academic tertiary education programmes below the level of a bachelor’s programme or equivalent.” teacher education refers to the process of equipping individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes required for teaching and developing children to become productive citizens. the government of ghana (2002) defines teacher education as “the type of education and training given to, and acquired by, an individual to make him or her academically and professionally proficient and competent as a teacher”. anamuah-mensah (2006) stress that teacher education is a complex, multi-faceted process, made up of initial teacher training, in-service training (or continuing education) and lifelong education. the government of ghana (2002) states that the objective of teacher education in ghana is to train and develop the right type of teacher who is competent, committed and dedicated and such a teacher should be capable of:  applying, extending and synthesizing various forms of knowledge;  developing attitudes, values and dispositions that create a conducive environment for quality teaching and learning in schools;  facilitating learning and motivating individual learners to fully realize their potential;  adequately preparing the learner to participate fully in the national development effort (government of ghana, 2002). 4 the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) governance of higher education refers to the policies and processes by which tertiary education institutions are regulated. balderston, (1995) states that governance is the distribution of authority and functions among the units within a larger entity, the modes of communication and control among them, and the conduct of relationships between the entity and the surrounding environment. perellon (2001) states that the term governance is understood here as the structure(s) of legal authority ruling the higher education system as a whole and determining, in a greater or lesser extent, the role(s) of and the type(s) of relationships between different actors within the system .the governance process in tertiary education should strengthen the autonomy of the institutions concerned and ensure efficiency, accountability and effectiveness. autonomy of tertiary education institutions refers to the authority of tertiary institution to determine and execute its goals the self-government of an institution. autonomy is the freedom and independence of an institution to make it own internal decisions, whatever its own decision-making processes are, with regard to academic affairs, faculty and student affairs, business affairs, and external relations (ajayi, gome, and johnson1996). autonomy relates to the freedom to select staff and students and to determine the conditions under which they remain in the university; the freedom to determine curriculum content and degree standards, and the freedom to allocate funds (within) the amounts available across different categories of expenditure (ashby 1966, van vught 1993). berdhal (1990), distinguishes between substantive autonomy and procedural autonomy as, substantive autonomy is the power of the university or college in its corporate form to determine its own goals and programs, while procedural autonomy, on the other hand is the power of the university or college in its corporate form to determine the means by which its goals and programs will be pursued. in ghana, constitutional provisions obviate direct interference in the affairs of tertiary education institutions. article 195(3) of the 1992 constitution of ghana provides that “the power to appoint persons to hold or act in an office in a body of higher education, research or professional training shall vest in the council or the governing body of that institution or body.” additionally, the national council for tertiary education was established by an act of parliament, act 454 of 1993 to serve as a buffer between the government and the institutions to protect the institutions from outside control and the public against needless duplication and waste of public resources by the institutions (effah and mensah-bonsu, 2001). colleges of education act 2012, act 847 in this work, the focus is on colleges of education. these are institutions devoted to the training of student-teachers to enable them to acquire the necessary professional and academic competencies for teaching in pre-tertiary institutions and non-formal education institutions (government of ghana, 2012). the colleges of education act, 2012, act 847 provides that a college of education is to:  train students to acquire the necessary professional and academic competencies for teaching in pre-tertiary institutions and non-formal education institutions;  build the professional and academic capacities of serving teachers though regular continuing education; 5 emmanuel newman _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013)  provide programs that will promote the effective teaching of science , mathematics , information and communication technology and other related subjects to meet the needs of contemporary society; and  foster links with relevant institutions and the community in order to ensure the holistic training of teachers. regarding the functions of colleges of education, the colleges of education act, 2012 provide that a college of education shall decide on the subjects to be taught based on their special relevance to the needs of the educational system of the country and for national development. colleges of education are also required to ensure that basic research and action research form an integral part of teacher education, among others. the councils of colleges of education have the responsibility for approving the educational programs developed by their academic boards. this is in regards to the mandate of the college; and prescribing terms and conditions for admissions of persons selected for a course of study organized by the college (gog, 2012). the colleges of education act, 2012 has other relevant provisions. indeed, the act provides that the development of academic policies, regulation of courses, development of academic standards, the conduct of examinations and award of diplomas should be undertaken in consultation with an affiliated institution. additionally, section 19 of the colleges of education act, 2012 specifies that the development of statutes for the regulating the governance and management of the colleges education is subject to the approval of the minister of education. assessment of autonomy and powers of colleges of education autonomy of tertiary education institutions involves many dimensions. ashby (1966), van vught (1993) and ajayi et al. (1996) state that autonomous institution must be free to:  select staff and students and to determine the conditions under which they remain in the institution (ashby 1966, van vught 1993) ;  determine curriculum content and degree standards;  allocate funds (within) the amounts available across different categories of expenditure;  determine its own research programs; and  decide to whom to award its degrees (ajayi et al., 1996). the aforementioned criteria provide useful basis for assessing the autonomy of colleges of education. the determination of subjects to be taught in colleges of education is not directly decided by the colleges of education. in spite of the mandate of councils of colleges of education regarding the approval of programmes as specified in the colleges of education act, it seems that for practical purposes colleges of education on their own cannot determine their academic programs. the thirty eight colleges of education in ghana have been grouped into four specialist areas – french, mathematics and science, early childhood development and technical skills – to facilitate the training of teachers with various skill sets to meet the needs of basic schools. in this regard, the councils of colleges of education cannot on their own be able to vary the 6 the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) programs offered in the institutions without the approval of the government. this state of affairs conflicts with the powers of colleges of education regarding the determination of programs to be taught. colleges of education on their own may not have the freedom to determine the content of the curricula of their programs or whom they award certificates or diplomas to. before the upgrading of colleges of education, the teacher education division of the ministry of education and the institute of education were responsible for designing academic programs for the institutions. thus, the development of curricula, course outlines and assessment schedules were the responsibilities of the two bodies. with the passage of the colleges of education act, act 847, it is expected that the national council for tertiary education will assume the responsibilities of the teacher education division and thus collaborate with the institute of education to facilitate the development of curricula for the colleges. the institute of education has since 1975 been responsible for assessment and certification of the products of colleges of education. and with the passage of the colleges of education act, 847, the institute is set to continue to perform this role in colleges of education sector. in fact, the colleges of education act, 847 provides that colleges of education are to “offer programmes for the award of diplomas and other certificates through affiliation with other chartered institutions accredited by the national accreditations board” (government of ghana, 2012). the objective of affiliation in the ghanaian tertiary education system is to ensure the attainment and maintenance of high standards for the promotion of academic quality (national accreditation board, 2010).the relationship is for the mentoring institution (university of cape coast through the institute of education) to provide academic support and supervision to the mentored institution and certify the graduates of the institution being mentored (national accreditation board, 2010). colleges of education on their own cannot decide the number of students to admit. in fact, the determination of the number of students to admit to coes is the responsibility of the ministry of finance which set the quota of students to admit to coes on the basis of availability of funds. students of colleges of education are paid maintenance allowances by the government of ghana, thus decisions on the number of students to admit to coes are based on the ability of the government of ghana to pay allowances to students. thus, whilst principals of colleges of education have indicated that there is capacity to admit more students, they are unable to do so because of financial constraints. another issue that impinges on the freedom of colleges of education to select students borders on determination of minimum entry requirements to tertiary education institutions. in ghana, two supervisory bodies the national council for tertiary education and the national accreditation board are responsible for the determination of standards in tertiary education, including minimum entry requirements (subjects and minimum grades) for admission to tertiary education institutions. in this regard, colleges of education will be unable to employ any innovative ways to admit students whose grades and subject combinations do not meet the criteria set by the ncte and nab. even though there is an urgent need to train more teachers for basic schools in ghana. section (4)(d) of the college’s of education act states that a college of education shall ensure that basic research and action research form an integral part of teacher education to provide quality teaching and learning in the classroom (government of ghana , 2012). action research allows the teacher to systematically codify their practical experience and make it part of 7 emmanuel newman _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) the shared professional knowledge of teachers just as is done by many recognized professions such as engineering and medicine (ben-peretz , 1984). this assertion notwithstanding, the culture of research and publication of research outcomes is nearly non-existent in colleges of education. the paucity of research capacity in colleges of education is as a result of the fact that, when the colleges operated as non-tertiary institutions, their main focus was teaching and learning , thus the teaching staff of the colleges were not required to undertake research and publish their research results as part of the requirements of tenure or promotion. in this regard, it would be difficult for the present cohort of teachers of colleges of education to supervise the production of quality research outputs amongst their students or ingrain research culture in the institutions. current governance issues in colleges of education the elevation of ttis to coes resulted in the placement of the colleges under the national council for tertiary education. however, it seems the national council for tertiary education and the ghana education service are playing conflicting roles regarding the regulation of the colleges. for instance, while the ncte is responsible for coordinating the budgets of the colleges; the ghana education service still supervises the pay-roll of the colleges. additionally, apart from the position of principal, the ghana education service supervises the appointment and promotion of the staff of the colleges. in the case of appointment of principals, the national council for tertiary education interviews and select the most eligible candidate for appointment as principals but appointment letters are issued by the ghana education service. there are also issues regarding the preparedness of the national council for tertiary education to regulate or supervise institutions devoted to initial teacher education. the council has neither developed coherent policies to foster effective oversight of the colleges nor developed standards and norms to foster performance measurement in the colleges. moreover, the council has not put in place measures to take over the functions of the teacher education division which includes the facilitation of curricula review in collaboration with the institute of education of university cape coast and supervision of special teacher education programs such as distance education and “untrained teachers diploma in basic education (utdbe)”. a critical issue that requires analysis is the role of the governing councils of colleges of education. interim governing councils were appointed to exercise oversight in the colleges when they were elevated to tertiary status in 2008. however, the councils have been informed not to make major decisions without prior consultations with the national council for tertiary education and the ghana education service. thus, for the past four years, the councils have been unable to make major decisions regarding the development of the institutions. another issue is the development of instruments to foster effective governance and management of the colleges. indeed, since the elevation of the colleges to tertiary status in 2008, the institutions have been operating without clearly defined statutes, scheme of service and conditions of service. thus, even though colleges of education have been elevated to tertiary status they are still operating with the conditions and scheme of service of the ghana education service. an emerging phenomenon in some of the colleges concerns reports received by the national council for tertiary education about some chairmen of the interim governing councils trying to involve themselves in the management of the colleges. this matter has 8 the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) brought into question the knowledge and expertise of the members of the governing councils regarding the governance of tertiary education institutions. issues bordering on governance and autonomy of colleges of education are further complicated by section 19 of the colleges of education act, 2012, which provides that statutes enacted by the colleges of education are subject to the approval of the minister. this implies that apart from the national council for tertiary education and the national accreditation board, the colleges are further subject to the oversight of the minister of education. this could pave the way for political interference in the management and governance of the institutions. assessment of human and material resources in colleges of education some stakeholders have been raised concerns regarding the capacity of the personnel of the colleges of education to manage tertiary education institutions. for instance, opare (2008) stated that managerial support systems in the institutions were woefully inadequate to say the least. additionally, a report released by the national accreditation board in 2007 indicated that, “most if not all of the non-teaching or supporting staff serving in responsible positions in the colleges such as librarians, accountants, and secretaries of the colleges were not professionally qualified” (nab, 2007). the report also stressed that in several instances those designated as college bursars or accountants had qualifications below higher national diploma and as such it that appeared that fund management in the institutions were solely in the hands of the principals of the colleges. moreover, the nab (2007) determined that in about twenty institutions there were poor to below average leadership. this state of affairs could adversely affect the quality of support provided by non-teaching and auxiliary staff to foster the fulfillment of the mission of the colleges, which is the business of teacher preparation. the colleges should as a matter of urgency recruit more qualified administrative personnel, and enhance their knowledge in leadership, management and the operation of the committee system of governance in colleges of education through workshops and other training programs. the national council for tertiary education should provide support to the institutions in this area. the national council for national council for tertiary education’s prescribed that teachers of colleges of education should possess master’s degrees. however, a survey conducted by ncte indicated that most of the teachers colleges education do not possess the requisite qualifications. table 1: qualifications of teachers in colleges of education source: data from national council for tertiary education, ghana 2012. qualifications number percent phd 1 0.09 masters degree 436 37.46 first degree 602 51.72 other qualifications 126 10.82 total 1164 100.00 9 emmanuel newman _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) this will in no doubt have effect on the quality of the educational services provided by the institutions. table 1, indicates that only about 37.55% of the teaching staff of colleges of education posses master’s degrees or phds, additionally, nab (2007) determined that only 0.01% of the teachers with masters degrees in colleges of education have qualifications in the relevant subject area . indeed, most of the teachers in colleges of education with advanced degrees have qualifications in the area of educational management (nab, 2007). in spite of this, nab (2007) further notes that from time to time the ghana education service re-assigns staff of the colleges of education with advanced degrees to other administrative positions in the service. adequate equipment and infrastructure are necessary for the provision of quality tertiary education. it is observed that infrastructure of colleges of education in the area of offices; residential accommodation, classrooms, libraries, laboratories, as well as tools and equipment should be provided to ensure that the colleges are able to perform their functions as expected. without doubt, infrastructure of colleges of education needs improvement if the colleges are to live up to their designation as tertiary education institutions. nab (2007) reported that laboratory/workshop equipment in the colleges were obsolete, inadequate and poorly maintained. the board again indicated that office accommodation for tutors was largely nonexistent in the colleges. the findings of the national accreditation board were affirmed by the ncte (2007) which stated that “furnishing in the laboratories is very poor and equipment is not only scanty and paltry but out of date”. even though some efforts have been made to improve infrastructure and equipment in the colleges, not much has changed since the colleges were elevated to tertiary status. recommendations and conclusion the elevation of ttis to colleges of education to enhance the training of teachers bodes well for the education sector in ghana. indeed, the preparation of highly skilled teachers is crucial for guaranteeing quality outcomes in basic education. the foregoing analysis has shown that various challenges militate against the smooth evolution of colleges of education as tertiary education institutions. the autonomy of colleges of education should be strengthened to foster managerial and leadership innovation in initial teacher preparation. this means that persons with experience in governance of tertiary education institutions should be appointed to “chaperone” the institutions as they make the transition from non-tertiary to tertiary institutions. additionally, the senior management staff of the colleges should be equipped with the skills required for managing tertiary education institutions. the national council for tertiary education should assist in building the capacity of the governing councils to enhance the knowledge of the members in governance of tertiary education institutions. the council should organize training programs to build the managerial capacity of the senior management staff of the colleges. the national council for tertiary education should strengthen its own capacity regarding regulation and supervision of colleges of education. policies and standards and norms should be developed as a matter of urgency to facilitate the effective monitoring and evaluation of developments in the colleges. the provision of section 19 of the colleges of education act , 2012 which stipulates that statutes enacted by governing councils of colleges is subject to the approval of the minister of education would undermine the autonomy of the institutions and delay the implementation of 10 the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) decisions of the governing councils. it will also lead to political interference in the governance and management of the colleges. additionally, the provision of section 4 of the colleges of education act, 2012 which provides that governing councils of colleges of education should “ensure that basic and action research form part an integral part of teacher education to promote quality teaching and learning in the classroom” appears far-fetched. colleges of education are operating at level 5 of isced classifications and they do not possess the human and material resources necessary for the conduct of basic research. the colleges should not expend their limited resources on the conduct of basic research. indeed, the nation would be better served if colleges of education are declared as teaching institutions to foster the focusing of the institutions on their core mandate of preparing teachers for basic institutions. notwithstanding the foregoing, the capacity of the institutions should be built to enable them to conduct action research to enable the teachers to codify their practical experiences. in spite of the current practice regarding the assignment of specific subject areas to colleges of education to facilitate the preparation of generalist and specialist teachers to meet national development goals, section 4(b) of the colleges of education act provides that a college of education shall, “decide on the subjects to be taught based on their special relevance to the needs of the educational system …and national development.” if section 4b of the colleges of education act is implemented by individual colleges, the balance of supply of specialist and generalist teachers could be upset to the detriment of the educational system. it is the view of the present writer that the review of programs offered by colleges of education should cover the whole colleges of education subsector and take into consideration the resource endowment and the market and geographic scope of each institution. the foregoing analyses provide the bases for reviewing the colleges of education act, 2012 to remove ambiguities regarding the autonomy of colleges of education as well as having firm measures for ensuring the preparation of teachers with different specialties to meet the needs of basic schools in ghana. the inability of colleges of education to enroll all qualified students as a result of government’s mandatory admission quota for the colleges is a draw-back on the nation’s attempts to prepare adequate number of teachers for the basic education subsector, considering the fact that the ghana education service has employed many untrained teachers due to inadequate number of trained teachers. for instance, data available at the ministry of education shows that only 44.8% and 66.3% of kindergarten and primary school teachers respectively posses the requisite qualifications (ministry of education, 2012). additionally, some principals have claimed that if given the chance they could enroll more than the present number of students. for instance, the principal of enchi college of education was reported to have claimed that the college could admit more 500 students but it has been limited to 170 students as its quota (daily graphic, 2013). in this regard, the government of ghana should consider allowing the colleges to enroll a percentage of qualified applicants who could not be covered by subsidies to enroll as fee-paying students. other pertinent issues that must be addressed to enable to discharge their functions effectively regard the poor state of the infrastructure and the low qualifications of majority of teachers in the colleges. thus, it is recommended that the government of ghana should set up a special fund to provide more infrastructure and equipment for the colleges. teachers of the colleges should also be assisted by the government to acquire qualifications required for teaching in tertiary institutions. 11 emmanuel newman _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) the transition of colleges of education from post-secondary non-tertiary institutions to tertiary institutions has been long and arduous. the process was started in 2008 and it seems that it will not be completed soon. the words of reverend sister mante, the vice-principal of our lady of apostles of colleges of education, sum up the present situation of colleges of education of the colleges as follows: we are neither firmly entrenched as tertiary institutions nor are we still regarded as post-secondary non-tertiary institutions. we are between the two. even though we have been placed under the national council for tertiary education for about four years, the payroll of the staff of the colleges and promotions are still being supervised by the ghana education service. the elevation of ttis to colleges of education to bodes well for the education system in ghana. stakeholders (ghana education service, national council for tertiary education and the ministry of education) should collaborate to expedite the finalization of the transition teacher training colleges to colleges of education to foster the preparation quality teachers for the pretertiary sector and remote ambiguities regarding the current status of the colleges. in fact, the need for the strengthening of colleges of education in order to diversify tertiary education in ghana cannot be overemphasized. due to the change in the duration of secondary education from four years to three years in 2008 after a change in political administration in ghana, has resulted in two cohorts of secondary school graduates whose sheer numbers are beyond the capacity of the nation’s universities and polytechnics. this calls for the strengthening of colleges of education through the provision of financial support, to enable the institutions to acquire the requisite human and material resources to foster the positioning of colleges of education as attractive options in tertiary education and offer attractive alternative pathways to tertiary education for secondary school leavers. references anamuah–mensah, jophus (2006). teacher education and practice in ghana. in kolawole t. raheem and kupari pekka (eds.), educational issues for sustainable development in africa (pp. 28-40). lasonen johana: institute for educational research. ashby, e. (1966). universities, british, indian, african. london: weidenfeld and nicolson. ajayi, j.f.a., l.k.h. goma, and g.a. johnson (1996). the african experience with higher education. oxford: james currey publishers and accra: the association of african universities. balderston, f.e. (1995). managing today’s universities: strategies for viability change and excellence. san francisco: jossey and bass. 12 the upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: issues and prospects _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) ben-peretz, m. (1984). curriculum theory and practice in teacher education programs. in l.g. katz and j.d. raths, (eds), advances in teacher education, vol. 1 (pp. 9-27). norwood, nj: ablex publishing. berdahl, r. (1990). academic freedom, autonomy and accountability in british universities, studies in higher education, 15(2), pp. 169-180. daily graphic (2013). structures underutilised at enchi college of education, daily graphic april 13, 2013, p. 32. effah, p., j.a.n. mensa-bonsu. (2001). governance of tertiary education institutions in ghana, national council for tertiary education. european union (2012). supporting the teaching professions for better learning outcomes, european union. government of ghana (2002). meeting the challenges of education in the twenty first century: report of the president’s committee on review of education reforms in ghana.accra: government of ghana. ----(2004). white paper on the report of the education reform review committee. accra: ministry of education, youth and sports. ----(2012). colleges of education act, 2012, act 847. accra: government of ghana. ----(2012). constitution of the republic of ghana. ghana: government of ghana. ministry of education (2012). education sector performance report. accra: ministry of education. national council for tertiary education (2011). report of the state of physical onfrastructure of colleges of education presented to the honourable minister for education. accra: national council for tertiary education. national accreditation board (2007). report on the assessment of teacher training colleges in ghana conducted between may and june 2007. ghana: national accreditation board. opare, j.a. (2008). the transition of ghanaian training colleges to tertiary level: prospects, challenges and the way forward. in princof, developments in basic teacher education in ghana (pp. 155-158). kumasi: greenland’s concept. obeng, e.a. (2008). financing teacher education in ghana. in princof, developments in basic teacher education in ghana (pp. 133-140). kumasi: greenland’s concept. 13 emmanuel newman _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) perellon, j.f. (2001). the governance of higher education in a federal system: the case of switzerland tertiary education and management. netherlands: kluwer academic publishers. the quality assurance agency for higher education (2007). the standard for initial teacher education. accra: the quality assurance agency for higher education. unesco-uis (2012). international standard classification of education (isced 2011).paris: unesco institute for statistics. van vught, f. (1993). patterns of governance in higher education: concepts and trends. paris: unesco. a comparative analysis of the image status of nigerian teachers: 1960-1985 and 1986-2010 oluniyi oyeleke osun state college of education, nigeria abstract this article examines the activities of teachers in two different historical epochs of nigerian history. relevant literatures were reviewed which borders on the commitment and official roles of teachers from the time of missionary sole control of education to post-independent era. comparative analysis of the two epochs were examined in terms of teachers commitment, degree of motivation and training, tendency to engage in other paid work outside teaching and the degree of communal involvement. the study adopted a survey design. one hundred and fifty teachers from ayedaade local government area of osun state were used as the study sample. a questionnaire was designed, validated and administered. data collected were analyzed using simple percentages. the teachers in the first epoch, 1960 – 1985, were rated higher based on their positive impacts on teaching and learning than the second epoch group, 1986 2010. 2 a comparative analysis of the image state of nigerian teachers: 1960-1985 and 1986-2010 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) background to the study the introduction of western education by christian missionaries in the late 20th century paved the way to a new civilization in nigeria. the establishment of missionary schools opened up prospects of employment in the education industry. the missions’ schools and their curricula were deeply rooted in religion, numeracy and literacy. nigerians who were successfully trained became either teachers in the expanding education industry or catechists in their churches; and in most cases effectively combined the two. in this dual role, teachers exerted enormous influence in the school, church, and local communities. they served as secretaries to the local community, at times the village letter writer, and often next to the king or traditional ruler. in these various roles teachers assumed many responsibilities. for instance, a mother whose wards manifested deviant traits such as truancy, alcoholism, drug addiction, etc., depended on teachers to enforce disciplinary measures either in the school or in the locality. the teacher was not only regarded as an educator but also a disciplinarian, role model, and guide. moreover, it was the duty of the teacher to ensure that members of the community lived in peace and harmony. the teacher also organized social/cultural meetings and activities for members of the community. summarily, the teacher in a community was a “person of culture” and an expert in child rearing. the authoritarian structure of the traditional systems of government in nigeria during the preand post-colonial periods provided a bulwark for the strong authoritative voice of teachers in and outside the school. their voices carried weight in the community development association and any other gatherings in general. they constituted the first set of educated elites in nigerian society christian missionaries were the dominant figures in education as they established schools until 1882 when the first education ordinance was enacted by the colonial government. this marked the beginning of government intervention in education. the education ordinance provided for grants-in-aid to the gold coast (accra) and lagos. the colonial government’s intervention aroused various perceptions about teachers and the teaching profession. invariably, the changing perception inspired different voices. following the amalgamation of northern and southern protectorates in 1914, the new governor general-lord lugard adopted an education ordinance that distinguished between the missionary schools and those established by the government. this distinction led to discrimination in the awarding of grants-in-aids and differential treatment of teachers trained and working in schools established by the two competing institutions mission and government. this inspired and culminated into the establishment of the nigeria union of teachers (nut) founded in 1931 as an amalgamation of the lagos union of teachers (est. 1925) and the association of headmasters of ijebu schools (est. 1926) (oyekan, 2000; nut, 2011). majasan (1999) elaborates on this development. he states that while the church missionary society (cms) was training teachers since 1849, the colonial administration did not start until 1889. surprisingly, the graduates of colonial government institutions were regarded as civil servants and enjoyed better treatment. the formation of nut added another dimension to the teachers’ voices. teachers became a political force to be reckoned with nationally and used the nut platform to advocate for better work conditions and higher wages. they often used strikes and dialogue to engage government in labor issues. government intervention in education and especially the formation of nut with its bargaining power increased the profile of teachers in political circles. 3 oluniyi oyeleke __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) this period also witnessed a gradual decline in the influence of teachers in the community and the school. the decline in power led to waning commitments to the teaching profession. the trend continues for several reasons. one was the rise of other professions that motivated a higher sense of responsibility with increased respectability. such professions include law, accounting, medicine, and banking. educated elites were no longer limited to the teaching profession, but drawn to other areas of interest. the colonial government and european merchants with resources to pay higher wages to workers in other professions dampened teachers’ morale. thus teachers drifted from the field of education into other flourishing sectors like health, police, marketing, and banks. majasan (1999) notes that the missionaries later found themselves in a “serious competition with their brothers who were colonial administrators and merchants who wanted market for their wares and could afford to pay better wages in urban areas without the moral inhibitions characteristics of missionaries” (p. 8). purpose of the study the study sets out to: 1) compare the commitment of teachers in nigeria over two historical periods, and 2) ascertain the ‘image-status’ of teachers over two historical periods in nigeria, to examine the changing roles of teachers in nigeria over time. statement of the problem there is a visible decline in the quality of education at the primary and secondary levels in nigeria. this trend has resulted in a negative perception of teachers who are the key players in education and the school system. the paramount questions to ask include what factors are responsible for this trend and what has been the status of teachers in terms of their commitment, roles and ‘image’ over time in nigerian history. research questions the following research questions were formulated to guide the investigation: (a) is there a significant difference in the commitment of teachers to teaching between the periods of 1960 1985 and 1986 2010? (b) are there changes in the ‘image-status’ of teachers over time in nigeria? (c) how has the role of teachers in nigeria changed? significance of the study the findings of the study would shed light on the various roles of teachers in the school and community, and the consistency of their roles in the history of nigeria. it would also show trends in teachers’ perception of their commitment to education since nigerian political independence. limitation of the study the study is limited by the time frame classification. the actual time teachers began to change is difficult to ascertain. also, the respondents were limited to teachers in public owned secondary schools in osun state. research methodology 4 a comparative analysis of the image state of nigerian teachers: 1960-1985 and 1986-2010 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) the study employs a survey design. the study populations included secondary school teachers in public owned schools in ayedaade local government in osun state. this local government was selected because of its heterogeneity in the rural and urban spread of schools. one hundred and fifty serving and fifty retired teachers were randomly selected as the study sample. out of one hundred and fifty, fifty were in service since the 1980s, another fifty since the1990s, while the remaining fifty were employed between 2000 and 2010 respectively. this was to reflect a broad view of teachers’ opinion. research instrument the following two items were used to collect data from the respondents: 1. self-constructed questionnaire titled teachers’ commitment and roles questionnaire (tcrq). 2. focus group the study employed roundtable discussions by 6 groups of teachers. this included 2 rounds for the 1980’s group, 2 rounds for the 2000’s group, and 2 for the retired group. validation of instrument the research instrument was subjected to face and content validity through the assistance of an expert in the field of test and measurement. the questionnaire items were pre-administered to some selected teachers who were not part of the study in an effort to determine the potential of the instrument to obtain the desired information. the reliability of the instrument was established through the test-retest method. a correlation coefficient of 0.87 obtained from the tests indicated the instrument’s reliability. administration of the instrument the researcher self-administered and collected the questionnaires. in the case of the focus group discussions, there was an initial arrangement for training and the terms of the discussion. three groups were drawn from the teachers employed in the 1980’s, the 2000’s, and the retired group. each discussion lasted for about one and one half hours on average. a secretary was appointed for each focus group discussion (fgd) to write down focal points of the discussions and individual view points. findings and discussion research question 1: is there a significant difference in the commitment of teachers to teaching between the periods of 1960 1985 and 1986 2010? table 1 below presents the teachers’ response on their commitment to the teaching profession. the respondents were asked if the 1960 1985 group was more committed, combined other work, and was more focused on teaching than the 1986 2010 group. table 1: teachers’ response on commitment to teaching items agree disagree score % score % commitment to teaching profession 160 80 40 20 combining other work(s) 140 70 60 30 focused on teaching only 150 75 50 25 total average score % 450 75% 50 25% 5 oluniyi oyeleke __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) from table 1, an average of 150 respondents (95%) agreed that teachers in the period 19601985 were more committed than those of the 1980 2010 group even though individual personalities of teachers overlapped in the two historical periods. this issue was not solely due to personality, but also reflected a plague confronting the teaching profession. history suggests that when those individuals established their own schools they were more committed. a visit to some of the public schools revealed a starling difference in the rate of commitment and punctuality between the normal class and lesson periods. teachers often displayed a lackadaisical attitude during their normal lesson period while deeply committed to the extra lesson period. this was due to the extra income earned by teaching the extra lesson period. the school’s working conditions and salary could be responsible factors as a stimulating and supportive environment is absolutely necessary for effectiveness not only in teaching but in every profession. oyeleke (2010) stressed that, “a good teacher must be committed to teaching, students and the school in general. he must be committed to the goals, principles and philosophy of the school.” part of that commitment is regular and punctual classroom attendance and the performance of duties assigned by the head teacher. this finding supports aluko’s (2010) view that today’s teachers are ineffective. he directly links teachers’ commitment with teachers’ effectiveness and dedication to duty. a measure of teachers’ noncommitment to duty is the practice of engaging in business and other duties outside teaching especially during the school hours. this is basically viewed as unethical. akinsanya’s (2010) writings on ethics in teaching should be commonplace knowledge for all teachers. he writes that, “teachers shall not belong to organizations which are likely to be detrimental to the progress of the school” (p. 23). comments that emanated from the focus group discussions with some of the teachers were: the teachers in 1960-1985 were more dedicated, committed, well respected and more disciplined. the teachers were resourceful and goal achieving. nowadays, teachers are not respected as before and the parents are not cooperating with the teachers in the process of disciplining their children. in 1960-1985, teachers seemed to be more disciplined, have class control, are resourceful and aim at achieving the school objectives, but the reverse is the case in these days (1985-2009). this could be attributed to financial and social challenges facing them, and which both the government and society finds difficult to resolve. strike action was uncommon with teachers before 1985. teachers were treated well by the society. unlike now, in order to make ends meet, teachers nowadays engage in other jobs perceiving teaching as a part-time job. (discussion group excerpts, 2011) the overwhelming consensus among respondents, as reflected in the above excerpt, was positively disposed to the period 1960 1985, and divided in terms of dedication, commitment, and discipline among other groups. research question 2: are there noticeable changes in the image status of teachers over time in nigerian history? the following variables were presented separately in this question: the level and quality of training, job satisfaction, public recognition and respect, motivation and remuneration. was the 1960 1985 group better trained, more respected with higher job satisfaction, and better motivated and remunerated than the 1986 2010 group? 6 a comparative analysis of the image state of nigerian teachers: 1960-1985 and 1986-2010 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) table 2: perception of the respondents on the changing image status of nigerian teachers items agree disagree score % score % training 90 45 80 40 respectability 160 80 40 20 job satisfaction 156 78 54 27 motivation 190 85 30 15 remuneration 96 48 100 50 average score /% 1384 67.2 60 30.4% the average total and percentage of the entire variables used for the image status of teachers favored the 1960 1985 group with an average score of 138 (61.2%), while the1986 2010 group scored a total average of 60 (30.4%). on the issue of training, there was an even perception of the quality of training of teachers between the two groups, while those who favored the 1960 1985 group as better trained totaled 90 (45%) with 80 (40%) who believed that the 1986 2010 group was better trained. this shows a marginal difference of 5%. the data demonstrated that the 1960 1985 group was more respected with higher public recognition than the 1986 2010 group. an overwhelming majority, 160 respondent or 80% of the study sample agreed that 1960 1985 groups had better respectability or higher public recognition, while twenty 40 respondents or 20% favored the 1986 2010 group as better trained with higher public recognition. oyekan (2000) writes that “a functional teacher education program is statutorily expected to inculcate a system of virtues in contemporary trained teachers” (p. 297). banjo (1953) expressed that “teaching is a profession and for every profession, training as well as aptitude is necessary… and those who are not born teachers can cultivate through training” (p. 66). koleoso’s (2003) comment on national policy on education speaks to teacher training. he observed that research recommends that a teacher should be academically and professionally qualified. the overwhelming consensus of the respondents was positively disposed to the 1960 1985 group, but divided in terms of dedication, commitment, and discipline. job satisfaction one hundred and fifty six respondents or 78% agreed that the 1960 1985 group was more satisfied in the teaching profession while 54 or 27% believed that the 1986 2010 group possessed higher job satisfaction. motivation the 1960 1985 group was more motivated than teachers in the 1986 2010 period as shown from the data. one hundred and ninety teachers (85%) agreed with this finding, while 30 (15%) disagreed. remuneration ironically the respondents believed that the 1986 -2010 group was better remunerated than the 1960-1985 group even though there was a marginal difference of 2% with 96 (48%) of the respondents in agreement that the 1960 -1986 group was better remunerated. one hundred (50%) believed the teachers in the 1986-2010 period were better remunerated. if this is the 7 oluniyi oyeleke __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) true picture of teachers and the teaching profession, the question to pose is why the professional education standard is falling in spite of improved remuneration. several factors could be responsible for this decline. first, gross increase in salary may not be proportional to the market value and purchasing power of money. the percentage increase may also not be proportional to the rate of inflation. second, the process of modernization has greatly increased the desire for luxury goods that command a high price. generally, it may be observed, that society is becoming increasingly ostentatious and materialistic. the rise of other professions offering higher salaries and better work conditions has had a negative ripple effect on the teaching profession. for instance, teachers whose former students now work in oil companies earn salaries that are one hundred percent higher than that of the teacher. the distributive imbalance of resources in the society contributes to a view constituting a threat to teachers’ image. research question 3: how has the role of teachers changed in nigeria? the teachers’ responses on the changing role of nigerian teachers are presented in table 3. the role of teachers has changed significantly over time. table 3 below shows the trends of changing roles. table 3: teachers’ responses on the changing role of teachers in nigeria items 1960-1985 1986-2010 1960 -1985 & 1986-2010 community spokesman 160 80.0 30 15.0 50 25.0 surrogate parent 120 60.0 60 30.0 20 10.0 official church clergyman 140 70.0 50 25.0 10 5.0 local community reps 160 80.0 30 15.0 10 5.0 counseling services 160 80.0 150 75.0 160 80.0 teaching 120 60.0 150 75.0 140 70.0 community spokesman the overwhelming perception is that teachers in the 1960 1985 group were largely performing the role of community spokesman. this was attributed to the fact that they constituted elites in the society at that time. thirty respondents (15%) believed that this role continued during the 1986 2010 period, while 50 respondents (25%) believed that teachers continued in the role from 1960 to the present. surrogate parent teachers as surrogate parents was more pronounced during the 1960 1985 period as indicated by 120 respondents (60%), while 60 respondents (30%) held the view that the1986 2010 acted as surrogate parents with only 10 respondents (5%) in agreement that the role of 8 a comparative analysis of the image state of nigerian teachers: 1960-1985 and 1986-2010 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) surrogate parent was equally peculiar to the two groups. this trend could be attributed to a significant decrease in the nigerian boarding school system. official church clergymen as respected members of the church, teachers during 1960 1985 were believed to have effectively combined church work with teaching as reflected by 140 (70%) of the respondents supporting this finding. this is not surprising missionaries continued to own the bulk of schools during this period. even after the government takeover of schools, through grants-inaid the personnel remained largely church clergymen, and most schools were rooted in the philosophy of the founding church. local community representative eight percent of the respondents agreed that teachers in the 1960 1985 group acted as community representatives. the reverse was the case among teachers in 1986 2010.this position is well illustrated by fafunwa (1974) who stated that: at a less formal level, the competent teacher is a good citizen, a community leader, an innovator or an enlightened parent. his influence extended beyond the confines of the classroom. in rural areas, he is looked on as the mainstays of the community or village. (p. 69) corroborating this view is majasan (1995) who wrote that a teacher: is the gateway to organization of the grassroots, into an active participating group in civil administration and in the performance of community services. he is the acknowledged leader who serves the community as secretary or interpreter at grass root meetings, religion or environmental health and acts in this capacity without any remuneration. in rural areas, he is the beacon of light for the population, sensitizing them to all kinds of developmental movements and health activities that yield great dividends. (p. 17) counseling services this role remained consistent across the two historical periods. respondents expressed an overlapping opinion on the role of the counselor with 160 respondents (80%) supporting the 1960 1985 group as counseling service providers,150 (75%) agreeing that the 1986 2010 group provided the same service, and 160 (80%) of the respondents agreed that both groups provided counseling services. conclusion and recommendations the standard of education in nigeria has progressively declined. the result of this decline is ineffective teaching in the classroom. the social prestige and privileges historically associated with teachers and the teaching profession has waned drastically. the effects of this decline in status include uncommitted and a nonchalant attitudes that impacted negatively on the standard of education. effective teaching can only occur when teachers promote excellence and are motivated to perform at a high level. central to the absence of commitment is inadequate salary. this portends that teachers should be well remunerated to enhance their focus and encourage total dedication. the age-old saying that “teachers’ reward is in heaven” has become obsolete and this should be discountenance as it destroys the quality of students’ education. 9 oluniyi oyeleke __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) the image of teachers should be positively projected. they should also demonstrate self-confidence and a positive attitude toward their profession. in order to enhance their image, aluko (2010) suggests that teachers should always dress appropriately and professionally, be well remunerated, and in some cases be appointed permanent secretary in the state ministry of education. the government should grant soft loans and award other amenities to teachers on a regular basis. reeferences akinsanya, t.o (2010). teaching as a profession in komolakr m.o y.o akinsanya, o.m akanmu (eds) fundamentals of teachers education. osogbo nig ltd.pp 14-24 aluko k.o (2010). “building up the ego/image of the would-be teacher” in komolakr m.o y.o akinsanya, o.m akanmu (eds) fundamentals of teachers education. osogbo nig ltd. banjo s.a (1953). west africa teachers handbook. london 48-86 university of london press. .fafunwa a babs, (1974) history of education in nigeria. ibadan, nps educational publishers. fasanmi, f.o & p.o jegede (2006). “trade unionism in the teaching profession in nigeria” in ehidero o. j and aladejana f.o (eds) introduction to the teaching. lagos, litramed publications ltd pp 169-178. koleoso a. (2000). introduction to teaching profession. ondo; alex publishers. majasan j.a (1995). the teachers profession. a manual for professional excellence. ibadan: spectrum book ltd. nigeria union of teachers. (2011) about us. retrieved july 20, 2012 from http://www.nutnigeria.org/_nut/about%20us.php. ojedokun o.e. (2006). the roles of the teacher in school community and nation building in ehindero o.j and aladejana f.o (eds) introduction to the teaching profession. lagos litramed publications ltd pp169-178 oyekan, s.o (2000). foundations of teacher education. ondo, ebunola printers nigeria, ltd. oyeleke o. (2010). “the role of the teacher in the school and community” in komolafe m.o, y.o akinsanya, o.m akanmu (eds) fundamentals of teachers education. osogbo nig ltd. pp 5-13. http://www.nutnigeria.org/_nut/about%20us.php 10 a comparative analysis of the image state of nigerian teachers: 1960-1985 and 1986-2010 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) obiozoretal academic and social challenges facing students with developmental and learning disabilities in higher institutions: implications for african colleges and universities williams emeka obiozor, ed.d. college of education, department of exceptionality programs bloomsburg university of pa obiozor66@hotmail.com, wobiozor@bloomu.edu onu, v. c., phd. department of educational foundations university of nigeria, nsukka. ifeanyi ugwoegbu, phd. department of adult education nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria abstract african societies have much to learn from the exemplary programs and projects on disabilities, adult literacy and special education provisions in developed societies, like the united states, where effective legislations, curriculum and support services are provided at all levels for individuals with disabilities. this paper discusses the academic and social challenges facing students with developmental and learning disabilities in higher institutions; including available services in institutions of higher learning for such individuals --something that is yet to be introduced or effectively conducted in most african nations unlike in the united states. this paper noted the challenges which developmental and learning disabilities pose to students in general; as well as recognize the potentials, talents, and individual abilities of such students in contemporary institutions of higher learning which could be applicable to african universities and colleges. in this regards, recommendations on understanding student developmental and learning disabilities; application of universal design for learning (udl), and the institutional roles needed to ensure that such students cope in class and achieve success on campus, were provided. introduction what do people with disabilities want? we all want the same basic things out of life: a decent and comfortable place to call 'home', something meaningful to do during the day, some close friends with whom to share the good times and from whom we receive support in difficult times, and the opportunity to make our own decisions about things that will affect our personal lives. people with disabilities want these same basic things and are increasingly speaking up for themselves about what they want. and staff, family and state agency professionals are beginning to really listen. excerpted from "home, sweet home" by susan l. babin, impact: feature issue on supported living (1995), published by the institute on community integration. the student disability challenge students with developmental and learning disabilities are expected to benefit from comprehensive long-term services which empower them to be more active, productive, and independent, which equally benefits their families and communities. this, notwithstanding, today's student with developmental and learning disability is confronted with several challenges in life, especially in the postsecondary settings where attending two-year college or university is an option for the exceptional individual. aside from coping with the trauma of a disability which may be mild, moderate, severe or profound, the student may find it difficult to access and afford several facilities and services while attending a higher institution. the absence of significant facilities and services could severely limit independence, geographical mobility, and employment opportunities upon graduation, i.e. where such student did not drop out. in the united states, the government legislation on supporting people with disabilities, americans with disabilities act (ada) (1990) clearly defines disability by providing three general guidelines, all of which are necessary; (1) the presence of a physical, cognitive, intellectual, or psychiatric condition, or a combination of conditions; (2) pervasive impairment in social and occupational functioning; and (3) individuals with these impairments are the target of prejudice, discrimination, stigma, and reduced opportunities. in this regard, smart (2009), argued that it can be seen that disability is a combination of the condition, limitations in functioning, and societal prejudice and discrimination. hallahan & kauffman (2003; 5) defined a disability as "an inability to do something, the lack of a specific capacity". a disability could be mild, moderate, profound or severe. in addition to this term is handicap, described as "a disadvantage that is imposed on an individual". while hallahan & kauffman argued that a disability may or may not be perceived as a handicap, but depending on the circumstances; they explained their position with an illustration, thus: the inability to walk is not a handicap in learning to read, but it can be a handicap in getting into the stands at a ball game. furthermore, sometimes handicaps are needlessly imposed on people with disabilities. hallahan & kauffman gave an example, thus: a student who cannot write with a pen but can use a typewriter or word processor would be needlessly handicapped without such equipment. for the public schools system, the government of the united states' legislation and guiding principles were developed to empower and provide support services to individuals with disabilities: example, the individuals with disabilities education act (idea) 1990, which ushered the rights for people with disabilities and their families; and the americans with disabilities act (ada) federal law requiring accommodations for people with disabilities in the community and work place. instructors in public institutions adhere to these regulations, with the belief that all individuals can learn and be given equal educational opportunities in the inclusion setting. in support of the legislations, berry (2009) argued that all persons are capable of growth and development, hence, should be given opportunities to excel. students with developmental and learning disabilities receive accommodation(s) based on documentation of their disability. such students requesting accommodation(s) are responsible for initiating services by providing the college/university disability services office established in all american institutions of higher learning for the purpose of handling appropriate disability support service documentation which should be prepared by a physician, psychologist, and psychiatrist, etc. the documentation should include information about how the student's disability will affect his/her ability to equally access the educational opportunities, programs, and activities at college/university (obiozor, 2009). in american higher institutions, the instructors and professors are expected to recognize the documentation on student disability and provide the necessary support required by the student in the classroom during instruction and assessments/tests. some of the exceptional students can handle their disability whether it is cognitive, physical, communication, social, emotional, or adaptive skills; or a diagnosed learning, developmental, physical or medical condition while others may need as much assistance as possible (obiozor, 2009). developmental disability challenge the institute on community integration (ici) at the university of minnesota reported that over 6 million individuals in the united states have developmental disabilities. graduate and undergraduate students with such disabilities are included in this population, and they all require attention and support services academic and social, from the instructors and professors. the institute gave detailed account of the developmental disabilities, thus: a developmental disability, according to the developmental disabilities assistance and bill of rights act, is defined as a severe, chronic disability which originated at birth or during childhood; is expected to continue indefinitely, and substantially restricts the individuals functioning in several major life activities. more specifically, a developmental disability is a severe, chronic disability which is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or a combination of mental and physical impairments; is manifested before the person attains age 22; results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following areas of major life activity: self-care, receptive and expressive language, learning, mobility, self-direction, capacity for independent living, and economic self-sufficiency; reflects the person's need for a combination and sequence of special, interdisciplinary, or generic care, treatment, or other services which are of lifelong or extended duration and are individually planned and coordinated; except that such term when applied to infants and young children means individuals from birth to age five, inclusive, who have substantial developmental delay or specific congenital or acquired conditions with a high probability of resulting in developmental disabilities if services are not provided (ici, 2010). examples of developmental disabilities include: autism spectrum disorders autism is considered to be a pervasive developmental disorder (pdd) besides autism, other pdd include asperger's syndrome, rett syndrome, and childhood disintegrative disorder (cdd) this is a severe disability which manifests in the nature of the individual language and by their personal and social behavior (westling & fox, 2004). in other words, autism as a developmental disorder, significantly affect verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction of the student (anderson, 2006). autism adversely affects a student's educational performance and social activity at home, school, and community setting as well. other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. students with autism vary widely in abilities, intelligence, and behaviors (westling & fox (2004); hallahan & kauffman (2003); smart (2009); heward (2009). behavior disorder this is a condition with one or more behavioral characteristics that are: 1. exhibited at either a much higher or much lower rate than is appropriate for one's age; 2. documented as occurring over an extended period of time in different environmental settings within the school and home or community; and 3. interfering consistently with the student's educational performance. this interference with educational performance shall not be a result of intellectual, sensory, cultural, or health factors that have not received appropriate attention (anderson, 2006; heward, 2009). head/brain injury an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both that adversely affects an individual's educational performance. the term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem solving; sensory, perceptual and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. the term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative or brain injuries induced by birth trauma (anderson, 2006). cerebral palsy this is a motor impairment caused by brain damage, which is usually acquired during the prenatal period or during the birth process (heward, 2009). symptoms of cerebral palsy can be as simple as having difficulty with fine motor tasks like writing or using scissors, or as profound as being unable to maintain balance or walk. severely afflicted patients may have involuntary movements, such as uncontrollable hand motions and drooling. others suffer from associated medical disorders, such as seizures and mental retardation (medizine, 2010). cerebral palsy is neither curable nor progressive. down syndrome this is a chromosomal anomaly that often causes moderate-to-severe mental retardation, along with certain physical characteristics such as large tongue, heart problems, poor muscle tone, and a broad, flat bridge of the nose (heward, 2009). fetal alcohol syndrome (fas) this term, according to heward (2009) refers to a condition found in infants of alcoholic mothers; can involve low birth weight, developmental delay, and cardiac, limb, and other physical defects. caused by excessive alcohol use during pregnancy; often produces serious physical defects and developmental delays; diagnosed when the child has two or more craniofacial malformation s and growth is below the 10th percentile for height and weight. fas is one of the leading causes of cognitive delays, language delays and mental retardation. mental/intellectual disability this disability is a significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period that adversely affects an individual's educational performance (anderson, 2006). mental disability limits a student's conceptual, social and adaptive skills, and the disability originates before age 18 (heward, 2009; aaidd, 2007). spina bifida heward (2009) defined spina bafida as a congenital malformation of the spine in which the vertebrae that normally protect the spine do not develop fully; may involve loss of sensation and severe muscle weakness in the lower part of the body. learning disabilities heward (2009); hallahan & kauffman (2003) & anderson (2006) gave explained well the definition of learning disabilities: a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. the term does not apply to individuals who have learning problems that are primarily the result of physical or mental disabilities, behavioral disorder, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. according to the data from the beginning postsecondary student survey: almost half (46 percent) of first-time students who left their initial institution by the end of the first year never came back to postsecondary education (studentretention.org, 2005) . some of the reasons could be attributed to the disabilities discussed in this paper, and related problems of finance, relationships, study skills and poor academic advisement, faced by these students in their freshman year which cause them to drop out. it is pertinent to note that students with developmental and learning disabilities go on academic probation or even drop out of college when professors or instructors show no concern on their academic plight or lack of support services to deal with academic and social issues, whether they are personal or ecological. the students should discuss the academic problems which they encounter daily in their classrooms or social relationship needs on campus, as well as identify possible strategies to solve them, by taking advantage of the available abundant support services on campus which promote meaningful teaching-learning process and student achievement. avoiding assistance from the college/university a major reason for students with developmental and learning disabilities not reporting their disabilities to the university authorities could be to avoid labeling or stigmatization, but these students fail to realize that with the support and assistance from the university, it becomes easy to navigate their academic activities on campus (obiozor, 2009). based on the author's research and personal classroom experiences in the college and university settings in america; there are other factors which compel students with developmental and learning disabilities to leave the classroom or campus as found in the research literature. this includes family issues; poor a cademic preparedness, for example, lack of time management, organization and study skills: reading, writing, math and research activities; unfavorable classroom or campus climate; inadequate commitment to educational goals and the institution especially as regards the role of the university vision and mission in meeting the student academic and social goals; issue of s ocial and academic integration of students with developmental and learning disabilities ( how committed are the university, student government board, and student center programs to attaining the goals?); accessing f inancial aid by the students from low income and minority groups. there is no doubt that the faculty and administrative staff of every higher institution is equipped with innovative tools and resources to conduct student-centered instruction and provide support services. they possess different expertise in a variety of areas, with strong teaching background and professional service profiles to face the challenges in the classroom. this is evident from their rigorous years of training and research in different fields. furthermore, these instructors, lecturers or professors possesses skills in large class instruction, use of classroom technology, knowledge of research methodology, planning and implementation of service learning projects, course-embedded assessment, engaging students in learning, as well as interpersonal skills which benefit and enhances students' learning, research and academic achievement. although american colleges and universities utilize the above mentioned teaching-learning facilities, they still experience exceptional student attrition. this paper examined the reasons behind the student departure from the classroom and campus environment, aside from family or financial problems. it is pertinent to note that several students with developmental and learning disabilities have behavioral issues and pressing academic problems some are displayed in the classroom, others could be noticed when they fill student evaluation forms at the end of the semester. among the signs in the classroom which could be a signal to the instructor or professor concerning student academic and social issues could be as follows: absenteeism, lateness to class, drooling and sneezing uncontrollably, uncompleted class tasks and assignments, yell out loud in class, sending texts with their phones to friends during class, rudeness towards the teacher, display of anxiety during quizzes and test-taking problems, and low test scores. all these problems in the classroom could result in students with learning and developmental disabilities withdrawing from the class or drop out of the institution. using effective teaching methods to motivate and promote active learning of students with learning and developmental disabilities although higher institutions aspire to provide effective instructional curriculum and programs for students with learning and developmental disabilities, for them to learn better in the campus environment, but some of these institutions are not doing enough to prepare instructors and professors to meet their academic and non-academic needs. kelly (2010) identified some of the more common learning disabilities to include dyslexia, expressive language disorder, reading processing disability, and attention deficit disorder. ideally, the students will self-identify and contact the institution's disability services office so the instructor will know what accommodations are required, but not all students are forthcoming about letting others know about their learning disabilities, says mary beth crum, an online instructor at the american university of wisconsin. furthermore, in her research on the issue of addressing these disabilities in the classroom, according to kelly (2010); crum asked departments of disabilities how instructors could help students with learning disabilities. their response: open and constant communication, compassion, a willingness to bend the rules to accommodate students, and one-on-one instruction. since this is the case in some institutions, the classroom instructors should device effective teaching strategies to reach out to every student in the classroom, especially for those who have been able to disclose their learning and developmental disability issues. instructors of students with learning and developmental disabilities should endeavor to adopt the following strategies in the classroom suggested by duquette (2006); break concepts into smaller chunks, and talk slowly in order to give clear explanations on the content; utilize hands-on activities & concrete materials; repeat concepts and procedures, and break task down into smaller components using task analysis. other methods include, giving frequent breaks; demonstrate what has to be done instead of orally, and teach shorter lessons with active student involvement and guided practice; use prompts, cues, praise and positive reinforcement the essence of communicating with the students with exceptionalities in this regard cannot be overemphasized. one aspect of communication that some instructors overlook is feedback on assignments, stressed kelly (2010) adding that crum in her research, opined on the need to make comments on every paragraph of submitted assignments by the students, because it's a great opportunity to maintain that communication with students. this is a technique she applies across the board, and it benefits students with and without learning disabilities. the author further opined that special accommodations for students with learning disabilities can include extending deadlines, working with the disabilities services office to help students get access to assistive software, or working individually with the student, and matching the struggling student with a professor that has a lot of compassion. typical institutional support service centers in higher institutions this lack of disclosure makes supportingstudents with learning disabilities difficult foronline instructors. further complicating the issue is that under ferpa instructors cannot make the determination or question the student as to whether they have a learning disability. instructors can raise concerns about a student's performance (chronic late assignments, excessive errors in discussion board posts, irrelevant or inappropriate answer to questions that seem to indicate a lack of understanding, etc.) and recommend that the student talk with his or her advisor, at which point the student may make his or her learning disabilities known. every american institution of higher learning has great student and faculty support model for everyone on campus. students with developmental and learning disabilities take advantage of these free support services to assist them in solving their learning problems, other academic and social needs. the same kind of support programs and projects are available in different american institutions of higher learning, and the author implores all students and faculty to access them for their social and academic success in the classroom, and campus environment. examples of support service centers that could be found in different american institutions are described on the website of the bloomsburg university, a foremost teacher training and education center in northern pennsylvania:http://www.bloomu.edu/academic/services.php. these centers/offices are as follows; office of accommodative services for students with disabilities: this kind of office offers a wide range of activities designed to support and enhance the performance of students with disabilities. services include, but are not limited to: provision of accommodative testing, note takers, scribes, interpreters, readers, auxiliary aides, adaptive equipment, and liaison between students and faculty in classroom accommodations. the office also serves as an advocate for the student in issues of accommodation beyond the classroom, and acts as a liaison with other campus offices. act 101/educational opportunity program: in this special program, students receive special support in instruction, academic advising, counseling, tutoring, financial aid advising and other assistance as necessary in maximizing their opportunity for success in college. students admitted through this program take diagnostic tests to ensure correct placement in classes and most new students participate in a summer program prior to the first semester of their attendance where special assistance in tutoring and counseling is given to address specific academic, financial, and social needs. developmental instruction: this program provides academic advisement, instruction, tutoring, and other support to assist students in their academic endeavors and to maximize their potential for success in college, especially those students that enter through act 101 and eop. success in college is defined as achievement of academic good standing and graduation. services include credit and developmental courses in reading, writing, and mathematics; developmental laboratories, professional tutorial assistance, and advisement. the department supports the university's retention effort, especially among the high-risk groups and the ethnic minority groups at the university. international education office: this type of office advises and counsels international students on personal, intercultural, and academic matters while they are completing their academic programs on campus; prepares college students for student teaching, internships, and employment opportunities abroad; assists international students with immigration, housing, health insurance, and on and off campus employment; facilitates intercultural exchange through cultural activities and events organized by various international clubs and associations on campus; and clarifies expectations of international students between their homes and american culture through various cross-cultural, community outreach activities. office of diversity and retention: this office develops, coordinates and implements programs and services to assist students of color in achieving their educational goals. the office engages students in the educational process to enhance their opportunity to succeed. university tutorial services: this office offers assistance designed to support and enhances the performance of university students. peer tutoring is available upon request in a variety of courses and is provided by students who have distinguished themselves by superior academic performance. any student requesting tutorial assistance need only complete a brief application in order to apply for the free service. office of multicultural affairs: the office of multicultural affairs is established in higher institutions to support the social and academic development of multicultural students through specific academic support services, and to educate the entire academic community through sponsored or co-sponsored programs. campus child center: a well-organized institution must have a campus child center which provides day care services for children of college students, faculty, staff, alumni and community children who are eligible for child center services. service hours are usually from morning to evening. children served are from ages six months to 12 years with flexible scheduling options for such students who are parents. student career/employment center: i nstitutions of higher learning have student career or employment centers which employs approximately part-time student employees in a variety of positions throughout the campus. student employees on campus enjoy flexible schedules and convenient locations to work on campus. they receive good pay, the development of leadership skills, team work/team building skill development, technical skills, human relations, decision-making and problem solving. center for counseling and human development: different individuals have difficulty adjusting to the challenges of college life. it's not unusual to feel anxious or uneasy about course work, relationships, or the day-to-day pressures of the university. the center for counseling and human development at any given campus is a place where you can go to talk out your problems or just get things off your chest. the process of counseling may be challenging at times, but it can also lead to very positive outcomes. and your visit is confidential. implications to african colleges and universities african schools, whether in the primary, secondary, tertiary, or higher institutional settings are challenged by global education trends. mbiti (1989: 221) points to the african educational system as a serious threat to the african society. grol and kenosi (2000) argued that, in traditional society boys and girl were prepared for life by being informed about marriage, sex and family life. no attention is paid to these aspects of life within the modern educational system; 'vivisection of a frog seems to carry more importance than preparation for community life'. nevertheless, post-colonial governments still use this modern, western-based educational system for a set of reasons (kisanji, 1996, 63-64); grol and kenosi (2000): · political leaders are successful products of this system. · the tendency to think schooling leads to economic growth. · education is free for all citizens as far as feasible; priority is with the academic well performing pupils. · the curriculum concentrates on academics only, striving to get the students paid jobs in government or business through secondary and tertiary education. in a provocative way mihyo (1995) suggests another educational system could lead to another society making policymakers dependent on subordinates, implicating a loss of power and prestige. also, lack of funds could be among the reasons why african governments neglected or abandoned educational innovations. as a result, a large part of the african education is not only western-based, but also outdated. as long as this happens, argues mutasa (1994, 70) the school curriculum can never play a prominent role in the development of the african human culture. as special education and adult education scholars, we have been privileged to visit several institutions of higher learning in different parts of america, united kingdom and some african nations (like nigeria, the gambia, senegal, sierra leone, etc.), assessed the resources and facilities provided to students with disabilities or exceptionalities to promote academic achievement; there are strong contrasts to the practice in african higher institutions. the lack of effectiveness of legislation and policy on disability issues and special education programs are affecting the development of the african institutions. many african countries develop splendid policy plans to stimulate the teaching of students but fail to implement them, laments grol and kenosi (2000). there are either poor or non-existent disability support facilities for students with disabilities in african colleges and universities. the lack of facilities affects the enrollment, retention and graduation of skilled individuals with disabilities in african institutions. furthermore, the african educational system lack adequate funding, training facilities, resources and effective special needs curriculum; thus, most scholars, professors and instructors find it difficult to assist students with disabilities in attaining academic and social successes on campus. the only feasible programs could be found in few institutions where most african countries south of the sahara use the 'resource room' model according to charema and peresuh (1996.) this model is commonly used in the united states but not all african institution can afford such facilities. therefore, the author is using this medium to advocate for governments in africa to enact legislations to support the adequate funding of colleges and universities in africa, to establish exceptional needs offices on every campus or even an institute for disability training, information processing and dissemination, scientific research, and development of teaching/learning methods for students with disabilities/exceptionalities. the resource office or institute should have the kind of facilities and services provided by the bloomsburg university offices for exceptional students (as highlighted in this paper). such facilities should offer and provide resource services, like; training of instructors and professors on how to recognize/assist/teach students with special needs in higher institutions. community awareness campaigns on how to prevent disabilities, deal misconceptions/cope with disabilities, and how to support students/people with disabilities on campus. therapy and counseling services for students and their parents, among other academic support services. conduct research and disseminate information on latest diagnosis and treatment of different disabilities facilitate assistive technology devices for individuals with disabilities. recommendations for students and instructors (obiozor, 2009) the governments should provide funds, resources and enact effective legislation and policy on disability issues and special education programs which would help the development of the african students and higher institutions. instructors should be alert and attentive to student behaviors in classrooms comments, giggles, questions, facial expressions. this could be a sign of some social/learning problems or disability; address them immediately after class. as for the exceptional student, you can access assistance from the appropriate offices on campus so that you can receive uninterrupted education and succeed in class. be respectful and concentrate in your class demands and responsibilities because you are accountable for your actions. make strong emphasis on interpersonal communication: establish friendly but professional relations with your teachers and classmates when you seem to be faced with issues of punctuality and regular attendance, talk with your teacher or counselor on campus; take teacher suggestions for counseling at any time you feel there is a need. talk about your disability, and how you can be assisted to overcome them in class (where possible) especially if you keep failing your quizzes and tests; adhere to your teacher's demand for active participation in class, ask questions when confused, seek clarifications on assignments in order to be able to complete and submit them on time. challenge yourself to confront your social and academic fears. african institutions should develop an open door policy whereby exceptional students would be free to meet with them on or off office hours to discuss their academic needs. exceptional students should take advantage of such opportunities to meet with their teachers to discuss academic or learning difficulties. exceptional college students: when confronted with personal problems, have the courage to meet with counseling experts on campus. be confident on your abilities and skills to make the right choices and advocate for your learning needs. universities should set up campus-wide retention programs to look at student issues on academic and social integration of minority students and individuals with disabilities right from their first day in school. this program should be incorporated in the projects of the various living and learning communities on campus, as well as related groups. faculty members should be encouraged to work with students with developmental and learning disabilities, and other groups to learn about their learning needs and aspirations. the administrators of the program should adopt a strategy and framework to build a student retention plan that incorporates the individual needs of their students and institution (studentretention.org, 2005). the exceptional college students should utilize test-taking tips and support from the instructors and professors. african instructors should apply differentiated instruction and other teaching strategies in the classroom: use audio-visual materials and resources in the classroom projectors, slides, videos, films, posters, etc, and any useful teaching-learning technology tools for instructional delivery. the african faculty should teach the exceptional students the apa writing styles and guide them on the research process in the first week of class. faculty should notify the different student assistance offices on campus when they discover exceptional students with disabilities. students may be shy coming forward to present their case to them. talk with the students and encourage them to visit the office for support. it's free! faculty should liaise with these offices especially those responsible for diversity and disabilities to provide periodic information to exceptional students on available services. faculty should invite guest speakers and professionals to the classroom to share ideas and testimonies with exceptional students. conclusion the african society has a lot to learn from the special needs support services provided to her students in colleges and universities. identifying students with developmental and learning disabilities, and supporting them in the classroom, in order to achieve success on campus is a commitment for the leadership, the instructors, professors, entire faculty and staff of every higher institution. instructors do not always have the ability to alter course designs to accommodate students with learning and developmental disabilities, but kelly (2010) advice that instructional designers should pay attention to course elements that might be problematic for some students. for example, students with certain visual discrimination disorders may have trouble distinguishing text from background colors. the institutions must strive to provide diverse students and individuals with different disabilities support services, and effective accommodations to ensure equal access to different college programs. the exceptional students should be willing to accept these services without shame or feeling of inferiority. to improve college student retention, every higher institution should work further with special education faculty and staff to provide specially designed instruction, to meet the unique needs of eligible exceptional students includes the specially designed instruction conducted in the classroom, and in other settings on campus; etc. the specially designed instruction will assist the individuals in taking advantage of, or responding to, educational programs and opportunities on campus. special education provides a continuum of services in order to provide the educational needs of each eligible individual regardless of the nature or severity of educational needs. the university should also increase need-based financial aid for low-income, at-risk students; use the campus's social and cultural activities to keep students focused; and, encourage academic advising outside the classroom (alliance for equity in higher education, 2001). finally, taking into consideration that not all students are alike, and based on this knowledge, the college curriculum should include differentiated instruction as an approach to teaching and learning of exceptional students. such strategy gives students multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. differentiated instruction is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in classrooms (tomlinson, 2001). the model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and adjust the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum (hall, strangman, and meyer, 2009). many teachers and teacher educators have recently identified differentiated instruction as a method of helping more students in diverse classroom settings experience success. this paper, therefore, advocates strongly on this process for students with learning and developmental disabilities; 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(2004). the influence of self-concept on non-traditional student persistence in higher education. sydney: university of western sydney. web support http://dsp.berkeley.edu/teachstudentswithdisab.html http://www.bhsu.edu/studentlife/learning/disabilityservices/tabid/162/default.aspx http://www.diversityweb.org/ http://www.bloomu.edu/resources/counseling.php http://www.bloomu.edu/academic/services.php http://www.dubuque.k12.ia.us/specialed/index.html http://www.ed.gov/offices/osers/policy/idea/index.html http://www.fape.org/pubs/fape-13.pdf http://www.las.iastate.edu/diversity/definition.shtml http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators from urban and rural settings juliet stoltenkamp university of the western cape, south africa martha kabaka university of the western cape, south africa abstract this research focused on the design and delivery of a blended professional development (pd) program for in-service teacher-educators from both urban and rural settings. the overall purpose of the pd program was to enhance the educators’ information communication technologies (ict) skills, with emphasis on etools for supporting teaching-and-learning methodologies. two groups of teacher-educators undertook the course. a strong facilitation and support approach was maintained throughout the pd program to encourage self-directed learning. a case study approach was adopted to explore the experiences in the overall implementation and impact of the program. this article reflects on the findings regarding program design and structure; access to resources; impact time management; design of a support structure for the monitoring and evaluation of the program; and educators as self-directed learners using etools to enhance teaching-and-learning methodologies. keywords: south africa comparative education study, etools, blended learning, extensive support, teaching professional development (pd), technology support interventions. program background the centre for innovative educational and communication technologies (ciect) at the university of the western cape (uwc) designed and developed a blended learning course, designing an instructional event, for teacher-educators. the course is registered with the south african quality authority (saqa) at a national qualification framework (nqf), level 6. this research is based on 2 groups of teacher-educators from urban and rural school settings, who engaged in this professional development (pd) program in 2012 and 2013, respectively. thirty six (36) educators from grades r-12 at christel house, a private school, in the western cape province; and twenty nine (29) science secondary school teacher-educators from a group of rural 2 comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) schools in the eastern cape province participated in this program. this group was part of the 2013 bed honours program, faculty of education at uwc. each group received training on ict with specific focus on etools. such skills are relevant as there is still need for innovative approaches to improve the capacity building of teachereducators in south africa. by the end of the program, each participant was expected to: 1. explain the current trends in elearning and how they affect the teaching practice; 2. understand the educational philosophies that could inform the online teaching/learning/instructional practices; 3. design a small online teaching/instructional event; 4. understand the need for good structuring of course content for blended learning; 5. select etools for use in the instructional event according to their pedagogical values and underpinning; 6. understand the roles of an online facilitator and how they affect the learning process; and 7. become self-directed learners. before and during the pd program implementation, participants were made aware of the assessment criteria. teacher-educators understood they were expected to plan, design and develop a small online teaching/instructional event; and also to actively participate in all program sessions (face-to-face and online phases). related literature ict’s in south african schools. african government institutions are making efforts to ensure that technology for teaching and learning is available at all levels of schooling, a major shift from dependence on support from donor-supported non-governmental organisations (ngo’s) who provided mostly small-scale and pilot projects. governments in africa are becoming the main the change agents (glen and isaacs 2007, 1; elearning africa 2013). for example, according to glen and isaacs, some governments “have begun to be more proactive in co-ordinating and leading the development of ict infrastructure in school systems as their ict policies and implementation plans have taken shape” (2007, 1). a south african e-education white paper indicates a government goal that by 2013 every learner in both rural and urban settings (primary and secondary schools) was expected to be ict literate (department of education 2004, 17). such policies emphasise the provision of ict infrastructure to both primary and secondary school levels. furthermore it aims to bridge the digital divide nationally, thus also meeting the demands to create ict global villages (evoh 2007, 64; oludolapo, 2010). however, these goals are not yet met, as according to recent surveys in africa only 4,195 schools out of 24,453 schools were connected to the internet (approximately 17%) (ict africa, 2013). if ict’s are established in the most marginalised schools and communities across africa, it would lead to much needed social-economic development; as education will become more accessible (glen and isaacs 2007, 4; otieno, 2007). the south african government has stated in its national policy framework for teachereducation and development, that the main goal is to ensure that qualified educators are continuously reskilled and provided with the necessary juliett stoltenkamp and martha kabaka 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) professional development support. these reskilling processes should include relevant ict skills and resources for learners and educators across south africa (steyn 2010, 212-213). pd courses in ict for various target groups such as staff in higher education institutions (heis) and the private sector have also received attention across the globe. this attention on educators resulted in courses that they may benefit from which provide continuous engagement in pd ict skills courses through a blended learning approach (bath and bourke 2011; ifeoma and olusola 2013). blended learning courses. blended learning also termed hybrid or mixed mode learning is a term that is constantly evolving, hence researchers have indicated a state of challenges due to limited “distinction between hybrid and blended courses”. moreover different authors commonly agree that there are four definitions of blended courses: the application of both face-to-face and instructional technology in teaching; the use of various forms of technology, such as cd-roms with web-based technology for teaching; the use of pedagogical approaches, such as constructivism and behaviorism even in the absence of learning technologies; and the blend of instructional technology for the completion of specific tasks (owston, murphy, and lupshenyuk 2008, 201-202; koller, harvey, and magnotta 2006). the first blended learning approach is specifically of significance in education as participants are able to benefit from the opportunities provided in both the face-to-face and online environments. hence, this interaction creates a state of balance in relation to the access to experts (teachers) and information and knowledge (osguthorpe and graham 2003, 228; dziuban, hartman, and moskal 2004). during implementation of this blended learning approach, participants require critical support. therefore, during the design, certain questions need to be posed: “how will students taking blended courses access support? will there be 24 hour, 7 day per week help desk support?” (diaz & strickland 2009). additionally, recent research conducted in a united states high school indicated that educators require support through blended courses to meet expected 21st-century skills in classrooms. the research recommended that more focus should be placed on those teachers-educators who have no previous ict skills (pape 2010). intensive design and implementation processes of blended course. this learning approach entails intensive processes. research shows that this approach has recently received more attention than conventional face-to-face; or purely online learning (precel, eshet-alkalai, and alberton 2009). however, there seems to be a lack of research on establishing what blended learning approaches categorically entail, which could offer clarity around the standards for effective course design. this means that blended learning approaches still lack “a coherent body of research that unequivocally demonstrates learning benefits over traditional modes of instruction” (smythe 2012, 1; johnson and marsh 2013). such observations indicate the need for serious planning of blended learning courses in order to enable easy implementation and delivery. this avoids the mere “flip” of the classroom from traditional to online without effective preparation (mcgee 2013). other issues which require attention include: redesign to meet the identified needs of unique target groups; the design of 4 comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) activities that enable interaction whereby students are able to interact by sharing course content; and the provision of essential support .therefore, an instructional and developmental approach that fails to pay attention to these issues at the planning stages may lead to challenges that may hinder both the facilitators and course participants (rowley, bunker, and cole 2002). this research project explored the intensive experiences of the implementation of the blended design through a pd program for educators by implementing case study methodology. methodology a case study methodology was adopted to retrieve findings related to the engagement of educators within the pd program: designing an instructional event. these educators teach in schools situated in an urban and various rural settings, respectively: 36 educators from christel house, a private secondary school in the western cape; and 29 science educators from various schools in the eastern cape, mthatha, including: st. james senior secondary school (sss); khanya naledi combined school; ntukayi sss; nomaka mbeki sss; and msobomvu sss. the educators from christel house represented various teaching disciplines from grades r to 12; whereas the educators in the eastern cape were science secondary school teachers. the 65 participants within this study were full-time working educators and represented a mix of 41 females and 24 males. a qualitative research design was adopted in which data was collected first by making use of three (3) different types of open-ended questionnaires including, prior-learner; monitoring; and an evaluation. these questionnaires broadly covered the following areas of: ict skills/eskills; competencies and attitudes; relevance of the face-to-face interactions; views related to group work; time management skills; access to ict resources at the institutional and individual levels; and teachers’ prior professional development programs. second, the data was analysed from individual participants’ submissions and engagement in online discussion forums. finally, observations of presentations on the last day of the face-to-face phase, where all educators were expected to showcase the use of etools for teaching-and-learning purposes. the following discussion reviews the factors that impacted the design, development and delivery of this pd program. discussion the researchers of the pd program provided detailed comparison of the main themes highlighted during the data analysis process that included the program’s design and structure ; critical faceto-face interaction; access to resources impact on time management; design a support structure for the monitoring and evaluation of the program; educators as self-directed learners; etools to enhance teaching-and-learning methodologies; and barriers that hindered commitment to the program. lastly, the researchers provided a comparative summary matrix framework of the factors which influenced the delivery of the blended learning program. program design and structure. a scaffolding approach for working educators was adopted, in which the course was implemented in two (2) phases. the educators were expected to engage in a face-to-face training intervention; and four (4) weeks within an online environment. this approach enabled participants to complete related tasks, as they were motivated and guided through milestones. the guides were available through email, discussion forums, instructional manuals and multimedia screencasts. this blended learning approach was beneficial, as the juliett stoltenkamp and martha kabaka 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) group of educators, specifically those in the rural settings, experienced grave challenges due to limited infrastructure (at times no internet available for an entire week). furthermore, it should be noted that due to these challenges the pd program was redesigned to include an additional face-to-face phase for the educators in the rural settings. notably, the educators situated in the urban setting had the opportunity to engage in the face-to-face phase in a fully functional computer lab at uwc. they were also able to complete the milestones without major challenges. it is important that the design and structure of a blended learning program should continuously be revised and redesigned according to the target group and context. the following themes highlight the experiences of the educators and facilitators as they progressed through the structured pd program. critical face-to-face interaction. seventy percent (70%) of urban respondents indicated that the hands-on, supportive face-to-face phase was valuable and relevant, even though they had completed their milestones without major challenges. this was compared to only 24% of the responses from educators in the rural setting who indicated face-to-face interaction as always critical. it was identified as especially necessary for adult learners to clarify tasks and related milestones. even though there was disparity in the indicated need for face-to-face interaction, facilitators’ observations during the face-to-face phases tracked a great demand for assistance by all (100%) of the educators (both groups/settings) as they engaged with the various etools. research has provided numerous reasons why face-to-face interaction during learning is relevant, as it provides an opportunity for teacher and learner interaction, especially to seek clarity and share ideas (bejerano 2008). it is therefore critical to provide the necessary support during face-to-face interactions, as it minimises the situation whereby misassumptions are made concerning adult learner needs. moreover, there is a need for skilled human capacity in order to support intensive blended learning programs. the teacher or facilitator roles cannot be disputed in learning, they are expected to “encourage and motivate, guide and monitor progress, give feedback, boost confidence, and maintain motivation” (marsh 2012, 8). access to resources as impacts time management. it was noted that access to necessary resources affected participants from both settings either negatively or positively. it was found that 100 % of the educators from the urban setting finalised their course milestones within the stipulated timeframes. this starkly contrasted with the outcome that none of the educators in the rural settings completed milestones in the stipulated timeframes. for example 16 rural participants did not respond to any of the discussion forum topics within the given time period. most of these educators requested extended timeframes for the submission of tasks. research indicates that the lack of relevant technology infrastructure is a major barrier that hindered access to skills among students and educators (unesco institute for statistics 2006; hennessy and onguko 2010). the educators from the urban setting had acess to a fully equipped computer lab and a technical support member at their place of work (school); and 50% had access to personal internet connected computers at their homes. in contrast, the educators from the rural setting encountered major access challenges. only 18 rural educators had access to the internet at home; only 6 had access to computer labs within their working environments; 9 had internet acess at work; and 7 6 comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) had digital projectors/interactive whiteboards. moreover, none of the rural educators had access to a fully equipped lab facility at their respective schools. educators who enrolled for this pd program were expected to engage in some pre-reading and utilize content related to their subject area, and use technical resources, such as smart phones, 3g cards, laptops, and flash-drives. most of the educators (90%) from the rural setting did provide their personal resources. furthermore, the training facility in the rural setting, a computer lab, was equipped with desktop computers. however it had no internet connectivity, as the facilitators were informed that the entire surrounding mthatha area had no network access because the network cabling system was “stolen and telkom is refusing to come out again, as it was the second time that the cables were removed.” the participants were shown how to access their online teaching events (basic structures) via mobile devices. however, only 4 participants were willing to make use of their smart mobile phones to access the online environment, as it required that they make use of their own data bundles. sasson (2008) notes that failure to manage time properly may lead to the failure of a course, yet in this case the ict resources that were the pillar to successful adoption by both educators and students of online and multimedia education were not readily available. therefore bingimlas (2009) instructs that institutions must ensure that all resources are available so as to enhance teaching and learning. design a support structure for the monitoring and evaluation of the program. both groups of educators were supported and monitored by the facilitators, throughout the pd program. a dedicated support structure was designed prior to program delivery. for example, during the online phase, each facilitator was assigned to a number of participants to support, monitor, and assess milestones. this support structure was critical as the ciect team delivered the program parallel to the daily operations of uwc. the online phase of the pd program provided substantive support for the educators and this was enhanced with constant communication. the facilitators observed the need for extensive support for the educators in the rural setting, specifically in relation to the completion and submission of productions which required more advanced eskills, namely, the creation and application of a picture collage and a digital story. furthermore, this extensive support process included constant communication with educators via emails and discussion forums. these included the creation of instructional manuals with relevant text and graphics, by the facilitators, for the completion of the final prototype (the creation of a small online teaching event); and the related productions: (i) the structure and design of an online course divided into manageable mini-instruction sheets (12); (ii) engaging in 2 main discussion forums which were further sub-divided into 11 subtopics; and (iii) creation of a digital story and photo-collage. despite the design of an extensive support structure, the facilitators observed that the educators in the rural settings demonstrated a worrisome level of commitment and participation. for example: (i) learning pathway 2a: creation and application of collages and digital stories resulted in only 64% of rural participants responding to discussion topics and submitting related milestone tasks; (ii) learning pathway 2b: completion of final assessment task resulted in 29% of participants not responding or submit this task. juliett stoltenkamp and martha kabaka 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) dedicated support structures are necessary in blended learning programs, for example in uwc the ciect team “is tasked with these responsibilities since it was established to provide a structure for the implementation of integrated, holistic support and development for the institution” (stoltenkamp, kies, and njenga 2007, 146). other writers also argue that blended learning is characterised by teamwork between course participants and the support team (bailey, ellis, schneider, and ark 2013). educators as self-directed learners. this research found that educators from the urban setting presented themselves as self-directed learners, i.e. in relation to the completion of guided milestone activities. ninety nine (99%) of these participants were self-motivated to accomplish milestones as expected. only 1 educator required an extension to complete the final submission, the development of a prototype: a small online teaching event. in contrast, the rural educators required more assistance in relation to completing milestones during the online phase of the program. most of these educators, 57%, required continuous encouragement and support during the online phase in order for them to meet the stipulated submission dates. this led to an extension of submission deadlines, however, despite the support and extension of deadlines, research findings indicated that 31% did not manage to respond to discussion forums nor submit tasks on the online phase. the design of the pd program as discussed above indicated that learners, even though they are adult working professionals, still require structure and order. a learning pathway, specifically milestone online mini-tasks, was used to guide and facilitate the process of self-directed learning. furthermore, the facilitators observed the need for basic ict skills attainment by participants, prior to engagement in more interactive blended learning programs. likewise, research indicates that age also impact ict adoption, as older adult learners demonstrated more resistance to participating fully in the program. this finding aligns with similar findings in tedla’s work (2012). etools enhance teaching-and-learning methodologies. the 2 groups of educators expressed similar responses related to the application of etools in their specific disciplines. these responses were deliberated within discussion forums. the educators were expected to demonstrate their understanding and application of specific etools during the presentation phase of the program. visiting principals and sponsors were able to view these presentations on the last of day of the face-to-face phase. some of participant responses retrieved from the discussion forums regarding the effective use of etools within their specific disciplines included: to supplement our high-touch teaching (chalk and talk and face to face in class) with a high-tech approach (elearning tools via internet, etc.) will surely enhance teaching. teaching should be beyond the walls of the classroom. the learners' intelligence should be measured by the skilled help of the educator. hence to add more colour and value but not substitute my teaching all together through 8 comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) examples like: audacity, powerpoint presentation, google blogger, atubecatcher, picasa, digital photo story and wordle. – urban educator and this email exchange provides representative feedback from a rural educator participant: the educators’ ability to apply such etools in their teaching discipline is in line with the growing demands of education which requires the society, to take fully utilize computer technology to improve teaching and learning processes. personal barriers which hinder program commitment. in relation to personal educator-level barriers, the facilitators observed, during the face-to-face phases that some teachers from both groups lacked the confidence to complete basic activities by themselves and would repeatedly seek assistance. buabeng-andoh wrote broadly on personal barriers as major “factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching” (2012, 2). one educator even expressed resistance to the adoption of etools for teaching and learning purposes. this resistance was reported in other studies, for example, haydn indicated that at the university of east anglia teachers’ attitudes had improved from previous “surveys several years ago which suggested that there were various forms of teacher resistance to ict” (2009, np). this resistance posed a barrier which hindered personal commitment to the program and its related milestones. this resistance was linked to the concern by some educators that they did not have the personal time to commit to the pd program. in the prior learner questionnaire, the majority of educators had committed 0-7 hours per week for personal studies. however, the research indicated an actual commitment of only 2-4 hours per week. a time constraint is one of the major causes of failure of adult learners’ for “not being able to undertake learning” (oecd 2005, 5). juliett stoltenkamp and martha kabaka 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) furthermore, school level barriers, as indicated by the educators, also impacted personal commitment. in this case, educators in the urban setting, had access to the necessary infrastructure within their school environment. however, only 9 educators from the rural school settings had access to technical support. nineteen rural educators lacked resources such as digital projectors and interactive whiteboards; while only 9 educators had computers for student use in their classrooms. thirteen educators had no desktop computers for student use within the school. research identifies time and access to necessary infrastructure as one of the critical barriers to ict adoption for teaching and learning (gay 1997; bingimlus 2009). such barriers are not exceptional in the south african context, as research states that educators in other areas of south africa face similar barriers in their efforts to adopt and integrate ict in teaching and learning (goktas, yildirim, and yildirim 2009; sharma 2003). conclusion this ict research study reflected on the engagement of two teacher educator groups in a blended design program. the overall purpose of this professional development program was to enhance the educators’ information communication technology (ict) skills, with an emphasis on etools to support teaching and learning methodologies. this research originated from two previous publications related to the pd program implementation and support structure. this article highlighted the following comparative areas (i) program design and structure ; (ii) critical face-to-face interaction ; (iii) access to resources impact on time management; (iv) design of support structure for the monitoring and evaluation of the program; (v) educators as self-directed learners; (vi) etools enhancement of teaching and learning methodologies; and (vii) personal barriers which hinder ict pd program commitment. the researchers recommend the adoption of this blended learning pd program as one approach to meet the goals of the south african white paper on pd for teacher educators specifically ict skills. such blended learning programs allow fulltime working professionals an opportunity to attain necessary skills. furthermore, the researchers recommend the government and interested organisations (private sector and non-governmental organisations) invest more in ict equipment, infrastructure and training for educational purposes, especially within rural settings. acknowledgement: researchers wish to acknowledge the ciect team for their commitment in facilitating the professional development program. references bailey, j., ellis, s., schneider, c. & ark, t.v. (2013). blended learning implementation guide. version 1.0. retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/csd6190.pdf. bath, d. & bourke, g. (2011). the blending of blended learning: an experiential approach to academic staff development. retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/hobart11/downloads/papers/bath-concise.pdf. bejerano, a. (2008). face-to-face or online instruction? face-to-face is better. retrieved from http://www.natcom.org/commcurrentsarticle.aspx?id=884. http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/csd6190.pdf http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/hobart11/downloads/papers/bath-concise.pdf http://www.natcom.org/commcurrentsarticle.aspx?id=884 10 comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) bingimlas, k. a. (2009). barriers to the successful integration of ict in teaching and learning: a review of literature. eurosia journal of matematics, science and technology education, 5, 235-245. buabeng-andoh, c. (2012). factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching: a review of the literature. international journal of education and development using information and communication technology (ijedict), 8, 136-155. department of education (2004). draft white paper on e-education: transforming learning and teaching through ict. pretoria: republic of south africa. dziuban, c., hartman, j., moskal, p., sorg, s. & truman, b. (2004). three aln modalities: an institutional perspective. in bourne, j. & moore, j.c. (eds.), elements of quality online education: into the mainstream (pp. 127-148). needham, ma: sloan center for online education. diaz, v. & strickland, j. (2009). educause learning initiatives, unit 7: implementing blended learning. retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eli80077.pdf. egenti, m. n. & omoruyi, f. e. o. (2011). challenges of women participation in continuing higher education programme: implications for adult women counselling and education. african journals online, vol. 4(1). elletson, h. and burgess, a. (eds.) (2015). the elearning africa report 2015, icwe: germany. evoh, c. j. (2007). policy networks and the transformation of secondary education through icts in africa: the prospects and challenges of the nepad e-schools initiative. international journal of education and development using information and communication technology (ijedict), 3, 64-84. gay, s. m. (1997). teaching with technology: a case study of teachers' perceptions of implementing computers into the classroom. unpublished dissertation. lincoln, ne: university of nebraska. glen, f. & isaacs, i. (2007). survey of ict and education in africa. ict and education series. retrieved from http://www.infodev.org/infodevfiles/resource/infodevdocuments_353.pdf. goktas, y., yildirim, s. & yildirim, z. (2009). main barriers and possible enablers of icts integration into pre-service teacher education programs. educational technology & society, 12, 193–204. hennessy, s. & onguko, b. (2010). developing the use of information and communication technology to enhance teaching and learning in east african schools: review of the http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eli80077.pdf http://www.infodev.org/infodevfiles/resource/infodevdocuments_353.pdf juliett stoltenkamp and martha kabaka 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) literature. retrieved from http://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/centres/cce/publications/cce_report1_litrevjune0210.pdf. haydn, t. (2009). teacher education and ict: some points for consideration from the uk. uk: university of east anglia. retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/41674026.pdf. ifeoma, e. r. & olusola, e. (2013). the teachers and the use of ict for professional development. ict for africa. retrieved from http://ictforafrica.org/attachments/section/4/ict4africa2013_submission_34.pdf. johnston, c. & marsh, d. (2013). the laureate english program taking a research informed approach to blended learning. higher learning research communications, 3. koller, v., harvey, s. & magnotta, m. (2006). technology-based learning strategies. oakland, ca: social policy research associates inc. retrieved from http://www.doleta.gov/reports/papers/tbl_paper_final.pdf. marsh, d. (2012). blended learning creating learning opportunities for language learners. cambridge, ma: cambridge university press. organisation for econominc corporation and development. (2003). beyond rhetoric: adult learning policies and practices report. retrieved from http://www.edra.gr/pdf/9103011e-oecd.pdf. osguthorpe, r.t. & graham, c.r. (2003). blended learning environments: definitions and directions. the quarterly review of distance education, 4, 227-233. osunkunle, oluyinka o. (2010). bridging the digital divide and the impact of new media technologies on development in south africa: new achievements (pp. 373-387). in soomro, safeeullah (ed.), technology education and development. rijeka, croatia: intech. owston, r. d., sinclair, m. & wideman, h. (2008). blended learning for professional development: an evaluation of a program for middle school mathematics and science teachers. teachers college record, 110, 1033−1064. rowley, k., bunker, e. & and cole, d. (2002). designing the right blend: combining online and onsite training for optimal results. performance improvement, 41, 24-34. sharma, r. (2003). barriers in using technology for education in developing countries. computers & education, 41, 49-63. steyn, g.m. (2010). educators’ perceptions of continuing professional development for teachers in south africa: a qualitative study. african education review, 7, 343-365. http://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/centres/cce/publications/cce_report1_litrevjune0210.pdf http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/41674026.pdf http://ictforafrica.org/attachments/section/4/ict4africa2013_submission_34.pdf http://www.doleta.gov/reports/papers/tbl_paper_final.pdf http://www.edra.gr/pdf/9103011e-oecd.pdf 12 comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) stoltenkamp, j., kies, c. & njenga, j. (2007). institutionalising the elearning division at the university of the western cape (uwc): lessons learnt. international journal of education and development using information and communication technology (ijedict), 3, 143-152. stoltenkamp, j., kabaka, m. & kies, c. (2013). course for educators: designing an instructional event. in proceedings of edulearn 13 conference 1-3 rd july. bercelona, spain: edulearn. tedla. b.a. (2012). understanding the importance, impacts and barriers of ict on teaching and learning in east african countries. international journal for e-learning security (ijels), 2. virginia common wealth university. (u.d). online teaching and learning resource guide. center for teaching excellence. retrieved from http://www.vcu.edu/cte/resources/otlrg/01_06_blendedclasses.html. http://www.vcu.edu/cte/resources/otlrg/01_06_blendedclasses.html ajote: special issue fall 2014/spring 2015 part ii ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 4 no. 2 (fall 2014/spring 2015) part ii ajote special issue: fall 2014/spring 2015 part ii editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) “special issue: fall 2014/spring 2015 part ii”. this special issue includes articles on inclusive education, language acquisition and literacy, information communication technology, ethics in physical education, and information on a new master program on wildlife management. due to the high volume of quality submissions, this is part ii of a two part ajote release. ajote: special issue: fall 2014/spring 2015 part ii issue brings forward educational experts’ voices from ethiopia, ghana, nigeria, south africa, tanzania, and the usa. ajote is proud to continue to increase its publications from african education scholars from a range of countries and education related disciplines. articles in this issue: brown has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education policy komba the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the case of two universities in tanzania makinde the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled readers walsh returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania ireh school information and communication technology in developing countries: essential considerations for improvement edumadze the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning at ghanaian colleges of education: ict tutors’ perceptions mabagala ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 4 no. 2 (fall 2014/spring 2015) part ii students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania pai & serekebirhan training a new generation for careers in wildlife management in ethiopia ajote offers a sincere thank you to ajote’s readers and contributors who have patiently continued to support our mission while we completed an internal transition. this transition delayed the last year of publication releases. due to your outstanding support and our editorial board’s consistent and thorough peer review process, we are back in publishing mode. ajote seeks to increase its expertise across education fields to better serve our contributors and readers. to this end i invite applications for editorial board membership. interested contributors and readers are encouraged to submit their statement of interest and cv via email. thank you for ensuring that african education experts’ voices continue to have an international platform to explore and define education in all its unique configurations and contexts across the continent. sincerely, professor jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo ajote 2016 edition part i: teacher professional development and practices ________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) ajote editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) 2016 edition, part i: teacher professional development and practices. this issue focuses on the related issues of teacher professional development and quality practices inside and outside the classroom and concludes with the effectiveness of school head teachers as transformational leaders. ajote: 2016 edition, part i presents educational research from ghana, kenya, nigeria, tanzania, and zambia. ngozi d. obidike nnamdi azikiwe university, leads this issue with a discussion on factors that impact teacher quality practices in nigeria’s primary education. gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani, kenyatta university, present survey results on teachers’ perceptions of their preparation and effectiveness in integrating information and communication technology (ict) in kenya’s primary education. stephen mabagala, university of dar es salaam, identifies several factors that may cause increases in several types of teacher misconduct in tanzania’s secondary schools. robinson mambwe and chisha mwape, university of zambia, provide an insightful study on the lack of professional development provided teachers to prepare them for retirement in the zambia government schools system. kwame b. asare, university of cape coast, concludes this issue with review on head teachers and their potential as transformational leaders in ghana’s basic or primary education. these studies on varied areas of teacher professional development and quality practices highlight several professional development areas that require effective support structures to ensure quality education for students and to improve teacher work conditions. these articles present common issues shared across african education systems. watch for our upcoming issue, african journal of teacher education (ajote) 2016 edition, part ii in the next few weeks. we encourage and welcome original papers and book review submissions on african education in all fields and from all regions of the continent. our sincere appreciation to ajote’s outstanding editorial board, who consistently provide thorough peer review of paper and book review submissions. if you are interested in becoming an editorial board member, please e-mail your request, along with your cv, to ajote at ajote2011@gmail.com. sincerely, professor jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo mailto:ajote2011@gmail.com doing what our fathers would never have done: what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop david b. wandera ohio state university, usa abstract this paper considers a kenyan hip hop song; amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007), as an example of teen oral forms of expression and tracks how this particular song choreographs the meeting point between the canon and teen “ways with words” (heath, 1983). amka ukatike translated in standard swahili means, “get up and get cut up into pieces,” but in the teenage variant form of speaking called sheng, it means “limber up and dance till you become flexible as if your body were made up of rhythmic bits and pieces, rather than one rigid whole.” through discourse analysis of text and performance media, the paper discusses how this choreography is a metaphor of the intersection between “teenagerese” and standard school culture while demonstrating tensions in this tenuous intersection. hip hop exemplifies teen oral literacy which is underprivileged in the formal classroom space; particularly since kenyan hip hop is performed in sheng, a stigmatized teenage vernacular. ultimately, this article joins the body of knowledge that suggests the formulation of a third space as an amalgam that alleviates tensions caused by discrepancies between youth forms of oral literacy and standard school literacy (bhabha, 1990; soja, 1996). it is not uncommon to see the stigmatization of oral forms of literacy in schools which in this regard, have become a unique site where tensions simmer due to the clash between unacceptable teen literacies and canonical forms of literacy. does this disconnect necessarily engender a literacy crisis? how can democracy be upheld through pedagogy that is tolerant to and inclusive of embodied and performed forms of teen oral text? this paper explores how amka ukatike (c’zar 2007) teaches educators to collaborate with teenagers in creating a rich space that nurtures teenagerese while enriching the canon. keywords: hip hop pedagogy, collaboration, teenage literacy, sheng 2 what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) introduction the autonomous model vs. ideological model contestation is one of the oldest debates in the development of the history literacy. proponents of the autonomous model (goody, 1986; goody and watt, 1963; ong, 1982; olson, 1977, 1994) have asserted that alphabetic and hence written literacy stands apart from orality. they have claimed that “alphabetic literacy is a unique agent of cognitive and social reorganization” arguing for the neutrality and apolitical nature of literacy while privileging the written over the oral. their detractors who prefer the ideological model (gee, 1990; street, 1984, 1993) have contested “the heavy causation ascribed to literacy” (brandt and clinton, 2002, p. 340). instead they propose that literacy practices need to be understood within their cultural contexts. the result of this great divide debate was a paradigm shift “from text to context and the unification of orality and literacy” (brandt and clinton, 2002, p. 343). our understanding of the nature of literacy has been enriched by further observations about agency, not just through literacy, but the agency exerted by literacy itself (brandt and clinton, 2002; lewis, enciso, & moje, 2007). however, going back to the original debate, where orality is pitted against the written form, it is still not uncommon to see the stigmatization of oral forms of literacy and schools have become a unique site where tension between unacceptable oral literacies and canonical forms of literacy get played out. this occurrence of societal ideologies in schools is not surprising since “schools are located in the wider society and reflect its multiplicity of values” (barton, 2007, p. 175). what exacerbates these tensions further is the tendency by teenagers to formulate their informal ways of speaking which contrast even more starkly with canonical expectations thereby plunging the school domain into strife between upholders of the canon and perpetrators of teenage forms of speaking. does this disconnect necessarily engender a literacy crisis? how can democracy be upheld through pedagogy that is tolerant to, and inclusive of, embodied and performed forms of teen oral text? to what extent are canonical expectations pursuant of wider societal needs at the expense of individual teen needs? this paper explores how the school can rise to the task of achieving its goals through recognizing and cooperating with teenage oral “ways with words” (heath, 1983). the youth themselves do not constitute a homogeneous body of young people participating in a harmonized youth culture as they differ in many ways, including having variant approaches to life, not to mention variant tastes in music. this present discussion focuses on kenyan hip hop in full awareness that youth musical tastes vary, manifesting diverse preferences such as country music, rock n roll, tanzanian bongo flava, operatic songs, west african benga, indian bhangra, to mention a limited few. it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the influence of other forms of youth literacy such as gaming, texting, facebooking, twittering and graffiti. this paper considers a kenyan hip hop song as an example of teen oral form of expression and tracks how this particular song choreographs the meeting point between the canon and teenage forms of out-of-school literacy practices, or teen “ways with words” (heath, 1983). through discourse analysis of text and media, the paper discusses how the choreography of the song amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007) is a metaphor of the intersection between “teenagerese” (teen culture) and standard school literacy culture, featuring tensions in this tenuous intersection. hip hop exemplifies teen oral literacy which is underprivileged in the formal classroom space. this paper joins the body of knowledge that suggests the formulation of a third space as an 3 david b. wandera ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) amalgam that alleviates tensions caused by discrepancies between youth culture and standard schooling expectations (bhabha, 1990; soja, 1996). such studies include: mahiri (2004) who springboards from the hip hop album, the miseducation of lauryn hill and argues that students who are driven to absenteeism by intolerance towards teenagerese amount to a silenced group which is not able to negotiate the schooling process using teen cultural apparatus (such as, teen language variation or even teen performance styles) at their disposal. the hip hop medium is an example of a teen performance style which enacts teen perspectives making them come into being (smitherman, 1994) hence enacting a teen worldview. also, teenage language choice taps from the culture of this world view which is irresistibly packaged for the youth and commoditized for youth consumption through hip hop (dyson, 1993). morrel and duncan-andrade (2002) have noted how hip hop’s appeal transcends race lines as seen in the demographic following and geographic spread of hip hop consumerism. in his article, whose title “the rose that grew from the concrete” is taken from a song by tu pac shakur (1999), kirkland (2008) highlights how emergent texts speak to the lives of students. he suggests that teachers re-imagine the role of hip hop and teen culture in order to “realize the limitless beauty…from the vastness of the moment…” and recognize “the opulent diversity” (p. 70) as they reconstruct classroom pedagogy. rather than prescribe how the teacher of english will include hip hop in their classroom kirkland (2008) pushes for the expansion of classroom practices to incorporate further possibilities and proposes an intersection between canonical and student–centered approaches. such an intersection found in “the third space” (bhabha, 1990, 1994; soja, 1996) is inevitable and teenagers themselves even suggest it, as seen in the highly nuanced allusions and dramatization of amka ukatike. through humor and hyperbole, the dramaturgical rendering of this song conveys a strained dialogue between teenagerese and standard schooling culture. when teens are able to connect with elements in the canonical class which resonate for them, they find it easier to locate themselves as legitimate members in the classroom and to contribute to it. this need for relevance is captured through the question “is this class gonna, like, be real?” (hill, 2009, p. 31), which a student called josh asks hill regarding the newly launched hip hop pedagogy class. being real for teens like the ones in amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007) cannot be taken for granted, since such relevance is the launch pad to forming that crucial connection between the school/class and teens’ perceptions of life. in other words, being real describes the kind of third space which recognizes the oral literacies that the students bring to class. in teenagerese, this quest for what is real is conveyed succinctly through “i put my hand on my heart, it mean that i feel ya real, recognize real…” (jay-z, 2002) thus reiterating the importance of relevance to teen worldviews. the privileging of written literacy over oral literacy is unsustainable if teenagers who come to class with their oral forms of literacy are to find a place in school. it will require effort and engagement on the part of teachers to tap into these peripheralized oral forms of knowledge. hill (2009) for instance, discusses the construction of an inclusive curriculum which draws from the teacher as well as the students, in the form of a learner-centered classroom configuration broken down into formal lessons, group work, project work, and individual contributions. hill (2009) recounts how he allows teens to lead the class discussions, as seen through the teen group that called itself “the heads” sought to tailor discussions in his class. to illustrate this learnercentered approach further, consider morrel and duncan-andrade (2002) who have written on 4 what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) promoting literacy among urban youth through engaging with hip hop culture. increasing diversity in schools calls for commensurate effort in reaching across multiple lines of difference, even if it means meeting student culture that comes from different worlds (morrel and duncanandrade, 2002, p. 88). sheng and hip hop as teen oral literacy kenyan hip hop is performed in a teen linguistic variant form called sheng which has been defined as slang, pidgin, creole (githiora, 2002) or some form of dialect, or even as an instance of informal code-switching (mazrui, 1995). sheng is a “highly pidginized colloquial form of peer language” (abdulaziz and osinde, 1997, p. 44) which is frowned upon by proponents of standard swahili (the national language in kenya) and standard kenyan english. critics of sheng cite its instability and its penchant for vulgarity as its achilles heel. for instance, sheng words which function as approbations such as “poa” for “cool” and “diambo” or “diambest” have a very short life span as newer forms take over. the perceived vulgarity is evident in the choice of stage names such as “gangster” or its teen-variant “gangsta” and the word kubaff which evokes the standard swahili word kumbafu meaning foolish. these aberrant choices exemplify how teens push the envelope through reclamation of names and terms as they subvert hitherto established semantics. the kenyan hip hop musical soundscape is replete with lyrics that some consider obscene and sexualized such as “if you do me i do you…touch me i touch you…” (p square, 2007) or the lyrics “manyake, all sizes, juala, ndiyo wahitaji” (circute & joel, 2007) which is sheng for “all sizes of flesh, what you need is a condom.” sheng employs code mixing as seen here in the use of “all sizes” and the coinage of manyake. in its original use in sheng, this latter word initially meant “edible meats” such as beef, goat or mutton, but the term eventually acquired sexual connotations, to mean “alluring fleshy sexual body parts.” also, juala is a sheng word borrowed from the luo ethnic community and in its original sense this word meant a “polythene grocery bag”, but its more nuanced teen variant as used in circute and joel’s song means a “condom”. language fashioned by the youth for the youth is unique since in some cases, the youth exercise agency to counter the hegemony of standard schooling and by extension societal structures which exert expectations, constraints, and challenges upon them. noguera (in mahiri, 2004) has called youth writing styles which depart from the norm, “street scripts,” and argued that youth voices are powerful indications of a refusal to be defined by canonical scripts which dismiss teens and teen culture as being inadequate or improper. instead, youth voices speak from scripts that affirm their place and express their constructed selves (goffman, 1959). such language is found in performed oral teen literacy such as amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007) among many others sites of youth consciousness. at the epicenter of this paper lies the question of the stigmatization of sheng and hip hop, and the delegitimation of teen oral literacy; a situation which yields intolerant language ideologies, whose consequence is the criminalization of oral teen variations. the title of the song amka ukatike is actually sheng for “get up and dance.” the treatment of amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007) in this paper as a clarion call for educators to get up and metaphorically dance, takes seriously teen culture by drawing lessons from their marginalized worldview on one hand, while destabilizing the status quo that values canonical literacy over and above grassroots literacies on the other (blomaert, 2008). these literacies are constituted in multiethnic youth spaces (paris, 5 david b. wandera ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) 2010), which appropriately describes the nairobi cosmopolitan, urban, multicultural setting where amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007) is so popular. the discourse analysis in this paper is modeled after mahiri (2004) who starts off his study by examining the hip hop album, the mis-education of lauryn hill (hill, 1993) which has an introductory audio of an ordinary classroom scene; the teacher takes some kind of attendance roll call as students respond by saying “here” to signify their presence in class. when he calls lauryn hill’s name, there is silence which indicates absence. after repeated echoes of the teacher’s calling “lauryn hill!” the audio fades out as the teacher moves on, calling the next student on the roll. notably, the next song on this album is entitled “lost ones” and its refrain is “you might win some but you just lost one” (hill, 1993, in mahiri, 2004, p. 1) which sharply draws attention to the students who are absent from school for whatever reason. the title “lost ones” is an effective metaphor that captures how some students are misplaced by an intolerant cannon, and it is those students, who mahiri (2004) subsequently labels as being “the lost ones.” the need to commence a conversation with “the lost ones” (mahiri, 2004, p. 1) is imperative since, if we collaborate with them “to construct educational contexts that respond to their particular circumstances,” (hill, 2009) we shall create a dialogic interaction that includes them in vital schooling processes, thus redressing the problem of losing them. in this regard, gere (in cushman et al (eds), 2001, p. 86) has advised educators to “listen to signals that come through the walls of our classes from the outside world.” stopping the nonsense in “amka ukatike” the first scene in this hip hop rap song is choreographed in a cardinal formal event; the kenya national drama festivals; a nationwide annual theatre arts event which is the culmination of countrywide theatrical competitions performed through song, dance, poetry, recitations, and drama. as the name suggests, the kenyan national drama festivals (kndf) was initially oriented towards drama, but the artistic content evolved rapidly to incorporate song, dance, poetry in english, mashairi (swahili poems), and mimes, among other performances. over time, the kndf has expanded its role from being exclusive to primary and secondary schools, to include participation by public colleges and public universities. this enhanced jurisdiction has led to a wider participant and audience base, making the kndf, a significant site for the celebration of kenyan traditional art-forms. on its official website, the kndf describes itself as “an annual co-curricular activity, run by the ministry of education” (see website), whose cardinal aim is “to tap and nurture creative talent among the kenyan youth” (see website). historically, the kndf has offered a national forum for the celebration of traditional ethnic artistic and performance cultures in kenya. it is common to find students (participants at these events) adorned in traditional regalia identifiable with particular ethnic communities, (e.g. red ochre-painted hair, limbs, torso, face, neck, and wrists, ankle beads, bright red body wrapping, cowhide sandals, clubs and spears, commonly used by the maasai community). it is also common to hear a number of indigenous ethnic languages, from among the 42 ethnic communities in kenya, enacting the celebration of important ceremonies for various communities, such as planting season, harvest time, initiation etc., rendered through traditional song and dance. eligible institutions from collegiate to primary school level, participate in tiered competitions at district, then provincial and then at the week-long national level. those who are 6 what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) considered by the kndf adjudicators to be the best of the best, perform in front of the president, at a highly coveted gala night event. c’zar’s song did not actually occur at the kndf, but it choreographs a make-believe incident which takes place at such an event. the video set opens with an oppressively quiet room where a student, moha abdul karim, stands in front of adjudicators and fellow teens to recite a swahili shairi (poem) called mgeni or the visitor. formal swahili shairi have a fixed mode of presentation with emphasis on a very specific enunciation, pacing, syllabic placement and gesturing. also, right at the start of c’zar’s song, the words “this year” float across the screen with no specified year, which perhaps suggests that the message from this song supersedes temporal limitations; the message is applicable and relevant to any year. as soon as moha begins reciting the shairi in standard swahili, the camera is directed to three adjudicators who begin to write vigorously on their comment-pads. this very early documentation by the judges dramatizes the stifling nature of the canon especially since all that moha has said up to this point is just his name and the title of the poem, yet the judges are capturing material to evaluate. as moha struggles to align with standard swahili expectations for recitation, what follows is a lifeless exhumation of an enervating stage performance which proceeds in zombie-like fashion. his irate teacher fervently gestures at him from the wings, indicating errors and suggesting on-the-spot improvements. the camera sweeps further about the room at many deflated students literally dozing off, ludicrously juxtaposed with keen-eared adjudicators whose pens are flourishing with copious assessment comments. moha recites the entire first stanza of this poem in this manner but tension mounts when he stops reciting, and declares in sheng “aish manze. siifeel yani” (hey guys. i don’t feel this) then he adds “hi kitu haibambi” (this thing is not booming). bamba is an onomatopoeic sheng concoction which mirrors the booming music which teens love. the adjudicators are aghast as if the canon has been scandalized! moha says “let me do my thing” and he commences to sing and dance to, the hip hop song amka ukatike (c-zar, 2007). the other teens, who have been woken up by excitement from the sheng hip hop song, take on the role of dancers, and they join him vociferously on the floor, vivified by the same rhythm, all of them doing their “thing” (c-zar, 2007). consternation builds when perturbed teachers gesture at one another demanding an explanation, a cessation, a chastisement, rebuke, all of which are typical reactions to unwanted teen oral forms in many schools and classrooms. a young teacher at first nods in synchrony with moha’s music and then joins him on what has now become the dance-floor, thereby exacerbating tension. this joining in, of the young teacher, who dances with the teens, is symbolic of the meeting point between teenagerese and standard school culture with a clear suggestion that in spite of perceptions of age-gap as impediments, sometimes teachers should take the teenager’s lead while navigating the world of teen culture. since the choreography of c’zar’s song employs hyperbole for purposes of offering entertainment, we should not imagine that the solution of tensions in the school will be obtained through teachers literally dancing with students. this extended metaphor of dancing together, suggests how teachers of whatever age, could collaborate with teenagers in looking for teachable moments to infuse a combination of the vigor and excitement brought into the classroom by youth culture on one hand, and the body of knowledge that educators know the youth should cover on the other hand. 7 david b. wandera ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) this collaboration is actually more complex than merely adding vigor to content, and it calls for a re-imagining of the classroom, as suggested by the manner in which c’zar’s song is pushing the boundaries of performances that are admissible at the kndf. this teacher-student collaboration which is signified by the mutual dancing, prefigures the joy obtained from mutual cooperation, and will be discussed more specifically in the concluding section of this paper. when the chief adjudicator gets up and bangs the table to halt the dancing, we hear the sound of shattering as if glass has been broken. this shattering is indicative of the growing chasm between oral youth literacies and canonical literacies. after banging on the table and disrupting the song and dance, he immediately shouts “stop this nonsense!” and glowers around adding, “we are here on serious matters!” he then shouts animatedly and repeatedly, “finished!” meaning that by his authority he had just put an end to the “nonsense”. however “the students represent themselves as a constituency” that unites against this oppression (shuman, 1993, p. 265). hip hop is the voice of the youth since it was created by and for them (rose 1991, powell 1991). it is no wonder that the stance taken in amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007) instantiates youth agency which borders on what some, such as this chief adjudicator, may term as rebellion or anarchy. in teenage oral semiotic systems such as amka ukatike (c’zar, 2007), language signifies and responds to exigencies of primacy in contexts appreciable by the youth. the critical listener of amka ukatike notices the irreconcilable definitions of the atmosphere at the drama festival; it is a somber event, perhaps devoid of exultation, as far as the chief adjudicator is concerned, but to the young teacher and the youth, it is a happy celebration of performance through song and spontaneous dance. the phrase, “serious matters” as used by the chief adjudicator encapsulates what every traditional teacher wants teenagers to learn while at the same time it dismisses youth oral literacy as being a big joke. ironically, the official website of the kndf states that one important objective of this festival is to “appreciate, develop, preserve and promote kenya’s diverse culture…develop the participants’ eloquence in expressing their ideas and feelings so as to enable them communicate effectively and convincingly in their daily lives” (see website). this official position is irreconcilable with this chief adjudicator’s derision of teen culture. the lyrics of c’zar’s song and their suggestions are significant too; moha’s refrain is an invitation; “amka ukatike” (get up and dance). the word katika in standard swahili literally means “get cut up” but in sheng this word means to dance in such a way that your body is limber as if it has been cut up and is both flexible and relaxed. an artistic mural of a large scissors is mounted on the wall behind moha throughout the song; while the artist may have intended that this image of a pair of scissors echoes his stage name: c’zar, i wish to propose another metaphor which it presents, given that it is an instrument used in cutting. one nuance here is the connotations of cutting through the rigidness and perhaps severing off unwanted parts of the intolerant cannon. another nuanced reading could be the meeting of scissor-blades as a metaphor of how two equally uncompromising forces meet resulting in the cutting of whatever lies between them. of the young teacher who dances with the youth, her movements are supple, her body limber, her pose alluring and superior. should traditional formal education lose its rigidity/intolerance, and assume a suppleness that can allow it to grove with the youth? it is fascinating that c’zar ends the song when everyone has cleared out of the room and the chief adjudicator and one other teacher belatedly get on the dance floor, fascinated but confused by 8 what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) what has just happened, and mimic the just-concluded student-dance. but at that time, it is too late to build the connection with the youth. conclusion teenagers will always have a different perception and worldview from the adult educators who are in charge of policy formulation and curriculum implementation in schools. why then bother trying to bridge the two? what revisions/improvements can be made to alleviate age-gap tensions in the classroom? there is need for educators to expand considerations to accommodate teenage worldviews. consider the setting of c’zar’s song, the kndf. only the best performances will proceed from the district level, to the provincial level, to the national level, and ultimately, to perform in front of the president. the implicit suggestion that emanates from the presentation of amka ukatike is that the performance of mgeni by moha must have been the best at provincial level; hence it is now being performed at national level. however, as soon as moha begins to recite this shairi, his peers are fatigued by boredom. on the contrary, the adjudication table is robust and active, listening, assessing, determining. we should wonder about the quality of some of the other performances which never made it to the kndf; given the nature of the conflict in c’zar’s song, it is possible that some of these performances which did not make it, might have been similar to amka ukatike, which moha presents in place of mgeni, much to the chagrin of the chief adjudicator. the kndf website identifies tapping and nurturing “creative talent among the kenyan youth” (see website) as the key aim of this national event. the tensions in c’zar’s song call for a revision of what is considered acceptable “creative talent,” in order to bridge the gulf of perceptions between what the kndf considers as acceptable on one hand, and what teenagers consider as creative talent on the other hand. in the choreography of c’zar’s song, the belated dancing by the older teachers after the jubilant teenagers have swept out of the room is a humorous delayed attempt by these educators, to embrace the more vivified teenage performance; a belated step in the right direction. borrowing from lauryn hill’s refrain, in mahiri (2004), we could now ask, what can educators do, while our students are still with us, before we lose some? old and young educators alike need to collaborate with their students through an approach best described by paris’ (2012) notion of “culturally sustaining pedagogy.” this strategy, is a humanizing endeavor to not only be sensitive to, and responsive to, marginalized teenage worldviews (freire,1970), but it requires that educators “support young people in sustaining the cultural and linguistic competence of their communities while simultaneously offering access to dominant cultural competence” (paris, 2012, p. 95). bell hooks (1994) encourages educators to adopt this collaborative stance, by being open-minded, and to engage with learners, even if they (educators) feel that such a pursuit is unduly time consuming. she explains that “some version of engaged pedagogy is really the only type of teaching that truly generates excitement in the classroom” (hooks, 1994, p. 204). being open-minded in this way requires self-reflexivity and the admission that the ways we traditionally think about teaching and learning are not the only possible ways (kumashiro, 2004). it is therefore possible to re-imagine what we do in the classroom, with regard to incorporating teenage or popular culture. rodesiler (2009) for instance, has exemplified how teachers can adopt a scaffolding process where learning is supported by the popular video genre to teach literary terms, examine social commentary, and promote student writing, for the simple reason that music is enjoyable and the youth are listening to it in increasing numbers. morrel and 9 david b. wandera ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) duncan-andrade (2002) have asserted that hip hop texts are literary texts and can be used to scaffold the learning of literary terms and concepts in ways teens can grasp with immediacy, ways that are relevant to their worldviews. paris (2010, 2011) proposes pluralist classrooms which celebrate and actualize pluralism through pedagogies that take cognizance of pluralism, for instance the inclusion of teen culture in classroom engagements. the time is ripe to face head on, the intolerant literacy ideologies which promote “the serious and shameful inequities…within our culture” (selfe, 1999, p. xix) by asking critical questions which disrupt the stigmatization of teen oral literacy within high-stake spaces, such as the school: “what is lost as well as gained? who profits? who is left behind and for what reasons? what is privileged in terms of literacy and learning and cultural capital?” (selber, 2004, p. 81). the overarching question which should unhinge educators from pursuing traditional well-worn ways stems from taking cognizance of our changing times; this is, “what is the purpose of schooling in a pluralist society?” (paris, 2010, p. 163) due to these changing times and the resistance by some traditional educators to adopt new pedagogical strategies, teenagers find themselves embroiled in a battle field where they are confronted with antipopular-literacy discourse, to which they respond by fashioning their own oral instruments such as sheng. this teen friendly alternative which has been ostracized from school originates and thrives in the streets (alim, 2006) and is the teen instrument of resistance in urban spaces in kenya. to be successful in this battle, teenagers employ several devices, such as personalizing the content of hip hop to convey their concerns (bennet, 1999), as seen in c’zar’s song. in multilingual settings, language crossing, switching and sharing (paris, 2011) allows for linguistically enriched “ways with words” (heath 1983) leading to teen discourse systems (scollon and scollon, 2001) such as sheng, that present and represent the teenage worldview. summarily dismissing these worldviews puts the canon on a collision course with teenagers, an eventuality that can be abetted through engagement. stigmatized as they are, teenage discourse systems such as sheng and hip hop have a significant influence in teen lives, and in society at large. the power of these performed texts and their agency are well documented, for instance, in the manner in which the popular south african song umshini wami (my machine gun) became a notable enabler (gunner, 2008) for south africa president jacob zuma to ascend to power. gunner (2008) traces this song from its inception up to the time it was used by zuma as his campaign song, and argues that zuma’s ascent to the presidency was made possible by various enablers, and umshini wami was significant among them. this song not only shaped the political process, through appealing to, and influencing popular vote, of which the youth were a significant constituency, the song was also shaped by the political process. for instance, in response to zuma’s growing popularity, the artists of this song added lines such as ungangibambezeli meaning “you must not delay me” (gunner, 2008, p. 31). this addition contributed further to the metaphorical references in this song, which in turn effectively indexed popular sentiments in the political process. to illustrate this indexing, gunner (2008) asserts that this song’s popularity stemmed from its ease in invoking lived historical suffering of the community, and the popular desire for redemption through heroism and mass action. in kenya, the song unbwogable, had a similar effect during the 2002 presidential elections; nyairo and ogude (2005) trace how the song was taken up by the youthful populace, owing to its references to social issues which were perceived as critical in the prevalent sociopolitical discourse in kenya. nyairo and ogude (2005) argue that by exerting 10 what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) monumental influence favorable to opposition politics in the kenyan political process, through sloganeering, branding, and motivation, the hip hop song unbwogable by gidi gidi maji maji “crossed the threshold of entertainment” (nyairo and ogude, 2005, p. 227) and morphed into the fuel for opposition bravado during the 2002 presidential and parliamentary elections. considering how pervasive and influential popular culture is, it is safe to argue that the school can hardly be thought about as being separate from the rest of the society. this interconnectedness is even more apparent since, “there are profound social, political and economic factors within and without the academy that impinge upon instructional spaces in a direct way” (selber, 2004, p. 94). when “teaching becomes a sort of trap for teachers whose work serves ends they must ‘misrecognize’” (branch, 2007, p. 10), then they should engage in “trickster consciousness” (p. 14) where they problematize their roles as they reach out to teenagers. in a bid to realize literacy which will empower teens to the highest level, educators should keep asking “why am i teaching this to students? what role will what i teach have to do in working towards a world in which we need to live?” (branch, 2007, p. 12). we can now make a case for the ideological and pedagogical push towards a literacy 3 rd space with its tolerance of an array of literacies which therefore recognizes “the multiple meanings and varieties of literacy” (scribner, 1984, p. 17), while it argues “for a diversity of educational approaches, informal and community-based as well as formal and school-based” (scribner, 1984, p. 18). why is all this important? because our students speak “in ways we…teachers sometimes fail to value, respect, and acknowledge” (kirkland, 2008, p. 69) and pursuing the literacy 3 rd space will enable us, as educators, to take heed, and collaborate, the next time teenagers call out to us, saying amka ukatike! references abdulaziz, m. h. and osinde, k. 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(1999). technology and literacy in the 21 st century: the importance of paying attention. illinois: southern illinois university press. shakur, tupac. (1999). the rose that grew from the concrete. new york, ny: mtv books publication. shuman, a. (1993). collaborative writing: appropriating power or reproducing authority? in b. street (ed.), cross-cultural approaches to literacy, (pp. 247 – 271). cambridge: cambridge university press. smitherman, g. (1994). black talk: words and phrases from the hood to the amen corner. boston, ma: houghton mifflin publication. soja, e. (1996). thirdspace: journeys to los angeles and other real-and-imagined places. oxford: blackwell publication. square, p. (2007) do me. game over. alb productions. street, b.v. (1984). literacy in theory and practice. new york: cambridge university press. street, b. v. (1993). introduction: the new literacies studies. cambridge, uk: cambridge http://www.ncte.org/library/nctefiles/resources/journals/ej/1994/0831-jan1994/ej0831defense.pdf 14 what to do when teens say “amka ukatike”: an exploration of agency in teen oral literacy performed through kenyan hip hop ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) university press. the kenya national drama festivals, official website. retrieved from http://www.kenyadramafestivals.com/. http://www.kenyadramafestivals.com/ ajote: special issue fall 2014/spring 2015 part i ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 4 no. 1 (fall 2014/spring 2015) part i ajote special issue: fall 2014/spring 2015 part i editor’s note dear ajote readers and contributors: welcome to the african journal of teacher education (ajote) “special issue: fall 2014/spring 2015 part i”. this special issue includes articles that span a range of topics. due to the high volume of quality submissions, this is part i of a two part ajote release. ajote: special issue: fall 2014/spring 2015 part i issue brings forward educational experts’ voices from ethiopia, kenya, the netherlands, nigeria, uganda, usa, and zambia. as ajote grows, so does our ability to fulfill our continental commitment to furthering education studies across africa. articles in this issue: darlington resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives on identity ekwutosi & ogbonnaya adequacy of material resources required for implementation of upper basic education business studies curriculum in ebonyi state, nigeria gendole, coenders, voogt, & pieters factors supporting or hindering continuation of a collaborative professional development program for communicative language teaching neema-abooki, rukia neema-abooki usability of computers in teaching and learning at tertiary institutions in uganda ochanji, ayot, kamina, ondigi, & kimemia improving student teaching for quality teacher preparation: a kenyan university case obiweluozor early childhood education in nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a way forward stoltenkamp & kabaka comparison of support interventions during a blended course for educators from urban and rural settings walubita book review: teachers as agents of pupil indiscipline, banja, m.k., university of zambia press, lusaka, 2013, 79 pages, isbn: 978-9982-03-068-7. ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote: vol. 4 no. 1 (fall 2014/spring 2015) part i ajote offers a sincere thank you to ajote’s readers and contributors who have patiently continued to support our mission while went completed an internal transition. this transition delayed the last year of publication releases. due to your outstanding support and our editorial board’s consistent and thorough peer review process, we are back in publishing mode. thank you for your firm resolution to ensure that african education experts’ voices continue to have an international platform to explore and define education in all its unique configurations and contexts across the continent. sincerely, professor jamaine abidogun editor-in-chief missouri state university springfield, mo _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives on identity sonja r darlington beloit college, usa abstract two tanzanian activists, ruth meena and elieshi lema, resist identification with their local ethnic groups in deference to their identity formation with nationalism and feminism. both maintain that ethnicity is a politically charged term based on a colonial construct that favors patriarchy and describes all women’s ethnicity generically without questioning their positionality. meena as a political scientist at the university of dar es salaam and lema as a writer and editor of e & d publishing, provide evidence for their professional roles having moved beyond ethnic boundaries due to their educational opportunities and the influence of feminist thinking. in the construction of their culture, as activists, scholars, teachers, and writers, they have re-imagined how to live their lives, so that they could actively participate in the struggle for nationhood, gender equality, educational access, economic independence and community development. meena and lema have also demonstrated through their writing of books and articles, the possibility for women to rewrite history with a different emphasis and orientation. keywords: ethnic identity, indigenous education, tanzania education, tanzania women’s narratives, tanzania nationalism. introduction after reading the life histories of women in the “unsung heroines” the omission of female narratives in african history takes on new meaning. then following a close look at susan geiger’s “tanganyikan nationalism as ‘women’s work’,” which emphasizes “the absence of tanzanian women’ biographies and life histories in historiography” (1996, 467), the issue of too few women subjects in history can be linked to the call by other women for a stronger female presence. but, an attempt to place heroines into history is complicated. at stake are the obstacles presented by pre-given social categories that ensnare an author trying to inscribe the lives of women into history (nagar and gieger, 2007), the questions about the narrator’s reliability, upon whom the memories and conscious selection of the story depend (ngaiza and koda, 1991), and the collegial relationships that allow for a multi-vocal history to evolve. however, despite these caveats, i became engrossed in bringing fresh voices into what was, in the best sense, an open2 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) ended dialogue about women’s ethnic identity. for me, the successful communication of another’s life work be it activism, scholarship, and/or teaching has as its reward, the personal and professional connections that have been established and the potential for inscription into the pages of history. the act of exploring the ethnic identity of ruth meena, a political scientist, teacher, and activist and elieshi lema, a writer, editor, and publisher, both of whom live in dar es salaam, tanzania, is a difficult subject to unpack. the conversations with meena and lema, and the supporting history of tanzania provided by dorothy hodgson (2004), susan geiger (1996) and aili tripp (1999), reveal many issues involved for tanzanian women when ethnicity is paired with an attempt to narrate a story about women’s identity. from hodgson, ethnicity has been called into question as one of the “categories of control” that signifies power within the “construction, negotiation, assertion, or denial of ‘identities’ ’’ (12). moreover, as she asserts, ethnicity is part of an “interconnection of gender and ethnicity,” and as a category, ethnicity like gender, is integral to “axes of difference [that] interact over time to produce, reproduce, and transform one another” (14). in following up on these relational complexities in this article, i focus on meena and lema’s visceral resistance to any kind of women’s ethnic narrative of tanzania, investigate the historical evidence that elaborates the particularly thorny issues surrounding ethnic identity among women in tanzania, and consider how to proceed with honoring the issue of ethnic identity for women in tanzania in the future. as the process of sifting through these ideas unfolds, this article is organized around their interviews with kate parsons who traveled to dar es salaam in 2012, in order to record their stance on identity issues. from meena and lema’s discussions, scholarly works that contributed to their thinking will also include their identification with nationalism and feminism, historical movements with which they strongly connected, each for her own reasons. throughout my analysis based largely on parson’s interviews, the emphasis will be on how meena and lema chose to express issues of identity. to begin the discussion of ethnic identity, meena’s interview on may 17th, 2012 is instructive. she said: i do not think it is right to say that i am a product of my [local]ethnic identity . . . whatever inspires me has nothing to do with my ‘chagga’ identity. most of my feminist friends agree. one has to make a distinction, if i go home i love my family but that is different than identifying with my whole tribe and letting that define who i am. . . i don’t want people to mention it. . . . my commitment is to women’s liberation and also a very strong nationalism. in resisting the chagga as a central maker of her identity, meena made two keys points about ethnic identity. one, she argued, as have other scholars before her (mafeje 1971, iliffe 1979, ranger 1983, lentz 1995, hogdson 2001), that the concept of tribe is constructed. she maintained: the chagga tribe was a colonial construct, just like all tribes that we now know of. the chagga were not an exception. not only did the german colonists aid in 3 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) the formation of these tribal groups, so did the pre-colonial anthropologists who came in with pre-conceived notions and biases of the ‘uncivilized natives.’ the colonists drove different kinships and clans into certain geographical regions, creating new tribes that united. one example would be the chagga tribe. colonists elected chiefs who led the tribes, drawing together different ethnic groups that often times had similar language characteristics, e.g., bantu, kushots, nilots. (parsons interview with meena, may 17, 2012) two, with even stronger words, meena rejected any attempt to link her to an ethnic identity, because she considered an association with ethnicity as too politically motivated (iliffe 1979, tripp 1999). she said: i simply do not believe in ethnicity as a central marker of my identity. in this urban context [this refers to life in dar es salaam], ethnicity is really only used as a political tool. . . people use it for their political aims. this is what happened during the colonial period with urbanization. when people moved into urban areas, there were no social networks so people needed each other for support. they formed ethnic groupings for a supportive network. (parsons interview with meena, june 17, 2012) as meena underscored the connection she made between ethnicity and its use as a political tool with an example from, what she considered a male ethnic narrative. she maintained that men embraced their ethnic identities in order to keep in touch with their village roots and to gain support and votes. she said, “i have never in my life considered ethnicity as key in defining who i am, what i am, and what i believe in.” (parson interview with meena, june 17, 2012). meena’s rejection of an ethnic identity, because of her association with it as a social construction and as a political tool has support in various historical records. they include valentin mudimbe’s 1998 the invention of african gnosis, amina mama’s 1991 “shedding the masks and tearing the veils,” frances mascia-lees, patricia sharpe, and colleen ballerino cohen (1989), “the postmodernist turn in anthropology,” and frantz fanon’s 1959 a dying colonialism, all of whom meena cited in one of her most influential research publications (meena, 1992). during the nationalist period those fighting for independence used ethnicity when they needed to build their power base. according to c.k. omari, leaders as well as political parties depended on an ethnic baseline, to strengthen their support and expand their control (1995, 69-70). meena’s rejection of a local ethnic identity developed at a very early age. she noted that even as a child her ethnicity was not a significant factor in her identity. in the interview with parsons (may 17, 2012), she said: from when i entered primary school, identification by ethnicity was never on my radar. i grew up in an environment in which nationalist institutions had been constructed by the nationalist movements involving those like president nyerere. all of these institutions were created to rid us of our ethnic or tribal associations and give us a new sense of being. 4 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) many scholars who have written that during the nyerere years tanzanians were strongly discouraged from using a local ethnic marker by which to identify themselves, have corroborated meena’s memories from her childhood. for example, julius nyang’oro (2004) states the extent of the sanctions against ethnic identity were evident from the “lack of explicitly ethnic data in official records” (10). the last census that recorded ethnicity as a category was in 1967. nyerere’s nationalistic project succeeded so well that nyang’oro observed, as the political culture of tanzania has evolved, “it is incredibly ‘politically incorrect’ to ask new or old acquaintances what ethnic group they belong to” (10). in her may 17, 2012 interview, meena followed up on the sanctions against tribal associations by saying more about her early life experiences. she noted that where she was born was not influential to her identity, because like her daughter, she matriculated from schools where the official emphasis was not on separate social groupings. “my geographic location growing up had little to do with my identity . . . the [missionary] boarding school that i went to pooled many children from different places during that time. they came from zambara, tanga, etc…” (parsons interview, may 17, 2012). in stark contrast to meena’s reluctance to associate with a local ethnic marker, she articulated many strong connections to herself as a nationalist and feminist. in her words, her rise from a primary school student to a professor of political science at the university of dar es salaam, to a leader in gender equity, and then to a citizen who invested her life savings to create a secondary school for aspiring university entrants, was not so much a result an association with her ethnicity as it was the result of mentors, such as walter rodney, john saul, lionel cliffe and president julius nyerere, who instilled in her the idea that education for a few also translated into a debt these few owed their nation. as she stated, “first and foremost, i consider myself a nationalist” (parsons interview, may 17, 2012). she preferred that her achievements be foregrounded against an era when there was a deliberate effort to deconstruct local ethnic identity and establish nationhood. in other discussions with meena, she recounted the importance of nationalism in her personal development at various stages of her education and wanted to be remembered for her innovative high school, raida, that at its core promoted the values that she believed helped build the nation of tanzania. the depth of meena’s understanding of tanzania’s struggle for nationhood, including its urgent need for equitable educational initiatives and the need to document women’s personal sacrifices as they faced momentous obstacles because of their political activism, was well articulated by meena in “a conversation with bibi titi: a political veteran” for the tanzania gender networking programme (2003). meena’s research defined bibi titi’s significance for activists during the tanzanian independence struggle by highlighting the political acumen of bibi titi who understood the narrow paradigm of power. bibi titi used dance troupes that sang political songs and satirized colonial domination. and, in so doing, she demonstrated that these individuals “were being as much political as guerrillas, which organized military action against [the] colonial state” (meena 2003, 140). bibi titi’s central role was that “of recruiting and mobilizing both men and women into tanu membership” (147). meena credits bibi titi with valuing nationalism more than her marriage and financial security and with having the courage to withstand the ruling party allegations that she had become a traitor. remarkably, despite having resigned from party membership in protest to the arusha declaration, and then being jailed and relieved of personal property, bibi titi continued to 5 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) support tanzanian nationalism. by standing for her principals, bibi titi expressed her sense of nationalism within the context of her highly skillful experience as a participant in a movement that was entrenched in patriarchal political culture. according to the meena, when president nyerere requested that titi co-author the nation’s independence struggles, bibi titi rebuffed him by saying that he had already “encouraged the distortion of tanzanian history by permitting individuals to eliminate the role which women played (including her own) in tanzania’s political history” (2003, 152). as a staunch supporter of bibi titi and of early feminist theorizing in tanzania, meena’s identity was strongly influenced by a reading group started by marjorie mbilinyi. meena and other women were reading feminist literature, which meena noted was not common at the university of dar es salaam (udsm) (parsons interview, may 19, 2012). meena elaborated that the 1970s at udsm were a dynamic time. revolutionary thinkers, such as walter rodney, taught her history, and their classes were vibrant. as she stated: we students met and read marxist literature, which inspired out critical thinking and class analysis. but, within that context, we were not able to articulate genderrelated contradictions or women specific issues. our male colleagues dismissed such issues as a western bourgeois agenda. we had to take time to understand the social exclusion of women, even within the political economic/class analysis context. women’s issues became apparent to us as intellectuals and as they related to tanzania particularly. (parsons interview, may 19, 2012) meena was part of the first workshop organized in september 1979 by marjorie mbilinyi, along with ophelia mascrarenhas and debra byrson, to discuss feminist issues that fomented from the revolutionary studies at udsm. meena commented further that “[t]he workshop combined students and teachers—about 60 women. it was like a working session for women scholars to identify women specific issues within the political economy discourses. that was a very powerful experience” (parsons interview, may 19, 2012). in a paper given by mbilinyi on gender issues at udsm in 2000, mbilinyi stated that that this particular workshop was an important historical marker at a time when women came together in solidarity to confront the male bias in educational institutions and in society at large and began to agitate for a radical transformation (2000, 12). meena recollected another important exposure to feminism occurred when she joined the southern african political economy institute to head a gender unit, which had initially been founded by patricia macfadden, a renown feminist activist in the region. while heading the gender unit, meena formed a small group of scholars who contributed to her first publication on gender: gender in southern africa: conceptual and theoretical issues, a volume she edited, as the coordinator of the southern africa political economy series (sapes) trust in 1991. in this volume, meena and her colleagues started to interrogate western scholarship on african women, particularly the approach that tended to disengage with the colonizing experiences of african women whose oppression, including being victims of colonial power, being part of a patriarchal culture that undermined their rights as equal citizens, and being part of the ‘constructed third world’ marginalized by forces of capital exploitation. the scholarly contributions in this text contributed to the then emerging feminist critique of male dominance, and the writers laid claim 6 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) ‘over’ the knowledge production that proposed pedagogic shifts promoting collaborative learning, sharing and producing knowledge. the central issues that were raised involved questioning who is the knower and are women knowers (meena, personal communication, nov. 5. 2011). throughout meena’s interviews, her remarks on feminism were punctuated with a critique of patriarchy that tried to define the boundaries for tanzanian women. many of the rules that men supported had the effect of alienating women, like meena, from particular identifications, e.g., ethnicity, because they were associated with unfair practices. for example, meena noted, “the cultural patriarchal values were never dismantled. when my dad passed away, his land was only divided between my brother and stepbrother, even though they never worked the land. i have 12 siblings, and only two brothers were qualified to have a right to my father’s land, which my mother had been working throughout her life” (parsons interview, may 17, 2014). moreover, what meena found more appalling was that the men who held such values about family property were highly educated. in her family she narrated a story about an aunt whose daughter had to fight against her father who wanted to sell the family land, without their consent. when the daughter died, the male cousins wanted to refuse her burial on the land, so that even burying her on the family land was a contentious and dishonorable affair. in these distasteful circumstances, meena identified lawyers and doctors among family who acted so foolishly. in response to these stories, meena stated emphatically, “identifying as ‘chagga’ had no real advantages” (parsons interview, 17, may 2012). when meena revisited her own early childhood years and linked a description of herself with a kind of feminist assertiveness, she narrated the following history: i resisted patriarchy from a very tender age. when i finished class four, it was as if i were destined to get an education. my father had said “no” to my requests to go to school. but, i was determined to go. after i finished class eight, when my brother was not financially able to support me for secondary school, because he was studying theology, i looked for alternatives. i investigated the possibility of the native council sponsoring me. i did not tell them that my father did not want me to go to school. instead, i told them that he was old and retired. i maintained that he did not have the income to support me going to school. i convinced them that i really wanted to go to school, and my local government sponsored me. (parsons interview, may 17, 2012) in this experience, as with others meena provided, her defiance of patriarchy comes through sharply. she did not allow herself to be bound by the males in her family nor the males with whom she came in professional contact. rather, she chose to define many of the terms by which she lived and thereby gave voice to her own needs, which often times contradicted the categories by which others sought to confine her. in addition to meena’s emphasis on the concept of ethnicity as a colonial construct and its use for particular political aims, i.e. for a male ethnic narrative, elieshi lema’s resistance to a local ethnic identity focused on two other key issues: the problem with how the term ethnicity has been used generically to describe all women, and the question of how women’s positionality in relation to where they live affects their identity. importantly, both lema and meena regarded 7 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) themselves as tanzanians, and although interviewed separately, they also both emphasized that their identity had been compromised by the fact that african ethnic groups were a colonial construct, and they were critical of its political use. lema added to meena’s commentary that the kilimanjaro area was exploited by colonialists who “group[ed] people, in order to divide and conquer” (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). the colonialists befriended chiefs so that they would fight each other for land. she remarked that enmity was created by the wars during colonialism among the people in the western kilimanjaro area, and this was part of the historical record documented in folk literature (lema, personal communication, june 21, 2012). in lema’s interview with parsons on may 22, 2012 in dar es salaam, she problematized the discussion of women’s ethnic identity in tanzania by asking, “when you say women, are you talking about women writers? women in politics? women generally? because it is no longer possible to talk of women, just like that.” after requesting more clarification from her interviewer, lema continued and said, “i am interested to know how you will reference which group of women you are studying. you need to go outside of a narrow frame of reference, because there are a lot of different social groups among tanzanian women: professional women, village women, etc.” (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). in a follow-up email, lema elaborated that she interpreted conversations about ethnicity as “moving towards a redefinition of women’s ethnicity as shared groups’ social traits, beliefs and culture” (june 21, 2012). she made it clear that she was not speaking of women as a homogeneous group, instead she envisioned various groups being involved with similar concerns, such as defining their beliefs, shaping culture, and framing stories about themselves. if the end result of thinking about women and their ethnicity meant that women were not considered as individuals whose identity was shaped by participation in many different groups and did not allow for women to define themselves, then lema did not have anything to add to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania. she wanted to refocus conversation around the ability for women to shape culture, to identify with home, to speak a local language, to negotiate within a rural or urban environment, and to express the fluidity in identity. while thinking about her options, lema gave an example of her own understanding of women’s roles in shaping culture. she provided the following text that shows ways in which women negotiate in their environment: one day, i asked my mother who is now 95, how women related with men during her youth and young womanhood. she laughed, then said, “women could not sit and talk with men, and when a woman passed near where men sat, she asked for their permission to pass.” i realized how very narrow the path of women within patriarchy has been and continues to be. but in the same breath realize how accomplished women have become over time in negotiating their way towards self-actualization within that very system. looking at the evolving women’s social landscape, i think there are two critical areas of constant negotiation: negotiation for space (outside the kitchen, the field and the water holes) in which women need to operate and influence society and advocate for equitable partnership in human development; and, a woman always negotiates for a path, alongside men or parallel to theirs, as she shapes her life as a woman, a professional, an activist, a mother and wife. (lema, june 21, 2012) 8 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) in the process of lema’s theorizing on women creating a space and path in society, it became evident that by becoming a creative writer and publisher, lema provided an example of women shaping culture. a press release for the goteborg book fair refers to lema as a “well known cultural name in tanzania” (2010). her accomplishments include authorship of children books, mwendo and ndotoa ya upendo, short stories, such as “tryst with peril” and novels, parched earth. her contributions to literature also involved her successful publishing house e & d limited that she established in 1989 with demere kitunga. e & d limited, known for its english and kiswahili titles, children’s books, and primary and secondary school textbooks, is committed to educating the public. wendy davies in “the future of indigenous publishing in africa” states lema’s goal as a publisher has been to create a reading culture, which provides relevant books whereby people can be helped to control their own lives and development. others have said that lema’s writing, as well as her leadership in other critical development activities, is rooted in her feminist beliefs and in her advocacy of girls’ and women’s rights, which she frequently is asked to elaborate (2009). from lema’s accomplishments and conversations, an obvious conclusion is that her sense of identity has very strong ties to feminism. its influence helped shape her ideas on positionality as a key feature of her own identity. in theorizing on the complexities inherent in the concept of positionality, mbilinyi (1985) wrote that positionality needs to be investigated in connection to locations, positions, and identities in significant social relations, because these aspects of positionality define who people are. mbilinyi adds that the relations among variables, i.e., location, position and identity are “historical, changeable, subject to abolition and transformation through everyday happenings’’ (49). as a follow up to mbilinyi’s analysis, another example of lema’s interpretation of the women’s social positions and the complexities inherent in the lives of females is provided in a short excerpt from her narrative, “doreen seko’s growth”: she told me that the world has very little to give girls for free, that they should never, never let people walk on their heads and kill their spirit before they know who they are. mother talked generally about girls, as if i was different from the rest of them. she would talk about the life of a woman as if what she said affected her only generally. later, after i was married i came to know that the life of a woman would be realized ultimately in relation to other women. she meant that my life should be a landmark for a girl growing up, or for others needing a role model. she was telling me that my life must strive to give meaning to others needing it. as a young girl, that world, my mother’s, was far removed from the angle of my naïve lenses. now, our lives converge, only the angle changing slightly to distinguish my situation from hers. in this text, lema’s narrator explicates the dangers for a young girl in a world circumscribed by the actions of people who may want to “kill her spirit.” then, as part of coming of age, the narrator says that she came to understand that her life was positioned in relation to other women. by finding her place in the midst of other women, she realizes that her outward view provides different readings: her relationship to women, i.e. mother and daughter, may seem distant in one and close in another. these ideas regarding the changeable location and position of the narrator 9 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) bear out the significance that positionality has for lema in her personal life as well as in her writing and publishing. during the remainder of lema’s interview, in addition to her resistance to generalizations that detract from the ideas associated with positionality, she questioned why the notion of adherence to an ethnic narrative was even important. in speaking of parched earth, lema stated that the narrative in her novel was not rooted in a grand concept of ethnicity but by the local culture in which she found herself as a writer. as she noted: this is the culture i knew. and that is the culture i can describe, criticize, and analyze. but, it was not because i was committed to the ethnic narrative. it is really because that is where my legs were standing. that was the place that i could look around and say i really recognize these landmarks. (parsons interview, may 22, 2012) as lema continued to problematize ethnicity, she made an important distinction between living and believing in an identity that is linked to ethnic groups. she elaborated: it is not a question of being committed. it is perhaps how women are exploring their social environments. where are they? where are they seeing themselves in order to get by? for example, if i say i am ‘chagga’, what do i mean? what does the term carry, being chagga? what does it mean externally and internally? if you are a chagga, because you were born there; and you are a chagga, because you believe in chagga culture, and you live it, that is a difference. (parsons interview, may 22, 2012) here, the identification with chagga is also complicated by the difference lema finds in speaking of identity and home. she continues: you see, identification is a word that is hard to define. i tell you, if i go home, i go home as a person. it is not a neighborhood. it is the place where all of my nuclear family was born. it is like i am going there and i feel home. it is completely normal. we share tea, beer, whatever . . . when we leave those areas, and we come to the city, that is when people identify as you are so and so. and, you must come from this tribe, because of the way you speak and express yourself. but for people like ruth [meena] and me who left home very early, we lost things as we mixed with others. we sort of achieved a blend of characteristics. (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). as lema suggests, in using terms, such as identity, the meaning is ‘thick’ not only in terms of how a particular person or group is being defined but also where a person (or group) is located her roots. most notably, lema’s sense of home is at the center of her own writing, as irmi maralhanak (2011) provides a critical look at lema’s creative output. one of maral-hanak’s main points is that as the first tanzanian author to highlight street children in a literary text, lema’s young adult novel prospa’s journey (1995) questions stereotypes about children and disrupts the myth of home as “a secure place for women and children” and “represents the complex inter10 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) relatedness and interdependence of present-day tanzania rural-urban lives” (44). she also directs the reader to see that lema subverts hegemonic constraints by giving voice to females who use speech acts to express power through analytical control. according to maral-hanak, lema’s female character, sara, was given communicative power, and in her direct speeches she establishes herself as dominant over the boys and adults near home (46-49). two other additional problematic issues exist for lema when she deals with her identity. first, she is very aware that that the language in which she communicated as a child marked a particular social group that believed that nronga was the first ancestor in the village. lema was born on the slopes of mount kilimanjaro and the locals in her village spoke kimachame. when probed for more specifics about her own ethnic identity, she declared: really, i think i would pick tanzanian first. because you see, i don’t live in the kilimanjaro region anymore. i don’t speak my first language until i go there. i can’t conduct a conversation, like the one you and i are having. i don’t know whether that is something to be proud of or not, but that is a fact of life. so how can i call myself ‘chagga?’ (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). for lema, as for meena, being associated with chagga is a highly charged connection, if for no other reason than there is no kichagga language. by having been bound to some degree to what has come to be known as the chagga tribe [or society], lema is proud of having defied its gender-specific rules. a story she related had to do with the passing of land to her in an extremely unusual manner. she said that it had only been possible, because her mother was a very progressive woman. lema described two taboos she challenged: i cut down banana plants, and i cut down the coffee trees to create space to build a house. everyone said, “what? we want to come see for ourselves who has done that.” that situation was so sensitive. i could not get any member of my clan to help me. i had to go and look for laborers outside my clan to help me cut down the banana and coffee trees. people were asking, “who is she?” “ how could she?” but, i built my house. then, after my house was finished, people walking along the road came to me and said, “you’ve convinced me to send my girl child to school.” one of the women said to me, “i am going to do everything i can so that my girl child can go to secondary school, even if it means selling coffee or selling my cows.” so, i had made an impression. (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). the suggestion of owning a home or property for lema, involved a strong reaction to being identified with the “chagga”; because, for chagga women owning land was not possible. as she said, owning land on which to build a house is “completely against ‘chagga’ tradition. a girl cannot own land. land is so critical that men fight over it” (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). second, another problematic issue for lema in attempting to discuss a construct that links identity to ethnicity is the distinction among women based on whether the locality with which 11 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) they were identified is rural or urban. according to lema, 80% of the women in tanzania are rural and 20% are urban and ethnicity in these spaces is referenced differently. for her, adherence to ethnicity was apparent in rural areas. she noted in the rural area, “people’s circumference of life is their ethnic position. they haven’t mingled. mingling happens in towns. back in the village, there is very little mingling” (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). julius nyang’oro wrote, “migration among tanganyika’s population was widespread both before and after the establishment of the colonial rule (2004, 9). as he argued, before colonialism migrations were the result of inter-tribal conflict; after colonial rule demand for laborers necessitated migration; and both migration and assimilation among different groups was commonplace in much of the region. and though lema suggests that “rural people haven’t mingled” much, in fact, few people in tanzania are unaffected by the movement of groups who were forced to adjust to changing material conditions and seek safety in more stable and beneficial surroundings. for lema whose history, as she said, involved being born in a certain village and attending a catholic school up to age four, going to another village in standard five, moving in secondary school to another part of “chagga” land, and then locating in a city, challenges the possibility for a simple ethnic narrative. lema sees her history as one in which she had to adapt to new surroundings, and in the process, her sense of identity changed. her perspective is that her identity ought to be understood in terms of a fluid rather than a static concept of ethnicity. lema added to the dimensions of identity by saying, “then i marry a man from the other side of tanzania, bukoba. so, where is me? where is me, really? now, my children, where are they? they can’t possibly say they are anything other than tanzanians” (parsons interview, may 22, 2012). the concept of so-called ethnic identity continually changes, and lema sees evidence of fluidity from the days of independence to contemporary times. in her interview, she noted that president nyerere tried to remove tensions among ethnic groups in tanzania. she said: nyerere tried to remove the tension to the extent that everyone was called ‘ndugu.’ ndugu is an expression that suggests that everyone is a brother. . . we looked at ourselves as tanzanians only. and, anywhere and everywhere, and we still do, but that is eroding. it eroded as soon as the free market was established. everybody for themselves, the individual. (parsons interview, may 22, 2012) as lema discussed the change in identification among tanzanians, she made note that her children identify as tanzanians but that constructions are changing. as gisela geisler writes about present day identity issues, her research describes a vibrancy and malleability that allows women, like lema and her children, to move beyond their nationalist identities. she writes, “women who joined nationalist movements . . . were part of a new generation of urban african populations [that] equipped women to move beyond ethnic boundaries to a more trans-ethnic identity as africans” (2004, 39). although the discussion of women’s ethnic identity in tanzania above is an historical interpretation by two highly educated tanzanian women who were born in the mt. kilimanjaro region and who resisted claims to ethnicity as a central marker of their identity, the larger, more complex historiography surrounding women’s identity issues still needs discussion and documentation. a worthwhile extension of such research into history is to ask what still needs to 12 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) be done, so that women are more fully integrated into the literature. a concrete approach to this question is to follow up on meena’s advice in her chapter on bibi titi (2003), where meena asks what are the lessons for women that can be drawn from titi’s political experience. meena’s response is that women ought to document their experiences for themselves and for future generations. however, the documentation of women’s experience is not a suggestion that what is needed are just more narratives about women’s experiences as part of an historical record, rather the implication of meena’s response is more subtle and might well be the refrain stated by ifi amadiume (1997): as african scholars, we must commit ourselves to rewrite history with a different emphasis and orientation. this is already in progress, with african scholars devising new methodologies and historiography in african studies, such as oral account, other non-documentary evidence, and a different and more relevant yardstick of culture and civilization. (91-2) amadiume points directly to the constructions of culture in which meena and lema have engaged as they sought to make sense of their surrounding communities. indeed, they committed themselves to re-imaging how to live their lives, so that they could fully participate in the struggles for nationhood, gender equity, educational access, economic independence, and community development. thus, they are women who as activists, scholars, teachers, and writers played an integral part of feminism and life history, as geiger (1996) maintains. they have become critical to historical reconstruction, as they have actively participated in the collective reconstitution of the meaning of women’s social experience (geiger, 6). references adiume, ife. (1997). re-inventing africa: matriarchy, religion, and culture. ny, new york: zed books. “author elieshi lema visits chupa workshop.” n. d. web. 15 may 2009. berger, iris. (2003). african women’s history: themes and perspectives. journal of colonialism and history, 4 (1). davies, carol boyce. (2007). some notes on african feminism. in tejumola olaniyan and ato quayson, eds. african literature: an anthology of criticism and theory. eds. malden, ma: blackwell publishing, 561-569 cliffe, lionel and john saul, eds. (1972-3). socialism in tanzania: an interdisciplinary reader. dar es salaam, tz: east african publishing house. davies, wendy. (1997). the future of indigenous publishing in africa: a seminar report. the journal of the dag hammarskjold foundation. development dialogue, 1-96. fanon, frantz. a dying colonialism. (1959), (1965 translation by haakon chavalier) new york, ny: grove. 13 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) geiger, susan. (1996). “tanganyikan nationalism as ‘women’s work’: life histories, collective biography and changing historiography.” the journal of african history, 37 (3), 465-478. geisler, giesela. (2004). women and the remaking of politics in southern africa: negotiating autonomy, incorporatio and representation. nordiska africainstitutet. heilman, bruce, e. (2002). identity and politics in tanzania, unpublished paper, department of political and administrative studies, university of dar es salaam, tanzania. hodgson, dorothy l. (2004). introduction: seeing maasai. once intrepid warriors:gender, ethnicity, and the cultural politics of maasai development. (ed.). hodgson, dorothy. bloomington: first indiana university press, 1-20 hodgson, dorothy and sherl mccurdy, eds. (2001). wicked women and the reconfiguration of gender in africa. portsmouth, nh: heineman. iliffe, john. (1979). a modern history of tanganyika. cambridge: cambridge university press. kamata, ng’wanza. (2003). the land bill/act 1998 and rural producers. in s. l. chachage and marjorie mbilinyi, eds. against neo liberals: gender, democracy and development. dar es salaam: tz: e & d limited, 196-203. lema, elieshi. (2012). re: “doreen seko’s growth” and “walking the path. message to parson, 21 june. e-mail. _____ (2012) interview with kate parsons. may 22. _____ (2007). tryst with peril. in amandina lihamba, fulata moyo, and m.m. mulokozi, eds. women writing africa, vol 3: the eastern region. new york, ny: feminist press, 323329. _____ (2004). nodota ya upendo (upendo’s dream). dar es salaam,tz: e & d limited. _____ (2001). parched earth: a love story. dar es salaam, tz: e & d limited. _____ (1998). mwendo. dar es salaam, tz: e & d limited, 1998. _____ (1995). safari ya prospa (prospa’s journey). dar es salaam, tz: e & d limited. lentz, carola. (1995). “‘tribalism’ and ethnicity in africa,” cah. sci. hum, 31(2), 303-328. mafeje, archie. (1971). “the ideology of tribalism.” journal of modern african studies, 9 (25), 3-61. 14 resistance to women’s ethnic narratives in tanzania: two perspectives one identity _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) mama, amina. (1991). “shedding the masks and tearing the veils.” gender analysis and african social science seminar papers. dakar, senegal. codesria. maral-hanak. irmi. (2011). “safari ya prospa: a novel for children.” stichproben. wiener zeitschrift fur kritische africastudien, 21(11), 37-59. mascia-lees, patricia sharpe, and colleen ballerino cohen. (1989). “the postmodernist turn in anthropology: cautions from a feminist perspective.” signs: journal of women in culture and society, 15 (11), 7-33. mbilinyi, marjorie. (2000). “gender issues in higher education and their implications for gender mainstreaming and strategic planning.” university of dar es salaam, tz: gender dimensions programme committee. _____. (1985). “women studies and the crisis in africa.” social scientist, 13(10), 72-85. web. 31 may 2012. mbilinyi, marjorie, mary rusimbi, s.l. chachage, and demere kitunge. (eds.). (2003). activist voices: feminist struggles for an alternative world. dar es salaam: tgnp and e & d ltd. meena, ruth. (2012). interview with kate parsons. may 19. _____ (2012). interview with kate parsons. may 17. _____ (2011). re: your paper. message to author. 5 nov. 2011. e-mail. _____ (2003). a conversation with bibi titi: a political veteran. in marjorie mbilinyi, mary rusimbi, s.l. chachage, and demere kitunga (eds.). feminist voices: feminist struggles for an alternative world, pp. 140-154. dar es salaam: tgnp and e & d ltd. _____. (1992). gender research/studies in southern africa: an overview. in ruth meena, ed. gender in southern africa: conceptual and theoretical issues. harara, zimbabwe: sapes books. mudimbe, valentin. (1998). the invention of africa: gnosis, philosophy and the order of knowledge. bloomington, in: indiana university press. nagar, richa and susan geiger. (2007). reflexibity and positionality in feminist fieldwork revisited. in adamtickell, eric shepard, jamie prick, and trevor barnes, eds.politics and practice in economic geography. london: sage, 267-278. ngaiza, magdalene and bertah koda, eds. (1991). unsung heroines: women’s life histories from tanzania. dar es salaam, tz: wrdp publications. 15 sonja r. darlington _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) nobel prize favorite to visit goteburg book fair, (2010). n.d. web. 10 march. nyang’oro, julius. (2004). ethnic structure, inequality and governance of the public sector.” united nations research institute for development. nyerere, julius. (1977). ujamaa-essays on socialism. london. oxford university press. omari, c.k. (1995). the management of religious diversity. in collin legum and geoffry mmari, eds. mwalimu the influence of nyerere london: james curry, 23-31. ranger, terence. (1983). the invention of tradition in colonial africa. in eric hobsbawn and terence ranger, eds. the invention of tradition. cambridge university press, pp. 21162. rodney, walter. (1981). how europe underdeveloped africa. rev. ed. howard university press. tripp, aili. (1999). the political mediation of ethnic and religious diversity in tanzania. in young, crawford, eds. the accommodation of cultural diversity: case studies. basingstoke: macmillan, 31-71. vail, leroy. (1989). introduction: ethnicity in southern african history. in leroy vail, ed. the creation of tribalism in southern africa. berkley: university of california press, 1-19. educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme kennedy ongaga university of north carolina, usa mary ombonga university of north carolina, usa abstract this article examines the concept of tuseme, a swahili word, meaning “let’s speak out” and how it is used to empower girls in a center of excellence in kenya. the center serves as a school and home to girls rescued from female genital mutilation and child marriages. data were collected from students, teachers and the center’s principal. findings indicated that tuseme, through its creative activities, empowers students with life skills, including how to speak out, build self-confidence, decision making, negotiation and leadership skills. it also helps teachers to acquire and use gender-responsive instructional strategies, which boost girls’ academic success, self-efficacy and a consciousness to identify, understand, and articulate problems that affect them and take action to solve them. keywords: tuseme, women education, empowerment, cultural marginalization, female genital mutilation, gender equality, kenya education 2 educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) introduction under the framework of education for all, adopted in 2000 at the world education forum in dakar, many governments in sub-saharan africa made tremendous progress to ensure that children, especially girls of school-going-age, have access to free basic education. in recent years, the push for girls’ education has shifted from focusing on access to improving the quality of their educational experience by focusing on school contexts (anderson & hodgkin, 2009; tembon & fort, 2008). this progress notwithstanding, there still exists significant underlying socio-cultural challenges in rural and marginalized areas that continue to impede girls’ participation in education (fawe, 2001; mlama, 2005 & unicef, 2003). 1 some of the challenges that endured the test of global efforts and investment of colossal resources are manifested in female genital mutilation (fgm), child marriages, poverty, and hiv & aids. to address these challenges, most governments developed policy instruments and initiated interventions to mobilize, advocate, and build capacity to promote education for all children. recent research on education for girls in sub-saharan africa (e.g., kirk, 2008; chege & sifuna, 2006; ongaga & ombonga, 2009) reveal that when girls are empowered and given opportunities to speak up for themselves, they develop resilient characteristics which provide them with the capacity to adapt to challenging and threatening circumstances in their communities. this article examines the concept of tuseme (let’s speak out) and how it is used in a center of excellence to empower and give voice to girls who are either rescued or escape from retrogressive cultural practices including, female genital mutilation and child marriages. purpose this article is part of a larger qualitative case study we conducted in one of the two girls centers of excellence in kenya, established by the forum for african women educationalists’ (fawe). the purpose of the study was to understand experiences of girls who are rescued from female genital mutilation or early marriages and brought to the center. for purposes of this article, we examine the meaning and manifestations of tuseme and how it is used as a strategy to empower girls at the center of excellence. a center of excellence refers to an educational intervention school established by fawe that uses a gender responsive approach to offer quality education by paying attention to the physical, academic, and social-cultural dimensions of both girls and boys (fawe, 2005). this educational intervention “consists of a package of strategies that effectively address barriers to girls’ education in the academic, social, and physical school environments and surrounding community” (tembon & fort, 2008, p. 259). theoretical framework in order to discuss the concept of tuseme and how it gives girls a voice to understand, interrogate, and confront marginalizing practices, beliefs and attitudes that make them vulnerable to adversity, we briefly review a gender responsive model (grm) on which frames this article. developed by fawe, grm advocates for a rights-based approach, which considers gender equality to be a function of the “right to education” (access and participation), “rights within education” (gender-sensitive environments, processes and outcomes) and “rights through 1 fawe is a pan-african non-governmental organization working in 32 countries in sub-saharan africa to create conducive school environments for girls to access education of good quality. 3 kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) education” (the links between quality education and wider gender justice in society) (fawe, 2006b). to achieve this goal, this model provides for the integration of a holistic and participatory approach to teaching and learning in which children are active participants in observing, exploring, listening, reasoning, questioning and ‘coming to know’ (diaw, 2008; mlama, 2005; unicef, 2009). proponents of grm further champion the transformation of school environments to become gender responsive in order to meet the social, academic and developmental needs of both boys and girls (fawe, 2000). enshrined in the grm is a gender responsive pedagogy (grp), which is used to train and equip teachers to teach the whole child. teachers are required to develop intellectual, social, emotional, and pedagogical learning by using gender referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are encapsulated in the ethics of care (noddings, 2002a). caring in the context of grp is rooted on close, reciprocal relationships between the students and teachers, among students, and the personalization of the school environment. it is characterized by patience, persistence, facilitation, validation, and empowerment for the participants. it is also manifested in the form of “teacher attitudes, expectations, and behaviors about students’ human value, intellectual capability, and performance responsibilities. teachers demonstrate caring for children as students and as people” (thomspon & ongaga, 2010, p.45). commitment to these professional dispositions, personal and professional qualities, and building an inclusive, participatory, and respective school culture has the potential to transform schools and school grounds to be physically and psychologically safe for girls. it provides adequate facilities for personal hygiene, and policies to fight discrimination, harassment and abuse. in this context, both girls and boys have opportunities to understand, challenge and influence forces that contribute to their marginalization, while reclaiming their power to be heard as experts on their own lives. the curriculum, using the words of dewey (1902), must be “psychologized” if students are to be relevant, interested, and effective in their learning. the ultimate goal of the grm is to empower girls and boys to acquire skills to know, to be, to do and to live together (clift & jensen, 2005; unicef, 2009). as used in this study, empowerment denotes “the process through which marginalized people, such as the poor, minorities, girls and women, become aware of their subordination and acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to overcome their marginalization. in other words, empowerment is about giving voice to the voiceless and strength to the powerless” (fawe, 2005, p. 3). in the following section, we provide the background of tuseme. background of tuseme tuseme, a swahili word meaning “let’s speak out,” is a process meant to train girls to express their views openly on matters that affect their personal, academic, and social development, and to learn to actively take part in finding solutions to those matters (fawe, 2005). tuseme utilizes a human rights-based approach to promote inclusive and persuasive gender responsive discourse in girls’ education. according to mlama (2005), tuseme is “designed to enable girls to understand the gender construct of the society they live in, to identify and analyze the emergent problems and how they hinder their academic and social development, to speak out about the problems, and take action to solve them” (p. 2). the concept of tuseme emerged from the works of mlama (1983) and leshoai (1978) in which they posit the use of art, specifically theatre art, as a tool for shaping consciousness and galvanizing people into action. in 1996 the department of fine and performing arts at the 4 educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) university of dar es salaam (usdm) in tanzania used mlama and leshoai’s concepts to develop theater-based empowerment strategies that give marginalized students a platform to identify and analyze problems that impede their academic and social development. fawe adopted the use of tuseme philosophy in centers of excellence as a way for girls to identify factors that lead to their social and academic marginalization and to be actively involved in finding solutions. in this context, tuseme was meant to address the following factors, which impede girls’ participation in school: 1. school drop out 2. poor academic achievement 3. school girl pregnancy 4. sexual harassment 5. any other gender related problems as identified by the girls themselves. in this article, we explored the meaning and manifestations of tuseme in a center of excellence in kenya. we used the following three questions to guide this study. 1. how is tuseme enacted in the center of excellence? 2. what impact does it have on students and teachers? 3. what implications does tuseme have in the school community? methods and data sources this article is based on a larger qualitative study that utilized a case study approach to explore and understand the experiences of girls in a center of excellence in kenya. as a well established method of inquiry in qualitative research, case study tends to be particularly responsive to research questions of “why” and “how” (winegardner, 1999). according to stake (1995) and feagin (1991), case studies must have boundaries and always strive towards providing a holistic understanding of culture. given the issues that necessitated the establishment of the center of excellence, the case study approach provided us with a flexible yet integrated framework for which we holistically examined the participants’ experiences in their natural context. such flexibility, argues winegardener (1999), lies in the customization of the case to address a wide range of research questions and types of cases that incorporate a variety of data collection, analysis, reporting techniques, epistemological orientations, and disciplinary perspectives, all of which provide their own standards of scholarship. we used purposeful sampling to select seven participants from the center of excellence in kenya. the logic and power of purposeful sampling (patton, 2002) “lies in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth. information-rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research” (p. 169). we kept the sample size small in order to provide a richer narrative data for analysis (denzin & lincoln, 2000). student participants included four girls aged between 14 and 18 years. the girls were either rescued or had run away from their families to the center to avoid female genital mutilation and being given away for marriage. they were either in standard seven or eight and had stayed in the rescue center 2 for at least three years, a period we considered long enough for them to understand and articulate their experiences, programs and activities related to tuseme. we also interviewed the center’s head teacher and two teachers, one female and one male. the 2 a special dormitory in the center of excellence that serves as a home for rescued or run away girls. 5 kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) female teacher comes from the community in which the center is located. as a 10-year old girl, she was rescued from being given away after undergoing female genital mutilation and now she is in the mission of rescuing and empowering girls who are going through the same experience. the male participant was one of the two male teachers in the center. like the head teacher, he belonged to an ethnic community that does not believe in nor practices female genital mutilation or child marriages. data for this study were collected for a period of two months using unstructured face-toface open-ended interviews (kvale, 1996), observations (creswell, 1998) and document analysis (patton, 2002; glesne & peshkin, 1992). some of the documents we analyzed included those leading to the establishment of the center, minutes of the board of governors, workshops, staff meetings, brochures, newsletters, and commitments from reconciliation workshops. the head teacher and teacher participants were interviewed individually while three of the four student participants were put in a focus group. one student participant self-selected to be interviewed individually. focus group discussion and interviews each lasted for about 60 minutes and with prior participant permission, we tape recorded them and later transcribed them verbatim for analysis. data analysis began at the time of data collection and continued to the coding, classifying, and categorizing phases (patton, 2002; huberman & miles, 1994). we categorized data based on the participants’ responses to the guiding questions. this is in line with lincoln and guba’s (1985) contention that data analysis must begin at the very first phase of data collection because continuing analysis can facilitate “emergent design, grounding of theory and emergent structure of later data collection phases” (p. 242). given that qualitative research can be intrusive in its method of inquiry, and the fact that we were seeking to understand personal lived experiences, we made an attempt to minimize any ethical challenges by explicitly explaining the objectives of our study to all participants. as the guardian of the students, the head teacher provided us with a written permission to seek students’ assent to participate in the study. we explained to the students that their participation in the study was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time of the study without penalty. we clearly communicated to the students the nature and purpose of our study and made it a process of unfolding rather than a once-and-for-all declaration. with background knowledge of the students’ community’s cultural beliefs and practices, we tried to ask culturally relevant questions in a relevant manner. to protect the participant’s identity, we have used pseudo names in data analysis and reporting findings. the study was also approved by institutional human research protection program. findings findings reveal that tuseme is used in the center as an intensive formal process used to equip girls with knowledge, attitudes, abilities, and life-skills that empower them to take charge of their lives. the ultimate goal of this process is to lead girls to diagnose, articulate, and take action on social injustices that marginalize and impede their physical, social and academic development. we capture the findings in four intertwined layers (see figure 1). 6 educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) figure 1: tuseme process tuseme stages and activities tuseme process assumes that when girls are empowered to speak up for themselves, they can also overcome gender-based constraints, especially those sanctioned by their communities’ cultural beliefs and practices such as fgm and early marriages. we garnered that the philosophy of tuseme is manifested in various programs and activities including; clubs, festivals, reconciliation workshops, skits, newsletter, role models, and sharing of experiences. all girls, especially those rescued from female genital mutilation and early marriages, undergo a systematic step-by-step orientation geared towards giving them a chance to understand, investigate, reflect, and take action on problems that hinder their academic and social development. the stages and activities are facilitated by teachers and student leaders who are already trained and equipped with tuseme skills (see table 1). table 1: tuseme stages and activities stages activities preliminary school and community sensitization on girls education familiarization students understand the center’s history, location, environment, demographic data, teaching and learning facilities (library, classroom, laboratories, toilets), and other social amenities. data collection gathering information on issues in and out of school related to the academic and social development of both boys and girls. data analysis examination and discussion of collected data in order to seek deeper understanding of the issues and problems, their root causes, effects and possible solutions. theatre creation translation of the issues and suggested solutions into a theatre performance. the stage involves some basic training in production issues. impact rules activities tuseme 7 kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) theatre performance platform for communicating the issues to other members of the community to provoke their involvement in the discussion and persuade them to take action and support girls’ education. post-performance discussion held immediately after the performance to discuss the issues highlighted in the performance. the audience is encouraged to discuss the issues, find solutions and propose strategies for action. action planning a tool to guide the implementation of actions suggested to solve identified problems. training in life skills for action students acquire a set of skills to empower them to deal with genderbased constraints to their education and self-development. the training includes building self-confidence and esteem, speaking out, decision making, assertiveness, negotiation skills, leadership and selfcontrol. creation of tuseme clubs student-centered structures to facilitate the implementation of activities towards the empowerment of girls, including those in action plan. they also serve as speaking out platforms for students to discuss issues related to their social and academic welfare. the clubs are considered pillars of the existence and development of tuseme activities in the school. taking action students are trained in different strategies they can adopt to solve the problems. the student are equipped with skills for engaging and convincing school administration, teachers, other students and community members to take action to improve the social and academic situation at schools. monitoring and evaluation tracking progress of empowerment of girls: speaking out, selfconfidence, negotiation and other personal development skills; implementing tuseme action plan. also, assessing gender responsiveness of the overall school environment (socially, physically, and academically). documenting the outcomes and activities through reports and other forms such as video, photographs and posters. tuseme rules tuseme ground rules (see table 2) are meant to inject a democratic process that ensures all students, regardless of their age or any other variable, have an equal chance to understand forces that marginalize them, share and speak out about their experiences and find ways to be part of the solution. the rules are designed to guide the girls beyond the center, especially when they transition to secondary schools, most of which are boarding and co-educational. table 2: tuseme ground rules o tuseme is participatory, everyone should be involved. o democratic principles should be observed in all processes, such as choosing leaders and assigning tasks. everybody has some role to play. 8 educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) o gender should be taken into account, including observing gender equality in participation, both in terms of numbers, ages and levels of participation. o everybody’s views and opinions must be respected. o ethics and etiquette should be observed. o punctuality and discipline should be maintained. o when creating groups, the teacher should mix students across lines of gender (in case of co-ed school), age, social class, academic ability, religion, ethnicity and any other variable. o for each day of the workshop, new leaders should be elected to allow broad participation. the leaders include: 2 chairpersons for the day (in case of a co-ed school, gender should be taken into account1 girl and 1 boy). 2 recorders for the day (in case of a co-ed school, gender should be taken into account1 girl and 1 boy). 2 timekeepers for the day (in case of a co-ed school, gender should be taken into account1 girl and 1 boy). role of teachers in tuseme teachers are an integral part in the success of tuseme program and activities. because they oversee the academic performance of students and spearhead the empowerment process, they are given in-service training to acquire professional skills to help them understand the empowering process. we garnered that all teachers are required to undergo a gender responsive in-service training to acquire knowledge and instructional skills that help them to integrate gender responsive teaching in their classrooms. the training equips them with skills to create a dialogical and trusting climate in the classroom and school, which affirms and respects all students. they are encouraged to embrace participatory teaching methods, whose central tenets include, collaboration, participatory, discussion, reflection, and co-operative ways that make students active learners. by so doing, they awaken and nurture girls’ abilities and give them voices to grow in confidence. the head teacher stated that: because we receive and deal with girls who come to the center with multiple needs, all of us, teachers and school staff get continuous training on how to be gender responsive and meet their learning needs. teachers are trained to improve and make their instructional strategies participatory. sometimes they have to challenge their own beliefs (mavoka, personal interview, july 30, 2007). a teacher participant echoed the head teacher’s views stating, “the training process takes us through ways that make us to stop thinking like ordinary teachers.” a review of training materials for teachers in the center revealed some curriculum and pedagogical areas for inservice training for teachers (see table 3). table 3: gender responsive training for teachers gender responsive:  teaching and learning materials  lesson plans  language in classroom 9 kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012)  classroom interaction  management of sexual maturation  classroom set-up  strategies to eliminate sexual harassment  school management systems  monitoring and evaluation impact of tuseme the center of excellence serves as a safe haven for girls from different backgrounds, including those rescued from pre-arranged marriages and female genital mutilation. the head teacher described them below: we have girls here who have been married a day, a week or a month. they stayed with her husband and carried out all the chores of a wife, they are brought here to be a student with other students, most of them children. we also have young mothers; not married but have got children of their own, they are here with us. we have some girls who were forced to undergo fgm against their wish and they were rescued or ran away to come here. we also have girls, who have been abused sexually, but those ones still do not want to talk, they are still trying to come to terms with the trauma. and then there are those who are abandoned here by their parents because of poverty. we are a boarding school, they bring them here in the pretext of looking for a place for them to study, but it is actually food. what do you do, do you turn them away? another biggest problem that is emerging is that of hiv and aids. currently, we have about 114 student orphans – they have lost either one or both parents. some of the kids are hiv positive (mavoka, personal interview, july 30, 2007). the center uses tuseme activities to give girls a platform and a voice to reflect and talk about injustices against them. the head teacher described tuseme as a living embodiment of a word that grew bigger than those who first uttered it. “tuseme is a word that gets bigger and bigger, grows bigger than the person who first spoke it.” in his view, “tuseme helps girls see the connection between their past, the present, and hope for the future.” concurring with the head teachers’ sentiments, the female teacher participant said, “tuseme gives girls a second chance and power to challenge decisions that affect their own lives.” the male teacher shared the same views saying, “many girls are now aware of their subordination as they are motivated to take steps to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to overcome their marginalization.” he continued: our girls have been sensitized through tuseme that even those who are able to go home over the holidays and they know of other girls in their community who are threatened with forced marriages or fgm, they advise and encourage them to come here. once they come here, they know they are safe and protected from any harm (kavuli, personal interview, july 30, 2007). we also sought to understand girls’ views on how tuseme was a voice of hope and transformation in their lives. we learned that their participation in tuseme-related activities had raised their level of awareness on issues that affect them, need their attention, participation and action. skits such as debates, drama, role plays, and mastering courage to share their past 10 educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) experiences had helped promote their public speaking skills, improved problem solving skills, and empowered them to challenge forces of their marginalization. they shared that through the use of theatre, they had researched issues that affect their academic performance. for instance, they conducted research on school dropouts, teenage pregnancy, and academic excellence. they presented their findings to the entire school community, including parents, local area chiefs, and visitors from the ministry of education. these performances served as powerful avenues that mobilized and sensitized parents and the community and encouraged discussion of issues that are taboo in the community. for instance, girls in standards seven and eight had instigated the transfer of two male teachers who openly opposed the purpose of the center and resented girls who ran away from their “husbands” or refused to undergo fgm. the head teacher confirmed the transfers stating: it has not been easy, you find even some of our teachers who come from this community, support ‘giving away’ of these young girls. they stick to their culture because that is what they know, and what they believe in. if they were circumcised then why should someone tell them that their daughters shouldn’t? yes, we had to transfer some teacher. (mavoka, personal interview, july 30, 2007). while the transferred teachers’ actions denote the undeniable force of culture, the students’ voice and the principal’s authority undergird the power of education. we attributed the action of girls to the knowledge and skills they had acquired through tuseme. tuseme had also enabled them to know each other and their past experiences, most of which were similar. this helped them to support each other in academics through group discussions, debates, sharing learning materials, clothing and toiletries with newly-arrived girls. together, they identified day-to-day problems both at home and in school, which constrains their access and performance in education. with the help of teachers, we gathered that girls had started a youth magazine, nisikie (hear me) in which they underscore their experiences and forces in the school and in the community that oppress, discriminate and put them in a servitude position. they use the magazine as an avenue to identify and share cultural structures, values, attitudes, and practices that contribute to their lack of self-confidence, assertiveness and self-esteem. a girl shared that “we try to ask the ‘why, what, and how’ questions and our goal is to sensitize other students, especially boys, our parents, and elders about us – girls, and the issues we go through.” girls who live in the rescue center were using tuseme workshops to speak to their parents. it is during this time that they voice their concerns, communicate typical cases of disempowerment, ask to be involved in matters that affect their lives, express their desire to reunite with their families, and demonstrate the value of education. we garnered that reconciling run-away girls and those rescued from fgm with their families was critical for their girls’ survival and the center’s continuity. teacher participants concurred that involving parents in their children’s lives, and education in particular, is in line to changing their [parents’] attitudes and opinions regarding girls’ education. during reconciliation workshops, parents, area administration chiefs, district officers, children’s rights officials, and the center’s staff attend, witness, and support those parents who commit to reconcile with their daughters. the head teacher shared about a reconciliation workshop he had previously facilitated: 11 kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) whenever we call parents here, we have to call the children’s officer to come and talk about the children’s rights. they [parents] understand now that children have a right. previously, the destiny of the children has always been in the hands of the father. he is the one to decides what should happen to you, who to go to school, whom to give away for marriage…since the enactment of the children’s rights act, we are now telling them to give children their basic rights, including education, and you have to protect them. the chiefs have also now been sensitized. whenever they have a baraza [community meeting], they talk about children’s rights. there is a change of attitude taking root in this community (mavoka, personal interview, june 24, 2007). a review of documents on reconciliation workshops held in 2007 revealed that 49 girls, the largest number in a single year since the inception of the center, were reconciled with their parents. this, according to the head teacher, confirmed the centers’ commitment and demonstrated parents’ change of attitude to support their daughters’ education. also, local chiefs’ declaration of their commitment (see figure 2) to support girls’ rights, education, and stop retrogressive practices such as fgm and child marriages in their areas of jurisdiction was paying off. figure 2: chiefs commitment to support girls rights and education source: girls center of excellence, kajiado, kenya below, we present some of what we consider to be the most profound statements from the students that exemplify the impact of tuseme activities on girls in the center of excellence: we now know about the dangers of fgm, the teachers have told us and now we know we don’t have to accept it. we have learned how to care for ourselves, cope with teenage challenges and how to avoid sexually transmitted diseases, like hiv, which we could have not known (mukule, personal interview, june 24, 2007). i know how to take care of myself. i can say everything, when you step on my rights. i don’t keep quiet and it does not matter to me the level of your status in 12 educating marginalized girls: examining the concept of tuseme _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) society, i will speak out. tuseme has empowered me … my self-esteem is high. i have also learnt to accept my strengths and weakness. (mariam, focus group interview, june 24, 2007). tuseme has really opened me up. if i had not come here, many things could have happened to me. maybe i could have been given away for marriage. maybe i could have undergone that fgm. here, i have learned how to speak up and fight for myself. tuseme has taught me to be confident and believe in myself. (naigeyo, focus group interview, june 30, 2007). in our community, women and girls are there to be seen and not to be heard. since i came here [center] i have realized that it is unfair for our culture to put women down. i now have a voice, i can speak my mind when i see things that are not right. i can talk about my views without being intimidated by anybody. tuseme has really helped me to realize my potential (kaleje, personal interview, july 21, 2007). we interpreted these vignettes to mean that tuseme activities helped boost the girls’ self-esteem, confidence, and assertiveness. it significantly enhanced their ability to analyze their community’s values and practices while giving them a voice to speak up and negotiate to undergo alternative rites of passage to adulthood. they viewed education as one of the rites of passage. one girl said, “getting education is more important than the cows my father values so much. i am now married to education.” she shared the big picture of how her life and that of other girls had changed since their coming to the center and being involved in tuseme activities. in this context, tuseme programs and activities provided girls with a framework upon which they rediscover, redefine and re-write their individuality and future. with a mind to think, a voice to speak, and a chance to spur and influence action, tuseme enabled them to express their views on problems that affect their academic and social development. conclusion the liberating force of tuseme starts by putting school experiences of girls in africa into perspective. rihani (2006) gives a vivid description of this experience and its inherent challenges. her first challenge is access to a safe school where she can focus on her schooling without threat of violence, harassment, physical labor, gender discrimination or personal hygiene concerns. her second challenge is to find quality education that is purposeful, relevant, and meaningful so it will have value to the girl and her family as an end in itself. finally, education becomes more challenging and the obstacles become greater...as they progress through the school system…family and societal pressure that may tell her that education is of little value for a girl (p. 66). to understand these experiences, tuseme captures the essence of empowering education, whose pedagogical goals, according to shor (1992), are meant to “relate personal growth to public life, to develop strong skills, academic knowledge, habits of inquiry, and critical curiosity about society, power, inequality, and change…the learning process is negotiated, requiring leadership 13 kennedy ongaga and mary ombonga _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) by the teacher, and mutual teacher-student authority” (pp. 15-16). we posit that gender responsive pedagogies, in which tuseme is anchored, defy the conventions of traditional educational practices with respect to educating girls. the strategies inherent in this paradigm enable teachers to assume the role of cultural brokers (gentemann & whitehead, 1983) in which they critically examine existing concomitant relationships between educational practices and cultural tenets that influence how teaching and learning is mediated. this program also offers them a chance to interrogate and transform their attitudes, expectations, and instructional strategies in a way that enhances students’ academic competence, personal confidence, courage, and the will to act. we are cognizant of the fact that teachers are taken through in-service training to acquire gender responsive skills, attitudes, and practices. however, we argue that at this level of their educational career, teachers are more likely to perpetuate the cultural fabric of the schooling processstructures, ethos, programs, and etiquette, which have always positioned girls as weak and incapable of attaining educational excellence. we posit that training of teachers and administrators on gender responsive practices, including personalized and caring relationships should begin at the pre-service education programs and continue to in-service professional development programs. this is likely to provide teachers with the urgency, moral imperative and professional responsibility to deconstruct and transform some longstanding pedagogical assumptions, societal beliefs, and practices about educating the girl-child. we further argue that gender responsive pedagogies, specifically tuseme practices should be mainstreamed into educational policies and institutional practices. these arenas perpetuate and re-create complex social, cultural, and educational environments that incite social imaginations. we suggest that further research be conducted on integrating best practices used in the centers of excellence in educational policies and practices as one way to identify and address gaps in policies, attitudes, practices and socio-cultural 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(1999). the case study method of scholarly research. the graduate school of america. retrieved from: http://www.tgsa.edu/online/cybrary/case1.html. http://www.ungei.org/resources/1612_2139.html http://www.tgsa.edu/online/cybrary/case1.html the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled readers solomon o. makinde lagos state university, nigeria abstract in the recent times, educators and researchers have focused attention on the identification of methods to increase the effectiveness of reading instruction in our schools. one of the most compelling and well-established findings in this field of research is the important relation between phonological awareness and reading. this study examined the effects of phonological awareness on the word formation and decoding skills of disabled beginning readers. data gathered using a quasi-experimental design involving 100 pupils in experimental and control conditions showed significant achievement on the skills of decoding t (98) = 15.22 p < 0.05 and word formation t (98) = 16.02 p < 0.05. the implications of the findings of the study for reading instruction in developing countries are drawn. keywords: phonological awareness, word formation, decoding skills, disabled readers, nigeria. introduction the intractable problem of producing unskilled readers in english especially in countries where english is taught as a second language (esl) calls for intervention research. it appears that much of our educational ineffectiveness in teaching reading to children is the result of failure on the part of teachers to draw from the knowledge base about reading and reading disabilities that have been provided by researchers in this field of study (okebukola, 2004). what we need is research on schools and teaching that will help us understand how to make effective the instructional procedures we already know about the curriculum teaching disabled children in our schools. phonological awareness (pa) has been identified as one of such strategies (adams, 1990; ehri, 1991; stanovich, 1994 and tafa & manolitsis, 2008). phonological awareness has been described as the ability to perceive spoken words as a sequence of sounds (spector, 1992) the awareness of and access to the sounds of language (wagner and torgesen, 1987), the ability to deal explicitly and segmentally with sound units smaller than the 2 the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) syllable (stanovich, 1994) and the ability to analyse and manipulate units of sound in speech (chen, ku, koyoma, anderson & li, 2008). the levels of phonological awareness development are associated with the different phonological components of spoken language including words, syllables, onsets and rimes, and phonemes (adams, 1990). these four levels of phonological awareness are described below: word level. the awareness that the speech flow as a compilation of individual words is typically achieved at a very young age. the linguistic play of young children, including rhyming and the generation of nonsense words are evidence of this early level of phonological awareness (bradley, 1988). when a child utters a single word that he has only heard in combination with other words, he is demonstrating the word level of phonological awareness. syllable level. syllables are the most easily distinguishable units with words. most children acquire the ability to segment words into syllables with minimal instruction. activities such as clapping, tapping and marching are often used to develop syllable awareness. this level of phonological awareness is useful for initial instruction in detection, segmentation, blending and manipulation of phonological components of language. the ability to detect, segment and count syllables is more important to reading acquisition than the ability to manipulate and transpose them (adams, 1990). onset and rime level. the onset-rime or intrasyllabic level of phonological awareness is an intermediate and instructionally useful form of analysis between the syllable and the phoneme (adams, 1990). the onset is the part of the syllable that precedes the vowel (e.g. the /k/ in cat, the /br/ in brown), the rime in the rest of the syllable (e.g. /og/ in dog, the /ack/ in black). because a syllable must contain a vowel, all syllables must have a rime, but not all syllables have an onset (e.g. and, out, or) instruction at the onset-rime level is an important step for many children (treiman, 1992). because tasks that require onset and rime analysis require the segmentation of syllables, they are more sophisticated than syllable-level tasks. yet these same tasks are easier than phoneme-level tasks because they do not require discrimination between individual phonemes. onset-rime tasks could, therefore, be considered an intermediate step in the development of phonological awareness. the difficulty that many children experience when progressing from syllabic analysis to phonemic analysis may arise because the intermediate step, the instrasyllabic unit, is often omitted from early reading instruction. providing experience working with onsets rimes may alleviate this difficulty. phoneme level. the most sophisticated level of phonological awareness is the phoneme level, most commonly referred to as phonemic awareness. children with strong phonemic awareness are able to manipulate individual phonemes-the smallest sound units of spoken language. phonemic awareness skills include the ability to detect, segment, and blend phonemes and to manipulate their position in words (adams, 1990). s.o. makinde 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) because humans co-articulate or overlap sounds in speech, phonemes are impossible to segment in a pure sense. in the speech flow, phonemes are formed and blended in such a way that one phoneme’s production is influenced by the surrounding phonemes. for example, the /k/ is formed in slightly different ways in the words cat and cot due to the influence of the vowel that follows it. because phonemic analysis requires the reader to detect, segment, and manipulate individual phonemes, it is a much more sophisticated task and, consequently, a much more difficult task than either syllabic or intrasyllabic analysis (treiman, 1992). children demonstrate phonological awareness by segmenting words into syllables, producing rhyming words, identifying individual sounds in words, combining sounds to make a word or dividing words into constituent sounds (stadler, watson & shaken, 2007). reading disability within the context of this study refers to defective literacy resulting from educational neglect or inadequate instruction. it is to be distinguished from that which involves the inability of a reader to decode the printed symbol of a given alphabetic system; that is, one whose condition is that of being unable to thrive pedagogically and unable to profit from standard methods of instruction as a result of physical or biological handicaps like dyslexia, aphasia, stuttering, visual impairment, low intelligence among others. this study was designed to determine the effects of phonological awareness on the decoding and word formation skills of disabled readers. possible gender differences were also explored. improved reading instruction deserves high priority not only because the large majority of children with learning disabilities have reading difficulties as their primary academic problem, but also because reading difficulties have such a serious impact on the overall educational outcome of these children. the study will unveil the usefulness of phonological awareness in helping disabled readers overcome their reading problems. it will also help teachers of reading as well as curriculum planners to design effective reading instruction programmes. the following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: 1. there will no significant difference in the decoding skills of disabled readers who are taught phonological awareness and those who are not. 2. there will no significant difference in the word formation skills of disabled readers who are taught phonological awareness and those who are not 3. there will be no significant effective of treatment on male and female disabled readers in the measures of decoding and word formation skills. methodology participants were 100 primary six disabled readers randomly selected from four primary schools in ado odo/ota local government area of ogun state nigeria. participants ranged in age from 10 – 12. fifty (50) pupils were in the experimental group and 50 in the control group. participants were children identified and adjudged disabled by their class teachers. for the purpose of data collection, three instruments were used. 1. phonological awareness teaching syllabus (pats) revision of the letters of the alphabet. instruction in grapheme – phoneme correspondence 4 the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) orthographic symbols phonemic symbols a / a / as in ant b / b / as in bat c / c / as in cat d / d / as in dog e / e / as in egg f / f / as in fan g / g / as in goat h / h / as in hat i / i / as in ink j / j / as in jug k / k / as in king l / l / as in leg m / m / as in man n / n / as in net o / o / as in old p / p / as in pen q / q / as in queen r / r / as in rain s / s / as in sun t / t / as in tent u / u / as in wood v / v / as in van w / w / as in wall x / x / as in xylophone y / y / as in yellow z / z / as in zoo, zebra 2. test of decoding skill (teds). it contains ten word recognition items, five each of word deletion, syllables blending, matching rhymes, blending onsets and rhymes and blending rhymes. developed with adaptations from phonological awareness assessment (lane, 2002). test of decoding skills (teds) a b assessment question word level reading words teacher writes the following words on the board. student reads each word: man, pot, pet, bet, pap, lamp, mop, men, win, gate counting words teacher reads sentence aloud, student count each word in the sentence. the man is eating the girl is sitting the gate is open the lamp is on the wall s.o. makinde 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the dog is running deleting words teacher reads the following compound words, the student deletes the first word: football motorcycle housejob cowboy household syllable level blending syllables teacher reads the following words one syllable at a time. children listen, then blend the sounds together to make the whole words tai_lor tea_cher lea_der la_dy ba_by onset – rime level matching rhymes teacher gives the following word pairs, students decide whether or not the pair rhymes: sack / black beat / been game / gem map / tap bat / jet blending onsets and rimes teacher segments the word orally between the onset and rime. the children listen, then blend the whole sounds together to make the whole word: n_ote gl_ad pr_ay fr_og sl_eep phoneme level blending phonemes teacher segments the following words into phonemes and the children are asked to blend the sounds to make the whole word. k_i_te l_a_ke b_a_th t_e_ll 6 the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) e_gg 3. test of word formation (tesqwof). this contains 10 word blending items. blend these sounds together to form english words no. sounds words 1. / o / b / y / boy 2. / a / n / c / can 3. / t / o / w / two 4. / i / n / r / run 5. / e / p / n / pen 6. / o / w / f / l / flow 7. / i / r / l / g / girl 8. / d / s / n / e / send 9. / g / v / i / e / give 10. / n / m / a / e / name method of scoring the tests were scored by assigning one point to each question correctly answered and zero to a wrong answer. the total number of items is 50, total score is calculated using percentages. all instruments were developed by the researcher and validated by three experts in language education. the tests were subjected to test – retest reliability using pearson product moment correlation coefficient with a score of 0.82, 0.76 and 0.86 respectively. design and procedure a pretext – posttest control group design was used for the study. the experiment began with the administration of teds and teswof in the experimental and control groups as pre-test to ascertain the strength of evidence as presented by the teachers. the experimental group pupils had eight weeks of instruction on the 4 levels of phonological awareness development (adams, 1990) as described earlier. the teaching was scheduled as follows: week 1 – pretest teaching of pure vowels sounds, word samples and manipulation of sounds week 2 – diphthongs and sample occurrences week 3 – english consonants and sample occurrences week 4 – consonant clusters week 5 – phoneme deletion, word to word matching week 6 – phoneme segmentation and rhyming week 7 – revision week 8 – post-test the tests were scored by assigning a point to each question correctly answered and zero to a question wrongly answered. data analysis and findings the dependant variables were analyzed by finding the means, standard deviation with the application of t-tests. s.o. makinde 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the main effect due to treatment was significant in favour of the experimental group. decoding skills t (98) = 15.22 p < 0.05 table 1. showing means, standard deviation, t-test comparing achievement decoding skill groups no. of subjects mean score standard deviation t-value calculated t-value observed experimental 50 56.92 10.26 15.225 control 50 30.30 8.48 it was also significant in word formation t (98) = 16.02 p < 0.05. females outperformed the males in decoding and word formation skills (57.40 and 56.84). table 2. showing means, standard deviation, t-test comparing achievement word formation skill groups no. of subjects mean score standard deviation t-value calculated t-value observed experimental 50 69.32 21.56 16.022 control 50 19.80 10.08 discussion and conclusion the findings of this study provide evidence supporting the evidence that disabled readers are impaired in a very wide range of tasks in the phonological domain (fletcher et al., 1994 and stanovich, 1994). these deficits are consistently found to be domain specific, longitudinally predictive and not primarily attributable to non-phonological factors such as general intelligence, semantic or visual processing. additionally, disabled readers display performance deficits on rhyme production tasks (bentin, 1992). it is also evident in this study that reading difficulties are associated with poor performance in tasks that demand a deeper form of phonological sensitivity in particular, tasks that require the more explicit forms of phonemic segmentation. this agrees with research findings that poor readers display large deficits on a variety of different skills that require the complete segmentation of a word or non-word into phoneme units (bentin, 1992; bruck, 1992 and wagner et a., 1993). the findings of this study agree with the position of some researchers that pa develops primarily through literacy instruction. they propose that pa lies dormant until a young child experiences instruction in an alphabetic language (walley et al., 2003). the superior performance of the experimental group underscores the importance of integrating phonics instruction into beginning reading and remedial programmes. in a study conducted by okebukola (2002) beginning readers benefited from phonics instruction and performed significantly better than the control group. research has also shown that pa training before literacy instruction improves reading outcomes and that children do develop pa before reading instruction (philips, clancy-menchetti & lonigan, 2008). badian (2001) showed that pre-school phonological awareness contributed to reading in grades 1 and 3. the results further recorded significant difference in the performance of male and female subjects in decoding and word formation skills in favour of girls. previous studies in the area of 8 the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) gender and reading achievement endorsed the imbalances in the reading achievement of boys and girls recording boys’ lower test scores and higher remedial class placements in literacy related fields relative to the scores and placements of girls (blackburn, 2003). ofsted (1993) noted that boys do not do as well as girls in reading in schools and that there are contrasts in performance and attitudes towards the subject. other works in which gender imbalances are implicated in favour of girls include those of cappay and madden (1975); gorman and whitehead (1975), white and brooks (1988). responses in reading therefore seem to be clearly implicated in the gender differences reported (okebukola, 2002). the implication of this is that educators should be encouraged to help boys identify literature that interests them. boys’ interest must be considered when selecting texts. books with positive male archetypes are important and adults must model engaged reading (blackburn, 2003). although phonology may not be critical for skilled readers, it is doubtless that novice and disabled readers depend heavily on print – to – sound translation. equipped with an extensive oral vocabulary, the disabled reader brings to the reading domain a large store of word meanings accessible via phonology. mastering the systematic relationships between print and sound permits the learner to capitalize on these existing links (share and stanovich, 1988). note: the assistance rendered by w.j. apari during the data collection phase of the study is acknowledged by the researcher. references adams, m. (1990). beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. cambridge, ma: mit press. badian, n.a. (2001). phonological and orthographic processing: their roles in reading prediction. annals of dyslexic 51, 179 – 202. bentin, s. (1992). phonological awareness, reading and reading acquisition. in r. frost & l. katz (eds). orthography, phonology, morphology and meaning (pp. 193-210). amsterdam: north – holland. blackburn, m. (2003). boys and literacies: what difference does gender make? reading research quarterly 38, 276 – 287. bruck, m. (1992). persistence of dyslexics’ phonological awareness deficits. developmental psychology 28, 874 – 886. ebri, l. (1991). finger point – reading of memorized text: what enables beginners to process the print. reading research quarterly 24, 442 – 462. s.o. makinde 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) chen, x., ku, y.m., koyama, e., anderson, r.c. & li, w. (2008). development of phonological awareness in bilingual chinese children. journal of psycholinguistic research 37, 405 – 418. fletcher, j., shaywitz, s., shankweiler, d., katx, l., liberman, l., stuebing, k., francis, d., fowler, a. & shaywitz, b. (1994). cognitive profiles of reading disability: comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions. journal of educational psychology. 86, 6 – 23. gorman, t., white, j. & brooks, g. (1988). explaining the differences between dyslexics and the garden-variety poor reader the phonological care variable difference model. journal of learning disabilities 21, 590 – 612. ofsted, p. (1993). boys and english. london: hmso. okebukola, f. (1999). a comparative study of the performance of emergent readers in public and private schools in reading skills. nigerian education review 5, 18 – 21. okebukola, f. (2002). how differently are boys and girls? educational perspectives 5:1, 100 – 107. philips, b.m., claney-menchetti, j. and lonigen, c.j. (2008). successful phonological awareness instruction with pre-school children: lessons from the classroom. topics in early childhood special education 28, 3 – 17. share, s. & stanovich, k. (1988). explaining the differences between dyslexics and the gardenvariety poor reader the phonological care variable difference model. journal of learning disabilities 21, 590 – 612. stadler, m.a., watson m., & sh-kan, s. (2007). rhyming and vocabulary: effect of lexical restructuring. communications disorders quarterly 28, 197 – 205. stannovich, k. (1994). the phenotypic performance profile of reading – disabled children: a regression – based test of the phonological core variable – difference model. journal of educational psychology 86, 24 – 53. spector, j. (1992). predicting progress in beginning reading: dynamic assessment of phonemic awareness. journal of educational psychology 84, 353. tafa, e. & manolitsis, g. (2008). a longitudinal literacy profile of greek precocious readers. reading research quarterly 43, 165 – 185. treiman, r. (1992). the role of intrasyllabic units in learning to read and spell. in p.b. gough, l.c. ehri, & r. treiman (eds), reading acquisition (pp. 65-106). hillsdale, mj: lawrence erlbaum. 10the effects of phonological awareness on word formation and decoding skills of disabled ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) wagner, r., torgesen, j., laughon, p., simmons, k. & rashotter, c. (1993). development of young readers phonological processing abilities. journal of educational psychology 85, 83 – 103. wagner, r. & torgesen, j. (1987). the nature of phonological processing and its casual role in the acquisition of reading skills. psychological bulletin 101, 192 – 212. walley, a.c., metsala, j.l. & garlock, v.m. (2003). spoken vocabulary growth: its rule in the development of phoneme awareness and early reading ability. reading and writing: an interdisciplinary journal 16, 5 – 20. whitehead, f., cappey, a. & maddrin, w. (1977). children and their books: the final report of the schools council project on children’s reading habits. basingstoke: evans / methuen educational. challenges encountered by non-science teachers in teaching basic science and technology in the nigerian universal basic education (ube) curriculum abigail osuafor nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria josephine okoli nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria abstract this study was aimed at finding out the attitude of non-science specialist teachers to teaching of basic science and technology and the difficulties they encounter while teaching the subject. the descriptive survey involved 126 primary six non-science specialist teachers in primary schools in anambra state, nigeria. the study was guided by two research questions. a structured 20-item questionnaire developed by the researchers was used to collect data. data were analyzed using frequencies and mean. results show that: (1) non-science specialist teachers teaching basic science and technology have positive attitudes towards the subject. (2) the teachers do not find it difficult to comprehend basic science and technology textbooks, they can operate the equipment and perform simple experiments, they can improvise the equipment and materials they use in teaching and they understand the concepts involved. (3) inadequate teaching materials, pupils not being able to easily understand science and technology lessons, difficulty in explaining some concepts in mother tongue (igbo language) and teacher training program being mainly theoryoriented were some of the problems encountered by the non-science specialist teachers in teaching basic science and technology. based on these results, recommendations were made some of which were that the serving teachers should be provided with regular in-service training through workshops; all pre-service (trainee) teachers should be exposed to the rudiments or introductory aspects of science and technology; and efforts should be made to create igbo names for the science and technology terminologies and equipment to enable the teachers to effectively communicate science concepts to students. keywords: nigeria science education, nigeria primary education, non-science specialist teachers, basic science and technology, universal basic education. introduction a major policy innovation in nigerian national policy on education is the introduction of universal basic education (ube). the ube was introduced in the country on september 30, 1999 by president olusegun obasanjo as an innovation for ensuring access to basic education for every nigerian child of school age in line with the united nations declaration on “education for 2 challenges encountered by non-science teachers in teaching basic science and technology _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) all”. to achieve this goal, nigeria’s national council on education (nce) approved a new reform in the delivery of primary education in nigeria in 2004. this reform introduced a 9-year uninterrupted basic education program made up of three years of lower basic education, three years of middle basic education (both located in primary school) and 3 years of upper basic education (junior secondary school level). the primary level of education is considered all over the world to be the most important level of education being a foundational level. the national policy on education put it more succinctly when it stated that “since the rest of the education system is built upon it, the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the whole system” (federal republic of nigeria (frn), 2004, p. 14). primary education therefore forms the basis for a child’s ability or inability to function well at post-primary levels. this implies that whatever achievement a child will make in his/her future academic endeavor depends on the foundation laid for him/her at the primary level (osuafor & okigbo, 2010). furthermore, in this era of scientific and technological advancement, there is need for a solid foundation in science and technology education at the primary level of education so as to engage them at a young age. science therefore should be effectively taught at the primary school level to prepare children for further studies in science and technology at a higher level of education. the some primary objectives of teaching science at the primary level include:  to lay a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking;  to give the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable the child to function effectively in the society within the limits of the child’s capacity; and  to provide the child with basic tools for further educational advancement, including preparation for trades and crafts for the locality (frn, 2004, p.14). these objectives cannot be achieved without a firm foundation of scientific enquiry at the primary school level. tomorrow’s problems can be analyzed and solved more easily if the primary school of today does a better job of preparing the child to face tomorrow’s problems through appropriate teaching and learning of science. in this contemporary age of scientific and technological advancement, the need to keep pace with the global trend of development demands that people should be scientifically literate. scientific literacy according to nwagbo (2006) is the use of scientific knowledge acquired by an individual to solve personal and civic problems confronting him in the society. without scientific literacy among a sizable proportion of the society, progress in achieving modernization will be difficult. scientific literacy has such a dominant effect on people’s lives that it is now considered essential for every citizen to be scientifically literate. while it is not expected that all citizens will become scientists, scientific literacy will help the leaders and policy makers to understand and propose suitable solutions to environmental problems, health problems, and other societal problems. it will also help the populace to understand and support policy decisions. basic science and technology is designed for pupils at the lower basic and middle basic levels of primary education. the teaching of this subject therefore requires specialist science teachers capable of originating and maintaining suitable learning conditions in and outside the classroom. the federal government, being fully aware of the importance of specialist teachers at this level, listed the provision of specialist teachers in some subjects including science and mathematics as one of the educational services that will be provided at the primary education level. some efforts were made in this direction but much still needs to be accomplished. most of the teachers handling basic science at the primary school level are arts-oriented as they were not specially trained to teach science subjects at the primary school level. in addition, each teacher is in charge of one class and teaches all the subjects offered by that class irrespective of his/her area of specialization. ali (2009) in osuafor and okigbo (2010) blamed this practice for being responsible for poor pupils’ achievement at the primary education level. it abigail osuafor and josephine okoli 3 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) could also be responsible for the nigerian primary science pupils’ poor performance at international competitions as reported by okebukola (1997). in a study by osuafor and okigbo (2010) on the analysis of the performance of pupils taught primary science and mathematics by specialist and non-specialist teachers, it was revealed that pupils taught primary science and mathematics by science and mathematics specialists performed significantly higher in their achievement test than those taught by non-specialist teachers. the non-science specialist teachers presumably find it difficult to adequately impart scientific knowledge to their students. unfortunately this deficiency is carried forward and is reflected in the performance of the science students at the junior school certificate examinations (jsce) which is the first end-ofcourse examination taken at the end of the 9-year basic education program. pupils’ level of performance on the jsce in anambra state, nigeria from 2009-2012 is shown in table 1. table1: jsce quality of performance in basic science and basic technology (2009-2012) from the analysis shown in table 1, it is evident that less than 50% of the candidates that sat for the examination passed at credit level and above within the years under investigation. basic science and technology is a relatively new introduction into the primary education curriculum especially the technology aspect. then, how do these non-science teachers themselves perceive their responsibility as science and technology teachers at the primary school level? do they encounter difficulties in discharging this duty? these issues form the basis for this study. the study therefore aims to identify the difficulties that non-science teachers encounter in teaching basic science and technology from their own perspectives. consequently, the researchers make recommendations based on their findings to alleviate such problems. research questions the following research questions were raised to guide the conduct of the study. 1. what is the attitude of non-science specialist teachers in primary schools to teaching basic science and technology? 2. what difficulties do non-science specialist teachers in primary schools encounter in teaching basic science and technology? method the descriptive survey design was used in the study to obtain the respondents’ views on the items of the instrument. the study was carried out in anambra state, nigeria. the population of the study consisted of all the non-science specialist teachers in primary six in all the twenty-one (21) local government education authorities’ (lgeas) schools. at the time of this study however, the exact population of these non-science specialists could not be obtained from the state primary education board (speb) that oversees the affairs of the universal basic education. however, information gathered from their office revealed that most primary schools in anambra have only one class of primary six except for those in the cities that may have two or three classes. this implies that the total number of non-science specialist teachers in primary six may not be far above the total number of primary schools in the state. 2009 2010 2011 2012 exam subje ct % a1-a3 % credit % pass % a1-a3 % credit % pass % a1-a3 % credit % pass % a1-a3 % credit % pass basic scien ce 1.1 47.6 50.2 0.8 45.1 53.5 2.7 42.0 51.8 0.4 42.7 56.7 basic tech. 2.2 41.5 54.2 1.3 44.1 53.7 2.2 32.9 62.6 0.3 45.0 54.4 4 challenges encountered by non-science teachers in teaching basic science and technology _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) there are 1,040 primary schools in the 21 lgeas in anambra and presumably, the population of the non-science specialist teachers will be about the same figure or slightly above. a sample of 126 primary six non-science specialist teachers was used for the study. simple random sampling technique with replacement was used to select approximately 10% of the total number of schools in each lgea. all primary six non-science teachers in each of these sampled schools became the sample for the study giving a total of 126 teachers. each teacher in the sample teaches all the subjects offered by the class assigned to him/her including basic science and technology. out of this sample, six teachers were found to be science specialists and so their completed questionnaires were discarded and the remaining 120 completed questionnaires were used for data analysis. a structured questionnaire developed by the researchers was used for data collection. the questionnaire consisted of 20 items divided into three sections a, b, and c. section a sought information on bio-data of the respondents, while section b elicited information on attitudes of non-science specialist teachers towards the teaching of basic science and technology. section c sought information on difficulties encountered by non-science specialist teachers in teaching basic science and technology. responses were sought on a 4-point scale of “strongly agree (sa)”, “agree (a)”, “disagree (d)”, and “strongly disagree (sd)”. these were assigned scores of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. for section b, a score of 2.5 and above shows a positive attitude toward teaching, while scores below 2.5 indicate a negative attitude teaching basic science and technology. similarly for section c, a score of 2.5 and above indicate difficulty in teaching, while scores below 2.5 indicate no difficulty in teaching basic science and technology content. one hundred and twenty six (126) copies of the questionnaire were administered to the respondents. questionnaires were completed by the respondents and returned to the researchers on the spot to avoid any loss. data analysis six copies of the questionnaire were discovered to have been filled by science specialist teachers in the sampled schools. these were discarded. data from the remaining 120 copies were analyzed using frequencies and mean analysis. results the results for research question 1. what is the attitude of non-specialist science teachers towards the teaching of basic science and technology? are delineated in table 2. table 2: attitude non-science specialist teachers towards teaching basic science and technology s/no sa a d sd mean remarks 1. i find teaching of basic science and technology very interesting 30 63 15 12 2.93 agree 2. basic science and technology should not be taught at primary school level 12 _ 33 75 1.58 disagree 3. as a non-science specialist, i don’t enjoy teaching basic science and technology 15 20 50 35 2.13 disagree 4. i hate carrying out experiments 15 20 45 40 2.08 disagree 5. primary school pupils are too young to do science 12 _ 33 75 1.58 disagree 6. non-science specialists should be excluded from teaching basic science 21 36 42 21 2.48 disagree 7. teaching of basic science is difficult and 24 18 60 18 2.4 disagree abigail osuafor and josephine okoli 5 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) cumbersome 8. teaching basic science as a non-science specialists has imparted positively in my life 54 45 18 3 3.25 agree 9. any professional teacher can teach basic science and technology 30 45 25 20 2.71 disagree table 2 reveals that the non-science specialist teachers teaching basic science and technology have positive attitudes towards the subject. they are interested in the subject and have positive attitudes toward teaching it. the majority of them agree that the subject has a positive impact on their lives. the results for research question 2: what difficulties do non-science specialist teachers encounter in teaching basic science and technology? are demonstrated in table 3. table 3: difficulties by non-science specialist teachers teaching basic science and technology s/no sa a d sd mean remark s 1. basic science and technology text books are difficult to comprehend 12 27 57 27 2.25 disagree 2. i find it difficult to perform simple experiments in basic science and technology 6 51 42 21 2.35 disagree 3. i find it difficult to operate the scientific equipment used in teaching basic science and technology 12 45 36 27 2.35 disagree 4. there are very few text books in basic science and technology 36 51 21 12 2.93 agree 5. the number of periods given for teaching of basic science and technology are inadequate 60 39 12 9 3.25 agree 6. equipment available for use in teaching basic science and technology are inadequate 36 51 21 12 2.93 agree 7. i do not know how to improvise science and technology equipment 12 27 57 27 2.25 disagree 8. pupils find it difficult to understand science and technology lessons 39 51 24 6 3.03 agree 9. primary science and technology cannot easily be taught using mother tongue for easier understanding 39 51 24 6 3.03 agree 10. as a non-science specialist, i find difficult to understand scientific and technological terms and concepts 12 36 45 27 2.28 disagree 11. my training program as a teacher trainee was mainly theory-oriented 24 60 27 9 2.83 agree the results in table 3 show that non-science specialist teachers identified several barriers in teaching basic science and technology. some of the problems non-science specialist teachers encounter included: inadequate material resources; subject not allocated enough time; pupils not 6 challenges encountered by non-science teachers in teaching basic science and technology _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) finding the subject easy to learn; difficulty in using mother tongue to explain some difficult concepts; and teachers not being exposed to practical training. discussion results from this study reveal that non-science specialists teaching basic science and technology in primary schools believe that the subject has a positive impact on their lives. with such positive attitudes, one would expect that these teachers would put in their best when teaching the subject. but their poor science background during their training could be a hindrance. for example, they were not exposed to science practical activities as revealed in table 3 above. some scholars (njelita, 2001; osuafor & okigbo, 2010) are of the opinion that the teaching of mathematics and basic science and technology should be left in the hands of specialists only. but the finding from this study showed that the non-specialists are opposed to this idea. therefore supports should be implemented to help these practicing teachers improve their ability to effectively handle the subject. this study also revealed that inadequate supply of resources like text books and laboratory equipment constitute a hindrance to their effective delivery of the subject. this is consistent with earlier findings (ezeliora, 1999; chukwuneke, 2010) that unavailability of teaching materials hinders effective delivery of science, technology and mathematics in general. however, the non-science specialists indicated that improvisation of these materials is not a problem to them. still it is common knowledge that not every type of equipment can be improvised from local materials. this study also revealed the inability of the teachers to explain certain terminologies and concepts in igbo language (the language spoken by the community in the area of study) was a stumbling block to the students’ proper understanding of the subject. the federal ministry of education had earlier recommended the use of mother tongue in teaching basic science at lower basic level (primary 1 to 3). this constitutes some problems to the non-specialist science teachers (and even the specialists) as they may not be able to find appropriate expressions and words to convey the basic science concepts to the pupils. therefore something this policy and how best to implement it needs review to help the teachers explain the equipment and concepts involved in teaching science and technology on a level that the pupils can understand. recommendations based on the findings of this study and the discussion above, the researchers made several recommendations. since it is not currently possible to train and employ enough science, technology, and math (stm) specialists in the teaching field, the serving non-science specialist teachers should be provided with regular in-service training through workshops. by so doing, difficult concepts and how to teach them effectively in the class will be provided to them. nzewi (2011) emphasized the importance of this training in raising the educational standards when she stated that “if the entire teaching force in nigeria becomes well trained and positioned, then the nigerian nation will well be on the march towards realizing its vision 20:2020… of making nigeria one of the top 20 economies of the world by the year 2020” (p.1). in this regard, efforts of the science teachers association of nigeria (stan), anambra state branch, universal basic education board (asubeb), and the national teachers institute (nti) are highly commended in advancing this recommendation. other groups and organizations should also lend their support. all pre-service (trainee) teachers in colleges of education and in the faculties of education in universities should be exposed to the rudiments or introductory aspect of science and technology irrespective of whether they are specializing in science. in addition, for effective delivery of science and technology education, textbooks and other teaching materials needed should be made available in all primary schools. textbook authors should be encouraged to write abigail osuafor and josephine okoli 7 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) textual materials since basic science and technology is a fairly new subject area in the primary school curriculum. another recommendation is to allocate enough time to basic science and technology in the teaching time table. basic science and technology is a practical-oriented subject and therefore needs more time than the normal 30-35 minutes lesson period to be properly executed. mkpa (2010) advocated that a lesson period in the primary school of not less than 50 minutes, similar to the united kingdom, united states, and some other places. this will allow ample time for the class to experiment, explore, undertake group work, and other activities that call for active participation of the pupils in the class. finally, specialists in the mother tongue (igbo language) should work with science and technology specialists to create local names for the science and technology equipment, terminologies, and concepts to support science knowledge in the students’ first language and thus make it easier for the teachers to communicate ideas clearly to the pupils. conclusion the study focused on the challenges encountered by non-science specialist teachers in teaching basic science and technology to primary school pupils. results showed that the non-specialist basic science and technology teachers are favorably disposed to the teaching of the subject. the teachers are opposed to the idea of allowing only the specialist teachers to teach the subject. they strongly believe that teaching the subject does not pose a problem to them as they understand the scientific terms and concepts very well and are able to operate the equipment used in teaching the subject. their major problem is that textbooks and other facilities are not adequate. also some science and technology terms and concepts cannot be expressed in the mother tongue (igbo language) which is the primary medium of communication at this level of education. these findings will help the government to see the need for professional development of the serving teachers especially as the option of providing enough specialists in science and technology may still take a long time. the study has also highlighted other areas that need the attention of the government and other stakeholders in order to improve the quality of teaching. references chukwuneke, bena u. (2010). the extent of availability and utilization of biology equipment/materials in secondary schools in onitsha education zone: implication on economic crisis in nigeria. 51 st science teachers association of nigeria (stan) annual conference proceedings, 218-225. ezeliora, bernadette (1999). a comparative analysis of the effect of improvised and standard models and graphics on students’ achievement and interest in chemistry. journal of the science teachers association of nigeria, 34(1&2), 51-56. federal republic of nigeria (frn) (2004). national policy on education. lagos: nerdc press. mkpa, mkpa a. (2010). innovation and issues in primary and teachers education in nigeria. journal of childhood and primary education, 7(2), 1-12. njelita, chinwe b. (2001). influence of teachers’ specialization in science on process skills’ acquisition by pupils. journal of primary education (joped), 2(1), 65-74. 8 challenges encountered by non-science teachers in teaching basic science and technology _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) nwagbo, chinwe r. (2006). effects of two teaching methods on the achievement in and attitude to biology of students of different levels of scientific literacy. international journal of education research, 45, 216-229. nzewi, uchenna m. (2011). the science teacher: pivot for the realization of the 20:2020 national agenda. journal of science education, 2(1), 1-16. okebukola, peter (1997). the state of science education in nigeria. stan bulletin, 14(2), 8-10. osuafor, abigail m. & okigbo, ebele c. (2010). analysis of the performance of pupils taught primary science and mathematics by specialist and non-specialist teachers. journal of childhood and primary education, 7(2), 20-27. the empowerment of learner-leaders in school management through training: an approach to improve discipline in school training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana victor y. mgomezulu mzuzu university, malawi nathalis wamba mzuzu university, malawi lester b. shawa mzuzu university, malawi abstract this article focuses on the training of learner-leaders as a way of empowering them to participate in strategies of improving discipline in secondary schools in botswana. the study investigates the extent to which the school managers train learner-leaders and examines selected management aspects that could be included in a training program. a questionnaire was used to collect data. the findings indicated that the training of the learner-leaders was inadequate in providing leadership management skills. finally, the study recommends selected knowledge and skills aspects that may be included in training content to empower the learner-leaders. keywords: learner-leaders, empowering, participate, discipline, training, conflict. 2 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) introduction “reducing bad behaviour is a realistic aim. eliminating it completely is not”, lord elton once said (d.e.s., 1989, p.65). lord elton was referring to learner indiscipline in british schools that it had always existed and that school managers could only try to reduce its levels. similarly, many secondary schools in botswana experience numerous indiscipline problems, to the extent that some stakeholders fear the worst for the country if they are not managed effectively or minimized (hulela & matsolo, 2011). garegae (2008) has described discipline in botswana secondary schools as being in a state of crisis. in a study on the state of discipline in botswana, a teacher-respondent informed him that the “forms of crime that teachers used to watch in movies were now acted out in schools.” this teacher-respondent added, “we are no longer fighting against laziness of not finishing homework but we are dealing with more serious things, such as drug abuse, and use of dangerous weapons” (p.51). the study by hulela and matsolo (2011) confirmed that the issue of indiscipline in botswana schools was indeed not abating. the study further revealed that acts of indiscipline in botswana secondary schools were on the increase in terms of frequency and gravity. there were increased numbers of violent and non-violent indiscipline acts than was the case a few years earlier. for instance, there have been several reports of violent acts such as; learners tripping off the main switch and attacking a prefect, learners burning hostels, and some learners forcing nine others to take methanol and they all died (tjavanga & jotia, 2012). physical and non-physical bullying is also common in botswana schools (mangope, dinama & kefhilwe, 2012). other forms of indiscipline include property vandalism, alcohol and drug consumption, late coming to school or class, noise making in class, and unwillingness/failure to do homework (modikwa, 2008; garagae, 2008). success of institutions including secondary schools in addressing indiscipline problems can be enhanced if key stakeholders are engaged in the design and implementation of strategies to address such problems than if they are excluded (unaids inter-country team for west and central africa, 2001). in a school setting, learners are key stakeholders that should not be excluded. in addition to the fact that involving learners in decision making makes good sense in terms of democratic values, it is also conventional practice because organisational management is moving towards a form of, what villiers and pretorius (2011) called, collective, shared, distributed responsibility. however, recognising the fact that learners in secondary schools are generally young, less knowledgeable and inexperienced, harris (2005) advises that it would not be wise to involve them in management activities without building capacity in them in terms of equipping them with certain skills and body of knowledge. in this connection, the thesis of this study is that it is important that learner-leaders should be trained in school management aspects as a means of improving school discipline in botswana. although indiscipline in educational institutions is a universal problem, there is no universal method of dealing with it. some of the factors that make it almost impossible to find such a solution are differences in understanding the meanings of the terms “discipline” and “leadership”. the term “discipline” for some people may mean the use of corporal punishment because they believe in the maxim “spare the rod and spoil the child.” this view is typical of the classical roman and greek approach to discipline (oosthuizen, roux & van der walt, 2003). 3 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) with the onset of children’s rights, there are now fewer schools that still practice corporal punishment because rights activists would not let them do it. however, similar forms that also cause physical discomfort still exist, such as making transgressors clean toilets, cut grass and dig pits. such cases demonstrate juridical as opposed to educational exercise of discipline. juridical discipline is retrospective in that it punishes past transgressions (oosthuizen, et al, 2003). to a large extent school authorities in botswana subscribe to this view as they seem to believe in the “an eye for an eye” purpose of punishment (education, ministry of, 1995). wamba (n. wamba, personal communication, march 30, 2013) and oosthuizen, et al, (2003) hold a different view that schools should not throw away retributive punishments altogether, but they should focus more on the educational sense of discipline. schools should serve as centers of building positive character and guiding those who miss the right track. leadership is another term that means different things for different people. by extension, the term “leadership training” would also generate different meanings. for greenwald (2010) leadership training in schools should teach life skills, such as understanding economics, cultural sensitivity, and appreciation of lifelong learning. according to grovum (2011) leadership training should not be a preserve of a few learners; it should be offered to all the learners because we all become leaders in our lives in one way or another. the views of greenwald and grovum are surely worthwhile. in the case of botswana these are not the type of skills that would assist much in dealing with the problem of indiscipline in schools. this is perhaps why greenwald adds that each institution needs to define leadership in a meaningful way before it can develop a meaningful curriculum for its learners. this is why one of the aims of this study tries to investigate what could be included in a prefect training program for schools in botswana. since there is overlap between the terms “management” and “leadership”, where the term “management” is used alone it should be understood to include the sense of “leadership”. where both terms are used it will be for purpose of emphasis. prefect selection prefect selection in public secondary schools in botswana is carried out by fellow learners, but members of the teaching staff have to approve or disapprove the names (education, ministry of, 1995). when time for selecting prefects approaches, aspirants are allowed to campaign for the positions they like. the positions include head boy and girl, dining hall prefects, sports prefects, hostel prefects, and entertainment prefects. it is not clear what criteria learners use to choose candidates. however, the teachers vet the candidates based on character and academic performance. candidates who may be well behaved but are weak in academic performance may be disapproved. the rationale is that if such learners are given additional responsibilities they may perform even worse. once a full compliment of prefects is in place, the school authorities organise a handover ceremony. the handover exercise includes briefing of what is expected of the incoming prefects. there is no formal training of the prefects. the expectation of the learners is that a prefect must ensure that their interests are cared for and yet s/he is also the middle person between learners and the school administration. the position becomes quite challenging in that one has to appear to be advancing the interests of the learners as well as communicating to them the limitations the administration may express in a convincing manner without appearing to be a traitor. problem statement and research aims 4 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) literature reveals that in schools where learner participation in decision making is high, better school discipline exists (mgomezulu, 2004). although botswana secondary schools try to practice participatory management styles (monyatsi, 2005), evidence indicates that indiscipline has, in fact, remained quite problematic. since it is not clear why learner participation in school management has not translated into improved discipline, this study aimed to:  investigate the extent to which schools train learner-leaders to meaningfully participate in school management as a strategy for improving school discipline.  examine selected management aspects that should be included in a training program to empower learner-leader. review of literature schools in botswana as well as in other parts of the world are supposed to impart values, ideals, shared knowledge, and foster cognitive and emotional growth, to mention a few. according to functionalist and marxist perspective (haralambos & holborn, 1995) schools are also bureaucracies designed to maintain social order such as obedience, abiding by the rules, loyalty, respect for authority, punctuality, regular attendance, quietness, orderly work in large groups, responses to order, bells and timetables, and tolerance of monotony. the schools in botswana take after authoritarian and bureaucratic models inherited from the british-ruled colonial period (monyatsi, 2005). there is a scarcity of literature on learner involvement in school management in botswana. however, a number of scholars have looked at the management of secondary schools, others have examined the prevalence of deviant behaviors and the responses put in place by the ministry of education to address the school authoritarian structure. in 1993 the ministry of education of the republic of botswana and the then british overseas development agency (oda) put in place the secondary school management development project (ssmdp) standards as an attempt to democratize these authoritarian structures (monyatsi, 2005). this project was carried out under the assumption that one role of the schools is to enhance democratic skills, values, and the behavior necessary to sustain institutions (harber, 1989). it established staff development committees, school-based workshops, and cluster and regional workshops as a means of preparing school heads to democratize schools. in an evaluation of the project, a respondent mentioned that although the program was successful by transforming schools into democratic organizations, it failed to include learners in decision-making; one key theme this study addresses. the government further established the revised national policy on education (rnpe) as a direct intervention to head the guidance and counseling department of the botswana ministry of education and skills development (moe & sd) and pastoral care units in secondary schools to address deviant behaviors (monyatsi, 2005). while attempts at developing a pro-active discipline policy in schools are laudable, the question of corporal punishment that is nationwide applied and sanctioned (botswana-country report, 2010) becomes a setback to these efforts. the question of whether the incidences of indiscipline are the result of school authoritarian structure and the imposition of corporal punishment needs further inquiry. how does corporal punishment account for the rights of the 5 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) learners (office of the united nations high commissioner for human rights, n.d.)? how are learners suppose to behave in an institution that professes to impart democratic values, while simultaneously perpetuating violence on the learners? in this context it is not difficult to suggest that schools breed violence. the fact that schools have experienced several violent acts (tjavanga & jotia, 2012; mangope, dinama & kefhilwe, 2012; garegae, 2008) may, as kandel (1992) suggests, be a consequence of the violence the education system exacts on learners. the government has rejected recommendations to prohibit corporal punishment (botswana-country report, 2010). a point of interest is to find out if the government position about corporal punishment took into consideration views of a key stakeholder, the learners. research design and methods the study was quantitative and the instrument for data collection was a questionnaire because it would allow the researchers to involve a large sample and hence also provide high internal reliability and generalisability (simon & burstein, 1985). a team of research assistants gathered the targeted respondents, gave them the questionnaire to answer and collected the completed questionnaires. the study also included examination of documents, such as the education act, guidelines on offenses and punishments in secondary schools, and procedures for school heads to enhance communication and handling of students grievances/strikes, natural disasters and related emergencies in secondary schools. there are two traditions of document analysis: authenticity and transferability. authenticity focuses on truth-value, trustworthiness, credibility and the ability to provide a believable interpretation of the meaning found in the documents (richerson & boyd, 2002). authenticity relies on the subjective evaluation of the readers as opposed to being based on some objective standards (krippendorff, 2004). transferability is the ability to offer insights extending beyond the specific cases under study (bryman, 2004). as is the case in authenticity, the researchers rely upon their readers to assess the broader applicability of the lessons drawn from findings. this study applied both types of document analysis. sampling botswana has 28 senior secondary schools distributed over eight school districts. eight senior secondary schools in the north-central district were purposefully sampled based on their proximity to the researcher’s station. samples consisted 16 learner respondents from each school, namely: one head boy, one head girl, two dining hall prefects, two hostel prefects (boy and girl), one sports prefect, one entertainment prefect, four non-prefect learners (two girls and two boys) from form 5, and four non-prefect learners (two girls and two boys) from form 4. in short, there were 64 learners who will now be referred to as prefects and 64 learners who will be referred to as non-prefects. the terms “head” and “prefect” denote positions of leadership amongst the learners. the term “learner-leader” is widely used in literature sources whilst “prefect” is less used but widely used in botswana. for the sake of the research participants and the wider readership, the terms will be used interchangeably. the selection of prefects was done by the research assistants who were trained in the task. the assistants listed each sample of prefects alphabetically and chose the first boy and girl on the list. for the non-prefect learners, the assistants listed each sample (such as all boys in the hostel) alphabetically and chose the 15 th and 25 th boys and 10 th and 20 th girls on the list (see table 1). from each school, two prefect advisors (teachers working in collaboration with the prefects), one member of the management team and the principal of the school (four members of 6 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) the teaching staff) were included to confirm or negate the views of the prefects and non-prefect learners from a professional point of view. in summary a total of 160 participants took part in the survey (see table 1). table 1: total participants by gender and position gender position males females total principals 5 3 8 teachers 13 11 24 prefects 33 31 64 non-prefects 32 32 64 total 83 77 160 data collection the research assistants assembled the learner respondents in a classroom at a convenient time to complete the questionnaires. the teacher respondents were given the freedom to do so at their own convenient time but they were given three days to return the questionnaires. all the respondents were supposed to return the completed questionnaires to the assistants who, in turn, sent them back to the researcher. the return rate was 100%. data analysis the quantitative data was analysed by using a computer-aided statistical analysis program called statistical package for social sciences (spss). from the analysis the researcher generated frequency tables which are presented and discussed below. research results in the following section, the results of the empirical study are presented according to the research aim: research aim 1: to investigate the extent to which schools empower learner-leaders to meaningfully participate in school management as a strategy for improving school discipline. table 2: prefect and teacher views on training provided to prefects item p = p r e fe c ts t = t e a c h e r s a g r e e d is a g r e e m is si n g t o ta l 7 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % (a) when the prefects were elected their duties were well explained to them. t 27 84.4 3 9.4 2 6.2 32 100 p 54 84.4 3 4.7 7 10.9 64 100 (b) enough training was provided to prefects on aspects of school management. t 16 43.8 14 50 2 6.2 32 100 p 51 79.7 5 7.8 8 12.5 64 100 (c) the training gave the prefects confidence to participate in aspects of school management. t 15 46.9 15 46.9 2 6.2 32 100 p 48 75 7 10.9 9 14.1 64 100 (d) the involvement of prefects in the management aspects of the school has helped to improve discipline in the school. t 21 65.6 9 28.2 2 6.2 32 100 p 43 67.2 14 21.9 7 10.9 64 100 table 2 presents the views of the prefects and teachers regarding the empowerment of learner-leaders. the table indicates that the majority of the teachers and prefects strongly agreed with two of the items (items a and d). for example, a large percentage of the teachers and prefects (84.4% in both cases) agreed that the duties of the prefects were well explained to the prefects. the teachers and prefects (65.6% and 67.2% respectively) also agreed that the involvement of prefects in the management aspects of the school has helped to improve discipline in the schools. a significant percentage of the teachers (50%) disagreed that enough training was provided to the prefects while 79.7% of the prefects agreed with this statement (table 2, item b). while 75% of the prefects agreed that training gave confidence to the prefects, only 46.9% of the teachers agreed with this statement (table 2, item c). both the teachers and the prefects agreed that the involvement of prefects in the management aspects of the school has helped to improve discipline in the school (table 2, item d). table 3: views of the teachers and non-prefects on prefect activities item t = t e a c h e r s n = n o n -p r e fe c ts a g r e e d is a g r e e m is si n g t o ta l p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % (a) the involvement of prefects in the t 19 59.4 12 37.5 1 3.1 32 100 8 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) management aspects of the school is high n 28 43 34 53.7 3 2 64 100 (b) the learners frequently meet prefects to discuss matters of concern. t 21 65.6 11 34.4 0 0 32 100 n 37 57.9 25 39.7 2 2.4 64 100 (c) the prefects are doing a good job representing the interests of the learners. t 23 71.9 9 28.1 0 0 32 100 n 40 62 21 33.9 3 4.1 64 100 (d) the general level of discipline in the school is sound t 22 68.8 10 31.2 0 0 32 100 n 35 55.3 26 41.3 3 4.7 64 100 in table 3, 59.4% of the teachers and 43% of the non-prefects agreed whilst 53.7% of the non-prefects disagreed with the statement that the involvement of prefects in the management of the schools is high (table 3, item a). in item b (table 3), a considerable percentage of the teachers and non-prefects (65.6% and 57.9% respectively) agreed that the learners frequently met prefects to discuss matters of concern. although there was agreement, a significant percentage of the non-prefects (39.7%) disagreed that this was the case. the majority of the teachers (71.9%) and non-prefects (62%) further agreed that the prefects are doing a good job representing the interests of the learners (table 3, item c). a similar pattern was observed in the way respondents expressed their views on the level of discipline in the schools. just under 70% (68.8%) of the teachers agreed that the level of discipline in school was sound and 55.3% of the non-prefects agreed with the statement, while a significant 41.3% of the non-prefects said discipline was not sound (table 3, item d). table 4: a comparison of the opinions of the principals and the teachers on the training of prefects. position agree disagree missing total principals 75% (6) 12.5% (1) 12.5% (1) 100% (8) teachers 37.5% (9) 50% (12) 12.5% (3) 100% (24) table 4 presents a comparison of the opinions of the principals and the teachers (heads of department and prefect advisors) on the following statement: “prefects were given enough training on aspects of school management.” the table shows that half of the teachers (50%) disagreed with the statement that enough training was provided to the prefects on issues of management, while three-quarters of the principals (75%) agreed with the statement. research aim 2: to examine selected management aspects that should be included in a training program to empower learner-leaders. this section comprises responses to an item that asked teachers and prefects whether they agreed or disagreed with the inclusion of some specific knowledge and skills aspects of leadership and management into a training program. some of the aspects were included because some educationists, including law and glover (2000), lepard and foster (2003), and harber 9 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) (1997) recommend that prefects need to be conversant with aspects included in table 5. table 5: aspects that should be included in a training program selected items for inclusion in training program a g r e e d is a g r e e m is si n g t o ta l knowledge of p :p r e fe c ts t :t e a c h e r s p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % p a r ti c ip a n ts % a) school vision and mission p 32 50 19 29.7 13 20.3 64 100 t 18 56.3 10 31.3 4 12.4 32 100 b) school rules and regulations p 45 70.3 12 18.8 7 10.9 64 100 t 25 78.1 6 18.8 1 3.1 32 100 c) problems/challenges the school faces p 49 74.5 11 18.7 4 6.8 64 100 t 22 68.8 8 25 2 6.2 32 100 d) student rights and obligations p 54 84.3 3 4.7 7 11 64 100 t 19 59.3 12 37.5 1 3.2 32 100 e) powers and limitations of the prefects p 51 79.7 8 12.5 5 7.8 64 100 t 21 65.6 9 28 2 6.4 32 100 f) leadership and management p 53 82.8 10 15.6 1 1.6 64 100 t 20 62.5 9 28 3 9.5 32 100 skills in a) leading by example p 35 54.6 28 43.7 1 1.7 64 100 t 27 84.4 3 9.4 2 6.2 32 100 b) problem solving p 53 82.8 9 14.1 2 3.1 64 100 t 29 90.6 1 3.1 2 6.3 32 100 c) decision making p 55 85.9 3 4.7 6 9.4 64 100 t 29 90.6 3 9.4 0 0 32 100 d) public speaking p 48 75 12 18.8 4 6.2 64 100 t 28 87.5 2 7.1 2 5.4 32 100 e) consensus building p 50 78.1 6 9.4 8 12.5 64 100 t 27 84.4 5 15.6 0 0 32 100 f) assertiveness p 29 46.2 19 29.3 16 24.5 64 100 t 29 90.6 3 9.4 0 0 32 100 table 5 shows orientation towards what should be included in the preparation of learnerleaders so that they can meaningfully participate in school management. the table shows strong agreement in most of the items regarding knowledge that they should be included in the training program. for instance, no less than 70% of the prefects agreed that all but one (item a) of the 10 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) knowledge items should be included in the training program. table 5 indicates that the majority of the prefects (over 70%) agreed that all the items in the “skills” section, except two (items a and f), should be included in the training program. there were some prefects (43.7%) who disagreed that “leading by example” should be included in the training program. prefects were also uncomfortable with the skill of “assertiveness” as 29.3% of them disagreed that it should be included in the training program and 24.5% of them did not respond at all. discussion research aim 1: to investigate the extent to which schools empower learner-leaders to meaningfully participate in school management as a strategy for improving school discipline. table 2 reveals that there was strong agreement (84.4%) among the teachers and the prefects that duties were well explained to the newly elected prefects. the importance of transparency to the prefects cannot be overemphasised. when the prefects have a full understanding of what is expected of them, it becomes easier to relate with what they learn later on with regard to school management knowledge and skills. when the teachers project to the prefects such a sense of commitment and caring, this tends to develop in the prefects a sense of trust that the teachers wish them to succeed in their duties. this can be a helpful starting point in building a relationship that will have less conflict (harber, 1997). according to the education act (education, ministry of, 1995), the duties of prefects are mainly to supervise, monitor, and administer the general duties assigned to learners in the whole school. from this act, the ministry of education and schools developed guidelines for promoting discipline. some of the guidelines include: the prefects--(i) should insist on punctuality, (ii) are responsible for the orderly conduct of entertainment, (iii) will help the master-on-duty, (iv) will ensure that hygiene is maintained in hostels, classrooms and the surrounding areas, and (v) will ensure that there is order in the dining hall. performing well in these tasks can not be common sense. prefects need training to acquire certain skills and knowledge base relevant to institutional management. items b and c (in table 2) refer to the training of the prefects. on the one hand, close to 80% (79.7%) of the prefects agreed that enough training was provided and 75% of them said that the training gave them confidence to participate in the management of the school. on the other hand less than 50% of the teachers agreed with the statements. from the teachers’ perspective the training may have been deficient, perhaps in terms of relevancy of the content or amount of content or method of delivery or a combination of the mentioned aspects. if such a considerable number of the teachers (46.9%) felt that the training did not give the prefects confidence, then it does confirm the teachers’ sentiments (see table 2 item b) that the training is deficient in some respects. in fact, the documents that these researchers examined do not suggest that any formal training was meant to be provided to develop skills and knowledge in the prefects (education, ministry of (1978&1995). the prefects seem to believe that they are adequately skilled and knowledgeable to participate in the management of the school, while the teachers feel the opposite. such a situation can create conflict because the prefects may feel that they are competent and therefore entitled to greater involvement in the management activities of the 11 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) school, while the teachers may feel justified to not allow the prefects increased involvement. furthermore, it is rather questionable that the prefects would know what would constitute “enough training”. it would appear that the prefects were content with whatever training was given to them and not necessarily that the training was adequate. for instance, it is an injustice that schools should raise citizens who cannot question authority about issues that bother them. instead, schools should promote enlightenment perspectives that will empower learners to question injustices committed against them, such as corporal punishment (haralambos & holborn, 1995). such an approach would be in tandem with government efforts of promoting democracy. only when learner-leaders have passed the test of expertise in skills and knowledge (hoy & miskel, 1996) would they be able to participate in school management aspects. the test of expertise establishes the degree to which a stakeholder possesses the expertise or qualification to make a useful contribution to a decision or solution of a problem. almost 66% (65.6%) of the teachers believe that the involvement of the prefects in the management aspects of the school has helped to improve discipline in the schools. the views of the teachers do not make good sense given the fact that 43.8% of them said the training was not enough and 46.9% said the training did not give the prefects confidence to participate in school management. to understand this inconsistency, it may be necessary to first establish if the prefects and the teachers have a common understanding of the notion of “improved discipline”. in general terms the responses from the prefects suggest that the training of the prefects was satisfactory although it is doubtful if the prefects knew the type of training they were supposed to undergo. the teachers expressed reservations to suggestions that prefects had received enough training. table 3 includes views of the teachers (comprising school principals, heads of department, and prefect advisors) and the non-prefects (learners who do not have leadership responsibility in the school). only 43% of the non-prefects agreed and 53.7% disagreed that the involvement of prefects in the management aspects of the school is high. given that the nonprefects are probable victims of the rules and regulations which prefects implement, they would want to project them as failures. another possible explanation would be that they expect prefects to get involved in decision making so that they can influence decisions in favour of the learners. on the other hand, 59.4% of the teachers were in the affirmative. this is a situation where the non-prefects can pressure their prefects to demand greater involvement in decision making and the teachers would probably argue that the learners are already adequately involved. if both sides stick to their positions, it could degenerate into open conflict that could impact on the discipline of the school. it is also possible that the teachers deliberately take this view as a defence mechanism that will keep the learners away from issues of school management in order to not subject themselves to what may sometimes be unreasonable learner demands. with regard to teachers, 65.6% of them and 57.9% of the non-prefects were in agreement that learners frequently met prefects to discuss matters of concern. as harber (1997) alludes, this is commendable in a democratic system because the assumption is that when leaders consult their constituencies they will be better able to advance their interests and thereby reduce possibilities of conflict between them and promote the interest of the school. the assumption that their meeting regularly advances the common good of the school may be wrong in that the meetings may be a breeding ground for indiscipline acts, especially if the prefects are unskilled in directing and managing the meetings in a way that limits space for trouble making. 12 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) the teachers and the non-prefects strongly agreed (71.9% and 62% respectively) that the prefects were doing a good job representing the interests of the learners. a point of concern may be whether or not the learners’ interests are in conflict with the core business of the school to deliver a good education. if there is conflict, it may be a symptom of what harris (2005, p. 5) refers to as the failure of school managers “to harness all those within an organisation to create a common culture.” in other words, a school with a common culture is likely to have its members understand its core business. nearly 70% (68.8%) of the teachers and only 55.3% of the non-prefects agreed that the general level of discipline in the school is reasonable although a considerable 41.3% of the nonprefects disagreed with the statement. considering tables 2 (item d) and 3 (item d), it is clear that the prefects and the non-prefects agree that the general level of discipline in the schools is acceptable. the views of the learners are also supported by the teachers in tables 2 (item d) and 3 (item d). this is in contrast with what garegae (2008) and, hulela and matsolo (2011) who observed that discipline in botswana schools is in a state of crisis. it is difficult to explain why the researchers and the people (teachers and non-prefects) in the schools differ so much with regard to the state of discipline in the schools. one possible explanation could be that they have different views on the characteristics of acceptable or unacceptable discipline. viewed from the perspective of the teachers and non-prefects, their way of thinking suggests that training prefects in leadership and management aspects in botswana is unnecessary. given the ever-increasing body of knowledge/information powered by the ever-growing research and information technology, it is difficult to subscribe to a view that training prefects is pointless. in table 4, 75% of the principals and only 37.5% of the teachers (heads of department and prefect advisors) agreed that prefects were given enough training in aspects of school leadership and management. in fact, 50% of the teachers disagreed with the statement. the disparity between the views of the teachers and the principals are confusing because it is difficult to know who represents the truth. taking into account that the prefect advisors are likely to be involved in the training of the prefects and that they are in the 50% of teachers who disagree, their views should, perhaps, carry more weight than those of the principals who tend to be too busy to get directly involved in such exercises. in addition, it is likely that the principals would not say something that would reflect negatively on their own management style. the position of the teachers in table 4 is consistent with their views in table 2 when only 43.8% of them agreed and 50% disagreed that enough training was provided to the prefects. in relation to discipline and training the teachers have taken two views; that discipline in schools is reasonable; and not enough training in aspects of leadership and management is given to the prefects. the views give the sense that it is possible to have a high learner involvement rate in aspects of school management (see table 3, item a) and good discipline without having to train the learners in aspects of leadership and management. harber (1997) clearly disagrees with the conjecture that people genetically inherit such knowledge and skills, rather, he says, they are learned socially and schools must play a role in this. the prefects strongly agreed that they were empowered through training to be able to participate in leadership and management activities of the school. the teachers are also quite clear that they are not satisfied with the preparation of the prefects to ably take leadership and 13 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) management roles. given the understanding that the learners are generally less knowledgeable and experienced than the teachers, these researchers take the following positions:  that training the prefects in leadership and management aspects is a prerequisite for meaningful involvement of the prefects in the running of the school, and  that when the prefects are empowered through training, the knowledge/skills gap between them and the school managers will be bridged and that should translate into fewer areas of potential conflict and therefore improve discipline. since the content that can be included in a prefect training program is not obvious, the following section attempts to develop content that is considered appropriate for botswana schools and benefits from the input of the teachers and learners. the content serves as the foundation over which more advanced work can be built. research aim 2: to examine selected management aspects that should be included in a training program to empower learner-leaders. table 5 shows strong agreement among the teachers on most of the knowledge items that should be included in a prefect training program regarding making them aware of the school vision and mission, rules and regulations, rights and obligations, among others. the teachers expressed similar sentiments regarding most of the skills items, including problem solving, decision making, public speaking, and consensus building. referring back to table 2, item b and table 4, the teachers were consistent in stating that not enough training was provided to the prefects. it makes sense that in table 5 they agree with all the items that were proposed for inclusion in the training program. stated differently, the teachers are suggesting that the content in table 5 can correct the shortfalls in the training that the prefects currently undergo. in table 5, the prefects strongly agree with all but one of the knowledge items proposed for inclusion in the training program. they also strongly agree with all but two skills items. the prefects were rather inconsistent in their views in that they strongly agree that enough training was provided (see table 2, item b) and in table 5 they also strongly agree that the listed items should be included in the training program. it is possible that the training program they underwent included content other than the one in table 5. if indeed that is the case, it raises doubt about the type of content they learned if the items in table 5 were not included. the respondents indicated that issues of rights and obligations should be included in the training program. this suggests that the learner-leaders and learners may be ignorant of some of their rights, such as the right not to be flogged. if this is indeed the case, they would not be able to promote the rights of others in the school. the problem also becomes a “values” issue in that they may think “if someone can inflict physical pain on me, why should i not do it on someone if they wrong me?” this pattern of reasoning may explain why schools are experiencing increasing rates of physical bullying and violence. table 5 (item a) shows the prefects had misgivings about “understanding school vision and mission” as only 50% of them agreed that it should be included in the training program. vision and mission of an organisation are important because they give direction to what stakeholders should be doing. it is therefore surprising that 29.7% disagreed with its inclusion in a training program and 20.3% did not even respond. perhaps some of the prefects did not understand the importance of the “vision and mission” of an organisation. the prefects (43.7%) were rather uncomfortable with the skill of “leading by example” (see table 5). it is understandable that they would feel this way because, although leading by 14 training learner-leaders in school management aspects: a strategy to improving school discipline in botswana ___________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) example is what is expected of leaders, it is a challenging demand. it is comprehensible that the prefects would feel so intimidated by such an expectation that they would rather not subject themselves to it. item f (in table 5) also shows that the prefects were divided in that 46.2% agreed, 29.3% disagreed and 24.5% did not respond at all. assertiveness is a useful skill to master as a leader for many reasons. for example, an assertive leader will make sure that team members do not depart from the agreed upon course of action. the fact that some of the prefects do not support its inclusion in the training program may not necessarily mean that they disapprove of it. it may perhaps mean that they did not understand what it meant. if the content in table 5 is properly taught, according to law and glover (2000), lepard and foster (2003), and harber (1997), it will empower the prefects in terms of acquiring knowledge and skills appropriate to school management. in addition, the knowledge gap between the prefects and the school managers would be reduced. when the knowledge gap is reduced, there will be increased likelihood for greater common understanding and hence, reducing areas of potential conflict between them. harber (1997) believes that developing competency in the prefects and bridging the knowledge gap would not only minimise conflict but improve learner discipline as well. conclusion the foregone discussion showed that the prefect duties demand certain specific management/leadership skills and knowledge. the secondary education system does not seem to have clear strategies of equipping prefects with such skills and knowledge. with the ever increasing awareness of rights to participate in management issues, it is reasonable to expect that learners will continue to demand involvement in decision making processes. to avert possible worsening of indiscipline in secondary schools, training learner-leaders as a way to prepare them to effectively and meaningfully participate in school management is the sensible measure to take. in this connection this study recommends that the skills and knowledge items in table 5 be included in a learner-leader training program. for the training program to bear the desired fruits, we hope that the learner-leaders will seize it as an opportunity for personal development and that the trainers, who will likely be teachers, will not view the process as robbing them of power and authority. references botswana-country report. 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(1985). basic research methods in social science. 3 rd ed. new york: random house. http://allafrica.com/stories/200804072035.html http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc/html http://www.joe.org/joe/1999october/comm1.php http://www.onusida.aoc.org/eng/publications 17 victor y. mgomezulu and nathalis wamba and lester b. shawa ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3 no. 1 (2013) tjavanga, h. & jotia, a.l. (2012). “school bullies and education in botswana: impact on other students and academic performance,” academic research international, 2 (1). retrieved from www.savap.org.pk/journals/arint./vol.2(1)/2012(2.1-61a).pdf. villiers, e & pretorius, s.g. (2011). “democracy in schools: are educators ready for teacher leadership?” south african journal of education. 31,574-589. http://www.savap.org.pk/journals/arint./vol.2(1)/2012(2.1-61a).pdf fons teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya maureen mweru kenyatta university, kenya abstract gender socialization has an impact on children and any gender stereotyped verbal comments or activities assigned to children by those in charge are bound to influence the attitudes children have of themselves. this exploratory study therefore set out to investigate among 36 kenyan preschool teachers if they hold gender-stereotyped views and if they communicate these views to children during selection and use of play materials. to collect data, an observation schedule was used. t-tests were then performed to find specific intergroup differences. teachers were found to influence children in a gender stereotyped manner with more influence being exerted on boys than on girls. this influence on the children may encourage the children to adopt gender roles that are not always fair to both genders. this study therefore advocates for the encouragement and training of teachers to adopt an androgynous gender role attitude. in this way teachers may also encourage this same attitude in preschool children. keywords: teachers, preschools, play materials, gender stereotyping, kenya 1 teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) introduction extensive research has been carried out in the area of gender stereotyping of children’s toys in the western world yet surprisingly, the trend in developing countries is far less documented especially in africa where research in this area seems to have been ignored. existing studies on gender stereotyping of toys in the united states and canada (caldera, huston & o’brien, 1989; campenni, 1999; fein, johnson, kosson, stork & wasserman, 1985; serbin, poulin-dubois, colburne, sen & eichstedt, 2001; weintraub et al., 1984), and in europe and asia (kim, 2002; roopnarine, ahmeduzzaman, hossain & reigraf, 1992; suito & reifel, 1992; wegenerspohring, 1989) revealed the existence of stereotypes regarding children’s play materials. the interest in the perceptions held of play materials continues to rise as play materials play an ever-increasing role in the socialization process of young children. the type of socialization a child undergoes has a significant role in the child’s life. research (beauvoir, 1953; hadley & nenga, 2004; michelle, 1971; saadawi, 1980; shorey, 1983; steinke et al., 2007) shows that socialization processes have an impact on the child’s perceptions, personality, role definition and role performance. social learning theory (bandura, 1977; mischel, 1970) also emphasizes that early experiences determine later behavioural patterns. children will develop behaviours based on principles of learning, reinforcement, extinction, and imitation of models. early differences in the play materials provided and activities encouraged during free-play and during assigned activities will therefore determine how girls and boys come to perceive themselves as they do. riria (1986) argues that no child would be able to perceive him or herself as gender differentiated if no one indicated to him or her that this difference existed. more often than not this difference is communicated to the child through the kind of activities that are assigned to the child by whoever is in charge of him or her. one implication of these childhood activities for girls’ development is that girls grow up to internalise the expectation that their goal in life is to serve others mainly in the home. available literature from research carried out in the western world shows that play materials tend to be differentiated according to gender (bertozzi, 2008). play materials viewed as appropriate for girls are likely to be seen as attractive, creative, nurturing and manipulable while those for boys are seen as being more competitive, aggressive, constructive, conducive to handling and reality based (miller, 1987). those viewed as appropriate for girls include domestically oriented and stuffed toys while vehicles, balls, guns and construction toys are seen as appropriate for boys. teachers and classroom activities may also have a role to play in gender stereotyping of play materials. lee & gropper (1974) found that classrooms particularly at the preschool level are arranged into highly gender-stereotyped play areas such as a cooking corner for girls and a building-blocks corner for boys. such a layout may reinforce the idea that such activities are incompatible and make crossing over to gender-inappropriate activities more difficult. therefore, the way children are socialized may encourage them to sex-type play materials. there are also effects of gender stereotyped play. during and immediately following play with such toys, children are more accepted by their same sex peers who are also more likely to approach them (berndt & heller, 1986; eisenberg, tryon & cameron, 1984; moller, hymel & rubin, 1992). although interest groups working towards gender equity have emerged in recent years in developing countries especially in africa, women are still striving to overcome deep-seated cultural barriers to equal participation in the social, economic and political arenas. in kenya for instance, women were traditionally regarded as subordinate to men (chesaina, 1994). while in maureen mweru _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 2 malawi research (davidson & kanyuka, 1992) has shown that too often girls learnt at an early age that they are expected to limit themselves to activities at home and were tracked at school to courses which reinforce their roles as domestic producers and reproducers and that may exclude them from other productive careers. schools therefore also bring social pressures to bear upon boys and girls to conform to masculine and feminine characteristics respectively. boys are expected to be active, objective and interested in ideas while girls are expected to be passive, subjective and more interested in people than ideas (eshiwani, 1986; steinke et al., 2007). schools therefore also play a significant role in the socialization of children. african cultural and gender socialization processes could have an influence on children and classroom teachers. literature (kenyatta, 1965; mbevi, 2010; mwaniki, 1985) describes how children in the african traditional society were prepared for adult responsibilities from an early age. the children were gradually socialized into their adult roles by members of the extended family as they grew up (kenyatta, 1965; magesa, 1998). due to this continuous education and training, they grew up well grounded to effectively take up various roles in adulthood. the concept of parenting was wider than the man and woman who were the biological parents. all adult members of the community to which the child belonged assumed parental responsibilities (mbevi, 2010; mwaniki, 1985). there were specific roles expected of men and those expected of women and due to this, boys and girls received different kinds of training (kenyatta, 1965). the same scenario was found among the igbo of nigeria for instance where the boys’ fathers scolded and severely beat their sons to ensure they removed any traits that were viewed as being womanish (uwalaka, 2003). although indigenous knowledge systems varied from one society to another, these systems were essentially an education for living (erny, 1981). the indigenous education placed a very strong emphasis on acquisition of knowledge which was useful to the individual and society as a whole (erny, 1981). in the contemporary society however, there have been changes whereby children spend most of their time in school and while at home are busy doing their homework (berns, 2009; mburugu & adams, 2001). presently in africa, unlike in the past, a greater number of young children are being enrolled for preschool education and are therefore spending a great percent of their childhood years under the care of preschool teachers. this change has occurred as a result of the awareness of the benefits of preschool education and the break up of the extended family. this trend has also resulted in changes in the socialization process with preschool teachers playing a greater role in young children’s lives. this is a significant change from the past when the young child’s primary socialization agents were his or her extended family as the young child spent most of his or her time with these individuals. preschool teachers are therefore playing an increasing role in the socialization of young children comparable to that of the child’s guardians. in the preschools, the teachers act as role models and tend to pass on the attitudes and views they hold to children. they therefore play a major role in the preschool children’s lives and any prejudices they hold can, when communicated to young children, leave an indelible mark in young children’s minds. another factor is the early childhood education syllabus developed by the kenyan ministry of education and intended for use in kenyan preschools. it places an emphasis on the use of play and play materials by teachers during learning in preschools (kenya institute of education, 2008). it is due to these factors that this study was designed to investigate whether preschool teachers in kenya hold gender stereotypes and if they transmit these stereotypes to young children under their care during free-play sessions. 3 teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) specifically, the objectives of this study were to:  find out if preschool teachers influence children in specific selection patterns of play materials  establish if preschool teachers influence children in specific use patterns of play materials  determine if the gender of the child influences the extent to which the child’s selection patterns are influenced by teachers  find out if gender of the child influences the extent to which the child’s use patterns are influenced by teachers in this study, the term gender appropriate play material was used to refer to play materials that people generally think only children of one sex should play with while cross-gender play material was used to refer to play materials that are seen appropriate for the other sex and gender-neutral play material referred to play materials that are seen as appropriate for both sexes. the term selection was used to mean choosing or picking a play material and use to refer to handling or manipulating a play material. sample and sampling method the participants in this study were 36 preschool teachers in selected nairobi city council preschools in kenya. of the 36 teachers, 35 were female and one was male. all the teachers had training in early childhood education at the certificate or diploma level with 19 of the teachers having certificate level training while the remaining 17 had diplomas. the number of years of teaching experience varied with 11 teachers having less than 5 years teaching experience, 18 teachers had 5 to 10 years teaching experience, 3 teachers had 11 to 15 years experience and 4 teachers had over 16 years teaching experience. city council preschools were the focus of this study and were selected as the study sites because the kenyan ministry of education trains most of the teachers in these preschools. to determine which city council preschools were to be used in this study, the researcher consulted the education officer one in charge of early childhood education with the city education department. this education officer is an educationist with long standing experience of educational practice in nairobi city council preschools. the city education department classifies these schools into three groups. these are groups e, f and g. during the colonial days, the preschools in group e were termed as low class, those in group f as middle class and those in group g as high class. from this list, the city education officer provided the researcher with the names of two schools from each group. the city education officer felt these schools were representative of the other schools in those groups. therefore, the researcher was provided with names of six schools. within the six schools that were selected, nine classes were selected. each class was homogeneous in terms of the age of the children. therefore, in each school, three classes were selected, one of three-year-old children, one of four-year-old children and one of five-year-old children. each class had two teachers who were in charge of the children, therefore a total of 36 teachers were observed interacting with the children. tools of measurement an observation schedule was used to record frequency counts of how the teachers interacted with the children to influence them during their selection and use of the play materials. in general, the maureen mweru _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 4 play materials used were homemade. these included play materials perceived as appropriate for boys, play materials deemed as appropriate for girls and play materials which were considered to be gender-neutral. the play materials used in the current study were developed after an extensive review of literature (caldera, huston & o’brien, 1989; campenni, 1999; fein, johnson, kosson, stork & wasserman, 1985; kim, 2002; roopnarine, ahmeduzzaman, hossain & reigraf, 1992; serbin, poulin-dubois, colburne, sen & eichstedt, 2001; suito & reifel, 1992; wegener-spohring, 1989; weintraub et al., 1984). these play materials had been mentioned in the previous research as being appropriate either for boys or girls or as being gender neutral. play materials mentioned as appropriate for boys were toy-cars, catapults, lorries and footballs. those appropriate for girls included dolls, skipping ropes, brooms and cooking utensils while the play materials that were perceived as gender-neutral were televisions, beanbags, wire-shakers and cameras. the opinions of experts in the area of early childhood education regarding the extent to which these play materials were representative was also obtained. the specialists consulted were five university lecturers who had extensive knowledge in the area of early childhood education and five preschool teachers who had hands on experience working in various preschools in kenya. therefore the following 12 play materials were used in this study: toy-cars, catapults, lorries, footballs, dolls, skipping ropes, brooms, cooking utensils, televisions, beanbags, wireshakers and cameras. a minimum of 12 pieces of each play material was constructed so that each classroom had a minimum of three pieces of each kind of play material. approximately 36 toys were provided per class. the rationale for using the author’s supplies instead of the classroom regular play materials was to ensure there would be uniformity in the type of play materials in all the sampled schools. the play materials provided were enough as each of the classrooms from which data was collected had less than 20 children. thus, providing 36 play materials in each classroom ensured the play materials were enough. the hypotheses statements guiding this study were:  preschool teachers influence children in specific selection patterns.  preschool teachers influence children in specific use patterns.  gender of the child influences the extent to which the child’s selection patterns are influenced by teachers.  gender of the child influences the extent to which the child’s use patterns are influenced by teachers. validity and reliability validity and reliability was obtained through pre-testing of the instruments in a school that was not included in the final study. the piloting was necessary to appraise the instruments and check whether they tested what they were supposed to test. during the piloting, the researcher and a research assistant visited three classrooms in the selected school and in each classroom they both observed one teacher and recorded this teacher’s interactions with the children. after collecting data from the three classrooms, the two researchers then compared the data they had collected and a calculation of the inter-observer agreement was carried out. the inter-observer agreement assessed by percentage agreement was 84%. procedure the researcher and a research assistant visited the selected preschools and introduced the play 5 teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) materials to the preschool teachers and instructed them to introduce these play materials to the children. the researcher informed the teachers that the study being undertaken was on children’s play behaviour but she did not provide specific details regarding the nature of the study. therefore, the teachers were not aware of the focus of the study and did not, as a result consciously encourage or discourage the children to stereotype the play materials. the researchers visited each classroom over a period of two weeks during the free-play period. the free-play period was selected as the most suitable for data collection due to the availability of play materials during this session and the fact that the preschool teachers would be engaged in watching over the children. therefore, they would not pay close attention to the researchers. in the first week, the children were given a chance to explore and get used to the play materials and during the second week, the research was carried out. the classroom teachers were asked to introduce the researchers as new teachers to reduce the children’s curiosity. the play materials were initially placed at the front of the classroom on the teachers’ table or on another table, and the children were asked to select what they wanted to play with from the play materials on the table. they were also told that they could exchange that play material for another by returning the play materials they finished playing with to the table and exchanging them for other play materials. the purpose of the researchers visit to the classrooms during the first week was to verify that the preschool teachers had actually introduced the play materials to the children and to familiarize the children with the researchers as the researchers were participant observers during the study. the researchers also carried observation sheets with them during the first week and acted as if they were observing the children’s play and recording the children’s interactions. this was completed to ensure the preschool teachers would not deduce they were the main focus of the study when the actual data collection began during the second week. the research was therefore carried out during the second week. as there were two teachers and two researchers in each classroom, one researcher recorded one teacher’s interactions with the children and the other researcher recorded the other teachers’ interactions. the researchers noted down how the teachers influenced the children in selection and use of the play materials that is, frequency counts were made of the teachers encouraging or discouraging children to sex-type the play materials. data was therefore collected as the teachers made comments or behaved in any manner that positively or negatively influenced the children in selection of play materials. these behaviours included teachers giving the children play materials to play with, teachers taking play materials from the children and teachers telling children to play or not to play with certain play materials. examples of such comments include statements such as, “mary, pick the big doll…..then you can dress it like a baby” this statement made to a girl, mary, was viewed as encouraging the girl to play with a doll. while a statement directed to a boy such as, “are you sure you know how to cook?” was viewed as discouraging the boy from playing with the cooking utensils. maureen mweru _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 6 results to determine the teachers’ influence in the children’s selection and use of the play materials, ttests were performed to find specific inter-group differences. there was a significant difference between the extent to which the children were influenced in selection of gender appropriate play materials (m = 1.077) and extent they were influenced in selection of cross-gender play materials (m = 0.108), t (156) = -19.75, p < .05. there was also a significant difference between the extent to which they were influenced in selection of gender appropriate play materials (m = 1.077) and extent they were influenced in selection of gender-neutral play materials (m = 0.255), t (156) = 16.23, p < .05. t-test further revealed a significant difference between extent they were influenced in gender appropriate use (m = 1.204) and extent they were influenced in cross gender use of play materials (m = 0.056), t (156) = -20.90, p < .05. there was also a significant difference between extent of influence they received in gender-neutral use (m = 0.121) and extent they were influenced in gender appropriate use (m = 1.204), t (156) = 19.98, p < .05. the results therefore revealed that the extent to which the children were influenced in selection and use of gender-appropriate play materials was much higher than the extent to which they were influenced in selection and use of cross-gender and gender-neutral play materials. it is also apparent that teachers least frequently redirected or influenced children from cross-gender selection and use. the results also showed that the mean score for the extent to which boys were influenced by teachers in selection (m = 1.770) and use (m = 1.626) of all the play materials was higher than the mean score for the extent of the influence on the girls’ selection (m = 1.068) and use (m = 1.106) of all the play materials. the teachers therefore directed their influence to boys more than girls. in addition, t-tests were performed to find the specific differences between the extent to which the boys and the girls were influenced in selection and use of all the categories of play materials. these findings are illustrated in table 1. table 1 extent to which the children were influenced in selection and use of the different categories of play materials boys girls m m t df p__________ selection gender-appropriate 1.459 0.648 13.96 155 .000* cross-gender 0.047 0.175 -5.11 155 .000* gender-neutral 0.264 0.244 0.57 155 .569** all play materials 1.770 1.067 10.66 155 .000* use gender-appropriate 1.495 0.878 6.43 155 .000* cross-gender 0.059 0.054 0.45 155 .650** gender-neutral 0.073 0.175 -3.17 155 .002* all play materials 1.627 1.107 4.83 155 .000* 7 teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) * significant at p = 0.05** not significant the data in table 1 also shows the extent to which the children were influenced in selection and use of the specific categories of play materials. it is evident that the teachers directed girls significantly more than boys in selection of cross-gender play materials with the reverse occurring as regards the gender-neutral play materials where boys were influenced more than girls although there was no significant difference between the mean scores. however, as regards influence in gender-appropriate selection and use of the play materials, the results in table 1 show that the teachers exerted more influence over the boys with the mean score for the extent to which the boys were influenced being almost double that of the extent of the influence on the girls. the same applied to cross-gender use of play materials with a higher mean score being obtained of teachers directing the boys more than the girls although there was no significant difference in this type of influence. however, there was a significant difference as regards gender-neutral use of play materials with girls receiving significantly more influence. discussion the results obtained showed that preschool teachers influenced the children to select genderappropriate play materials and use play materials in a gender-appropriate manner significantly more than selecting cross-gender or gender-neutral play materials and using the same in a crossgender or gender-neutral manner respectively. these findings on teachers’ influence on children were similar to those of fagot & oregon (1984) who also found that teachers seemed to have preferences as to which play materials children of different genders should play with and tended to encourage children to sextype these play materials. in the present study, the teachers also exerted most influence on the children in gender-appropriate selection and use of play materials but exerted very little influence on the children during cross-gender selection and use of play materials. it is possible that the teachers were positively reinforcing gender-appropriate behaviours by paying attention to the children who displayed these kinds of behaviours while they used little punishment or other forms of negative reinforcement on children displaying cross-gender behaviour because they did not want to encourage cross-gender behaviour. it is also possible that due to the presence of the researchers, the teachers did not redirect the children during cross-gender selection and use of play materials. the teachers may have felt uncomfortable about reprimanding the children for cross-gender behaviour when the researchers were present. therefore, this could be another reason why the teachers paid little attention to cross-gender behaviour. in most kenyan societies, greater social value is placed on men displaying “male” behaviour. females who adopt male behaviour receive little reproach but males who adopt female behaviour are readily stigmatised. it can be assumed, therefore, that the teachers were exerting more pressure on the boys because the society they live in is very particular and demands that boys display male behaviour. it is, therefore, not surprising that the teachers in this study exerted more pressure on the boys because they may have noticed that the boys were not selecting and using genderappropriate play materials as frequently as they expected them to. therefore, it is possible that the extra pressure on the boys was meant to ensure the boys selected and used more genderappropriate play materials, but this needs further research for confirmation. maureen mweru _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) 8 the findings on teachers’ influence on boys and girls in selection and use of play materials are similar to other studies (durkin, 1985; maccoby & jacklin, 1974; martin, 2005) that also found that guardians exerted more influence on boys than on girls to conform to genderappropriate behaviour. this shows that it is not only in kenya where more pressure is put on boys to conform to gender-appropriate behaviour. there was only one male teacher in the sample therefore it was difficult to carry out a comparison of the teachers’ actions based on their gender. previous studies in kenya (kinuthia, 2009; makoti, 2005; waithaka, 2005) have established that teaching in preschools is dominated by female teachers. the poor remuneration, belief that looking after young children is women’s work and the preschool children’s parents influence were found to be some of the factors contributing to this gender disparity (karanja, 2009). perhaps future studies that include larger samples of male teachers could provide in-depth information as to whether teachers display sextyped behaviour due to their gender. all the teachers in this study had training in the area of early childhood education which was either at the certificate or diploma level. training of professionals working in the area of early childhood education in kenya has reached the degree level and it is now possible to obtain an undergraduate and post graduate degree in early childhood education. this therefore implies that the sample of teachers included in this study generally had low levels of training in the area of early childhood education. it is probable that their level of training influenced their behaviour. previous studies (dunn, 1993; ndegwa, 2005; wawire, 2006) have established that teachers with more advanced education tend to be the most effective. it is probable that the teachers in this sample were not well trained on the importance of adopting an androgynous gender role attitude and this led them to either encouraging or discouraging the children in their play with certain play materials. the teachers experience in the teaching field varied with most of the teachers in the sample having less than ten years of teaching experience. these results are similar to those of other recent studies carried out in kenya (kinuthia, 2009; makoti, 2005; ndegwa, 2005) which also established most preschool teachers had comparatively few years of experience. this may be attributed to teachers leaving classroom teaching either to start their own schools or to get better paying jobs elsewhere (kinuthia, 2009). the implication of this is that most preschool children are frequently introduced to new teachers within a term. these teachers may not have enough experience in handling preschool children. different scholars (branyon, 2002; ng’asike, 2004) argue that with the number of teaching years, teachers acquire positive attitudes and a higher self-efficacy. therefore, teachers’ lack of experience in the teaching field could consequently limit their knowledge of the importance of adopting androgynous gender role attitudes and lead them to influence the children in their classrooms to adopt gender stereotyped views. conclusion teachers act as role models and therefore have a great influence on children. teachers may tend to pass on the views and attitudes they hold to children. this implies that if they hold genderstereotyped views, they pass these views on to children. children learn, therefore, to adopt gender roles that are not always fair to both genders. teachers in this study also seemed to spend more time influencing boys than girls. this implies that teachers were directing more attention to the boys than to the girls. this is bound to affect the relationship between the teachers and children if the teachers pay attention to children 9 teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) based on gender preferences. teachers should understand that they act as role models for children thus they greatly influence the children’s perceptions of what is or is not acceptable. they should be encouraged and guided to adopt an androgynous gender role attitude and encourage the same in the preschool children. teachers should also re-examine the frequency with which they direct influence to the children under their care. they should strive to spend the same amount of time with each child regardless of the child’s gender. this will ensure that all the children get an opportunity to interact with the teachers. this study also showed that material developers need to strive to create more gender-neutral play materials while curriculum developers should encourage all play activities incorporated in the curriculum for learning purposes to be regarded as gender-neutral. the presence of the researchers may have influenced the teachers’ decision to direct very little influence during cross-gender selection and use of play materials. one recommendation is for future researchers to spend more time in the classrooms to find out if teachers will still behave in this manner. longitudinal studies also need to be carried out to establish if the teachers continue throughout their careers to use reinforcement for gender-appropriate behaviour while ignoring cross-gender behaviour. future studies could also involve the use of video recorders. the data collected through these recordings would prove 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(2009). factors influencing gender disparities among preschool teachers in thika district of central province, kenya. unpublished med thesis, kenyatta university, kenya. kenya institute of education (2008). early childhood development and education syllabus. nairobi: kenya institute of education. kenyatta, j. (1965). facing mount kenya. new york: vintage books. kim, m. (2002). parents perceptions and behaviours regarding toys for young children’s play in korea. education, 122, 793-808. kinuthia, f. (2009). determinants of pre-school teachers’ attitudes towards teaching in thika municipality, kenya. unpublished med thesis, kenyatta university, kenya. 11 teachers’ influence on children’s selection and use of play materials in kenya _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 2 (2012) lee, p., & gropper, n. (1974). sex-role culture and educational practice. harvard educational review, 44, 370-371. maccoby, e. e., & jacklin, c. n. (1974). the psychology of sex differences. stanford, ca: stanford university press. magesa, l. (1998). african religion: the moral traditions of abundant life. ny: paulines publications. makoti, n. (2005). terms and conditions of service and their relationship to motivation of preschool teachers in kwale district, kenya. unpublished med thesis, kenyatta university, kenya. martin, k. (2005). william wants a doll. can he have one? feminists, child care advisors, and gender-neutral child rearing. gender & society, 19(4), 456-479. mburugu, e., & adams, b. n. (2001). family and kinship in four kenyan societies. nairobi: office of the president. michelle, h. g. (1971). roles women play: readings towards womens liberation. california: cole publishing co. miller, c. l. 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(1983). male/female socialisation, career counselling and jobs for women and men – a collection of related training activities. un: women and development unit. steinke, j., lapinski, m., crocker, n., zietsman-thomas, a., williams, y., evergreen, s., & kuchibhotla, s. (2007). assessing media influences on middle school-aged children’s perceptions of women in science using the draw-a-scientist test (dast). science communication, 29(1), 35-64. suito, n., & reifel, s. (1992). gender differences in japanese and american socio-dramatic play. paper presented to the international council for child’s play, paris. uwalaka, j. (2003). struggle for an inclusive nigeria: igbo’s to be or not to be. enugu: snaap press ltd. waithaka, e. (2005). the level of job satisfaction of preschool teachers in thika municipality. unpublished med thesis, kenyatta university, kenya. wawire, v. k. (2006). factors that influence the quality and relevance of early childhood education in kenya: multiple case studies of nairobi and machakos districts. unpublished phd dissertation, kenyatta university, kenya. wegener-spohring, g. (1989). war toys and aggressive games. play and culture, 2, 35-47. weintraub, m., clemens, l. p., sockloff, a., ethridge, t, graceley, e., & myers, b. (1984). the development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: relationships to gender labelling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preference, and family characteristics. child development, 55, 1493-1503. pre-service teachers teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges josta l. nzilano dar es salaam university, tanzania abstract the purpose of this study was to explore the competences of pre-service teachers from tanzania’s university of dar es salaam during practice teaching in secondary schools and teacher education colleges. the following were the objectives of the study: first to examine the ways pre-service teachers prepared for classroom teaching, and second to assess the effectiveness of pre-service teachers in managing classroom teaching and learning activities. the study involved 30 pre-service teachers and 8 educational officers from secondary schools and teacher colleges. the instruments for data collection were a questionnaire, semistructured interviews, portfolio reviews, and classroom observations. results revealed the limited competencies among pre-service teachers in classroom teaching. the study recommended reforms of the pre-service teachers’ professional development program, the improvement of the educational policies, and the cooperation between educational managers from schools, colleges, and the ministry of education for quality education. key keywords: pre-service teachers, practice teaching, university teacher education, teacher education, secondary education, teacher profession development, preparation for teaching, classroom management. 2 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) introduction the preparation of pre-service teachers (presets) academically and professionally is a vital responsibility of the state and its people through the respective teachers training institutions. it is on the expectations of the educational institutions to “prepare teachers in different threetiered process of; normative, speculative and analytical functions” (ishumi, 2009, p. 10). the three-tiered concepts are reflected within the perspectives and purpose of teacher training as follows: first, presets learning should be designed to develop creative and innovative thinking to speculate about overall existence of a phenomenon (for example the nature of education) and how that phenomenon relates with other phenomena in the context over time. second, the presets should develop knowledge and skills to critically analyse and understand the existing educational problems pertaining to a particular context of learning and teaching as well as the finding the opportunities to solve them. third, to develop an understanding of the actions to adopt to deal with the existing educational issues, to maintain education professional norms and standards required in the context of learning and teaching for individual and community development. the mastery of three-tiered process helps presets to grow as professionals through an intensive professional learning theory and to transfer it to the field-based practices, both intensively and extensively. that means teaching practice provides the presets with the opportunities of learning to teach through studying observation, analysing and interpreting the learner and the learning contexts (feimannemser, 2001). in the presence of motivation, competence and confidence of presets can improve the teaching practices (lim-teo, low, wong, & chong, 2008). heinich, molenda, russell, and sandino’s (2002) assure framework on effective teaching processes summarised six steps, these are to: (i) analyse learners (ii) state objectives (iii) select methods and teaching materials (iv) utilize teaching materials (v) require learner participation (vi) evaluate and revise the whole steps in the process (p. 23). this framework is ideal for presets because it equips them with the knowledge and skills in their preparations for classroom teaching. presets’ performances in the pedagogical, subject matter and technological knowledge in the teaching practice are needed to reflect the efficacy of pre-service training programmes (feiman-nemser, 2001). literature studies on teaching pedagogy, technology, and classroom context knowledge of presets to manage the classroom activities are discussed. in exploring the knowledge of twelve secondary school teachers in the practice of multicultural classroom context studies by wubbels, veldaman, brok, and tartwijk (2008) found that presets were aware of the rules of correcting students’ behaviour during classroom learning activities, however, the teachers were reluctant to understand the influence of students’ cultural and ethnic background in teaching. the habit of negligence to matters that do not have direct impact to personal interests is a common problem among presets. mtika’s (2008) studies on the misconduct relationship between the mentors and presets revealed that host teachers (mentors) had a tendency to leave presets to enter the classrooms alone to teach students. in the perspective of limited pedagogical skills by presets, their authority in teaching is challenged by students, and therefore, fail to achieve the mission of student learning and learning to teach (mtika, 2008). thus, presets need to learn about education professional code of conduct and ethics to teach effectively, and have active support of the mentors to grow in their teaching career. studies on teacher-learner reciprocity, school culture, and social relations (lim-toe, et al, 2008; mtika, 2008; nguyen 2009) revealed that teachers are challenged to develop 3 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) effective learning environment, organizing the subject matter, designing learning experiences, engaging all students in learning activities, and assessing students’ learning outcomes. these challenges can be associated with teachers’ continuous professional learning habits. because findings showed that teachers have a limited habit to learn and participate in the open dialogues (lim-toe, et al, 2008; mtika, 2008; nguyen 2009) which could help them to transform their existing rigid beliefs about student learning. consequently, with the participation in critical open dialogue, presets grow in their professional identity to become experienced teachers (lim-toe, et al., 2008). in exploring the perceptions of schools and students in matters of teaching practice, sieborger and quick (2005) found that presets needed to spend six months in schools because they did not have practical orientations at the university. in addition, more training for presets to understand the structural forms and contents of the lesson plans and classroom interaction models before practicum teaching in schools are of great importance. further, studies reflected that induction programs at the initial years of employment are of great value to beginning teachers to gain the understanding of the work practices (lim-toe, et al., 2008; sieborger &quick, 2005). nonetheless, with the application of computer software in teaching and learning, david and neal (2008) did an experimental study on how presets integrate computer resources in teaching the subject in schools. in addition, teachers were challenged to balance the use of diverse teaching methods in the contexts of the learning. adeyanju’s (2003) study on the perceptions of presets (in arts discipline) about the impact of using teaching aids in classroom teaching, revealed that they used teaching methods such as dramatization, role play, and demonstration that were supported by real objects. further, the presets used teaching aids for scoring marks during supervision period only and thereafter their interest in using teaching aids in teaching diminished. however, the implementation of merit systems set by employment agencies influences the professional development programs and presets learning habits. this is a factor that the lecturers should address when preparing presets in teacher education colleges. the current practices in teacher education colleges include the handling of the complex aspects of teaching technology, pedagogy, and subject matter as a unified knowledge base (so, 2009). to motivate preset’s attitude for integrating technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge during teaching and learning activities, is to continue training them in constructive teaching approaches with technology (so, 2009). however, why do presets have difficulties in designing a technology-integrated lesson? the difficulties are due to lack of a link between beliefs, knowledge, and actions, as well as the limited exposure to literature on teaching in open dialogue classroom learning contexts supported by rich-technological resources (so, 2010). the universities prepare teachers for secondary schools and teacher education colleges. the preparations of presets operate in a context of large class sizes, and limited demonstration schools for immediate experimentation of teaching. in this context, preset’s practicum teaching showed that they have limited teaching competencies to teach large classes because of insufficient professional training. the situation caused several challenges among presets for their students and host teachers in schools and teachers colleges (feiman-nemser, 2001). the situation implied that presets and students in teacher colleges and schools respectively are faced by difficult learning environments and they are at risk of not achieving the mission of their education training (feiman-nemser, 2001). thus, this study intended to investigate how presets are prepared to teach and assess their ability in classroom teaching. 4 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) the study intended to explore the ways presets prepare to teach and manage classroom-teaching activities in secondary schools and teacher education colleges respectively in the teaching practice. the study sought to answer the following questions: 1. how do presets prepare to teach in the teaching practice? 2. how effective are the presets in classroom teaching and learning activities? methods the study employed a qualitative approach with some quantitative information. this is because mixed methods design has the opportunity to embrace a variety of research perspectives, principles, and the techniques to answer the research question (johnson & onwuegbuzie, 2004). it assumes an “abductive – inter-subjective – transferable” viewpoint of thinking about the research process (morgan, 2007, p. 73). sample size included 30 presets of the university of dar es salaam, and the heads of 6 secondary schools and 2 teacher education colleges in rukwa region (tanzania). while presets were selected on a random basis, the heads of schools and teacher colleges were selected purposively. hence, the instruments for data collection included the following: questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, classroom observations checklist, and documentary reviews. the qualitative and quantitative data analyses techniques were used concurrently. findings and discussions presets preparation for classroom teaching. findings from the questionnaires and documents on the presets preparations for classroom teaching and activities in five areas showed the following: lesson plan (lps), scheme of work (sow), teaching aids (tas) or resources, lesson notes, and evaluation tools. in responding to the question about the most difficult task during preparation of such areas, the findings showed the tas as the most difficult tasks followed by sow. the findings indicated that presets had an easy task to prepare the lesson notes and lesson plan as indicated by low identification response rate as shown in figure 1. the major causes of the problems in developing teaching and learning resources presented in figure 1, included: (a) a great shortage of teaching and learning resources (7), (b) shortage of time to cover themes and preparation for teaching (7), and (c) expensive and 5 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) inadequate teaching resources (4). other causes identified, included (d) frequent changes in the time tables interfered with teachers’ preparations (2), and (e) academic subject teaching methods course being taught in the second year of their studies. hence, there is a mismatch of theoretical and practice organisation in the professional training program. the mismatch implied that in the first year of undergraduate studies, presets practice teaching with insufficient knowledge and skills on the pedagogy and use of diverse teaching resources. data from preset’s documents are discussed in themes as follows: improvisation and quality of teaching aids, scheme of work, lesson plan, student assessment tools, and lesson notes. improvisation and quality of teaching aids. based on the observation data, the presets improvised low quality teaching aids. the low quality of teaching aids were in terms of their size being small, improper choice of the colour of the paper and prints, short lived, mismatched learning outcomes, as well as weak visibility due to detailed information on presentations. further, teaching aids appeared to be prepared in a hurried situation because some of them did not have important information, such as the stated purpose of the materials, or some omitted important equipment to facilitate their function in teaching. adeyanju (2003) argued that presets use teaching aids when they need to acquire marks from the supervisor and thereafter they continue to teach without using teaching aids. adeyanju’s argument clearly shows that presets have limited practice regarding the knowledge and skills of improvising and using teaching aids during teaching practice. however, it is a reflection about the efficacy of implementation of the professional training programs for presets. in addition, it is an indication of superficial training of presets that calls for a review or overhaul of the existing professional training program from the teacher education programs’ offering universities. scheme of work (sow). presets were taught how to make a scheme of work matrix that consists eleven columns. in series from right to left the columns include the competence, the month, the week that the competencies are covered, the subject topic and subtopics, number of periods, and the learning objectives. the next columns are the teacher’s activities, the students’ activities, the teaching aids, the references, and the remarks. in reviewing the sow, the researcher was interested in collecting information related to the skills of presets in writing the sow correctly (as reflected from syllabi) with coherence in the organisation of the topics. the focus was to assess the extent to which the preparations for teaching reflected learner-centred teaching. the researcher found that the majority of presets prepared the sow, which constituted activities of the whole period of teaching practice. the comments given by the supervisors were not considered by some presets to correct their sow, hence they continued to use the incorrect ones, until they completed the teaching practice activities. findings showed the challenges faced by presets was to logically organise the information in the sow matrix and three observed irregularities are discussed as follows: first, there was a lack of consistency about the specific column to place the competencies of the topic in the scheme of work matrix among presets. for instance, the competence column appears before the month’s column, but some of presets placed it in the column after the “month.” as a result it distorted the meaning of information in each section of the column. second, there was a lack of clarity in explaining the teacher and students activities in order to prepare for the classroom learning. for instance, the majority of presets indicated the classroom preparation activities for 6 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) students and for teachers in the sow. ideally, that information was supposed to appear in the lesson plan. this indicated that presets have poor pedagogical content knowledge of teaching (so, 2010). third, a few presets who received assistance from host school teachers and host college mentors prepared the scheme of work using the teacher-centred approach rather than the learner-centred approach of teaching. there was evidence that school teachers were reluctant to accompany and support beginning teachers in classroom teaching. this was reflected their fear to express the limited pedagogical and technological knowledge of teaching (mtika, 2008; so, 2010). lesson plan (lp).the findings from the documents indicated that presets were able to prepare the lesson plans because they presented the necessary parts of the lesson plan as they were taught in the college. these parts include the preliminaries, the competence, the topic, the learning objectives, the teaching resources, lesson presentation, and evaluation. in this review, the following were revealed. first, presets prepared weak statements of learning outcomes, as they did not embrace the required statement of explicit objective features as stipulated, such as the: a) audience that is the learners who is expected to benefit from the learning, b) behaviour (subject matter) which is presented in observable measurable action verbs e.g. define, write, state, label, describe and so forth. c) condition; this is the situation which make a learner to abide with in order to achieve the objective. for example the use of phrases such as ‘with the use of text books, given ten articles to read, with the help of an atlas, and so forth d) degree of performance where the demonstrated behaviour of the learner in terms of quality is determined, e.g. 99% correct, 95% accurately, appropriately, e) standard of performance is the estimated amount of experiences for the learner to perform, i.e. the level attained by the learner in order to make the decision, for example, at least ten sentences, four traits of living things, three east africa countries, and so forth. f) full time coverage; this is the time required to change the learner: e.g. by the end of 60 minutes, by the end of 40 minutes, by the period of two hours, (and so forth to) observe the following examples of specific behavioural objectives (gronlund, & linn, 1990). based on omission of these features, most of the presets did not indicate examples of the conditions in which the learners were engaged to learn or to change the behavior. moreover, few presets managed to develop statements of learning outcomes that indicated the degree of performance. however, some of the lesson plans contained learning outcomes that mismatched the amount of time for learning activities. for instance, they either prepared too many learning outcomes to accomplish within a short period or prepared too few learning outcomes for the prescribed period. second, the majority of presets wrote general statements of learning activities, which were difficult to distinguish between the tasks that are specific for students and for the teachers. for instance, one student teacher wrote, “…the student will understand the meaning of weather station.” in this case, the use of the term “understand” is ambiguous and a general verb that does not tell clear the action for the student to demonstrate during the learning activities. it is not easy to determine what the student performs and therefore it is difficult to identify the level of performance to be attained by the student. 7 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) third, the majority of presets demonstrated a low ability to write a self-evaluation statement in lps. the self-evaluation statement was written in a broad manner as follows: “…the students have understood the lesson, i will continue with the next lesson;” “90% of students have understood the lesson very well;” “¾ of the students did well and ¼ did not do well i will give them more exercise” or “the lesson was clear and the students understood it.” (reviewed documents) the statement phrases seemed to evaluate the students based on a general or a passive action “understand”, and the numerical and fractional values did not state the exact total number of students attempting the assignment or a task. these numerical values are meaningless in the evaluation statement because they do not tell the exact total number of students attempting the task. as such, they might reveal high performance results in the context of a small number of students in the classroom who attempted to do the task. however, the intention of the self-evaluation section in the lp is to help the individual preset to reflect on his/her performance regarding the efficacy of preparations for and actual classroom teaching activities. the actual practice was to evaluate the students’ performances instead of the preset’s practices. the implication here is that the preset’s view of the self-evaluation is not understood and therefore they do not know exactly what to evaluate, who to evaluate, when to evaluate, and for what purpose. generally, the implication is that presets do not evaluate their teaching and therefore, the classroom teaching and learning challenges are not worked out for improvement purposes. student assessment tools. the assessment tools refer to the exercises, tests, quizzes, and homework assignments for students. the researcher reviewed presets papers consisting of prepared exercises and assignments for students. findings showed that presets prepared assessment tools based on the predetermined student learning outcomes and a few of them were not able to set assessment tools that reflected the student learning outcomes. in this case, about 50% of the presets prepared the assignments and exercises for students and the remaining 50% did not prepare them. conversely, some presets were found to create the assignments and exercise questions by writing them on the chalkboard for the students during classroom teaching. because they were composed in the classroom, there was an indication that presets did not have enough time to construct high quality assessment tools. hence, they composed questions that had some errors: misspelled, ambiguous, and incomplete contestation of the studentlearning outcomes. in this regard, presets lack skills and knowledge of designing high quality student assessments. some presets who prepared the evaluation questions used their common sense and the experiences copied from their school-teachers during the time when they were schooling. therefore, these situations influenced the student assessment and behaviour in the classroom. certainly this outcome ties to studies by mtika (2008) that showed that the essence of indiscipline in the classroom is due to teachers who tend to deviate from the school practices and norms that govern professional teachers. lesson notes. the presets prepared lesson notes, which were brief and addressed the purpose of the topic clearly. the presets varied in formulating the lesson notes as some wrote them as narrations in paragraphs and others prepared in point forms. none of the 8 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) presets prepared students to develop lesson notes or demanded students either to fill some sections or direct them to the guide questions that eventually address the prescribed student learning outcome in that particular lesson. in doing so, students were largely depending on preset’s prepared lesson notes; this practice cultivated the traditional teacher-centred teaching approach. however, the lesson notes were in a correct format and written appropriately this was due to the availability of reference books and teaching manuals obtained from the different sources including the tanzania ministry of education. a number of presets owned copies of books bought in the local bookshops and some of these books were borrowed by these presets from the school/college libraries (subjects included kiswahili language, history, geography, english language, mathematics, biology, chemistry, and civics). thus, the books were in simple language and clear presentation of content for presets to understand and prepare the lesson notes by merely copying from the books with little modification. hence, presets followed the teacher-centred approach of teaching because they read books and teaching manuals and transferred the information to the students who then copied the information so that they reproduced the tests and assignments as reflected in literature (limtoe et al., 2008; mtika, 2008; nguyen, 2009). therefore, these practices indicated that presets had little understanding and ability to implement the competence based approach of teaching. preset’s classroom teaching and learning management presets were expected to practice teaching when they have acquired the necessary competencies of effective teaching. the presets were expected to demonstrate mastery in the use of time, subject matter, teaching strategies, discipline control and caring, personal qualities, and the use of audio-visual materials during classroom interactions activities. data gathered by classroom observations, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires are discussed in the following paragraphs. ways used by presets for time management and teaching aids. the presets responded to the classroom observations to give their opinion about the use of time and teaching aids with regard to classroom motivation of learning activities. this was intended to determine how these teachers spent those resources to manage the classroom activities and student behaviours to attain the student learning. the classroom observations covered the introductory, presentation, and closure parts of classroom interaction activities as table 1 presents. table 1: preset’s ways used for time management and teaching aids in the classroom (n=30) determinant aspects responses (%) i. when introducing the lesson  to arrange the students and the teaching aids in good manner 1(3.3)  to introduce the lesson and ask students about the topic in general 16(53.3)  revising the previous lesson 13(43.0)  motivating students about the lesson 1(3.3) ii. when presenting the lesson 9 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) table 1 shows the results about the ways presets used time and teaching aids to manage classroom activities. in the introduction of the lesson, the observations indicated that presets spent time and teaching aids as follows: (a) about 53.3% of presets spent the time and teaching aids to introduce the student learning outcomes and to ask questions to students about the lesson to be learned, (b) 43.0% of presets used them to revise the previous lessons, and (c) 3.3% used them to arrange the lesson and students in good manner and motivated students about the lesson respectively. with regard to the presentation of the lesson, the findings showed that 56.7% of teachers spent their time and teaching aids to enhance classroom interaction activities with students through guided discussions, 23.3% used them for the demonstration of the lesson contents and about 10.3% use tas to illustrate the lesson’s concepts and hence maximized time usage. moreover, 3.3% of presets spent time effectively by using teaching aids correctly to evaluate students learning and illustrating the teaching aids for students learning of the lesson (see table 1). likewise, during the closure of the classroom teaching activities, about 40% of presets spent the time effectively using teaching aids in summarising the lesson and 36.7% used time for assigning activities to students regarding the prescribed learning outcomes. in addition, 6.7% of presets used time and teaching aids for assigning tasks to students to prepare them for the next period (see table 1). classroom interactions with teaching aids. in discussing the classroom interactions with teaching resources to motivate student learning, three themes were established: the dominant teaching aids in the classroom, the effectiveness of teaching aids, and the motivation of student learning. dominant teaching aids in classroom. the researcher investigated the utility of teaching aids in motivating classroom management activities with regard to the type of sensory organ they stimulate in students.  interacting with students through guided discussions 17(56.7)  demonstrating the lesson contents 7(23.3)  illustrating the teaching aids to learn the lesson 1(3.3)  managing time 3(10.0)  evaluating students about the lesson 1(3.3) iii. when closing the lesson  summarization of the lesson 12 (40.0)  assign tasks to students regarding the learning outcome 11(36.7)  to prepare students for next period in the subject by assigning them with tasks. 2 (6.7) 10 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) figure 2: dominant type of teaching resources in the classroom in figure 2 is was found that 25% of presets used teaching resources that stimulate watching by eyesight, 11% of presets used materials that involved touching, 9% of presets preferred to use audio resources, and none of presets were found teaching with resources that involved smelling and tasting respectively. in this case, the eyesight or visual resources were the dominant teaching aids used by presets in classroom teaching and learning. therefore, preset’s emphasis of visual teaching materials in teaching was a challenge particularly when they dealt with visually impaired students because for them those resources were considered inappropriate. assessing the effectiveness of teaching aids during classroom interaction. in responding to the questionnaire, which requested presets to explain the ways they assessed the effectiveness and quality of teaching aids when teaching students in the classroom, as table 2: presets’ teaching aids and students’ interactions in classroom the means used to determine the quality of teaching aids during the class interaction (n = 30) percept (%)  the way students accept and receive teaching aids or by seeing their responses 11(36.7)  the way it facilitates and saves time to learn a task 3 (10)  the way students achieve learning outcome 4 (13.3)  when students respond correctly to the questions by using teaching aid 5 (16.7) table 2 shows that about 36.7% of presets argued that they observed how students perceived and were motivated to interact with the teaching aids, and 16.7% argued that they observed when students used the teaching aids to respond correctly to the questions. moreover, while 13.3% of presets indicated that they observed the way students achieved the learning outcomes, 10% observed the way teaching aids facilitated and saved time to learn a task in the class. the findings show that presets were informed about the influence of teaching aids in classroom learning processes. motivating student learning with teaching aids. presets were asked to respond to openended questionnaires in order to explain how they motivated student learning with teaching aids in teaching. 11 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) table 3. how presets use teaching aids to motivate students’ learning? how teaching aids used to motivate students’ learning? (n = 30) frequencies (%)  to let them introduce the lesson to be taught 1 (3.3)  by allowing students to interact with teaching aids to arouse discussion or questions 10 (33.3)  by emphasizing parts of the lesson / making summaries 3 (10)  using graphics and painting them with colours 6 (20)  multiple responses 10 (33.3) table 3 results show that (a) they used teaching aids to arouse students to participate in the discussions or respond to questions (33.3%), (b) by using graphics and painting them with colours (20%), (c) they used teaching aids to emphasize parts of the lesson or summarise the lesson (10%), (d) they used teaching aids to introduce the lesson. the other responses did not reflect any of the above uses. challenges faced by presets using teaching aids and coping strategies. in responding to the questionnaires, presets expressed their views regarding the various challenges they faced with regard to the use of teaching aids in teaching, and then suggested possible solutions. table 4: the challenges faced by presets to use teaching aids during classroom teaching (n = 30) challenges identified by presets frequency percentage (%) some students are visually impaired, it is difficult for them to follow 6 21.4 limited time to assess how each group used the teaching aids in the class 1 3.5 difficult in preparing and presenting with teaching aids 2 7.1 poor management/use of teaching aids 1 3.5 students fails to relate teaching aids and subject matter 4 14.2 it consumes a lot of time for presentation, than estimated time 1 3.5 students sometimes are more motivated to interact with teaching aids and pay little attention to the progress of lesson 5 17.8 the proper place to position teaching aids in the classroom and appropriate time to use it during teaching 5 17.8 some topics are difficult to teach with teaching aids 1 3.5 few text books 2 7.1 total responses 28 100 in expressing the challenges, presets mentioned, as identified in table 4 that (a) students with visual problems had difficult to follow the lesson and presets could not have means to help them (21.4%); (b) sometimes students were motivated to interact with the teaching aids and had little attention to the progress of lesson (17.8%); (c) they do not know the proper 12 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) place to position the ta in the class and the appropriate time to use them during classroom interaction processes (17.8%); (d) they chose teaching aids appropriate to teach a particular lesson in the topic during classroom teaching (14.2%); (e) they faced shortage of teaching aids and textbooks; and (f) presets mentioned little time to assess the students’ use of teaching aids and that teaching aids consumes a lot of time during classroom presentations (3.5%) respectively. certainly, the challenges identified above in (c), (d), and (f) imply that presets had limited knowledge and skill in using teaching aids in teaching. to cope with these challenges presets made several proposals as discussed and illustrated in table 5. table 5: preset’s coping strategies to challenges of using teaching aids during class interactions challenges faced by teachers in using teaching aids in teaching and learning context how do teachers cope with the challenges? 1. some students are visually impaired, it is difficult for them to follow give more verbal explanation / remedial /summary of lesson notes 2. limited time to assess how each group in the class used the teaching aids provide homework to students to reflect on the available teaching aids. 3. difficult to preparing and presenting with teaching aids ask students to come to the classroom with own prepared teaching aids 4. poor management/use of teaching aids seek support from experienced teacher in the subject 5. presets fails to relate teaching aids and subject matter use different written text instead of teaching aids. make more explanations for students to compare information. use varieties of teaching techniques. 6. it consumes a lot of time for the presentation of the lesson, than estimated time. give brief explanations about the teaching aids 7. students sometimes are more motivated to interact with teaching aids and pay little attention to the progress of lesson give students individual task to keep them busy. remove the teaching aids when is not needed to continue with the lesson. advice students to be attentive to lesson progress 8. the proper place to position in the classroom and appropriate time to use ta during teaching place the teaching aids in one side in front of the class and allow students to take notes from it. use a variety of teaching techniques. 9. some topics are difficult to teach with teaching aids no responses 10. few text books borrow from the nearby schools/college whenever needed. table 5 presents the strategies used by presets to cope with the challenges of using teaching aids during classroom teaching. these strategies were, first, that the presets used 13 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) verbal explanations, summary of lesson notes, and remedial teaching for students who were visually impaired because such students had difficulty in following the lesson during classroom interaction activities. these strategies were appropriate for visually impaired students, although presets did not explain how they would help students who had other disabilities, deaf, or had a mental illness. this might call for another study that will examine the challenges of students with such challenges in schools and colleges in similar research contexts. second, when presets had limited time to assess the way students used the teaching aids in-group learning activities, they assigned homework to students in order to validate the efficacy of teaching aids. third, the students were instructed to improvise learning aids and come with them during face-to-face interactions as a strategy to deal with challenges of shortage of teaching aids. however, the quality and effectiveness of the student’s improvised teaching aids were questionable. unless the students were taught some skills to prepare effective teaching aids, otherwise, presets needed to assess the quality of teaching aids before face-to-face session for revision and effective use of the teaching aids in teaching. fourth, when presets encountered some difficulties in the class interaction activities, an experienced local teacher supported them with how to use teaching aids in teaching the lesson. fifth, when presets had difficulty with selection of the relevant teaching aids for the subject topic they used a variety of text materials, a variety of teaching techniques, and provided explanations to students to help them compare the information as a remedy to the difficult situation. sixth, the presets explained briefly about the teaching aids to save time for the lesson presentation. this was used as a strategy to keep students from concentrating on a particular teaching aid and then failing to follow the lesson. in addition, once the teaching aids were used, individual tasks were given to students, and then removed from display in order to continue with the lesson to encourage the students to be attentive. seventh, presets displayed some of the teaching aids in front of the class on one side of the chalkboard/classroom to allow students to interact with them. in addition, presets used a variety of teaching techniques (such as whole class dialogue, small group discussion, examples, cases, and lecture) and teaching aids (real objects, improvised materials) to enhance classroom interactions. these strategies were used to cope with the challenge of locating the appropriate place to display the teaching aids for student viewing and the appropriate time to use teaching aids during teaching. eighth, the presets borrowed teaching aids from neighbouring schools and colleges to solve the problems of textbook shortages and other referenced materials at their school or college. common teaching strategies used by presets the teaching strategies discussed the main teaching techniques and the criteria, which were used by the presets in the selection of the appropriate technique for the classroom teaching and learning. 14 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) the response by presets to the strategies used in teaching included: small grouping of students strategy (51%), whole class discussion strategy (20%), team teaching strategy (16%), individual student learning strategy (11%), and multi-grade teaching (2%) as shown in figure 3 below. the results reflected the literature, such as mtika (2008), who showed that the use of learner-centred pedagogy in schools was not popular among some presets, or it was not appropriated properly in college for use in classrooms. further, it showed that when it was used the motive was to achieve appropriate grades during observations by supervisors, but was not necessarily a valued tool by presets for promoting pupil involvement in their own learning (mtika, 2008, p.158). based on the data from the questionnaire, presets explained the criteria they followed in the selection of a teaching-learning strategy, they included: (a) the time needed to teach the class (25%); (b)the nature of the topic to be taught by using such technique (25%); (c)the ability of learners in the class (22%); and (d) the number or size of the class (16%). other conditions included (e) the quality or relevance of the strategy (3%) and (f) to teach content that is simple and clearly known by the teacher (6%) as demonstrated in figure 4. these 15 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) criteria reflected that presets had prior understanding and skills about the premises of using teaching strategy with regard to the student needs and learning context. preset’s ability to balance student learning and teaching time. presets filled out the questionnaire to describe how they involved students in the learning activities of the subject and the ways they used to balance between the ability of students and the lesson objectives as well as the time for learning. the results are presented in table 6. table 6: assessment of students’ involvement in the classroom learning activities. preset identified ways to assess student engagement (multiple responses, n = 30) responses by asking questions regarding the lesson to students which bring positive responses (23) 85.0% by observing their attention in the presentation (1) 3.7% by providing homework (2) 7.4% by observing how students ask and attempt questions about the topic (1)3.7% table 6 indicates how presets assessed student’s involvement in learning the subject. the results show that presets assessed students by (a) asking questions regarding the lesson to check if they followed the learning positively (85.0%), (b) providing homework to evaluate the involvement of students in learning activities (7.4%), (c) observing the attention of students during lesson presentation (3.7%), and (d) observing how students asked and attempted to answer the questions about the topic (3.7%). the findings reflected the preset’s understanding of student involvement or engagement as an aspect of pedagogy of teaching. table 7: means used to balance between lesson objectives, student needs, and class teaching and learning process time. means used to balance between lesson objectives and time in class teaching and learning process (n = 37) percentage (%) by limiting the lesson plan objectives within the time set (31) 91% by discussing one objective in one period (2) 5.8% by ensuring that i do not miss a period (1) 2.9% table 7 presented multiple responses about the means used by presets to ensure appropriate time was allocated to learning objectives in teaching and learning. the means included: limiting the amount of lesson objectives within the timeframe as prescribed in the lesson plan 91% (31), discussing one objective in one period 5.8% (2), and presets participated in all period for class teaching 2.9% (1).therefore, the findings revealed that about 9% (3) presets were not informed on how to ensure the balance between time and the learning outcome in teaching for students because they did not appropriately respond to the question. table 8.means used by presets to balance student needs and teaching objectives. ways used to balance lesson objectives and ability of students during lesson delivery frequencies by observing the level of difficultly of the lesson objectives 2 by setting extra time for those who learn slowly 1 16 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) by asking individuals about tasks to assess if they understand 3 by following what is suggested in the syllabus 3 by simplifying difficult objectives 1 if the difficult level is low, i “spend up” teaching 3 by teaching from simple to complex learning objectives 1 in connection to table 7, teachers were also asked to indicate the means used to ensure that there is a balance between learning objectives and student ability during teaching as table 8 shows. presets used strategies such as: (a) asking individuals about tasks to assess their understanding; (b) by following what is suggested in the syllabus; and (c) if the difficultly level is low they spent time in teaching or not; (d) assessing the level of difficultly of the lesson objectives. others were: (e) setting extra time for those who learn slowly, (f) simplifying difficult learning objectives, and (g) teaching from simple to complex learning objectives. in this situation, preset teachers showed an understanding of the pedagogical knowledge and skills of teaching methods taught by their lecturers. preset’s behaviours and classroom management during teaching. presets were observed in the classroom when they taught students and the data were collected by using an observation checklist. the classroom observations were intended to align the documents and the behaviours of the presets in different phases of class interactions as figure 5 illustrates. 17 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) figure 5 presets behaviours to manage classroom teaching. figure 5 presents data observed when presets were teaching in the classroom. the intention was to assess the ability of the presets’ behaviour to influence the control of classroom discipline. the researcher used an observation rating scales (excellent, very good, good, satisfactory, and poor). the discussed results are according to multiple rating responses. the results showed high responses in preset’s mastery of subject matter (15) and attitude towards students (17), as well as the ability to link the learning objectives and student’s needs (17); these were rated “very good” respectively. moreover, other behaviours included: the ability to follow lesson objectives in teaching (13), the positive attitude of students about the presets (16),the presets mastery of subject skills (16),and the positive attitude of presets about the students (13) were all assessed as “good” respectively. in addition, the good composition and manners of the student teacher (13), the student teacher’s sense of self-evaluation and corrections (14), and the ability to match learning objectives with time (14) were also rated as “good”. furthermore, the preset’s awareness of class discipline (17), the ability to use teaching strategies (15), the ability to use teaching materials or resources (17), the ability to control students’ misbehaviours (16), as well as the ability to evaluate students’ achievements in teaching (15) were each rated as “satisfactory”. nevertheless, the preset’s ability to use teaching materials (13), teaching strategies (7), control of students’ behaviours (5), and the evaluation of student learning (5) were each rated as “poor”. the highest rating of “excellent” was indicated in the assessment of the ability of the presets in matching the student needs with manageable learning objectives (7), understanding the subject matter (9), and the attitude towards the subject matter. thus, the findings revealed presets demonstrated high ability of linking the learning outcomes with the timing of learning, positive attitude towards the subject, and an understanding of the subject matter, as well as controlling students’ misbehaviour. however, although the preset’s control of students’ misbehaviours was poor, overall, the findings showed high ability in pedagogical knowledge and skills contrary to some previous studies including lim-toe, et al. (2008), mtika (2008), and nguyen (2009). the semistructured interviews were administered to eight heads of the secondary schools and teacher colleges. the question wanted the heads to explain their perceptions about the challenges faced by presets in teaching and they responded as table 9 illustrates. table 9. perceptions of educational administrators: preset’s teaching challenges. institution responses from educational administrators i teachers ( presets) do not have any challenge ii teachers do not have any challenge iii teachers have language barriers; in class, they are not free to communicate the subject matter. sometimes they stuck to communicate the lesson properly to students iv teachers have problems of class control, competence in language communication skills and behaviours. v the teachers have problems in the preparations for teaching, for instance, they prepare many objectives in short time, they do not plan and show clearly the teaching and learning activities before teaching. one of the problems of these teachers is how to communicate in english language, as some of them have shown lack of confidence and competence. i 18 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) think these teachers would begin with diploma (diploma in teacher education) before joining for university education. i think it can improve their confidence and competence in their areas of specialization and professional ethics vi these teachers have a problem with the language of instruction as they are used to learn in english language when they are at the university campuses. hence, it is difficult to teach in kiswahili language in teacher colleges because these teachers have acquired the subject concepts and theories in english language. vii the teachers are competent since i have not received any problem from my students viii all universities send students for teaching practice in the same time and the students end up sharing the same subjects to teach and sometimes share to teach the same topic in the same class. with the data in table 9, the heads of the schools and teacher colleges reflected the major challenges faced by presets in teaching, which were associated with the issues of the classroom communication language, classroom management, and preparation for teaching. the classroom management problems reflected the preset’s limited ability in teaching preparations and mastery of both english and kiswahili instructional languages. based on this understanding of presets, it is an indication that they have limited pedagogical content knowledge as also indicated in mtika (2008). however, the findings from the interviews about the pedagogical content knowledge for presets were contrary from the observations, which rated them “very good” in the overall preset’s behaviours and class control in the same aspects. hence, presets seem to have limited experience on classroom management that led to a lack of confidence in teaching as the heads of institutions iii, iv, v, and vi commented: “…the systems of education have weak foundation of preparing students to learn english language properly, that is, from primary and secondary schools, students cannot even speak and write a correct sentence either in english or kiswahili …” in elaborating the sources of those challenges, some heads of schools and teacher colleges raised their concerns about the present educational policies. in their views, the education system has poor strategies to prepare people to learn the english and kiswahili languages from the elementary level. moreover, they argued that the situation was caused by the influence of global development policies that increased the fall of moral standards and ethics among people and the government leaders. to justify this, one of the heads of those educational institutions narrated: “… issues of globalization have greatly influenced the quality of education; the issues of globalization led to the formation of weak and corrupt government we have today. we now witness the bleaching of moral values, ethics, and patriotism spirit among public servants such as policy makers and curriculum developers in the system of education in the country in general. the government does not talk and stop such emerging habit; ordinary people who need change cannot gain support anyhow …” 19 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) this suggests that the educational officers do not provide effective strategies as a contribution towards solving the policy problems. in this perspective, there was clear evidence of a lack of accountability and responsibility to their work and the people around them. conclusion and recommendations the preset’s preparation for classroom teaching reflected the nature of the professional development program that prepares them. findings have shown that there was a mismatch between theory and practice, which led to superficial teaching by presets. presets demonstrated weak abilities in the preparations for classroom teaching in terms of long-term (schemes of work) and short plans (classroom learning plans) for classroom teaching. presets showed limited competence in designing high quality evaluation instruments, inability to facilitate the students to construct lesson notes and improvisation of teaching materials. preset’s preparation reflected the traditional teacher centred teaching whereby the lesson notes prepared by presets from textbooks and teaching manuals determined students learning. findings indicate that presets were able to manage properly their teaching time, but they had difficulty in linking the teaching resources and pedagogical skills in different learning environments. presets demonstrated low ability to use teaching resources in teaching because the majority of them were using teaching materials that stimulated the sense of sight (25%), and therefore, they faced great problems in helping students with visual problems. presets employed outcome based approaches in teaching, such as a small groups (51%) and whole class strategies (20%) to recognise students’ learning needs and the teaching context, however, they demonstrated poor pedagogical content knowledge and skills in the implementation of those strategies. in addition, the presets had a language problem in classroom communication in both kiswahili and english languages which influenced their confidence in teaching. thus presets needed to learn these pedagogical skills from their university courses before starting their teaching practice. therefore, this may serve as evidence that presets spent more time in learning academic content and less in the pedagogical teaching courses during their undergraduate degree program studies. therefore, higher education institutions that offer presets degree programs should make sure there is a balanced treatment of the academic and pedagogical courses during the implementation of those programs for presets. the balanced treatment should also consider the support for resources and facilities by the respective universities for effective implementation of the presets professional development program. in the same way, the management of the schools, colleges, and universities should cooperate closely in the implementation of presets professional development programs to produce high quality teachers who can enjoy their teaching career with students in schools and colleges. likewise, there is a need to review the education policy document together with the curricula designs of secondary schools and teacher education to provide more opportunities for students to earn a quality education prior to entering their teacher education program. quality education is needed for students to attain their individual and social dreams of life experience. therefore, the implementation of the educational policy reforms should involve a bottoms up approach in which the stakeholders get the opportunities to discuss policy issues for the effective implementation of the presets education programs. references adeyanju, l. (2007). teachers perception of the effects and use of learning aids inteaching: a case study of winneba basic and secondary schools. ultibase 20 pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: the experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) articles. http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/articles/nov03/adeyanju 1.htm davidson, k. & neal g. (2008).contesting ideas of innovative teaching practice with tablet pcs. aare 2008 conference brisbane at victoria university of melborone, australia. feiman-nemser, s. (2001). from preparation to practice: designing a continuum to strengthen and sustain teaching. teacher education record, 3 (6), 1013-1055. gronlund, n. e., & linn, r. l. (1990).measurement and evaluation in teaching (6th ed.). new york, ny: macmillan. heinich, r., molenda, m., russell, j. d., & sandino, s. e. (2002).instructional media and technologies for learning.7 th ed. upper saddle river, nj: merrill prentice hall. ishumi, a. g. (2009) preparation of education professionals: past, present and future direction. university of dar es salaam, tanzania. papers in education, 29 (2009): 1 15. lim-teo, s.k., low, e.l., wong, a.f.l., & chong, s. (2009). motivation, competence, and confidence to teach: an exploratory study of the impact of an initial teacher preparation (itp) programme on beginning primary school teachers. kedi journal of educational policy, (2008), 41-61.http://eng.kedi.re.kr. morgan, d. l. (2007). “paradigms lost and pragmatism regained: methodological implications of combining qualitative and quantitative methods.” journal of mixed methods research, 1 (1), 48 – 76. mtika, p. d. g. (2008) teaching practice as a component of teacher education in malawi: an activity theory perspective. phd thesis, university of nottingham. united kingdom. http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/526/1/final_thesis.pdf nguyen, h. (2009). an inquiry-based practicum model: what knowledge, practices, and relationships typify empowering teaching and learning experiences for presets, cooperating teachers and college supervisors? teaching and teacher education, 25 (2009) 655-662. onwuegbuzie, a. j. & johnson, r.b. (2004). mixed methods research: a research paradigm whose time has come. educational researcher, 33 (7) 14-26. sieborger, r & quick, g. (2005). what matters in practice teaching? the perceptions of schools and students. southern african journal of education, 25 (1) 1-4. so, h. (2009). learning about problem based learning: presets integrating technology, pedagogy and content knowledge. australasian journal of educational technology, 25 (1) 101-116. wubbels, t., veldaman, i., brok., p., & tartwijk., j. (2009). teachers’ practical knowledge http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/articles/nov03/adeyanju%201.htm http://eng.kedi.re.kr/ 21 josta l. nzilano ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 1 (2013) about classroom management in multicultural classrooms. teaching and teacher education, 25 (2009) 453-460. • factors effecting teacher quality practices in primary schools in awka educational zone, anambra state ngozi d. obidike nnamdi azikiwe university, nigeria abstract this study examines the factors effecting teacher quality practices in public primary schools in awka educational zone, anambra state, nigeria. the study aims to ascertain the factors that constitute, effect, as well as improve teachers’ quality practices. three research questions were developed for the study. the study sample consisted of 120 primary school teachers in awka education zone. based on the data collected via a questionnaire, the analysis resulted in the following findings that teacher quality practices include: delivering high quality student-centered instruction, promoting high levels of student engagement, clear assessment strategies for students learning, using positive behavior management strategies, and evidence of student learning. the study also revealed factors that mitigate against teacher quality practices are unconducive environment for teaching and learning, insufficient classrooms for students, delay in paying teacher salaries, inadequate facilities to help achieve instructional objectives, poor teacher preparation and qualifications. suggestions were made by respondents and additional recommendations were suggested by the researchers to ensure and improve teachers’ quality practices. keywords: teacher quality practice, teacher education, nigeria primary education. introduction a teacher is a person whose occupation is teaching others especially children. a teacher is also someone who instructs others or provides activities, materials and guidance that facilitate learning in either formal or informal situation. per ighohiro (2012), teachers are those who mold student character, personality and show students the right direction to success. ryan and cooper (1998) explain that a teacher must demonstrate a repertoire of teaching skills that are believed to facilitate students learning and must display attitudes that foster learning and genuine human relationship. they emphasize that teachers are required to make many decisions as they plan for instruction, implement teaching strategies, and evaluate outcome of their planning and strategies. 2 factors effecting teacher quality practices in primary schools in awka _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) teachers are the main determinants of quality in education and are expected to be effective and committed. hanushek and rivkin, (2004) describe effective teachers as consistently obtaining good results from students, while ineffective teachers produce low learning growth. therefore, according to richard (2002), a quality teacher is said to be an effective teacher. studies, such as richard (2002) and ferguson (1991) focused on investigating total teacher effectiveness revealed that in a single school year, students who were assigned to an effective teacher could gain a full grade level more than those students who were assigned to an ineffective teacher. therefore, their studies’ observations defined quality teachers in a way that is of most interest to student achievement gain which is the main aim of education. the is also affirmed in nigeria’s national policy on education (2006) that no educational system can rise above the quality of the teachers in the system. in other words, the quality of teachers in an educational system determines the quality of the system because teachers are policy implementers. education in nigeria is faced with poor levels of teaching and learning and prevalent moral decadence in the society. these conditions lead to high level of examination malpractices, high school dropout, kidnapping, cultism, and other vices as indicated in a 2006 report by the federal ministry of education (fme). ogunsaju (2004) stated that the academic standard in all nigeria educational institutions fell considerably below societal expectations. blumende (2001) corroborated this view when he reported that the decline in the quality of education in nigeria cannot be ignored by anyone who is aware of the significant role of education as an instrument of societal transformation and development. several education and government authorities have observed that the present educational opportunities offered to learners at primary school level lack quality in terms of teaching and learning. that is why lassa (2000) reflected that education cannot be provided by just anybody, it requires a teacher who plans and delivers the lessons of instruction in such a way that the objectives of the lesson can be achieved. an uncertified teacher cannot prepare students for common entrance examination because it is unlikely that they could provide quality instruction to lead the students to successful completion of these exams. furthermore, adebayo (2009) reported that casual visits to most public schools in nigeria would reveal the extent to which educational institutions have decayed in the recent years. adebayo further reported that educational facilities at all levels are in a terrible shape; schools are littered with dilapidated structures, and worn out equipment. these schools suffer from inadequate manpower both in quality and quantity and staff morale is very low due to poor pay and poor working conditions. good teaching is at the heart of good schooling. therefore, the quality of teacher preparation is crucial to helping students reach high academic standards. yet many enter the profession unprepared, having received poor quality training. some teachers, who are working without a regular teaching license, may never have received any training. to provide quality education for all students, teacher quality practices in schools should be of high standard as teachers are the key to quality education. it is necessary therefore to examine the factors effecting the quality practices of teachers in public primary schools as the finding of the study can help to improve quality education in primary schools. ngozi d. obidike 3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) it is anticipated that the findings of this study will be of benefit to educational policy makers, school proprietors, teachers, and pupils. the findings of this study hope to help make improved decisions that foster teacher quality practices and student achievement gains. as a result, students may be offered better learning opportunities once teacher quality is improved. the purpose of this study is to examine the quality practices of teachers in public primary schools in awka educational zone, anambra state, nigeria. specifically, the study sought to:  determine the factors that constitute teacher quality practices;  determine the factors that effect teacher quality practices; and  identify strategies that would improve teacher quality. method the study was carried out in awka educational zone, anambra state. this educational zone has five local government areas (lga) under it, including: anaocha lga, awka north lga, awka south lga, dunukofia lga, and njikoka lga. a survey design was used for this study. survey research is an efficient way of gathering data to help address a research question. the survey design was used because the study involves collecting information from a group of people. the study employed a questionnaire to determine the qualities of teachers in primary schools. the population of the study included 43 government primary schools in awka educational zone with a population of 2,520 teachers according to the anambra state universal basic education board (asubeb) 2014 statistics. the sampling technique used in this research is the systematic sampling technique. four public primary schools were selected from each of the five local government areas in awka educational zone making a total of 20 selected primary schools. six teachers were selected from each of the 20 selected primary schools for a total number of 120 respondents. the instrument for the collection of data was a questionnaire. the questionnaire comprised of questions in which the respondents were required to indicate their opinion on teacher quality practices and factors that affect teacher quality. space was provided on the questionnaire for brief suggestions on how to improve teacher quality practices. the questionnaire used a 5 point likert scale of strongly agree 5, agree 4, undecided 3, disagree 2, and strongly disagree 1. the questionnaire was first validated for clarity, suitability, and relevance to the research questions by two lecturers from the department of early childhood and primary education, and one lecturer from the department of measurement and evaluation. all three lecturers were employed at nnamdi azikiwe university. to ensure the validity of the instrument, two copies of the questionnaire along with the purpose of study and research quest ion were given to these experts. they were specifically requested to carry out the face validation of the instrument by evaluating the quality of the items in terms of clarity, appropriateness of language, and adequacy of the items. their comments and contributions were included before the final copy of the instrument was produced. then 120 copies of the questionnaire were distributed and collected by the researcher. the data was analyzed using mean statistics and any item with a mean score of 4 factors effecting teacher quality practices in primary schools in awka _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) 3.00 and above was regarded as agreed, while any item with a mean less than 3.00 was regarded as disagreed. data analysis this data presented in tabular form below includes two tables, each designed to address research questions 1 and 2 respectively. research question 3 has no table as it provides a summary of respondents’ suggestions about teacher quality practices. research question 1 what are the factors that constitute teacher quality practices in primary school in awka educational zone, anambra state? table 1.1: factors constituting teacher quality practices: primary schools, awka educational zone, anambra state. s/n primary school teachers items mean decision 1 the teacher designs effective, standards-based instruction, i.e. the lesson plan is mapped to state and/or district standards, with clear goal(s) and objectives, and students tasks. 4.30 agreed 2 the teacher delivers high-quality, student-centered instruction, i.e. instruction and facilitation of learning is clear, well-paced, and utilizes research-based strategies. 4.10 agreed 3 the teacher promotes high levels of student engagement, i.e. the teacher creates an environment that promotes a high level of student involvement in their learning. 4.25 agreed 4 the teacher uses assessment for student learning, i.e. the teacher has developed clear assessment strategies for assessing students before, during and after the lesson. 4.00 agreed 5 the teacher uses a positive behavior management strategy, i.e. expectations of student behavior are clear and the teacher monitors behavior in a manner which is subtle, positive, and preventive. 3.95 agreed 6 there is clear evidence that students are learning, i.e. evidence of students, learning is explicit and observable. 4.50 agreed table 1.1 shows that all the items have a mean value of 3.0 and above. this shows that the respondents agree that all the items above constitute teacher quality practices in primary schools in awka education zone research question 2 what are the factors that affect teacher quality practices? ngozi d. obidike 5 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) table 1.2: responses: factors that effect teacher quality practices in primary schools, awka educational zone. s/no primary school teachers items mean decision 7 unconducive environment for teaching and learning 4.86 agreed 8 irregular supervision of teachers during classes 3.64 agreed 9 inadequate facilities to help achieve instructional objectives 3.01 agreed 10 insufficient classrooms for pupils 4.08 agreed 11 poor teacher preparation and qualification 3.04 agreed 12 lack of seminar and workshop opportunities that enhances teaching and discipline of pupils 4.28 agreed 13 delay in paying teachers’ salary 4.04 agreed 14 lack of promotion as and when due 3.36 agreed 15 parents interference with the teaching and discipline of pupils 2.70 disagreed 16 impositions from school management educational boards and educational offices 2.32 disagreed in the table 1.2 above, the respondents agreed that factors of items 7-9 effect teacher quality practices in public primary schools while items 15 & 16 which are parental interference with the teaching and disciplines of pupil and imposition from school managements, educational boards, and educational offices were not accepted as items that effect teachers’ quality practices in public primary schools. research question 3 how can teacher quality practices be improved in primary schools? the respondents were required to briefly suggest what they think should be done to improve teacher quality. below is the summary of respondent suggestions on how to improve teacher quality. most of the respondent suggested that teacher salary should be increased, instructional materials and teaching facilities should be made available to the teachers, more classrooms should be provided, and teachers should be properly interviewed before being employed. few respondents suggested that teachers who are under qualified should be laid off and comfortable offices should also be provided for teachers. proper supervision of teachers’ progress during class and frequent evaluation of teachers’ notes were also suggested. discussion of findings from the three research questions in this study, the finding in table 1.1 shows that the public primary school teachers agreed with the essential practices of high quality teaching and learning outlined in table 1.1 as what constitutes teacher quality practices. this finding agrees with ryan and cooper (1998), who observed that teachers are the main personnel that ensure the 6 factors effecting teacher quality practices in primary schools in awka _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) achievement of curriculum objectives and school goals as they have more frequent contact and relationships with the public than any other staff in the school. therefore, accordingly they should be given opportunities to participate fully in school planning development. this finding also agreed with hanushek and rivkin (2004) who observed that improving teacher quality practices, requires knowledge of subject matter content, child development, methods of assessing student progress, and pedagogy. furthermore, they also observed that teacher preparation demands that a wide variety of professional learning opportunities be made available to teachers and schools and if teaching practice is to be improved, professional learning opportunities need to be more consisted, in-depth, and coherent. table 1.2 showed that certain factors effect teacher quality practices and effectiveness in public primary schools. these factors include inadequate facilities to help achieve instructional objectives and unconducive learning environments for teaching. other factors are irregular evaluation of notes and lesson plans by the school management, late salary payment, and delayed promotions. these finding agreed with adebayo (2009) that observed that insufficient classroom for pupils and irregular supervision of teachers effects teacher quality in public primary schools. accordingly, adebayo noted insufficient classrooms for pupils will definitely result to an unconducive learning environment. it could also impede teachers’ effective control of the classroom, as the teacher may not have enough space to move around the classroom due to overpopulation. however, the teachers disagreed that parent interference and impositions from school management effected their quality practices. this outcome did not agree with nnachi (2010) who observed that some teachers, especially in private schools, give pupils good grades so as to gain parents support. suggestions made by the respondents from research question 3 show that increased teacher salaries, availability of instructional materials, adequate classrooms, proper supervision of teachers during classes, and frequent evaluation of teachers’ notes would improve quality teaching in all schools. this finding was in line with nnachi (2010) who observed that teacher salaries should be paid on time. the respondents also suggested that before a person is employed as a teacher, he/she should be adequately interviewed to ensure that the person is competent enough to teach. this finding agrees with igwe (2000) who observed that competence, adequate teacher preparation, motivation, and appropriate practice should be ensured for teacher quality success. conclusion the study’s aim was to ascertain the factors that constitute, effect, as well as improve teachers’ quality practices. the study revealed that what constitutes teacher quality practices includes, among other factors: delivering high quality student-centered instruction, promoting high levels of student engagement, clear assessment strategies for students learning, using positive behavior management strategies, and evidence of students learning. the study also revealed that factors that mitigate against teacher quality practices are unconducive environment for teaching and learning, insufficient classrooms for pupils, unconducive environment for teaching and learning, delayed payment of teachers’ salaries, inadequate facilities to help achieve instructional objectives, poor teacher preparation, and inadequate qualifications of teachers. finally, ngozi d. obidike 7 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) respondents’ suggestions for improving quality teaching included: selecting competent teachers, increasing teachers’ salaries, availability of instructional materials, adequate classrooms, proper supervision of teachers during classes, and frequent evaluation of teachers’ notes to improve quality practices in all schools. recommendations based on this study’s findings, the researcher identified several recommendations for improvement of and maintenance of teachers’ quality practice in primary education. first is the that to improve teacher quality practices requires that teachers should be conversant with knowledge of subject matter content, child development, methods of assessing student progress and pedagogy. this requires maintenance of high quality teacher education programs. next teacher preparation demands that a wide variety of professional learning opportunities be made available to teachers and schools through ongoing in-service or continuing education support from colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities. related to this continuing education, these offerings must include professional learning opportunities with more consistent, in-depth, and coherent programs of study. physical and resource supports need to be of quality to provide conducive school environments so teachers may focus on quality teaching. this means that sufficient instructional facilities are provided and maintained in every school and adequate classrooms and office are provided for pupils and teachers respectively. in relation to in-service training, seminars, and workshops, these must be regularly organized and consistently offered for teachers to improve their knowledge and therefore their performance in the classroom. next regular supervision and mentoring by supervisors should be provided to evaluate teachers’ classroom progress and provide the necessary input for improvement. related to this supervision process, teachers should receive their promotions as scheduled and their salaries should be increased to better reflect their value to education and the wider society. the measures will increase their confidence and their dedication to their teaching career. hardworking and effective teachers should be periodically recognized and awarded based on their merits at the end of each term. this will encourage healthy competition that would improve teacher effectiveness. finally, schools must be located in appropriate and safe environments for the wellbeing of teachers and students. references abduahi, o. e. (2008). primary school education in nigeria. adebayo, f.a (2009). parents’ preference for private primary schools in nigeria. ekiti state, nigeria: faculty of education university of ado-ekiti, (unpublished thesis). anambra state universal basic education board (asubeb) (2014). research and statistics department records. awka: asubeb. blumede, r.s. (2001). making schools effective in nigeria. journal of education. research, 5(1), 65-78. 8 factors effecting teacher quality practices in primary schools in awka _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) ferguson, r.f. (1991). paying for public education: new evidence on how and why money matters. howard journal on legislation, 28, 465-498. federal ministry of education. (2006). national policy on education. abuja: neroc. _____. (2005). education sector analysis report. abuja: neroc. gurney, p. (2007). five factors for effective teaching. new zealand journal of teachers work, 4(2), 8998. hanushek, e. a, & rivkin, s.g. (2004). how to improve the supply of high quality teachers. in ravitch, d. (ed.), quality teacher. brookings: institution press. hanilton, d. & parelett, m.r. (1972). a new approach to the study of monitoring programmes. in hamilton, d. (ed.) evaluation as illumination. london: bey and macmillan, pp 6-22. ighohno, d.o (2012). education documents and bestial documents nigeria. lagos: ministry of education press. igwe, s.o. (2000). professional handbook for teachers. imo state, nigeria: milestone for nigeria union of teachers imo state. lassa, p. (2000). teacher production: a focus on nigeria, the state of education in nigeria. abuja: unesco. lorillard, d.m. (1993). rethinking university teaching. a framework for effective use of educational technology. london & new york: routledge. nnachi, r.o. (2010). nigeria teachers. nigeria: hudson jude. ogunsaju, s. (2004). a guide to school effectiveness in nigeria. ibadan: laville publications. richard, l.a. (2012). learning to teach (19th ed.). new york: mcgrawhills companies, inc. ryan, k.& cooper, j.m. (1998). those who can, teach. new york: houghton mifflin company. teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development shoeb ahmad university of ha’il, saudi arabia abstract the main focus of this study is on teacher education in ethiopia, with particular reference to its reforms and policies. in ethiopia, with the emergence of various education reforms and policies, and with the discourse of teacher education system overhaul (teso) the complete infrastructure of the educational system shows signs of development. teacher education in ethiopia is directed towards developing both the students and teachers equally, to stand on par with the educational systems of other societies. this article highlights various aspects of teacher education in ethiopia and focuses upon its various reforms and policies established to develop teacher education in the country. we explore the changes in the teacher education system and approaches that have emerged since 1900 to the present time in ethiopia. we also provide examples of institutions and programs that are particularly successful in implementing some of the key policies. the concluding part of the study reflects on a new paradigm in teacher education highlighting the ict and plasma teacher phenomenon. keywords: ethiopia teacher education, education reform, teacher education system overhaul, history teacher education ethiopia. introduction in considering raising the quality of teaching, one must begin at the teacher level. teacher development must be seen as a continuum of learning, with teachers located at various places along the continuum (craig et.al, 1998, p.1).coexistent with this however is the fact that to improve any educational system the most important factor to be kept in mind is to improve the quality of teachers along with the standard of teaching. this is necessary because a person who would educate others must be educated first and should possess a broad background of general cultural training. it is also necessary to educate teachers because only teachers who have themselves experienced a liberal and valuable education can lead the students towards development by exhibiting resourcefulness and enterprise in their work. 2 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) all major issues concerning educational changes require staff development activities to implement these changes in the educational infrastructure from top to bottom levels that is, from administrators, school principals, teachers, to technical and administrative support personnel. moreover with the advent of information and technologies in the education system the teachers are now under pressure to learn how to cope with these technologies in their classrooms, and how to use the hardware and software to enhance the teaching and learning process. the situation involves considering the needs of updating and developing teachers’ knowledge to be competent enough to deal with the ongoing pressures. as with teaching itself, teacher education features a profusion of advice, little of which is anchored in reliable knowledge or shared across programs. teachers’ education is also a part of professional development of teachers. first of all we will define the term professional development. professional development basically refers to overall development of the profession of an individual. various researchers have their own perspectives and definitions of professional development, such as (glatthorn, 1995) states that “teacher development is the professional growth a teacher achieves as a result of gaining increased experience and examining his or her teaching systematically” ( p. 40). the concept of professional development of teacher covers a broader aspect than the career development or the staff development aspect. when looking at professional development one must examine the content of the experiences, the processes by which the professional development will occur, and the context in which it will take place (ganser, 2000; fielding & schalock, 1985). previous studies confirm that development of teacher education provides teachers with satisfaction besides financial gain and it also have a positive impact on a teacher’s beliefs and practices that may lead to better teaching of and learning by the students. educational development also has a positive impact on the implementation of various educational reforms in any country. it is a known fact that educational changes require staff development activities to implement these changes in the educational infrastructure from top to bottom in order to be effective. also with the advent of information and technologies in the education system the teachers must learn how to cope with these technologies in their classrooms and how to use the hardware and software to enhance the teaching and learning process. all these situations give rise to the need to update and develop the teachers’ knowledge and skills to be competent enough to deal with the ongoing pressures. the only one way to tackle this problem is to develop or improve the education of teachers. by positioning educational policies and practices firmly within their historical framework, the ethiopian government took a self-decreed vow to use a political approach for the development of teachers from the core, and thus explicitly articulated these issues which have come to preoccupy the current state of education. this article deals particularly with the development of teacher education in ethiopia. teacher education in ethiopia since the times of the coptic church to present can be documented as one of flurried activity with dramatic changes. major changes are evident significantly in policy making and the rationalization of the teacher education system. the changes are remarkable, both systemically and in terms of underlying educational philosophy and curriculum. this study attempts to survey and analyse major teacher education documents regarding policies and proclamations, and approaches and challenges to the teacher education system. in the first part of this article we will examine the systemic changes in teacher education system since the time of coptic church’s involvement to the present time through the historical introduction of education and training policy by the federal democratic republic of ethiopia shoeb ahmad 3 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) (fdre) government in1994. we begin with a note on the research methodology used in this article, followed by a review of the extant literature on the history and present scenario of teachers’ education in ethiopia. the study also provides an overview of current teacher education policies and reforms in the country. further it explores teacher development programs in the light of these national teacher education reforms and policies. in the second part of this article, we examine the rich and inclusive debate about “a new paradigm for teacher education in ethiopia” that has invaded the new educational philosophy and teacher education system in ethiopia over the last decade and the challenges faced by the system. finally we conclude this article with some recommendations and suggestions that address concerns related to these policies and programs. research methodology the main aim of this study is to ascertain important works and developments in the area of teachers’ education in ethiopia highlighting the educational reforms and policies. for this purposes of this study both primary and secondary source of information was used. we categorized source topics, so as to identify the gaps between theory and practice. a brief introduction on the past and the present education system within the country is provided to make the reader acquainted with the knowledge base within the area and broaden the scope of further research on the topic. next we focus upon various educational policies and reforms taken up by the ethiopian government to improve the quality of education in the country and move on to discuss the different types of professional development programs. further we highlight some new paradigms in teacher education. finally, we summarize and discuss the issues arising from our study and, provide some general conclusions on the state of the field which is followed by indicating some gaps for potential future study at the end. the primary information was gathered by interacting with faculty of education at bahirdar university from 2010-2011, which is one of the pioneer pedagogical institutes in ethiopia. the secondary source of information was gathered from the vast expanse of literature related to the topic present in the bahirdar university library and on the internet. history of teacher education in ethiopia (1900 -1990) before expanding upon the topic it seems sensible to first review a brief history of ethiopian teacher education in the chronological order. a historical review of teacher education development in ethiopia from 1900 to the present consists of different phases of religious, social and political experimentation, reorganization, and independence. without mentioning the traditional or coptic church education system in ethiopia, history of teacher education cannot complete. ethiopia has a long and rich tradition of indigenous education most notably associated with the coptic church, which has been a powerful institution in the area of contemporary ethiopia for over 1000 years (pankhurst 1974). the traditional church education relates back to the fourth century ce during the aksumite civilization and controlled most of the education institutions across the country for about 1500 years. from 13 th through the 16th centuries ce the coptic church (church) had an unopposed influence over both social and political systems in the country giving rise to well a defined church education system and literature as well. the church education may be divided into three phases that seem to parallel the western-oriented education system. the primary schools, secondary schools, and the higher education in the western – oriented education are more or less parallel to “qum tsehefet”, “zema bet”, and “quoine bet” schools respectively in the ethiopian indigenous church school system (habtemariam, 1970). 4 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the approaches to teaching and learning embedded in the traditional or church education system include: obedience and complete subservience to authority (amare, 1967, p.7); a heavy dependence on rote learning, a close relationship between learning and doing, and the mastery of what is essentially a stable body of knowledge passed on through the generations (ridley & bridges, 1997). the church strongly opposed the establishment and running of secular types of schools. after all, these schools did not evolve from the traditional schools of the church or the mosque. rather the schools were alien to the church in their curriculum, the teaching staff, and books, and even the media of instruction were foreign to the ethiopian situation (haileselassie, 1999, p.1). modern education was introduced in ethiopia under the rule of the emperor menelik ii (1889-1913) in 1908 that was more than 100 years ago. a school was established and named menelik school which was probably inspired by the missionary schools taking center stage of the world by the mid-nineteenth century ce. the school was highly opposed by the authoritarian church that enjoyed a virtual monopoly over education .the church feared the undermining potential of a state school system managed by the europeans. the opposition from the church was overcame by emperor menelik ii who bowed down against a number of demands of the church (negash,1996, p.101). it was during the time of emperor haile selassie i (1930 –1974) that a significant development was registered in the education sector. the development was virtually in all aspects of education: educational structure, teacher training, educational management and co-operation (kassaye, 2005, p.107). during this period the medium of instruction was amharic and education focused mainly on training in communication skills (reading and writing) as well as the rudiments of mathematics necessary to run a modern bureaucracy. meanwhile, the focus shifted towards giving priority to education and consequently many schools and higher learning institutions were established. the main aim was to produce qualified teachers and administrators capable of running the state machinery smoothly. since then various reforms and policies were introduced in the system to improve the quality of teacher education in the country. the lines of this development were drawn in 1944-5 when the first teacher training program was initiated with the implementation of primary school teachers’ training programs at menelik ii school in addis ababa. adding to this development was the university college of addis ababa in 1950 that was established to train secondary school teachers. later on the faculty of education emerged at haile sellassie i university (now addis ababa university) in 1961 that was the first faculty explicitly concentrating on the preparation of secondary school teachers (marew et al., 2000). following this trend, the kotebe arts and mechanical college started upper primary teacher training program followed by a secondary teacher education program in five main subjects, including, english, mathematics, sports, physical education, and amharic around 1990s. at the time there were about 12 teacher training institutes around the country. these institutes imparted training to more than 6 thousand primary school teachers every year of which, haramaya university, dilla college of teacher education and health sciences, and bahir dar university were the pioneers. the bahir dar teachers’ college, at the time known as the academy of pedagogy, was established in 1972 by the imperial government of ethiopia with aid from unesco and undp. the academy of pedagogy started functioning in 1973 under the auspices of the ministry of education and fine arts. the faculty initially offered training to educationists such as guidance and counseling experts, educational administrators, and curriculum coordinators. gradually, the faculty was developed into a college that offered a complete two year teacher education course in shoeb ahmad 5 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) adult education, amharic, english, geography, mathematics, and physics. diploma courses were launched in 1980 to train teachers for junior secondary schools. in the course of development some of these colleges were geared up to train upper primary school (grades 5–8) teachers. there are now over 15 such colleges, which increased the country’s institutional capacity to preparing over 30,000 teachers during 2005 (ministry of education [moe], 2005). riding high on these developments, ethiopia’s capability to prepare teachers for different levels, primary, secondary and higher education, has grown both qualitatively and quantitatively along with the implementation of non-conventional teacher education programs. present state of teacher education in ethiopia the main principles, education, and objectives, and goals of education in the country are enunciated in the various proclamations by ethiopia’s government (unesco, 2010, p.3) to expand the educational infrastructure, access to educational opportunity, and to improve the quality of education, ethiopia’s government adopted an education and training policy in 1994. the ethiopian education and training policy aimed to achieve four educational goals namely: quality, access, relevance, and equity. the training of qualified teachers is conducted simultaneously with the expansion of the education system. the government also established new teachers training colleges and upgraded the existing ones as it felt that to improve the quality of education, not only the academic qualifications of the teachers should be improved but the education institutions that impart educational ethical values and the methodological approaches of the teachers should also be improved. as it is presented in the ethiopian education and training policy, teachers are expected to have the ability, diligence, and professional interest, and the physical and mental fitness appropriate for the profession (ministry of education, 2012, p.1). the ethiopian education and training policy (1994) helped to chart out the education sector development programs (esdps) i, ii, and iii consecutively with an aim to meet the educational goals of the nation. under esdp it was recognized that to improve education both qualitatively and quantitatively, the teacher training system should be increased to provide adequate numbers of qualified teachers to meet the demands of the greatly increased enrolment in educational institutions. esdp also made the authorities realize that not only the quantity of qualified teachers should be increased, but the quality of teachers should also be improved. in ethiopia all teacher education activities are organized under the aegis of federal ministry of education through the department of educational programs and teacher education. the primary school teacher training programs and training for technical and vocational education and training (tvet) teachers is supervised by teacher education department of the general education sub-sector, while the secondary teachers training program is the onus of the higher education department. in addition to the teacher education policy, a teacher education reform called teacher development program (tdp) was also implemented by the ministry of education which is currently jointly funded by six donor countries. the moe also provides guidelines for the training of pre-school teachers. following this, a policy program called teacher education system overhaul (teso) was initiated in 2003 to develop the objectives and strategies of the teacher’s education. according to moe’s description, the teso policy represents a paradigm shift (moe, 2003) that officially follows the international trends of active learner-focused education. among the actions taken, formal schooling was given a slightly modified apparatus or structure. similarly, post-secondary 6 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) and higher learning institutions were restructured to affect a two-tier four cycle approach. that is first cycle primary (1-4), second cycle primary (5-8), first cycle secondary (9 and 10) and second cycle secondary (11 and 12) (tessema, 2006). though, teso was implemented with great hope, the desired result are yet to be achieved. it was observed that the authorities are not yet fully prepared and adept in initiating changes to teacher education programs as outlined and described in teso. it was also observed that schooling and teacher preparation activities are not proportional and are not aligned with each other in their aims and practices. at present, ethiopian teacher education is characterized as a terrain of persistent contradictions, challenges, and chaos. engrossed in and obsessed with the rhetoric of system overhaul and reform, state actors officially opted for a swift and sweeping change in the structure and content of teacher education since 2003 (tessema, 2006). in the next section of this article we are going to discuss in brief the various reforms and policies instituted in ethiopia and their consequences with regard to the development of teacher education. teacher education: policies and reforms the world is heading towards globalization which can be defined as a multifaceted process of change involving economic, political, and cultural aspects regarding global markets and practices. recently the term globalization has become well associated with educational contexts. “globalization has become an influence in nation-states’ social reforms as education sectors adjust to the new global environments that are characterized by flexibility, diversity, increased competition, and unpredictable change” (sahlberg, 2004, p.67). burbules& torres (2000) explored the diversity of various responses to globalization in the context of different countries and found that it has an impact on educational policies and practices in countries around the world. expanding upon these statements we wish to assert that the main objective of current teacher education programs is to prepare teachers to teach in the context of educational globalization. by the term educational globalization we mean to say that, a drastic change has been observed in the education sector around the world. misra & bajpai, 2010, rightly state that to place “the total education system of the world under one roof” requires the unification of teaching curriculum, methodology, and upgrading of knowledge and systems to maintain efficiency and effectiveness by which transformation of knowledge is acquired in a justified manner to attain the goals of life (p.1). we have already mentioned the influence of the ethiopian coptic church educational system in the previous section. the ethiopian church developed a school system which not only served as focal sites for learning religious ideals and mores but also prepared the nation’s religious and governmental leaders (fufa). but as a contradiction, the church’s education failed to reach all corners of the country and this was a serious issue of concern. in general, according to wodajo (1960, p. 9), “ethiopian christian education system lacked grains of progressiveness, lifelikeness and accessibility.” with regards to ethiopian education system, the most decisive turn took place in 1991, when ethiopia experienced a shift in political power that promised to introduce a major change in the national education system. extensive reforms in the educational infrastructure had taken place in ethiopia earlier in 1934-1974 during imperial period and later on in the derg regime extending from 1974-1991. to an extent these reforms ensured that changes in the system of education led to new institutional structuring for teacher preparation activities which necessitated some revision of the existing curriculum and modalities to affect the changes. tirusew, (2006) in his “introductory note on the educational system and teacher education in ethiopia” described shoeb ahmad 7 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the various structures of delivery of teacher training programs prevalent in the country during previous regime in ethiopia which include: community teacher training (grade 8 +1); primary teacher preparation (grade 8+1, 8+4,10+2, 12+1); secondary teacher education (grade 12+4); and technical and vocational teacher education (grade, 10+3, 12+3). he also mentions that the reforms in education were not built upon empirical evidences and principles. this statement drives at the inference that the efforts of restructuring educational system lacked vision regarding issues such as continuity, discontinuity, power, knowledge, and core values of teacher education. approximating other formal education systems, ethiopia’s teacher education programs have experienced a drastic structural change which indicates a remarkable structural and curricular realignment in all teacher education activities. a major change includes reduction in duration of pre-service secondary teacher education from four years to three. a prescriptive approach was adopted to formalize and “legitimize” the official education rhetoric or vision as well as its subsequent actions (tessema, 2006). the present government of ethiopia recognized the importance of improving education as a key to the success for overall development of the country. this government issued various policies and reforms to improve the education system in the country. some of the policies and reforms like education and training policy (1994), teacher education system overhaul program (teso), and teacher development programs (tdps) are discussed in this article. like all other formal education, teacher education programs have undergone structural changes over the years. notably, a structural and curricular realignment was made in all ethiopia’s teacher education activities. for instance, pre-service secondary teacher education was reduced from four years to three. other aspects of secondary teacher education were changed apparently to conform to the change in the duration of time, including a prescriptive approach being adopted to formalize the programs under the official government vision. in the same fashion, a formalistic and homogenous approach was pursued to address what the government perceived as the past “flawed” teacher education practices in ethiopia (tesema, 2006). all the above mentioned ethiopian education policies are based in nature and scope on active learning, student centered, and problem solving approaches associated with constructivism. within this policy context, teachers are now faced with the complex task of ensuring that their students engage in meaningful learning, learn through various forms of active learning, and learn to use higher-order thinking skills. this requires understanding and skills that go far beyond the traditional teacher-centered approaches of the past based on memorization of facts and information (usaid/equip1/aed, 2006). visionary teacher education programs at present some visionary teacher education programs in ethiopia have already embarked on the journey to prepare teachers for the global age and a few of them like the education and training policy (1994), teacher education system overhaul program (2003), and teacher development programs (tdps) are discussed below. education and training policy. the education and training policy (1994) was framed to focus upon four educational goals namely quality, access, relevance and equity. this policy was basically drafted to meet the overall educational developmental challenges within the country with greater stress on the teacher education programs. in fact the close relationship between learning and doing as a commendable approach of the traditional education was included in the present educational and training policy of ethiopia. 8 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the policy statement refers frequently to the employment of learner-centered, active learning, and problem solving approaches in different contexts (serbessa, 2006, p.3).the education policy ascertains that teacher trainees have the proper knowledge, skill, ability, diligence, professional interest as needed along with appropriate physical and mental fitness to meet the demand and challenges of the profession at different levels. highlights of the policy regarding teacher’s training and recruitment are: teachers starting from kindergarten to higher education, will be required to have the necessary teaching qualification and competency in the media of instruction, through pro-service and in-service training. the criteria for the professional development of teachers will be continuous education and training, professional ethics and teaching performance. (fdrge, 1994, p.20-21) the education and training policy has a basic objective to, “develop the physical and mental potential and the problem-solving capacity of individuals by expanding education and in particular by providing basic education for all” (fdrge, 1994, p.7). in general terms we can say that the policy is devoted to attaining competency at both student and teacher levels. in a country like ethiopia with a diverse population, both competency and diversity issue are significant. the diverse population produces diverse students who need a diversified teaching staff. in view of this, moe considered the need to develop a new gender and diversity sensitive selection criteria for primary and secondary school teacher trainees. because of the change in the required qualifications, moe developed a new selection guideline in 2011(moe, 2013, p.26). according to these new selection guidelines teachers are trained at different levels. the primary level teachers are trained both for the integrated school curriculum (1-4) and for the linear subjects being taught in the upper primary (grades7-8). currently there are two modalities of primary teacher’s preparation: the cluster model, and the linear model. both of these models prepare teachers with a 10+3 training program and award candidates a diploma in teaching (moe, 2013, p.29). in 2011-2012 there was a total enrolment of 173,517 primary teachers (emis data 2011/2012) of which 51,637 are in the initial training program and 90,436 are in the summer upgrading program. the remaining candidates were enrolled in the evening program. secondary school teachers were given training for three years until 2010, but from 2011 onward a new system of secondary teacher preparation called post graduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) was implemented by 10 universities in ethiopia. under this system the teacher trainees are given one year of professional and practical training before they were employed in a mainstream teaching job. the main aim of pgdt was to fill the content and pedagogical gaps that were present in earlier secondary education teaching programs as observed in teaching and classroom practices in secondary schools. the total enrolment in all secondary teacher training programs in all universities for 2011 – 2012 was 66,103 with the majority in the pgdt and with about 10 percent enrolled in the regular program (moe, 2013). the education and training policy aims to improve the structure of education in relation to the development of student profiles, educational interventions, method and language of instructions at different levels, recruitment, training, methodology, organization, professional ethics, and career development of teachers. in fact according to moe, the education and training policy has enabled ethiopia to attain remarkable achievements in the education sector over the past few years. though impressive achievements were observed in ethiopian education shoeb ahmad 9 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) due to the increased supply of qualified and trained teachers, their competence however remains questionable. the quality of education of teachers needs improvement that will lead to increased efficiency. ethiopian education and training policy (1994) aimed to assert four educational goals of the nation namely quality, access, relevance, and equity. to date, the country's education is entangled with complex problems related to relevance, quality, accessibility, and equity. the objectives of education do not take cognizance of the society's needs and do not adequately indicate its future direction. teacher development program. in addition to the education and training policy (1994), another major teacher education reforms namely teacher development program (tdp1) was implemented in 1997 under national educational development adjudication. the program was designed for implementation at all levels of the education system employing moe’s 11 regional education bureaus (rebs) and their colleges of teacher educations (ctes) and 9 universities. the rebs, ctes, and universities also expanded their function as implementing agents in schools. beneficiaries were therefore primarily students, teachers, teacher educators, educational leaders and implementing technical staff (moe, 2009). tdp1 aimed to improve the system of teacher education methodology along with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of those concerned with the teacher education system. tdp initiatives are coordinated by moe and are jointly funded by six donor countries. implementing a structural change in 2003-04, tdp 1program was revised and was informally known as tdp 2.the functional duration of tdp 2 was extended for a period of 8 years as an important component of the general education quality improvement program (gequip). most of the activities related to teacher education and teacher development in ethiopia are combined under the tdp reforms. both tdp 1 and tdp 2 were launched with primary development objectives that included the improvement of components of teso, the english language improvement program (elip), and the leadership and management program (lamp). tdp has already made several improvements based on its significant work undertaken since 2007 (teachers development program blue print, 2007). the english language improvement program (elip) proved beneficial for more than 1,050,000 teachers and english language improvement centers (elics) were set up at some teis. lamp was started under tdp in 2005-2006 as a means to build the competencies of school principals and supervisors in planning and management that led to certificate and diploma qualifications. teacher education system overhaul (teso). in 2002 moe conducted a study on the quality and effectiveness of teacher education in ethiopia. upon recommendations from the study report, moe established a task force to produce the national framework for the teacher education system overhaul program (teso). teso was drafted as a main program to address all the issues regarding the teacher education programs. teso key points are described below. teso consists of a national framework for teacher education system overhaul and a national curriculum guideline for pre-service teacher education program. tessema explains teso’s role, accordingly: with the emergence of the discourse of teso, teacher education in ethiopia has been struggling to change rhetoric and practice by reaffirming a managerially driven reform performance. the terrain is now characterized by globally dominant reform mottos and change agendas such as paradigm shift and system overhaul. (2007, p.3) 10 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) teso focuses on five programs on a priority basis with its main emphasis on the recruitment, training, and education of teachers. it also concentrates on school based and student centered learning, practice oriented training, and self-preparedness for the teaching profession. however, several works concluded in their observations and findings from interviews with teacher educators responsible for implementing the new policies, that the rhetoric of policy documents and the state owned media preaching and practice are not aligned (engida, 2006; kassahun, 2006). this study also concluded that implementation of teso included changes both in structure and content of school curricula through reductions of programs from four to three years at universities and by moving away from subject to vocational emphasis that includes practicum for teacher education. teso proposal requires perception and expertise that is highly improvised compared to the traditional teacher-centered methods which relied primarily on memorization of facts and information. continuum of teacher professional development in ethiopia a teacher’s professional quality is comprised of different skills and competencies that need specific training for mastery. the transitional government of ethiopia (tge) led by meles zenawi in 1991, recognized the need to upgrade the quality and professional competence of existing teachers through in-service training. professional development of teachers is an important aspect of professional life of teachers as it has a significant positive impact on teachers’ beliefs and practices along with its role in supporting the students’ learning. in recent years the term professional development has broadened in nature and scope, and today it is being considered as a long term process that provides various opportunities and experiences to the teacher in a planned systematic way which helps them to improve and develop in their profession. darling-hammond & mclaughlin (1995) describes professional development as a collaborative process, while scribner (1999) asserts that professional development may look and be very different in diverse settings and even within a single setting it can have a variety of dimensions. teachers believe that they must be empowered as transformative agents who through professional development should cultivate their knowledge of practice (scribner, 1999, p. 2). professional development of teachers would enable them to be well prepared with the necessary pedagogical skills needed at different levels and also make them adept at handling the current technology successfully as part of their teaching. there are different types of teacher professional development programs that were developed and implemented in different countries to support professional development of the teachers throughout their career. teacher professional development should be conducted at all levels across primary teacher development to university teacher development. the tge recognized the need to upgrade the quality and professional competence of the existing teachers through in service training in 1994 and commissioned livingstone to undertake research in this area. livingstone (2001) after his research study asserted the need for staff development and made specific reference to the fact that endorsement should be considered, for different forms of learning: for prior learning in another institution or field; for formal learning through established routes; for experiential learning, usually in the workplace. it is best if such a scheme is national and is operated by all institutions in comparable ways (p. 55). teacher professional development in ethiopia is undertaken as a priority issue to enhance teaching effectiveness of teachers to teach the students in increasingly diverse contexts and at high levels. it is to support their professional growth so they may transition over their careers into roles of shoeb ahmad 11 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) high status and responsibility within their profession. in ethiopia, it is now mandatory for teachers at all levels that they should go through a negotiated continuous professional development program (cpd), completing a minimum of 60 hours of approved activities each year, as the basis for their on-going professional development. the various teacher professional development programs introduced by ethiopian government include: the higher diploma program for faculty staff, english language improvement program, and teacher development program which was discussed in the above section. to improve the quality of teachers as well as education, moe initiated a training program for teachers of primary and secondary schools under education sector development program (esdp) in 2005 called continuous professional development (cpd). it was mandatory in cpd that teachers spend 60 hours in professional development activities each school year. cpd focuses on improving the teaching-learning process with emphasis on active learning, practicing continuous assessment, and managing large classes. the moe gave cpd priority status assuming that it is the right of teachers and is of great value for national development (usaid, 2006). the aim of cpd is to improve the performance of teachers in the classroom and raise student achievement. it is a career-long process of improving knowledge, skills, and attitudes centered on the local context and, particularly, classroom practice (chalchisa, n.d, p. 2). the main aim of cpd in ethiopia is to improve the teaching and learning processes through introduction of active learning, periodic evaluation, and facilitating enrollments. to some extent cpd has achieved these goals as the number of teacher education institutes in ethiopia has increased from 24 in 2007-2008 to 32 in 2010-2011. in 2012-2013, total enrollment in ctes is 175,142 (all programs including regular, evening and summer classes) of which 104,802 are males and 70,340 are females (moe, 2013). this data speaks for itself demonstrating a strong annual increase in cte enrollment over the past five years. there are 43,890 graduates in both linear and cluster models of which 18,928 are female (43.1%) in the year 2012-2013 (moe, 2013). the number of graduates from colleges of teacher education increased for the past five years, particularly the number of female graduates. the cpd program is a privilege for teachers as it helps them to update themselves with new outlooks, approaches, and policy directions. the cpd guideline states that “serving teachers and head teachers have the right to access high quality and relevant continuous professional development opportunities. if they are also expected to renew their teaching licenses there will need to be clear links between cpd, re-licensing and career progression” (moe, 2004, p.3). in due course, teso recognized the need for certification and licensing of teachers associated with cpd (moe, 2004). the licensing and re-licensing of the teachers is also dependent on the successful completion of the cpd by them. here we suggest that besides getting handsome salaries teachers should also receive recognition for some of their in-service training which will motivate them to excel in their careers. the higher diploma program (hdp) was introduced by moe in 2003 to meet the identified needs of teacher educators and support the implementation of the teso program, the aim is to improve the quality of education in ethiopia through a licensing program that will develop the skills and professionalism of teacher educators (moe, 2004, p.5). hdp is a one year in-service training program with an aim to create a reflective teacher and improve the standards of teaching and learning in the country. boud (1985) defines reflection as “an important human activity in which people recapture their experience, think about it, mull it over and evaluate it” (p. 19). the presence of classroom observation by the program leaders and observation from 12 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) peers during classroom teaching increases the novelty and effectiveness of the program (hunde, 2008, p.52). the higher diploma program is functioning in ethiopian colleges and universities with the assistance of a coordinating unit of expatriate members. this coordinating unit is functioning under the aegis of moe. the course offered under the hdp is compulsory for all the faculty members with required full attendance. technical rationality is the dominant guiding pedagogical theory in organizing learning experiences. this is evident in the module set up by the volunteering expatriates. hdp consists of mainly adult participants and encourages them to memorize, imitate, and implement national directives and prescriptive teaching principles. the program imparts technical knowledge and skills needed by the trainee teachers to contribute to classroom practices. the hdp showed very positive effects on the teachers and to date has been successfully implemented. it is now a compulsory qualification for all teacher educators and is run in every teacher education institution (tei) in ethiopia. the government of ethiopia decided that english will be the medium of instruction for secondary and higher education in their education policy. to achieve this goal an ambitious project called the english language improvement program (elip) was established in 2003 with the objective stated as “the ministry of education devised a strategy to improve the level of english of teachers” (fdre, 2004, p.6). elip focused on improving english language proficiency and teaching skills of primary and secondary school teachers throughout ethiopia. a study on the success of elip by lund university (2005) states that, “elip has increased the teachers’ confidence to use english and introduced them to modern teaching methods.” it has shown them how to develop their own materials for language learning, how to create a friendly atmosphere and foster better relations with students (british council, 2010). elip had a significant impact on the teacher‘s professional development throughout the country and up to the date of this study more than 150,000 primary and secondary teachers benefited from this project. delivery of this program involved training of 1,200 key english language trainers (kelts) and 200 key english language training advisers (keltas). more than 30 english language improvement centers were established in different teacher education institutes (teis) of ethiopia that provide language support to the teacher trainees and administrative staffs along with providing technical assistance to teacher educators. elip became a priority program of ethiopia's wider teacher development program (tpd), an essential element in the realization of the third phase of the country's education sector development program (british council, 2010). educational reform provided for the establishment of pedagogical resource centers (prcs) in educational institutions all over ethiopia to improve and standardize the quality of education. the prcs were basically established to develop a learning center where teacher educators can carry out professional development programs through research and training programs. the prcs were established with a fundamental aim to train the educators on different teaching complexities such as how the teachers’ organize their work, how they mobilize their resources, understand purposes of the education offered, determine the desired learning outcomes, design the right course content, and organize the teaching-learning process for the different institutions. after the completion of the training process, trainees are encouraged to establish similar centers in their respective institutions, so that the other teaching staff may benefit through such trainings and improve their competencies continuously. these centers also facilitate the training of teachers on the school campus itself. with appropriate reference shoeb ahmad 13 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) materials, visual aids and computers, the centers can magnify the impact of the trainings that encourage staff to put into practice new techniques and methodologies (yizengaw, 2003, p.8). a new paradigm for teacher education in ethiopia always on the track for ways to improve the quality of education, the ethiopian government increasingly focused on the restructuring and realignment of school curricula. the change in structure and content of school curricula resulted in an upgrading of teacher education from a mere subject area to professional courses including workshops and live seminars for teacher education. owing to these advancements, ethiopian education now includes new areas, such as action research, civics, and ethics. english language skills and information and communication technology (ict) were also added as an imperative for education due to their application in specific professions. the advent of ict has opened up new dimensions in the education sector all over the world along with placing more demand and responsibility on the shoulder of teachers. this universal change is reflected in an unesco statement, “one of the millennium development goals is achievement of universal primary education by 2015. we must ensure that ict technologies are used to help unlock the door to education (2005).” ict has been introduced in the ethiopian education system to strengthen and expand the quality of education nationwide. the teacher education program in ethiopia emphasizes enhancing the capacity of teachers in the use of icts in teaching and learning processes of various basic subjects especially in secondary schools. on one hand ict helps teachers to use devices such as cell phones, computers, and internet services, which make it easy for them to communicate with colleagues in other schools and campuses. on the other hand ict readily facilitates communication between student and teacher both on the campus and off the campus. further, ict also helps in becoming technologically advanced by providing hands on practice for teachers, enabling them to access information through teacher portals, websites, office software, multimedia programs, and sharing information within and across the schools in the country. literature suggests that teachers should be provided opportunities to contemplate on their practice while implementing new technologies in their system so that they can be directly involved in imparting quality education rather than remain passive consumers of learning (papert, 1990; butler & leahy, 2003). bhatta (2008) explained that equipping students with computers and other educational content will have limited impact on the teaching and learning process unless and until teachers are fully comfortable with new approaches to teaching associated with ict learning. the government of ethiopia is making giant strides to improve student and teacher access to quality enhancement tools and training. camara education ethiopia, as a key partner of the moe and signed a five year agreement in 2011 to supply ict equipment, educational content, technical support, and teacher training to schools and teacher training institutions across ethiopia. it has already provided an estimated 17,500 computers to nearly 1,000 institutions and 3,000 trained teachers (camara blog, 2013). introduction of digital television instructional delivery or “plasma teacher” in the ethiopian classrooms in 2004 has revolutionized the education process around the globe, irrespective of the consequences. the plasma teacher is officially called educational satellite television program. its teachers impart lessons in natural sciences, mathematics, english, and civics through plasma display screens on television in place of traditional teaching classes. an fdre education report states that installation of satellite receiving devices known as plasma 14 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) display panels (pdps) in every classroom at secondary level are necessary (fdre, 2004, p. 8). the introduction of plasma teachers in ethiopian schools has been quite successful and highly applauded by teachers as it makes their jobs easier. an important advantage of this system is that it helps to develop a standard syllabus all over the country as plasma teaching materials are uniformly transmitted to the students via satellite in all parts of the country, irrespective of any contextual differences among them. the teacher candidates who operate the plasma display panel are given training as to how to operate the television to impart the lessons through the media. besides these advantages plasma teachers have some limitations and drawbacks. firstly, the plasma teachers or the narrators on these televisions are not ethiopians and they carry out lessons in an english dialect that is alien to students in ethiopia. secondly, students are exposed to harmful effects of watching television for several hours a day for 5 days a week which may cause an adverse impact on their health. next, the traditional form of interaction between the students and the teacher is terminated as the human teacher is present in the class just to operate the plasma teachers. it erodes the relationship between student and teacher as students as they increasingly rely on the television (tessema, 2006). moreover, the plasma screens and the teaching materials are expensive which a poor country like ethiopia cannot afford. therefore it constantly depends on financial aid from world bank loans and other external donors to meet the needs of this ambitious project. mathematics and science are two basic academic subjects that form the foundation of the education and training programs included in teacher education. the ethiopian government has initiated a countrywide teacher education and training program which aims to increase the quantity and quality of mathematics and science teachers at different teaching levels. the mathematics and science teacher education program focuses on increasing the capacity of teachers in the use of icts in teaching and learning mathematics and science and increasing the number of qualified and efficient mathematics and science teachers in schools all over ethiopia. in connection with mathematics and science teacher education african virtual university (avu) initiated a teacher education and training program was initiated in 2005 to improve the quality of teacher education across africa. the program was launched as a part of avu’s policy to meet the challenges of the teaching profession in africa which was funded by the african development bank (adb) and the united nations development program (undp) together. since 2005 when the project was launched, a total of 54 modules were developed for biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, basic ict skills, and the pedagogy and practice of integrating icts into science and mathematics. these materials were developed collaboratively with subject matter experts from 10 countries (ethiopia, kenya, madagascar, mozambique, senegal, somalia, tanzania, uganda, zambia, and zimbabwe) that are participating in the project (diallo, thierry, aguti, villet, & wangeci thuo, 2008). the project fulfills the purpose of teacher capacity building in two ways. the first motive is to improve the competencies of teachers in the use of ict in imparting mathematics and science education, and the second purpose is to develop the capacity of teachers to deliver ict education. to develop the curricula for the sciences, mathematics, basic ict skills, and professional education, avu worked with the ministries of education and participating institutions of the ten african countries including ethiopia. over its 13 years of existence, the avu has trained more than 43,000 education students, has established 53 centers in 29 countries, and has acquired the largest open distance and e-learning (odel) network in africa (avu, 2013).the working partner of avu in ethiopia is jimma university. shoeb ahmad 15 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) challenges in teacher education in ethiopia some of the major challenges in the field of teacher education in ethiopia are problems of quality and relevance of program of studies, and research that is inefficient in resource utilization. according to moe, the key challenges for the esdp iii (2005-2010) related to teacher education are the following: full adoption of teso by the regional governments and teacher education institutions; changing the focus of teacher training from theoretical to methodological approach to enhance the quality of teachers; consolidation of the cpd’s through cluster schools, and implementing research on projections for teacher demand in the future (unesco, 2005, p. 6). as it is reflected in the challenges indicated by moe, it is not enough to merely establish reforms and policies rather it should be ensured that the implications of the reform decisions are properly interpreted and addressed by the authorities concerned. a gap was observed between the rhetoric and the practice of teso which requires immediate resolution as it is not just a simple change but a fundamental transformation within the whole system. this gap includes the need to expand access to its programs. the other challenges faced by teacher education are inadequate capacity for professional development within the education system, lack of transparency within its processes, and the need for a participatory approach of the leadership and management of educational institutions. recommendations and suggestions to improve the condition of teacher education in ethiopia in terms of both the quality and quantity of the teaching staff, various steps must be taken by those concerned. the teaching staff should be endowed with more new facilities along with allocation of resources to the various teacher training institutions. the professional competence of the trainers has to be improved in order to upgrade the quality of training. it is recommended that the priority training areas in teacher education such as professional development in pedagogy, use of ict, language, science and mathematics, fine arts, music, and physical education should be emphasized in different institutions. it is also suggested to review the undergraduate and post-graduate part-time teaching qualifications to identify the needed qualifications of the teachers and upgrade them. besides, upgrading teachers’ qualifications, efforts should be made to improve the syllabi content of civic and ethical education in pre-service and in-service training of teachers. care should be taken that the initiatives undertaken to improve the teacher education should not lag behind in its sight and tempo; as they must be able to meet the knowledge and demands of the social, economic, and political conditions prevalent in the country. the curriculum for teacher education should be modeled in a way so that it focuses on core classroom skills and pedagogies that are more effective in gaining desired results. further, the duration of the teacher education course including training needs review for regarding its practicality and effectiveness. ethiopians are now better aware of the problems, contradictions, and other issues embedded within the teacher education system. at this stage, it is time for them to ponder the situations seriously and find the appropriate solutions to these problems. it is the best time for them to rekindle new vigor and life in the pedagogical institutions and professional development centers to propel overall national development. it is a most appropriate time to take the necessary action infused with greater determination and commitment towards improving the condition of teacher education in the country. as bahruth & steiner (2000, p.143) rightly state, “in our 16 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) profession we have two choices: we can succumb to the mainstream and become programmed toward deskilling our intellect, or we can become critical pedagogues and liberate ourselves and those who choose to join in the dialogue.” it is also recommended that emphasis should be on proper tackling of the major challenges in the ensuing activities of teacher education in ethiopia. if the recommendations and suggestions mentioned are achieved, certainly ethiopia will get an opportunity to develop a quality agenda for a developing future. conclusion to bring about change in any existing system is a difficult task as is the case with the ethiopia’s teacher education settings that need a lot of effort and patience to bring about a significant transformation in the total system. the teacher education institutions are now being controlled by centrally planned and standardized curricula produced through moe for all educational institutions in ethiopia. recently these initiatives are taken on a large scale to make educators highly skilled in the subject matter knowledge, language skills, pedagogical skills, practical knowledge and other areas through long term or short term training sessions and workshops. in addition the objective of upgrading the quality and relevance of teacher education at different levels involve some additional important measures that are currently underway to initiate a new active learning paradigm in teacher education in ethiopia. at present ethiopia is undergoing a major transition in its educational system on a positive note including teacher education. based on this study, it may be observed that the teacher education policies and reforms have achieved many of their planned outcomes and objectives to a certain extent. still there is more to do in order to realize total achievement. research evidence shows that various kinds of teacher training, capacity building, and work experience, many of these found in the current ethiopian education policies and programs, have positive effects on education quality (workneh and woldehanna, 2013). currently, ethiopian teacher education is engrossed in and obsessed with the rhetoric and processes of system overhaul and reform as a result of the ethiopian government’s official mandate for change in the structure and content of teacher education since 2003 (tessema, 2006).teacher education in ethiopia is undergoing a continuous change to adjust to a wide variety of arising situations in the country including the political, social, economic, and cultural contexts. it is hoped that its education system will continue to improve to meet the needs of today and the needs of the future. references african virtual university. 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(2007). the teacher education reform process in ethiopia: some consequences on educators and its implications. teaching education, 18(1), 29-48. http://www.jceps.com/?pageid=article&articleid=62. 20 teacher education in ethiopia: growth and development _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) tirussew, t. (2006). an introductory note on the educational system and teacher education in ethiopia. the unesco teacher training initiative for sub-saharan africa, first meeting of national coordinators for unesco’s teacher training initiative for sub-saharan africa, breda, dakar, senegal, 7–9 march. unesco. (2005). efa global monitoring report: education for all: the quality imperative. paris: unesco. unesco. (2005). in the framework of the unesco teacher training initiative in sub-saharan africa. country report, ethiopia. unesco & ibe. (2011). ethiopia, 2010-2011. world data on education, 7 th edition. retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/wde/2010/pdfversions/ethiopia.pdf. usaid/equip1/aed. (2006). ethiopia pilot study of teacher professional development: conceptual framework and study design. retrieved from www.equip123.net/docs/e1ethiopiapilotstudy.pdf. wodajo, m. (1960). ethiopian education: a medium for social change. retrieved from http://0www.jstr.org.oasis.unisa.ac.za. workneh, a. & woldehanna, t. (2013). teacher training and development in ethiopia: improving education quality by developing teacher skills, attitudes and work conditions. young lives, working paper 103.retrieved from http://www.younglives.org.uk/publications/wp/teacher-training-and-development-in-ethiopia. workneh , h. (1970). tintawi yeitopia yimihirt. addis ababa: berhanena selam. yizengaw, t. (2003). reform and expansion in ethiopian higher education. keynote paper prepared for a regional training conference on improving tertiary education in sub-saharan africa: things that work. accra. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/wde/2010/pdf-versions/ethiopia.pdf http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/wde/2010/pdf-versions/ethiopia.pdf http://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-ethiopiapilotstudy.pdf http://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-ethiopiapilotstudy.pdf http://0-www.jstr.org.oasis.unisa.ac.za/ http://0-www.jstr.org.oasis.unisa.ac.za/ http://www.younglives.org.uk/publications/wp/teacher-training-and-development-in-ethiopia failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? dereje tadesse birbirso haramaya university, ethiopia abstract this study focuses on one of ethiopia’s unfading education policy problems, namely the poor english proficiency of efl teachers and their students. qualitative data was collected through unstructured questionnaire and participant observation from twenty-five randomly selected highly experienced efl schoolteachers and tertiary efl educators coming from all corners of the country. relevant archival data were also collected. besides, four expert informants were also involved as critical consultants for the study. the data was analyzed qualitatively with the reflective and iterative constant comparative method. the results show that for ethiopian efl teachers, the problem of the so-called “poor” english proficiency is actually an outcome or a result of poor socio-educational preconditions that inhibited their holistic development as dignified, full-fledged professional citizens. particularly, meager living conditions, alienating working environments, and a totalitarian policy and practices known as “cascade model” are the chief stumbling blocks to their development as fully proficient efl teachers. keywords: ethiopia, ethiopia education, efl proficiency, teacher development, social change, education donors, millennium goals. introduction since the beginning of the new millennium, ethiopia is working hard to achieve the millennium development goals of 2015 since the year 2000. the first and second phases of plan for accelerated and sustained development to end poverty (pasdep) had phased out in the years, respectively, 2000-2005 and 2005-2009. however, since 2010, what is called growth and transformation plan (gtp) was set by the ministry of finance and economic development (mofed, 2010a) to guide the country’s next five-year plan (2010-2015) toward the goals of “extricating itself from poverty and becom[ing] a middle-income economy” and becoming “a country where democratic rule, good-governance and social justice reigns,” in addition to achieving the millennium development goal (mofed, 2010a, pp. 4-7). central to the gtp objectives is to “expand and ensure the qualities of education” (mofed, 2010a, p. 7; 2010b, 2 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) pp.18-20). the government expresses its full confidence in the state controlled mass media, which asserts that ethiopia is one of the few african countries that will achieve the millennium goals. so much so is this confidence demonstrated that several educational “reform,” “transformation” or “improvement” programs or plans were launched and known by various acronyms. in 2002, the ethiopian ministry of education (moe), pointed to weaknesses in teacher performance as a principal factor, and the teacher development program (tdp) was developed in response with a cost of €60 million (moe, 2002; fdre, 2008, p. 15). the tdp was funded through a pooled fund by belgium, finland, ireland, the netherlands, sweden, and the uk (ministry for foreign affairs of finland, 2010, p. 2). the tdp consisted of three main programs. one is the teacher education system overhaul, which includes the professional development of teacher educators, pre-service teacher education and continuous professional development for serving teachers. the other is the leadership and management program, which aimed at training for school principals, deputies, and supervisors. and, the third is the english language improvement program (elip), which is a training program to upgrade english language competence of all serving teachers. in mid-2009, the ministry of education launched what it calls the general education quality improvement program (geqip) with little or no different aim from the tdp (moe, 2008), but with, according the british council ethiopia (bc-e) database, an enormous fund of approximately us$1 billion. the program comprises teacher development program (tdp), material development (curriculum, textbooks and assessment); the school improvement program; the management and administration program; and program coordination. it is run by donor fund program managed by the world bank as well as the bilateral donors us, italy, finland, the netherlands, and the uk. the world bank document reported the following donor statistics: education sector development project (us$100 m), post-secondary education project (us$41.5 m); united states agency for international development (usaid) funds basic education program (us$15 m); and unicef funds basic education program (2007 – 2011) focusing on universal primary education and gender equality (us$17 million). according to independent commission for aid impact (icai) report, from 2007 to 2015, the uk based dfid’s actual and planned aid to ethiopia’s educational transformation plan is almost ₤120 million (icai, 2012). a key component of the geqip is improving english as a foreign language (efl) education practice, both the process (pedagogic and structural) and the product (english proficiency/competence). the british council website/database shows that it has run english language consultancies in ethiopia since 2009 at the cost of £40,000, central to which is english language teaching improvement program (eltip). it provided funds for english language improvement program (elip) in 2000-2008 at the value of £0.5millon. a united states embassy sponsored conference document (us embassy ethiopia 2012) shows that under elip more than 150,000 teachers have already benefitted, while english language improvement centers were set up at most teacher training colleges and universities. as a part of the new elip, 45,000 english teachers will be provided with tailor-made trainings to improve their english proficiency. despite all the series of plans and enormous amount of donor funds, discussions on various workshops show that the problem of ethiopia’s general education and english proficiency/literacy level, from primary to secondary, is in general “declining” (ethiopian academy of science, 2012; usaid, 2012, p.11). the issue of poor english competence of dereje tadesse birbirso 3 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) students joining higher institutions, where the medium is english, is becoming disparaging to university professors, particularly over the past decade and a half. in an ongoing study, the present author distributed a questionnaire to twenty five postgraduate (m.a. /m.sc. and ph.d.) theses examiners/supervisors. one of the items asked them “to what extent [they] read/encounter poor english skills (grammar/writing/speaking) as a constraint/impediment to quality of thesis/research work”. all of them uniformly rated “very much”, while none ticked the rest on the likert scale (namely “to some extent” or “not at all”). one of the respondent professors wrote additional information worth quoting here: “in fact, this is a problem area that uncovers the real worthlessness of most of the contemporary graduates of english. write everything for them, they cannot even copy it correctly.” what’s more embarrassing is that a subsequent study (heugh, benson, bogale & yohannes, 2007, pp. 107-109) reveals “unintended consequences” of the geqip-tdp/-eltip practices in teachers: dissipation of initially “improved proficiency” development; increasing “instrumental” rationality; “decreasing value” for classroom teaching; hopelessness; “unrealistic aspirations” about english in the country, and others. in general, the amount of funds spent directly on changing the plight the state of english education and the agents/efl educators is obscure. but, what is apparently clear is that the huge amount of national and international donors’ money being spent is not lessening the socioeducational evils, namely the deterioration of the bed-rock of general literacy, at large, and of efl proficiency, in particular. this study, thus, aims at inquiring into this unfading ethiopic question regarding the poor state of efl teachers’ proficiency amidst a series of international donations, education reforms, and english language improvement campaigns. the study and its specific context the specific context that motivated this study is the eltip training workshop organized and certified by the moe and the british council ethiopia (bc-e) on july, 9 – 23, 2012 (first phase) and august 27 through september 6, 2012 (second phase). this training workshop brought together about 80 english educators and teachers selected from various universities, teacher education colleges, and secondary schools. one among them is the present author. the workshop is called “master trainers specialist development” was organized by the bc-e staff which involved some professors of english and applied linguistics from uk universities (referred to as “super trainers”). they are also designers of the eltip-elip training manual called refresh your english. the aim of the workshop was to introduce and review this manual with the ethiopian english schoolteachers and teacher educators or “master specialist trainers”; who will, in turn, train and supervise selected secondary school teachers as trainers of trainer (tots). the tots will then, according to the echelon, train the rest of the secondary school english teachers. this model is called, in the words of the moe-bc staff, the “cascade model” (see figure 1), wherein the ministry of education (moe) and its regional education bureaus (reb) determine everything pertaining to the training and participants. the assumption underlying the cascade model is that, ultimately the refresh your english course will improve the ever deteriorating situation of english proficiency level of ethiopian efl schoolteachers. this improvement will then also result in the improvement of english competence of ethiopian secondary school students. 4 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) figure 1: the cascade model a great number of the workshop participants or “master trainers” had experience participating in eltip-elip trainings as well as similar workshops conducted jointly by the bc and the moe. this was considered as a good opportunity to seek a deeper understanding, with these experienced english educators, as to what went wrong with the ethiopian english teachers’ english proficiency development. therefore, the following specific questions were constructed for analysis: 1. how do the master trainers see the eltip-elip program they are involved in? 2. from the master trainers’ perspective, who are the appropriate agents for improving the crisis of ethiopia’s efl education? what are the appropriate responsibilities of the agents? 3. from the master trainers’ perspective, who should do what in order for ethiopian efl schoolteachers’ proficiency to improve? 4. from the master trainers’ perspective what are the urgent concerns for ethiopian efl teachers? 5. what is the most propitious approach to changing ethiopian efl schoolteachers’ ‘poor’ efl proficiency? methods the author played double role as trainee-cum-researcher; hence he adopted the participant observation method of data collection as defined by denzin. that is, it is “a field strategy that simultaneously combines document analysis, interviewing of respondents and informants, direct participation and observation, and introspection” (denzin, 1989 in flick, 2002, p. 139). accordingly, while playing the role of active participant-observer in the master trainers specialist development training, the author designed a questionnaire in context in order to extract context-sensitive data from the master trainers (see appendix). in other words, items were informed, generated, and framed while taking part in the training workshop. for instance, informed by the context, item number 6 was deliberately designed to address the category lacks dereje tadesse birbirso 5 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) under the four themes identified in the workshop. the lacks category referred to extent of english proficiency; awareness of academic knowledge about english teaching; professional autonomy; and basic conditions for living as a professional. yet, due to spatiotemporal and resource constraints, the questionnaire was distributed to 30 out of a total of 80 master trainers. the 30 participants were randomly selected based on the list of names upon registration at arrival. out of these 30 participants 25 returned completed questionnaires, while 5 did not return it at all. moreover, the author took narrative accounts, documented as “personal communication”, of what was heard and seen, at times provoking more reflections on some points when necessary (holliday, 2002). on some of the “critical data” identified as data that emerged in context that the author had to involve closer “critical friends” or experts based on their experience or academic discipline, four expert informants (their names are anonymized based on their request for confidentiality) were informally interviewed to seek their in-depth insights including validation of the emergent data during data analysis. also, relevant official and policy documents were collected for additional relevant data. to analyze the data, reflective and constant comparative qualitative data analysis approach generally advanced by strauss and corbin (1998) was adopted. to inductively generate themes and categories while being open to both the theoretical framework adopted and the possible emergence of new, alternative possibilities from the analysis. results and discussion profile of the participants. the questionnaire guides the structure of the results and discussion section. item 1 of questionnaire asked the master trainers to provide their background information on an optional basis. accordingly, 6 were from different secondary schools, 9 from different colleges of teacher education, and 10 were from english department of various universities. the majority of them had over ten years of experience as efl teachers and/or efl teacher educators. the lowest experience was 5 years, while the highest was 29 years. all had secondary school experience either as current efl schoolteachers or as former (before turning college efl teacher trainers) or university efl teacher educators who supervised their pre-service trainees during school practice or practicum. almost all had experience in participating in elip/eltip or similar programs sponsored by the bc or usaid jointly with the moe. condition of english proficiency and relevance of the eltip/ elip training. item 2 of the questionnaire asked the master trainers to describe the contemporary situation or level of english proficiency of ethiopia’s secondary school teachers. the result generated primarily two categories of responses, which the author named leveling and locating (contextually). some of the respondents leveled the teachers’ english proficiency as poor, indicated by the descriptors: “low or poor”, “very low or very poor”, or “inefficient”, whereas, others leveled it medium, as indicated in the descriptors: “medium”, “fair”, “not satisfactory”, “less as it should be (most of them)”, “need support”, “not dependable”, and “below what is expected of them”. going beyond the issue of linguistic/english incompetence, one of the respondents described the current condition of efl school teachers as, “hopeless and worried about their profession.” this response was at a deeper level, salient, although implicit on the surface, across the data as demonstrated in the sections that follow. only one respondent described the teachers’ proficiency level as “very good”, so this response was considered as incongruent with the other responses. in contrast, in response to item 6 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) 3, which asked the participants to describe their views on the relevance or importance of the master specialist training, all responded: “very good”, “good”, or “helpful”. the implication was that none of the respondents, appropriately, consider english proficiency level as unchangeable; rather they saw it as always developing and improving. urgent concerns of efl teachers and educators. item 5 of the questionnaire asked the master trainers to describe two big fears about the eltip-elip program arranged in accordance to the cascade model (figure 1). the purpose was to probe the master trainers’ thoughts regarding factors that might hinder or enable the success of improving the english proficiency level of the secondary teachers. six themes emerged from the data analysis, to which we turn next. apathy. when teachers are neglected and, hence, lost control over their practice as they considered themselves as factory employees. consequently, apple (2000, p. 116) warns, “the skills that they have developed over the years atrophy … because the skills of planning and controlling it [themselves] are no longer available.” the too apathetic sub-themes that emerged from the data analysis bear witness to michael apple’s theory:  the discouraging behavior of the moe (i.e., no value for teachers);  schoolteachers have no incentive, hence negative attitude to eltip;  lack of commitment on the part of trainers;  resistant culture/tradition (i.e., due to no-change-as-usual syndrome). paulo freire puts this more philosophically, as he stated, “in alienated societies, men oscillate between ingenuous optimism and hopelessness” (freire, 2005, p.10). unfair selection of participants. the data showed that, based upon their experience, the respondents are concerned about interference of local state agents in the eltip/elip programs, agents of the ruling party including teachers who are loyal. they would select their own agents instead of english teachers to take part in the training. female respondents warned that consequently, few women participated in the training. inauthentic texts. in spite of the fact that the master trainers participated in editing and revising the training manual refresh your english designed by the bc staff (the super trainers), the questionnaire generated quite vague or conflicting responses. the respondents saw the manual as: “beyond the level” or “below the level” or “not suitable” or simply “not good” for the schoolteachers. what they meant by this is that the training manual is inauthentic because the contents and tasks are far removed from the practical reality of the schoolteachers or the tasks are insipid. in other words, it does not inspire the english trainee-teachers to, in freirean terms, to read and write to their actual educational, social, and ecological issues. indeed, schoolteachers need, beyond official recipes (which turned schoolteachers to implementers) to develop/practice the knowledge of inquiry. that is the type of knowledge and skills that enable them to interrogate, critically reflect and research on their own practices. an even more “unauthenticating” factor is the pedagogic one. considered a parallel solution to the efl proficiency crisis, the government introduced to secondary education in 2006 a new mode of pedagogy, i-tv, whereby lessons are “beamed from south africa” via the hi-tech panasonic flat plasma screen (negash, 2006, p. 32). the distant “plasma” teacher almost completely replaced the classroom teachers, reducing them to redundant and their students to simple viewers of the screen teacher (heugh, et al., 2007, p. 59; birbirso, 2013). dereje tadesse birbirso 7 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) timing. inappropriate timing during winter created a shortage of time for training because teachers were already occupied with regular classroom duties. summer training was preferred. corruption of funds/resources. inadequate resources (professional fees, per diem, stationery, ict, etc.) due to mismanagement and embezzlement of donors’ funds was also identified as a factor hindering the effectiveness of the training. the fragile state syndrome. as usual, it would be doomed to another discontinuous, impotent campaign. many teachers viewed it as programming tied to particular political trends that would end as new political trends in education emerged. leaving them with the belief that it might be better to continue with what they already practice as this programming would end with the entrance of new political players in the education field. what roles should exist for eltip/elip training to be effective? item 4 of the questionnaire demanded that the master trainers suggest what should happen in order for the master trainers specialist development training to improve in the future. in particular they were asked what the roles and duties of major agents, such as the moe, the bc, and the supertrainers of the master trainers, should be for future programs. the respondents addressed each group in the questionnaire. the ministry of education. the following are the most salient data (participant responses) pertaining to what the ministry of education (moe) should do or be according to the respondent master trainers (in brackets are the author’s additions):  be transparent on ngo funds for training;  provide the necessary resources, logistics [e.g. invest in education];  pay appropriately [e.g. adequate salaries, per diems for efl teachers and educators];  be fair to teacher [e.g. be just];  be visionary [e.g. address the fundamentals rather than superficial issues];  be accommodative of our views and rights [e.g. voices];  improve own ways of planning, organizing training [e.g. continuous and fundamental transformation rather than sporadic, shallow campaigns];  leave roles to the professionals [e.g. decentralize power];  should not let us down [e.g. we teachers are also equally responsible and working towards a common good]. the theme “be transparent on ngo funds for training” is worthy of further consideration as during the very beginning of the masters specialist training course, the master trainers complained about some obscurities. one of their questions was “who their hosting institution was: moe or the bc?” this was an important question to them as it had not only logistical implications but also symbolic significance. the general assumption was the bc was the hosting organization mainly because it was seen as the more powerful and appropriate agent for english education. the respondents viewed moe as not the probable host because as they saw them as “the usual irresponsible moe” that “never cares for teachers”. the most important reservation the participants identified was that against their “normal” expectations, they were provided with neither accommodation nor stationary materials. the per diem, which is paid only at the end of the whole program, a total of 28 days of intensive work, is on average 200 birr ($20us). this per diem could not buy a single hotel room per day due to sky rocketing prices of hotels and food. to ask for a professional fee for the intensive task of editing, 8 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) revising, and re-contextualizing the refresh your english material designed by the bc staff was described as simply “lavish”. the bc representative claimed, “we are simply contractors. our mandate is only to ensure the quality of the course materials. we are not allowed to intervene in managerial issues. we must abide by the code of conduct set by your government” (personal communication, 09/27/2012). these conditions and responses to the conditions further eroded the master trainers’ trust of the moe-bc relationship and roles. the author sought additional data on these issues, which included moe’s call for consultancy competition titled “invitation for english language improvement program consultancy services” was posted on may 23, 2011 on an unusual and non-moe website (http://www.2merkato.com). the author talked to addis ababa university’s english department, known for its tefl phd staff and roles in conducting ma and phd tefl programs, as to whether it applied for the competition. dr. booran (pseudonym), an efl educator, said that the department, “competed designing a 4 million birr proposal. other competitors were the british council and unusual austrian group. however, it was unfortunate that the british council, which offered a 6 million birr proposal, was made to win” (personal communication, 09/28/2012). dr. booran added that “it is commonplace in ethiopia that the donor shows up as bidder with clandestine agreement with the government or its agents. finally, the donor will, no doubt, grow ‘the winner’.” in sharp contrast to this practice, the moe’s call for consultancy claims, “a consultant will be selected in accordance with the procedures set out in the world bank's guidelines.” the fundamental theme underlying the respondents’ views was the totalitarian discourse practice of the central government spearheaded by the moe. the british council. the noticeable message in the data as to what the british council (bc) should do for the master trainers specialist development training to improve in the future was to stop its nontransparent “middleman” role, as reflected in the following responses:  care for us participants as much as you do for ‘quality of the training manuals’ [i.e. do not dehumanize us];  prepare full materials for training [e.g. texts, technologies];  directly work with teachers;  come and read our feelings on the actual workplace;  directly pay more incentives to boost teachers’ motivation. especially, the response “care for us participants as much as you do for quality of the training manuals” needs further elaboration. as was mentioned above, the bc representative claimed in the conflict-resolution session “we abide by the code of conduct set by your government.” later, additional data was sought as to the nature of the “code of conduct.” first, the so-called proclamation for the registration and regulation of charities and societies (fdre, 2009) was collected. many international ngos and human right agencies frequently describe it as not only “constraining” but also “suppressive” (icnl, 2009). according to the proclamation, an institution called the charities and societies agency, which “its own legal personality and as an institution of the federal government” has virtually unlimited authority to exercise control over the operations of a charity or society (articles 84 – 94). moreover, it is clear from the geqip’s cascade model applied to its “financial disbursement” (moe, 2008, p. 47) system that the donors or contractors are extruded out of the educational system (see figure 2). dereje tadesse birbirso 9 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) mofed, moe and geqip pooled fund accounts (from donors) mofedmoe regional bureaus, earmarked funds for school improvement program (sip) mofedmoe ward offices, earmarked funds for sip schools figure 2: the cascade model: funds disbursement for geqip-eltip (based on moe, 2008) mr. tuulama (psuedonym), one of the moe ‘supervisors’ of the geqip training explained: according to the new code of conduct international ngos cannot have direct access to the fund it requests for training. the government receives the fund from the donors in foreign currency, drops it in its own account and then disburses itself from center down until its local agents ethiopianizing both the currency and payment scale for ethiopian staffs. this, however, does not apply to the foreign contractors and staffs like the bc (personal communication, 09/28/2012). the super-trainers. according to the moe consultancy invitation announcement posted in the website noted above, the overall objective of the consultancy was to:  work as part of the teachers and educational leaders development core process;  review the pedagogic design of the eltip cascade model to ensure quality training;  enable teacher educators to develop training materials which meet the needs of the target groups; and,  train master trainers, who are at the top of the cascade model (figure 1) being used, to train tots. accordingly, the consultant’s “major tasks and responsibilities” included:  conducts a desk review of eltip work plan, design and documents;  selects competent master trainers;  prescribes training facilities;  facilitates a first workshop to train master trainers;  designs refresh your english modules and conducts editing  facilitate workshops to train master trainers;  conducts a validation of modules workshop;  capacity building program. nevertheless, as was also indicated in the official letters to the each master trainer, the tasks and responsibilities ascribed to the master trainers in the cascade model was only the “editing” of the refresh your english modules. 10 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the participant master trainers questionnaire respondents’ essential message for the bc contractors (whom the author labeled super-trainers due to the hierarchically upper and higher role they play) included several points. one that bc should “be directly collaborative to us [i.e. work with us rather than through the moe or its staff]. second they should “facilitate things in consultation with us. third they should “involve college and university efl educators in designing training programs and materials for elip/eltip’ and their final response was “we are tired of being let down [i.e. due to the current prescriptive ‘slave-master’ relationship].” who should do what for english proficiency to improve? given the quite interesting information generated by the respondent master trainers, to ask them to provide their insights as to who should carry out what kind of concrete responsibilities and tasks so that the english proficiency level they described as admix of poor-medium (above), cannot be redundant. item 7 of the questionnaire asked the master trainers: who should do what for ethiopian secondary efl teachers’ english proficiency to improve? this is a relevant question for, the growth and transformation plan’s (gtp) general education objectives that include expanding “quality secondary education that will serve as a basis and bridge to produce a middle and higher level workforce”; “access to functional adult literacy to enhance the country’s all round development endeavors”; “quality and efficiency”; and “providing special training to english teachers to raise their proficiency at each level per the standard set, assessment tool and skills gaps identified” (mofed, 2010a, pp. 50-52). the collected data generated six agents with their respective (un)desirable responsibilities based on the participants’ responses which are analyzed next. the geqip document (moe, 2008, p. 69) lists the roles of ministry of education as:  provide overall strategic guidance for the geqip implementation;  oversee the equitable distribution of the budget;  ensure that agreed performance targets and timelines for activities are met; and,  ensure effective program implementation. however, the more recent gtp document allocates exclusive power to moe in its “education and training” section of the policy matrix (mofed, 2010b, pp. 18-20). in it the ministry of education and regional education bureaus (to be discussed in the section that follows) is identified as the “implementing agency[ies]” and in the “ministry of education annual report” as “means of verification” of achievement, or otherwise, of the goals and objectives. in sharp contrast to the policy discourse, the analysis of the master trainers’ views indicates two prominent themes directed to the moe to remove its undesirable practices. one is to stop its authoritarian role and two is to invest more on continuous professional development programs. the following responses are indicators of the moe’s authoritarian position and the master trainers’ alternative perspective:  we know our own problematic situations more than anyone knowing for us from the moe [i.e. from distance];  allow english teachers involve in designing syllabi/curricula and classroom texts/lessons;  allow professionals/teachers re-own their roles rather than impose on them from above;  work closely with universities, colleges [i.e. instead of external moe-bc elite, expatriate super-trainers]. dereje tadesse birbirso 11 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the need for more investment in profession development is indicated in these recurrent responses. the need to “improve salary scale in accordance to the changing market dynamics”; “to provide teachers with means of living and working, i.e. salary, professional fees, per diems, and resources that commensurate their demanding work.” they also point out the need “to arrange opportunities for travel abroad for immersion programs, workshops, and scholarships so that they experience interactions with english as native or second language speakers”. in addition, there is a need for commitment to arranging consistent and continuous in-service professional development. finally, the respondents indicated a need for moe “not [to] create problems to ngo’s and contractors’ ambition to directly invest in efl education, workshops, trainings, etc.” the implicit but prominent requests of the participant master trainers are, on the one hand, that the moe or the state has to let ngo’s have control over their money, knowledge and relationships with teachers and schools without the mediatory role of moe, and also stop moe’s monopolization of/on classroom pedagogy, on the other. regional education bureaus (reb) are the educational agents within each federal state whose major role is preparing and distributing secondary school (as well as primary and junior level) student textbooks and teacher guides; both of which determine a teacher’s classroom methodology, lesson contents or tasks, and assessment. according to the geqip document, the reb is “responsible for the overall quality and timeliness of project implementation in their respective jurisdictions, and for allocation of program resources (i.e. school grants)” (moe, 2008, p.70). reb has no significant role in the master trainers specialist development training except that they selected a few of the schoolteachers for training among who 6 are participants in this study. otherwise their role is more influential in the allocation of resources, selection of the tot’s and teacher-trainees for refresh your english course when it begins at schools following the cascade model. frequently, the participant master trainers mentioned the following responsibilities or tasks for reb. the reb should “collaborate with the nearest hei rather than the moe that controls from center, addis ababa” and should “listen to teachers’ voices over their profession [e.g. content, methodology and skills self-development] and life conditions [e.g. freedom, poverty, salary, etc.].” they should also “be fair on selecting teachers for training programs [i.e. instead of political affiliation criteria]”. central to the above views is a desire for autonomy or preferential right of interpretation over classroom practices and reflection on policy discourse practices. for higher education institutions (hei), the respondents indicated vital alternative roles for them to play in eltp/eltip and similar programs. the recurrent data are compressed and presented as follows:  arrange continuous professional development training programs so that efl educators and schoolteachers collaboratively inquire on/in their practices;  mobilize efl educators to actively take part in the development of schoolteachers training manuals/texts [i.e. instead of external contractors only] because ‘they have rich experience on and with ethiopian efl secondary schools contexts;  heis must takeover [instead of corporate-like “contractors”] the role of designing, coordinating and offering eltip courses as in-service continuous professional development programs [above we saw that one of their worries is timing]; 12 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013)  those who become efl teachers [i.e. in the pre-service preparation] must be those who chose (i.e., by their own interest) to become english teachers [i.e. rather than usual placement by moe and hei who determine their fate]. from the data it is observable that the master trainers are disappointed with the campaign-like, intermittent or management-crisis approach of ‘training’ at work currently. far beyond so-called language proficiency training, ethiopian efl schoolteachers require reflective, life-long and empowering educational system. the following are the most salient reflections on teachers’ roles and responsibilities of the participant master trainers, so that not only the lack of english proficiency but also the general english teaching-learning problems are overcome. they indicated that teachers “should re-own the right to take part in describing, talking about, explaining and researching the accurate status of english proficiency levels in ethiopia” and “take hold of responsibilities for improving own proficiency.” teachers need to “design and administer classroom lessons and texts” as well as “carry out all matters pertaining to themselves and their profession.” this included that they should “create their own efl forum [networks, journals, magazines, etc.].” the participants’ underlying notion is the re-owning of discourses, voices, and control over their problems, pedagogy, syllabi, and classroom lessons. the respondents are clearly aware of schools’ responsibilities or tasks for improving the poor efl proficiency level of teachers and students. but, they need preconditions, that is, schools must regain their autonomy over their societal role as centers of knowing, debating, researching, testing and teaching freely as their teachers’ and students’ careers demand. their comments are directed to the state’s strict pedagogical-political controls, as they recommend the following:  end strict control over schools as to what to talk, write, listen, read, teach in classrooms;  allow freedom of expression and thoughts in schools [i.e. academic freedom];  allow schools form free national and regional teachers’ and students’ associations/unions; and  allow schools form free social communities [e.g. english and literature clubs] directly pertinent to their career. the participant school teachers uniformly explained that if teacher associations or student clubs existed at all, the fact was that they were forced by local agents to become the propaganda tools of the ruling party. indeed, school administrators are selected and appointed by the local rulingparty leaders, based upon, as a national rule, their membership and loyalty to the ruling party, while there are numerous cases in which teachers are fired out of their jobs, unconditionally, by these local agents. although the context of this study presupposes the bc or the british government as the chief donor, the respondents, however, repeatedly mentioned also usaid due to their preexperience with it. the data points to similar issues we saw above including the need to: “involve actively and directly” instead of through the government’s impenetrable bureaucratic system; and for the donors to “come to schools as an academic agent” instead of as in a corporateor charity-minded approach. the urgent lack of ethiopian efl teachers. item 6 of the questionnaire asked the master trainers taking training from the super-trainers to determine in their views which “lack” dereje tadesse birbirso 13 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) they comparatively rated as high (h), medium (m) or never (n) when it comes to secondary english teachers among and between the following “lacks”: (a) english proficiency or competence, (b) academic-scientific knowledge about (english) language teaching, (c) professional autonomy to work as the academic-scientific theories demand, and (d) conditions for living as a professional (sufficient salary, etc.). the data obtained is displayed in table 1. table 1: the urgent “lacks” of the secondary efl teachers lacks high medium never english proficiency 82.6% 17.3% 0% academic knowledge 47.8% 43.4% 8.6% professional autonomy 69.5% 26% 8.6% life conditions 82.6% 8.6% 8.6% the data obtained shows that lack of english proficiency is almost as critical as the lack of the most basic life conditions. while, lack of each of the four essential elements is highly significant, unusually, quite contradictory to almost all research findings in ethiopian studies, however, the data indicates that the lack of academic-scientific knowledge/skills of teaching is comparatively less significant although it is still not insignificant. more to the point, given the dominant discourse of “teachers’ poor english proficiency” and given the fact that to “speak up” (even in filling out questionnaire) about the “lack of professional autonomy” or “of basic life conditions” is barely possible in the ethiopian context do to pressure for to conform to political “correctness”. as it stands, it is not impossible that the latter two “lacks” are the most burning issues compared to the other two elements. the average annual salary of an ethiopian secondary school teacher is us$1,320. according to dr. matcha (pseudonym), a colleague professor of economics, this is far below the market standards, he stated that it is “only one-fifth of the fairly appropriate annual income that could have tolerably, given ethiopia is one of the poorest nations, sustained a teacher, his wife and his single child, given the souring inflation” (personal communication, 09/29/2012). as if this is not enough, one of the participant schoolteachers said, to which all agreed, that “the government, inundated with the rising costs of the overambitious mega-projects, levies a series of overlapping and endless taxes on the already meager salaries” (personal communication, 08/27/2012). most propitious approach to transforming the unfading problem. part of the response to identifying the most propitious approach to transforming the unfading problem (maintaining efl teachers’ english proficiency) is introspective reconstruction of the participant master trainers’ alternative perspective for better relationships with the international donors and the national agents of the educational system. the reconstruction points to better relationships with donors and the efl agents (figure 3). as was seen in the above analysis, they would highly prize the withdrawal of the moe’s and the reb’s strict control over pedagogy and relationships among the donors, schools, teachers and students. they also want unrestricted, direct, and reciprocal relationships among the donors, schools, higher education institutions and the schoolteachers, teacher educators, students, and academic staff of the donor agents like the british council’s. this is indicated in figure 3 by bi-directional and bold arrows. 14 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) figure 3: the free society model for efl education in stark contrast, the cascade model in use is inauspicious. it necessarily prioritizes structure (building the state’s controlling, bureaucratic machinery) rather than the transformative power (agency, capacity) of humans, e.g. teachers, here. therefore, its use pays for a top-down, one directional, strictly controlled educational system wherein relationships among the agents of education is closed and the condition for free communicative action and/or forum is vehemently insulated. the cascade model is reflection of the ruling party’s “revolutionary democracy” ideology, a leninist ideology fantasy of teaching in a “rank-and-file” formula, “feeding” a “single….established…‘scientific’ truth” and as such, is impatient to any reflective questions. in particular lata’s exploration of “why a change is needed and how it does not constitute a departure from the truths originally established as scientific…[or] introducing a new idea” results in being identified as “reactionary” (1999, p. 91) or, the contemporary catchphrase, “terrorist”. indeed, in this kind of totalitarian (educational) system, international donors find themselves in in-built policy-strategy dilemmas that question whether to go on supporting the recipient schools (which in fact is reduced to service-provider to the dictatorship) or to shift to building the holistic competence and capacity of the donor agents, schools, and teachers. conclusion and implications the fundamental question that motivated this study was why the series of eltip/elip and other ambitious education policy and plans are so unyielding. or in other terms: what is wrong with the teachers’ english proficiency development? why doesn’t the so-called “poor” proficiency go? in general, the results of this study, however limited in sample size, have shown that the so-called “poor” english proficiency problem is just criminalizing the victims. policy makers and researchers might ascribe the problem’s root causes to different factors based on their own social origins and educational and/or research paradigms. heugh et al. (2007, p. 107) assigns the poor english proficiency of ethiopian teachers and students to a “lack of …exposure to english,” since, unlike many african countries, english is “a foreign language” to ethiopian teachers and learners. further, citing the linguistic ideologues of the leninist-maoist revolutionary democracy of the ruling party by lata (1999), heugh et al. accuse teachers of using “elip training for instrumental purposes” (2007, p. 107). the origin of instrumental rationality is explained adequately by critical scholars: dereje tadesse birbirso 15 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) the instrumentalization of reason is linked to the disappearance of opportunities in our lives for us to meet with others to discuss small and large matters of mutual concern…the loss of the public sphere, the domain in which people used to come together and explore how to organize and conduct their communal affairs (brookfield, 2005, p. 56). no surprise, thus, at risk of being foreignized, the english language, which is declared in policy as a medium of instruction in junior and senior secondary, and tertiary levels, is currently forced to appear “foreign” in a country where it is accorded a more prestigious position than arguably anywhere in africa (heugh et al., 2007). in other words, it is a failure generated by an impairing socio-educational condition that denied the teachers their rights to freely teach and use english to talk, read, write, and change their world. for them, this is a fundamental precondition as well as object for practicing or exercising their right to speech act in english. as a chain reaction, the latter right becomes another precondition for not only improving their english competence, but, holistically, to realize their potential capacity to being full-fledged, empowered citizens, that is “subjects” not “objects” over their social-natural world. the government wants english language, but, at the same time, wants the english teachers to assume no significant role as teachers and full citizens. what roles should teachers take hold of? in short the answer is: the full right to their preferential interpretation over their practices pedagogical, political, and economic. the deficient or rather unbecoming nature of ethiopia’s efl proficiency is, based on this study, not because of the foreignness of english as positivist educators wrongly claim. thanks to the free societies and, hence, their inventive learning mechanisms/conditions, english is no longer foreign to ethiopian learners through the globalizing information technologies. english is medium of instruction beginning from the junior secondary level. ethiopian children and students have comparatively more positive attitude toward english than arguably anywhere in africa (heugh et al., 2007). the problem lies in a totalitarian regime that has long tightened its grip on any dissident voices. this problem manifested itself in the “repressive aftermath of 2005 election” (usaid, 2012; icg, 2012). to use the words of paulo freire, the current ethiopia regime “lacks faith in the student and his power to discuss, to work, to create” (freire, 2005, p. 33). it is so vital a point that it is necessary to quote this great scholar at length: democracy and democratic education are founded on faith in men, on the belief that they not only can but should discuss the problems of their country, of their continent their world, their work, the problems of democracy itself. education is an art of love, and thus an act of courage. it cannot fear the analysis of reality of, under pain of revealing itself as a farce, avoid creative discussion (freire, p. 33). two major implications can be discerned. firstly, donations of enormous amounts of money to the fragile state obsessed by what fuller terms “growing-up modern” (1991) results in the prioritizing of structures, turning the agents or subjects (teachers and students) into objects that are dehumanized and blamed for a problem they never generated. nor is it possible for the donors, who, as was seen in this study, are chiefly the english as native language (enl) nations, to export perfect proficiency to the efl receiver nation. the prevailing taste of spoonfeeding the fragile efl nation and her schoolteachers in appearing-and-disappearing and 16 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) piecemeal fashion, inside “training rooms” of four or five-star hotels owned by corrupt government officials in the capital city, only reproduces the relentless problem. finally, beyond the desire to grow-up modern, the efl nation should primarily clean its home. that means it must democratize its socio-educational systems, following the footsteps of the “icons of growth” that is the donor enl nations, who should in turn monitor whether their donations reach their intended recipients. references apple, m. (2000). official knowledge. new york: routledge. birbirso, d.t. (2013). technology for empowering or subjugating teachers: analysis of ethiopia’s education reform discourse. journal for critical education policy studies, 11(4), 1740-2743. british council ethiopia (bc). database. retrieved from http://www.britishcouncil.org/africads-about.htm. brookfield, s. (2005). the power of critical theory for adult learning and teaching. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. denzin, k. n. & lincoln, s. y. (eds.). (2000). a handbook of qualitative research. thousand oaks, ca: sage. ethiopian academy of science. (december, 2012). workshop report on quality of primary education in ethiopia. semien hotel, addis ababa. federal democratic republic of ethiopia. (2002). capacity building strategy and programs. addis ababa, fdre. -----. (2008). national report on the development and state of the art of adult learning and education (ale). addis ababa, fdre. -----. (2009). proclamation no. 12/2009 proclamation for the registration and regulation of charities and societies. addis ababa, fdre. flick, u. (2002). an introduction to qualitative research. london: sage. freire, p. (2005). education for critical consciousness. london: continuum. fuller, b. (1991). growing-up modern: the western state builds third-world schools. new york: routledge. http://www.britishcouncil.org/africa-ds-about.htm http://www.britishcouncil.org/africa-ds-about.htm dereje tadesse birbirso 17 _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) heugh, k., benson, c., bogale, b. & yohannes, m. l. g. (2007). study on medium of instruction in primary schools in ethiopia commissioned by the ministry of education: final report. addis ababa: ministry of education. holliday, a. (2002). doing and writing qualitative research. london: sage. independent commission for aid impact. (2012). dfid’s education programs in three east african countries, report 10, icai. international crisis group. (2012). ethiopia after meles. africa briefing, 89. nairobi/brussels, icg, 22. international centre for not-for-profit law. (2009). ngo law monitor: ethiopia. icnl. retrieved april 26, 2014 from http: //www.icnl.org/research/monitor/ethiopia.htm. lata, l. (1999). the ethiopian state at the crossroads. lawrenceville, nj: the red sea press. ministry for foreign affairs of finland. (2010). evaluation: finland’s development cooperation with ethiopia 2000–2008. evaluation report. retrieved april 26, 2014 from http://www.oecd.org/countries/ethiopia/47 71865.pdf . ministry of education. (2008). general education quality improvement package (geqip). addis ababa, moe. ministry of finance and economic development. (2010a). the federal democratic republic of ethiopia growth and transformation plan (gtp) 2010/11-2014/15. addis ababa, mofed. -----. (2010b). the growth and transformation program (gtp) 2010-2015.vol. ii: policy matrix. addis ababa, mofed. retrieved april 26, 2014 from http://web.sipri.org/contents/milap/milex/bgpapers/mex_priorities_methods.pdf. negash, t. (2006). education in ethiopia: from crisis to the brink of collapse. uppsala: nordiska afrikainstitutet. strauss, a. & corbin, j. (1998). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. newbury park: sage. usaid. (2012). usaid-ethiopia country development cooperation strategy 2011 – 2015: accelerating the transformation toward prosperity. public version. addis ababa, usaid. us embassy ethiopia. (2012). enhancing the quality of english language education in ethiopia. report on a future search conference. ambo university, usaid. http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/ethiopia.htm http://web.sipri.org/contents/milap/milex/bgpapers/mex_priorities_methods.pdf 18 failure to achieve development in spite of a series of reforms: what is wrong with efl teachers’ english proficiency? _________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 3 (fall 2013) appendix questionnaire (abbreviated) (1) background: (a) i come from (tick √): (i) a secondary school: _______; (ii) a college of teacher education:_______; (iii ) a university’s english department:_______. (b) my experience in years: ______. (2) i describe the english proficiency level of ethiopia’s secondary school teachers as:______. (3) i describe this training (of master specialist trainers) as _______. (4) in order for this master trainers specialist development training to improve in the future: (a) the ministry of education should ______. (b) the british council should ______. (c) the trainers of us master trainers (super-trainers) should ______. (5) my two big fears that i think will incapacitate the success of the whole eltip program (the cascade model) are: (a) _______ (b) _______. (6) which lack do you relatively rate as high (h), medium (m) or never (n) when it comes to secondary english teachers (write the letters on the spaces): (a) lack of english proficiency ______ (b) lack of academic/scientific awareness about english teaching methodology ______ (c) lack of professional autonomy to work as theory of language teaching demands____ (d) lack of life conditions (sufficient salary, etc.) _______. (7) who should do what for ethiopian secondary efl teachers’ english proficiency to improve? ***** ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) factors supporting or hindering continuation of a collaborative professional development program for communicative language teaching anto arkato gendole arba minch university, ethiopia fer coenders university of twente, the netherlands joke voogt university of amsterdam and windesheim university of applied sciences, netherlands jules pieters university of twente, the netherlands abstract in this study, the continued use of core elements of a collaborative professional development program (cpdp) for communicative language teaching (clt) after program termination is reported. a cross-sectional design using quantitative and qualitative data collection was applied. teachers, facilitators and management perceived cpdp relevant and teachers appreciated the program elements. teachers who participated in the development and implementation sessions of cpdp tended to apply cpdp-elements better than teachers who merely used cpdp elements. teacher collaboration was limited. facilitators and management offered little support for teachers after the termination of the cpdp. the study recommended embedding cpdp in the english language department system as an in-service professional development program. keywords: program continuation, sustainability, professional development, educational change. introduction english plays a crucial role in ethiopia. in education, it serves as medium of instruction at high school and higher education. however, the teaching quality of the language is threatened by various factors. higher education english language teachers lack adequate preparation. because of the rapid and vast increase in universities and student enrolment, universities recruited many under-qualified english language teachers with little or no pre-service teacher education or prior 2 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) teaching experience. to address this problem, the professional learning needs of higher education teachers were assessed (gendole, coenders, & voogt, 2012) and a collaborative professional development program (cpdp) focusing on the teachers’ learning and implementation of communicative language teaching (clt) was designed and successfully implemented twice in an ethiopian university (gendole, coenders, voogt, & pieter, 2013, 2014). clt has been emphasized for its wide acceptance and effectiveness in language teaching (harmer, 2001; richards, 2006; richards & rodgers, 2001). it focuses on the development of learners’ communicative competence through authentic and meaningful interaction among learners. the teacher plays a facilitative role in the teaching learning process (harmer, 2001; richards, 2006). specific characteristics of clt include: (a) active involvement of students in teaching learning processes; (b) use of students’ authentic experiences and materials; (c) provision of chances for students to practice and use new language items for communication; (d) facilitation of students’ collaborative learning; (e) integration of language skills; (f) communication of purposes to learners; (g) contextualization of grammar and vocabulary teaching; (h) assessment integration with language teaching; (i) tolerance of students’ errors; and (j) use of target language for classroom communication. after the termination of cpdp, english language teachers need to continue to improve their clt knowledge and practice (fullan, 2007; harvey & hurworth, 2006) through the use of the core cpdp elements. to understand the prospects and challenges of using the core elements, this study was conducted 17 months after the first implementation and 7 months after the second implementation of cpdp. the core elements of cpdp reported as effective included: 1. teacher collaboration: promotes teacher learning through collegial sharing, reflective discussion, collaborative design and practice of curricular materials and provision of feedback (austin, 2002; harmer, 2001; hord, 2004; little, 1990) 2. handout: explains the essentials of clt as a source of teacher learning; it presents rich information on innovative teaching approaches (atherton, 2011). 3. teacher guide (collection of lesson guides): fosters teacher learning (thijs & van den berg, 2002) and enhances curriculum implementation (van den akker, 1988) as it provides specific procedural-instructions on all lessons of communicative english skills. 4. experienced teachers with good clt preparation were trained to become facilitators in the cpdp (gendole, et.al., 2013; harrison & killion, 2007). similar to facilitators, peers (teachers with equal professional status) also carried out a coaching role (thijs & van den berg, 2002) during clt implementation. conceptual framework in literature, terms such as sustainability (harvey & hurworth, 2006), institutionalization (fullan, 2007), maintainability (hargreaves & fink, 2003) and routinazation (rogers, 2003) are used interchangeably with program continuation. all these terms focus on continued use of various aspects of a program. fullan’s definition of program continuation is adopted in this study. he describes continuation as an extension of using the ideas, program or the activities after implementation, usually after the phase out of external support and funds (2007, p. 66). continuation in this study, hence, refers to: (1) the teachers’ continued use of cpdp elements, (2) the existence of facilitator or peer professional assistance to enhance the teachers’ use of the elements and (3) availability of management administrative support and monitoring activities for 3 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter the teachers’ proper use of cpdp elements after the termination of formal implementation of cpdp. to organize the data collected in this study, a conceptual framework introduced by ten brummelhuis (1995) was adopted (see figure 1). he categorized indicators influencing implementation and continuation of an educational change under four frame factors: exogenous preconditions, endogenous adoption conditions, endogenous implementation conditions, and implementation outcomes. exogenous preconditions include factors outside organizational control and internal factors difficult to alter by the organization such as state and national policies. in this study, government initiatives to enhance english ability of higher education teachers, government policies addressing professional development of the teachers, and the university’s senate legislation fell in this category. endogenous adoption conditions included three essential factors affecting the continuation of an educational innovation: relevance, readiness, and resources (fullan, 1991). in this study, relevance represents the importance that the teachers, facilitators, and the management attached to cpdp as a program and the way the teachers appreciated its elements. readiness refers to the teachers’ ability and preparedness to use cpdp elements in their clt teaching practices. resources, in this study, address the presence of necessary materials such as books, magazines, and journals on clt, language lab, audiovisual, and audio materials for clt teaching. it also included finance support and time for facilitators to render professional support and time for teachers to participate in professional learning activities. endogenous implementation conditions considered the existence of organizational policies, professional and administrative assistance to the teachers, and strategies for monitoring the implementation. policies are important for organizational support to promote implementation and continuation of a professional development endeavor (guskey, 2000). the presence of professional assistance at the workplace for teachers practicing the initiated program was considered a vital factor for successful continuation of the program (fiszer, 2004; joyce & showers, 2002). professional assistance could be through the support of teacher leaders (gendole et. al., 2013; harrison & killion, 2007; lieberman & miller, 2004) or through peer support (thijs & van den berg, 2002). facilitators played vital roles in creating a culture of collaboration among staff and in supporting teachers (hord, 2004; lieberman & miller, 2004). peer support in the form of coaching was also found to be an effective strategy (thijs & van den berg, 2002) for continued use of innovative ideas (richards & farrell, 2005). peer coaching also reduced the sense of isolation that teachers tended to feel in their teaching roles (joyce & showers, 2002; richards & farrell, 2005). moreover, management support was of paramount importance for proper continuation of professional development efforts to protect participating teachers from intrusions, to recognize success, and to provide adequate time (guskey, 2000). monitoring and evaluation by management enabled effective continuation (loucks-horsley, hewson, love, & stiles, 2010). endogenous implementation conditions addressed the feasibility of facilitators’ professional assistance, continuation of peer support, and management support and monitory actions. implementation outcomes addressed the expected ultimate goal of an innovation. continuation of cpdp as a pd program was seen as the implementation outcome. 4 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) as reflected in figure 1, the exogenous preconditions are believed to have direct influence on endogenous adoption conditions and indirect effect on endogenous implementation conditions. implementation outcomes (continuation of cpdp) are thought to be the results of the interplay among the variables situated in the other three frame factors fig. 1: conceptual framework of implementation of cpdp elements, adapted from ten brummelhuis (1995). this study was guided by the following general and specific research questions: general questions 1. how were core cpdpelements perceived and used by english language teachers after the termination of external support? 2. what are the opportunities and challenges of continuous use of core cpdpelements to enhance clt learning and implementation? to answer these questions, the following specific questions were formulated using the conceptual framework as represented in figure 1 above as an organizer: specific questions exogenous preconditions 1. what government and institutional policies promote or constrain the implementation of cpdpelements? endogenous adoption conditions 2. how do stakeholders (teachers, facilitators & management) perceive the relevance of cdpd-elements? 3. are the teachers ready now and in the future to use cpdp-elements? implementation outcomes endogenous implementation conditions exogenous preconditions endogenous adoption conditions continuation of cpdp  assistance  monitoring  relevance  readiness  resources contextual factors (government and institutional policies) 5 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter 4. are necessary resources available for the implementation of cpdp-elements? endogenous implementation conditions 5. is professional support for the implementation of cpdp elements in place? 6. how can peer support be continued to enhance clt learning and teaching? 7. is management support and monitoring of the implementation of cpdp elements in place? methods context. the study included 16 teachers who participated in the two previous cpdp studies, referred to as participating teachers (pts) and 23 teachers who did not participate in cpdp, referred to as non-participating teachers (npts), but were teaching the course, communicative english skills during data collection. npts were included because cpdp intends to support all english language teachers to use the program elements (clt handout, teacher guide, teacher collaboration) and facilitator/peer support to enhance clt learning and teaching, and their views and practices are therefore important for the continuation of cpdp. before data collection, all npts teaching communicative english skills received the clt handout, the teacher guide, revised learner material, and some audio-texts to support their teaching of the course. design. a cross-sectional design (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2007) to explore the continuation of the use of cpdp elements by the teachers at a particular point of time was applied. the conceptual framework from ten brummelhuis (1995) was adapted and used to organize the data. participants teachers. the 16 ba/bed holding pts received a questionnaire through email and 12 of them returned it. four teachers came from the first study and eight from the second. from these 12 teachers, four volunteers (two from first and two from second study) were interviewed. as all the pts had left arba minch university (amu) for further studies, they provided information about the experiences they gained during their participation in cpdp and during their subsequent teaching experiences. also, 23 ma holding npts teaching communicative english skills were asked to fill in the questionnaire, and 19 returned it. four volunteer npts were interviewed and four other volunteer teachers were observed teaching lessons of communicative english skills. facilitators. during data collation, three facilitators who participated in the study were still at the university and involved in this study. management. the head of the english language department and the dean of social sciences and humanities college participated because they decide on time, finances, and manpower. instruments teacher questionnaire. a teacher questionnaire having close and open-ended items was administered through email to pts and in person to npts. the questionnaire addressed the issues of relevance and readiness in endogenous adoption conditions, and assistance and monitoring in endogenous implementation conditions. the teachers rated various statements regarding cpdp and its elements on a five-point likert scale, measuring the constructs 6 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) (reliability and numbers of items in brackets): cpdp relevance (α=0.86, 4); appreciation of clt handout (α=0.89, 5); teacher guide (α=0.90, 7) and teacher collaboration (α=0.81, 9). they also rated their degree of using the elements on a four-point likert scale: clt handout (α=0.89, 4), teacher guide (α=0.95, 6) and teacher collaboration (α=0.90, 9) and the teachers’ readiness to provide or receive support (α=0.84, 4). the open-ended items gathered information on the teachers’ challenges in using cpdp elements, on kinds of support the teachers received from their peers, facilitators and management, and their experience of support provision to their colleagues, and on the feasibility of peer support. teacher interview. the teacher interview was conducted with pts and npts to collect data on all the issues addressed by the questionnaire primarily for validation purposes (miles & huberman, 1994). management interview. the department head and the college dean were interviewed about the support and monitoring activities they had undertaken thus far to support and maintain the use of cpdp elements, and about the feasibility of peer-support. they were also asked about their intentions to monitor and support the process in future. observation. the degree the four npts used clt features in their teaching practices (readiness) was assessed through lesson observations. the observation checklist to rate the performances of the teachers applied in the previous studies was revised and used in this study. the three facilitators and the former department head assisted the researcher to conduct lesson observations. each of them observed two lessons of one teacher to get a clear image of the teacher’s use of clt features. the researcher joined each of them during the second observation. a resource inventory was also conducted through observation to check availability of resources. focus group discussion. a focus group discussion was held with all facilitators and collected data about the assistance they offered to the teachers after the formal implementation of cpdp had ended. the feasibility of peer-support as professional development strategy and the facilitators’ preparedness to provide professional support to the teachers were also discussed. document review. the following documents were reviewed to understand the stance of government, the university, and the department regarding teachers’ professional development: (a) the education and training policy (etp) (moe, 1994), (b) the english language improvement program (elip) document (moe, 2005) (c) senate legislation of amu (amu, 2012), (d) amu college of social sciences and humanities (cssh, 2012) annual plan of 2012/2013, and (e) amu department of english language (dell, 2012) annual plan of 2012/2013. table 1 gives an overview of the research questions in relation to the data collection instruments, the data sources and the corresponding component in the conceptual framework. table 1: conceptual framework: research questions, instruments, data sources, and corresponding component. specific research questions instruments data source component 7 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter 1. what government and institutional policies promote or constrain the implementation of cpdp elements? document review documents exogenous preconditions 2. how do stakeholders (teachers, facilitators, management) perceive the relevance of cdpd and its elements? teacher questionnaire teacher interview management interview focus group discussion teachers facilitators management endogenous adoption conditions (relevance) 3. are teachers ready now and in the future to use cpdp elements? teacher questionnaire teacher interview observation teachers endogenous adoption conditions (readiness) 4. are necessary resources available for the implementation of cpdp elements? management interview observation management endogenous adoption conditions (resources) 5. is professional support for the implementation of cpdp elements in place? teacher questionnaire teacher interview focus group discussion teachers facilitators endogenous implementation conditions (assistance) 6. how can peer support be continued to enhance clt learning and teaching? teacher questionnaire teacher interview management interview focus group discussion teachers facilitators management endogenous implementation conditions (assistance) 7. is management support and monitoring of the implementation of cpdp-elements in place? questionnaire interview document review teachers management documents endogenous implementation conditions (monitoring) data analysis. a mixed approach employing both quantitative and qualitative techniques was used to analyze the data. quantitative analysis conducted with spss was used to analyze data obtained through close-ended questionnaire items, resulting in descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation). mann-whitney non-parametric tests were used to compare pts and npts in terms of their perception and use of cpdp elements, and their readiness to provide or receive professional support. the reliability (cronbach’s alpha) was calculated for each construct from the questionnaire data. cohen’s d was calculated to measure the effect size of the two teacher groups. the qualitative data were analyzed using summary, data reduction and data display techniques (miles & huberman, 1994). data collected from the department head and the college dean were summarized and presented to the respective respondents for verification before reporting. data obtained from teachers through interviews were transcribed, transported into atlas.ti (version 6.2) and analyzed using thematic codes generated from the data. sample interview quotations were re-coded by a colleague to check inter-coder reliability (kappa= 0.80, p<0.001) which was found to be good. similarly, the inter-rater reliability (kappa= 0.61, p<0.001) of lesson observation data of the assistants and the researcher was calculated to be good again according to altman’s (1991) benchmarking. 8 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) findings: exogenous preconditions policies promoting or constraining implementation of cpdp elements. varying attention has been paid to professional development conditions of ethiopian higher education teachers by the education and training policy (etp) (moe,1994), the english language improvement program (elip) document (moe, 2005) and senate legislation of arba minch university (amu, 2012). the etp document, article 3.4, mandates that all ethiopian higher education teachers to have necessary teaching qualification and competency in instruction through pre-service and inservice training before they are assigned to teaching. the elip document also explains the government commitment to improve english language proficiency of ethiopian higher education teachers. the senate legislation of amu (amu, 2012), however, interprets teacher professional development only in terms of the number of teachers the university intends to send for further studies to obtain higher qualifications. inconsistent with the demand of the etp, the senate legislation does not mention any in-service arrangement the university provided or planned to provide to improve the professional competencies of its teachers. endogenous adoption conditions relevance. both pts and npts tended to agree or strongly agree with the statements representing the teachers’ perception of the relevance of cpdp and of its elements. pts tend to appreciate the cpdp and its elements more than npts do, though mann-whitney nonparametric test only showed a significant difference in the clt handout (z=-2.1, p=0.03 & effect size =1.0). participating teachers (pts) through interviews and open-ended items of the questionnaire, all the pts reported that cpdp was a relevant program for both teachers with and without clt background. shire, who was without clt background, for instance, narrated the following: it is a relevant program, particularly for teachers like me who did not have any training on clt before starting teaching. it equipped me with basic understanding of the main ideas of clt. it enabled me to learn, for instance, specific roles i and my students need to assume in teaching english; activities i need to use; procedures i should follow in teaching various language skills. all the pts added that they liked all the cpdp elements: the clt handout, the teacher guide, and teacher collaboration. zab explained the contributions of the handout to his clt learning and class use as: for instance, the handout provided me with useful information on the essentials of clt: its definition, underlying assumptions, teacher and student roles, activities to be used, strategies used to teach different skills etc. it allowed me to properly assume the teacher role in my language teaching. non-participating teachers (npts) 9 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter the interviewed npts, who only received the teacher guide and the handout, but did not participate in the training sessions of cpdp, disclosed that the handout provided them with the main ideas of clt, and the teacher guide gave them procedural specifications on diverse teacher and student activities of communicative english skills. mekt, for example, said: for example, the guide offered me clear and specific directions in undertaking various activities of the course. it made my teaching easier. teacher collaboration is hardly practiced among the teachers. one teacher said: i feel that teacher collaboration is good. it could be an essential source of knowledge through experience sharing. but it is rarely practiced among the department teachers. all the teachers conveyed their willingness to carry on using the elements to enhance their clt knowledge and implementation. the college dean, the department head and the facilitators substantiated the views of the teachers that cpdp is an important program, particularly for those who lack prior clt training. readiness. a four-point likert scale was used to let teachers rate the frequency they used the elements in their teaching learning. pts indicated use of all cpdp elements in falling between 2 = half & less of my lessons and 3 = half & more of my lessons. a similar picture emerges for npts except for teacher collaboration which was found to fall below 2 = half & less of my lessons. pts were found to have significantly better collaboration practices (z=-2.4, p=0.02 & effect size =1.1) than npts (see table 2). table 2: pts and npts’ use of cpdp elements. constructs pts (n=12) npts (n=19) m (sd) m (sd) z as. sig. (2-tailed) effect size, cohen’s d clt handout 3.0 (0.45) 2.9 (0.97) -0.1 0.9 0.1 teacher guide 2.9(0.75) 2.4 (0.85) -1.7 0.09 0.6 teacher collaboration 2.5(0.54) 1.9 (0.56) -2.4 0.02 1.1 note: 1=never, 2=for half and less of my lessons, 3=for more than half of my lessons, 4= for all of my lessons. participating teachers (pts) the interviewed pts indicated that they often used the handout and the teacher guide in their teaching. all the teachers only informally collaborated to carry out some daily routines such as preparing course outlines, quizzes, and sharing ideas on handling students’ misbehavior. regarding collaboration, tola reported: 10 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) we properly collaborated only when the program was formally implemented and supervised. then after, because of large teaching load, teachers’ lack of interest etc, we did not collaborate. non-participating teachers (npts) classroom observation data displayed that all the npt teachers practiced the majority of clt features in their teaching of communicative english skills. despite the variation in their educational background (met & zeb, ma holders in tefl; dem & yet, ma holders in linguistics), all teachers involved students actively in their lessons, used authentic materials and experiences in their teaching, and facilitated students’ collaborative learning through group/pair works. moreover, dem and yet used an integrated-skills approach (using all language skills together) in their teaching practices. met and yet also communicated lesson objectives to students at the start of their lessons. although all the four interviewed npts said that teacher collaboration could foster their learning and implementation of clt, none of them practiced it formally at their workplace. they shared experiences informally with some of their intimate colleagues. readiness for collaboration. using a five-point likert scale the teachers indicated their agreement with various statements reflecting their readiness to provide support to their colleagues or receive it from them. on average (pts: m=4.3, sd=0.39; npts, m=4.2, sd=0.68), the teachers appeared to be ready to provide or receive the support (table 3). table 3: teacher readiness to provide/receive professional support. pts (n=12) npts (n=19) m(sd) m(sd) z as. sig. (2-tailed) readiness of support reception 4.7(0.49) 4.5 (0.61) -.5 0.57 readiness of support provision 4.3(0.49) 4.4(0.69) -.6 0.52 knowledge possession for support provision 4.1 (0.51) 3.9 (0.94) -.4 0.71 skills possession for support provision 4.0 (0.60) 3.9 (0.94) -0.1 0.92 overall 4.3 (0.39) 4.2 (0.68) -0.1 0.95 note: 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=not decided, 4=agree, 5= strongly agree the interviews confirmed this result. yek explained his readiness to provide and receive support as: yes, i need to provide professional support to my colleagues to let them improve their knowledge and teaching practices. similarly, i need their support to improve my professional knowledge, teaching practices and my student learning. the teachers further marked (via questionnaire) the extent they wanted to offer or receive professional support using the levels: little, some, and large. among 12 pts, 9 (75%) and 2 11 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter (16.7%) respectively indicated large and some. among 19 npts, 15 (78.9%) and 3 (15.6%) marked large and some respectively. one teacher from each group did not mark it. resources. the inventory of resources showed that there were audio texts for teaching listening skills, many photocopied but outdated text books on clt, some individually and 7 department possessed laptops. also, there was a non-functioning language lab. both the dean and the head informed that they did not make any special arrangement for resources after the end of cpdp implementation. endogenous implementation conditions assistance. regarding facilitators’ support provision, all the facilitators reported that they did not offer any properly arranged professional support to any teacher after the end of formal implementation of cpdp. they provided only informal support they used to provide before they were involved in the program. but all of them indicated to be ready to offer professional support to their colleagues if the management arranges time, reduces their workload, and puts necessary incentives/rewards in place. one facilitator reported: i am ready to support professional learning of other teachers. i feel my knowledge and experience allow me to do the activity. however, things like availability of time, willingness of the supported teachers, and management support must be in place. continuing peer support. gendole et.al. (2013) showed that peer support was an effective, sustainable and cheap form of support during teachers’ lesson implementation and also promoted a culture of collaboration among teachers (fullan, 2007). the majority of the interviewed teachers (75%) of this study agreed with geg’s explanation: in the context of amu, peer support seems a more feasible form of support because most senior teachers are usually busy with different activities….the university also appears to encounter shortage of budget to pay facilitators for extra work. to maintain peer support among the teachers, pts and npts suggested different strategies: arranging training on how teachers carry out reciprocal peer coaching, pairing up teachers teaching similar courses and let them share offices, designing a guideline that directs the implementation of the peer coaching and conducting regular discussions on the progress of each pair and overall process. one of the npts said: when teachers offering the same course pair up and share the same office, it makes it easy for them to access each other. it also creates a more collaborative working environment. the facilitators also viewed peer support a viable option. aba, one of the facilitators articulated his thoughts: 12 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) though the involvement of senior teachers in the provision of professional support to junior teachers is important, since the university culture of availing incentives for professional development efforts is not promising, peer support could help more in this regard. for the continued use of peer support, the facilitators proposed provision of training by experienced teachers (facilitators) to other teachers on various aspects of peer coaching: objectives, issues addressed during various stages of the process, strategies of effective classroom observation, provision of constructive feedback, and reflection on the feedback. the management also thought that peer support could be useful. both the college dean and department head elaborated that when the department is composed of many junior teachers, some senior teachers can provide training to the juniors on how to practice peer support before the juniors commence supporting each other. the seniors might supervise the peer support process of the juniors. in this case, the seniors could have reduced workload to offer the support and to accomplish the supervision duties. the dean also expressed his readiness to support teacher professional learning financially and otherwise. he said: the college is ready and even financially capable to support professional learning of its teachers. it can provide necessary materials, allocate sufficient time, recruit pd leaders and facilitators, and provide them financial rewards for their professional services. the department head further suggested pairing up teachers teaching similar courses, facilitating conditions for the teachers to share similar offices to promote professional conversations and experience sharing among the teachers, and conducting regular monitoring and evaluation of peer coaching processes. monitoring. although the college dean had not taken any action, the department head reported that the department had effected certain measures: revision of learner material of communicative english skills to make it more communicative, distribution of the clt handout, the teacher guide and learner materials to teachers, establishment of a committee monitoring teachers’ use of these materials, and provision of laptops for teachers lacking their own to teach listening skill lessons. one of the npts said: i received the handout, teacher guide, audio texts and the learner material from the head. i did not receive any support from the dean. concerning their future plans to support the implementation of cpdp elements, the dean and the head expressed that they are ready to offer the support and to monitor the implementation activities. to ensure successful continuation, the dean disclosed that the college has a plan to place cpdp under the english language improvement program (elip) which works on english enhancement of all the university teachers. the elip coordinator confirmed the college’s proposal to put cpdp under elip. in the 2012/2013 annual plan of the college social sciences and humanities (cssh, 2012), it states that the college demands its teachers to participate in ongoing professional development to continuously build their professional capacity: 13 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter the college needs to continuously build capacity of its workers in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in different capacities and the associated human resource handling and rewarding systems of the college. (p. 30) the department head stated that the department has a plan to support and supervise the implementation of cpdp elements by its teachers. however, these were not yet part of the department annual plan. conclusion and discussions this study has examined the continuous use of cpdp elements by english language teachers to enhance their clt learning and practice. with regard to the exogenous preconditions, the study found that the government formulated policies to encourage in house professional development of teachers at ethiopian universities. these policies lay a good ground for continued use of the cpdp elements, as policies create a framework for action (ten brummelhuis, 1995). universities, however, paid limited attention to these initiatives and focused on making the teachers pursue further studies to obtain higher qualifications. fortunately, the dean demands teachers to participate in ongoing professional development and to place cpdp under the english language improvement program. this means that there will be sufficient managerial support to continue using the cpdp elements. from the perspective of endogenous adoption conditions, all the stakeholders perceived cpdp as a relevant program and all pts and npts found the handout, teacher guide, and teacher collaboration relevant. with significant difference, pts perceived the handout more relevant than npts did. teachers used the clt handout and the teacher guide in more than half of their lessons. the pts’ better perception of clt handout and better use of the handout and the teacher guide can be explained by the fact that pts had exposure to the materials during their cpdp training sessions. possibly, because of experiencing collaboration during actual cpdp implementation, pts continued to use teacher collaboration better than npts did after the termination of the program. npts showed greater variations (larger standard deviations) in their perceptions and use of clt handout and teacher guide than pts. this may be attributed to more qualification and teaching experience variations noticed among npts as compared to pts. to support teachers in their clt practice, audio materials, learner materials, a teacher guide and the clt handout designed in the previous studies were further developed and made available for use. however, lack of up-to-date books, magazines, and journals on clt and a disfunctioning language lab hamper clt implementation. teachers’ appreciation of collaboration as a means to encourage teacher learning through collaborative discussion, sharing and reflection on their common issues and practical experiences is consistent with the views of many scholars (harmer, 2001; harvey & hurworth, 2006; little, 1990) who take teacher collaboration as a vital instrument for enhancing teacher learning. despite this fact, the teachers had limited practice of collaboration and they attributed it to shortage of common time to get together and jointly carry out these activities. the poor culture of collaboration among ethiopian higher education teachers could be another vital limiting factor (fisher & swindells, 1998). the study shows that teachers are ready to receive and provide assistance (endogenous implementation conditions) in enhancing their clt application. facilitators express their 14 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) willingness to take up their leadership roles if the management arranges for it, e.g. allocating time, extra payment. stakeholders suggest different strategies to continue and extend peer support as a means to enhance clt teaching practice. these strategies include: (1) arranging a training on peer coaching; (2) regular monitoring and evaluation of the peer coaching processes by facilitators (zwart, wubbels, bergen, & bolhuis, 2007); (3) preparing experienced teachers (facilitators) to train teachers on various aspects of peer coaching; (4) pairing up teachers teaching similar courses; (5) facilitating conditions for teachers to share similar offices; (6) providing necessary materials (guskey, 2000); (7) allocating sufficient time; (8) recruiting pd leaders and facilitators; and (8) providing financial rewards for staff involved in various professional development undertakings. the study further reveals that the college plans to put cpdp under their english language improvement program (elip) for the sustenance of the program. the department head had the learner material of the communicative english skills course revised. he also dispatched the learner material, the handout and the teacher guide to the teachers. in addition, laptops were provided to teachers who lacked their own laptop to teach listening skills. to conclude, cpdp made important contributions to the professional development of english language teachers of arba minch university. first, english language teachers perceived the materials (handout and teacher guide) developed as part of cpdp to support them in their teaching as relevant and they are ready to use the materials. the absence of significant difference between pts and npts in terms of their perception and effective use of most of the cpdp elements implies that the program and its elements are useful for both teacher groups for successful learning and implementation of clt. the importance of reading materials (atherton, 2011; joyce & showers, 2002), teacher guide (ottevanger, 2001; thijs & van den berg, 2002) and concrete resources such as audio texts (richards & farrell, 2005) as part of professional development was also found in other studies as productive tools to enhance teachers’ professional learning and facilitate curriculum enactment (garet, porter, desimone, birman, & yoon, 2001; voogt, 2010). second, english language teachers are open to initiatives that encourage teacher collaboration and peer support, to enhance their clt skills further. these findings indicated that teachers felt committed to the implementation of clt (fullan, 2007). the better use of teacher collaboration of pts than npts has an implication that in order to use collaboration in their teaching practices effectively, teachers should participate in a professional development initiative in which collaboration is an integral part. third, the importance put on continuing professional development in national and university policies offers opportunities to develop strategies to promote teacher collaboration and peer support as professional development strategies for english language teachers. these findings suggest that bottom up and top down strategies to support the implementation of clt are in balance (fullan, 2007). for continuing use of cpdp elements, it is crucial to have a system embedded at the university in place responsible for: (a) keeping the teacher guide and the handout up to date; (b) distributing these materials to teachers; and (c) encouraging and facilitating teachers to collaborate and support each other in their classroom teaching. other universities across the country could also implement this system. 15 anto arkato gendole, fer coenders, joke voogt, & jules pieter the study was not without limitations. first, during data collection, all the teachers who participated in the two rounds of cpdp implementation left for further studies at other universities. it was, therefore, not possible to observe the teachers’ lessons to see how they use the elements in their actual teaching practice after cpdp. second, four pts (25%) did not fill out the questionnaire. peer collaboration is a crucial aspect and teachers and management expressed the importance of it and promised to make the necessary provisions, but future practice will show whether it really materializes. references altman, d. g. 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(1995). models of educational change: the introduction of computers in dutch secondary education. (phd dissertation), university of twente, the netherlands: thesis enchede. thijs, a., & van den berg, e. (2002). peer coaching as part of a professional development program for science teachers in botswana. international journal of educational development, 22, 55–68. ur, p. (2003). a course in language teaching: practice and theory. cambridge, ma: cambridge publishing press. 18 factors on continuation of a collaborative program for communicative language teaching ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 1 part i (fall 2014/spring 2015) van den akker, j. (1988). ontewerp en implementatie van natuuronderwijs [design and implementationof science education]. lisse: swets & zeitlinger. voogt, j. (2010 ). a blended in-service arrangement for supporting science teachers in technology integration. journal of technology in teacher education, 18(1), 83-109. zwart, r. c., wubbels, t. , bergen, t. c. m., & bolhuis, s. (2007). experienced teacher learning within the context of reciprocal peer coaching. teachers and teaching, 13(2), 165-187. url: http://expertisecentrumlerenvandocenten.nl/files/tttp_collegiale_coaching_0.pdf. http://expertisecentrumlerenvandocenten.nl/files/tttp_collegiale_coaching_0.pdf “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology and african education eric ritskes ontario institute for studies in education, university of toronto, canada abstract in african communities, the spiritual connections to the land and the indigenous wisdom used to nurture it have been subjugated by western development and the eurocentric knowledges that buttress it. the indigenous frameworks which inform the daily life of communities as they interact with their environments, have largely been replaced by western scientific discourses which frame the individual as the primary social unit and which commodify the environment for consumption. this article examines how it may be possible to re-imagine the community in relationship with its environments, especially as it pertains to education in african contexts. in this process, community participation is a necessity and cannot be a sort of superficial bandage solution, but must involve the interrogation of the larger structures and discourses that underpin development and education in africa. development and education must meet the needs of the communities in a holistic way; not only in the daily physical sense, but also in terms of spiritual connections, knowledge production, and the valuing of history. this article takes up the example of carbon credit projects, especially those of community forests in africa, as an example of the way that development in africa has broken communities and distanced african indigenous peoples from their sacred knowledge of the land. the article explores what this commodification means for african education and how a critical pedagogy based on indigenous knowledges might be used to resist and disrupt western educational discourses. 2 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) introduction in some ghanaian communities, when an elder dies the community is informed through a phrase that connects the elder to nature, “a great tree has fallen” (dei, 1994). much like the loss of an elder who is the keeper of vast wisdom and knowledge, as well as a physical link to the spiritual elements of nature, another great tree has fallen. in african communities, the spiritual connections to the land and the wisdom used to nurture it have been subjugated by western development and the eurocentric knowledges that buttress it. the indigenous frameworks, which inform the daily life of communities as they interact with each other and with their environments, were largely replaced by western discourses which frame the individual as the primary social unit and which commodify the natural environment, divorcing the community from the intimate relationships that have sustained it. as communities struggle and slip further into poverty, western development looks to “community participation” and “participatory development” as a solution for failed aid. instead of examining the frameworks, the discourses, and the power dynamics at play both within and external to the communities, western development seeks out piecemeal practices and individual voices to justify their programs. instead of bringing transformation, community participation becomes a “trojan horse” to hide the same western colonial discourses of oppression and domination that were already there. the goal of this article, then, is to examine what can be done to re-imagine the community in relationship with its environments, to see african communities in intimate spiritual relationships with the land that sustains them. through the examination of indigenous knowledges and epistemological frameworks, especially in terms of indigenous spirituality, this article works towards resistance of dominant eurocentric discourses that dominate development work in africa, particularly in the realm of education. the use of “community participation” or even “indigenous knowledges” cannot be a sort of superficial bandage solution, but must involve the interrogation of the larger structures and discourses that underpin development and education in africa. development and education must meet the needs of the communities; not only in the daily, physical sense but also in terms of spiritual connections, knowledge production and the valuing of history. that is, in a very holistic sense. as part of this holistic undertaking, the natural environment must be conceived of as a vital and necessary part of community (berry, 1996). the question then becomes: if we are to conceive of indigenous spirituality and its connection to the environment as central to ideas of indigenous community life, what are the implications for schooling in africa? further, how can concepts of indigenous ecology and concepts of the environment be used to resist dominant development discourses in africa? how can students be taught such embodied and active knowledges in school settings? how is this accomplished without romanticizing a static past or putting the image of the “noble savage” on a pedestal? how can issues of environment and community be used to disrupt dominant schooling practices in a transformative way? how do issues of the environment connect to indigenous knowledges as well as issues surrounding justice, language and anti-colonial resistance? these are the questions that this article seeks to engage. while this article seeks to engage with the broad ideas of discursive power, transformative pedagogy and spiritual ecology, it also explores practical examples and possible solutions. there is a need to lay out what is meant by indigenous knowledges and indigenous spirituality, as they are broad, potentially contentious, and not easily definable terms which have been appropriated and used in various ways for multiple purposes. from the groundwork of indigenous spirituality springs the care and relationship with the environment, a sort of 3 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) indigenous spiritual ecology that was replaced by western discourses which see land and the environment as commodities to be used and exploited. this article takes up the example of carbon credit projects, especially those of community forests, in africa that seek to develop communities and economies by valuing natural materials not only as real commodities but also as virtual “carbon stocks” to be bought and sold (purdon, 2010a). these projects remove any spiritual value of the land, with regard only given for economic value, serving to further distance communities from intimate relationships with their environments. finally, this article explores what this commodification means for african education and how a critical pedagogy based on indigenous knowledges and epistemologies might be used to resist and disrupt these western development discourses. personal location and theoretical frameworks i arrive at this topic from a problematic position. as a white male who has grown up in north america, i carry with me the unavoidable trappings of white privilege which are steeped in and (re)produce the very systems of colonization, domination and exploitation which i am seeking to disrupt. also, as a north american christian i am aware of my position within systems of religious power that demonized indigenous spirituality as pagan, barbaric and heathen and continues to buttress and support the subjugation of racialized peoples and their knowledge systems. both of these positions implicate me in ways i can and cannot see; as bourdieu postulates, “being born in a social world, we accept a whole range of postulates, axioms, which go without saying and require no inculcating” (bourdieu & wacquant, 1992, p. 168). while i cannot deny the implications of my whiteness nor hope to ever truly leave them behind, i am acutely aware of the need for dominant bodies to speak out and expose their implications within systems of dominance, in an effort to rupture the discourses that allow oppression to continue unchecked (howard, 2006). the sense of struggle that is born of these multiple positions, of both “within and against” dominant discourses, also brings with it a sense of caution – that the positions i cannot uncover or elucidate are the ones i cannot let go of and are, subsequently, the most insidious. this article demands an interrogation of relationships to power and views the connection between knowledge and action as very personal; this in turn demands recognition of my own implications and entanglement with this work. all of this is important; as giroux (2001) demonstrates, “the mind must deal with its own thought process just as much as the material it works on” (p. 35). all scholarship is subjective and personal and comes from a specific location, stated or not; to think otherwise is foolishness. it is this personal connection to our work that helps move it from the strictly theoretical realm (the “ivory tower” ideal of knowledge for the sake of knowledge) to an active, political knowledge which engages actively with lived realities. it is this explicitly political goal that this article seeks to engage with through the use of an anti-colonial discursive framework, with the primary goal of centering indigenous knowledges, voices, and epistemologies in an attempt to disrupt and rupture dominant, colonial, eurocentric discourses which seek to act as universal norms. the colonial is conceived of not simply in its historical or physical manifestations, nor merely as “foreign” or “alien,” but, rather, as anything imposed or dominating (dei & asgharzadeh, 2001). the anti-colonial framework gives discursive agency residence in the people, their communities and their lived experiences, valuing this embodied knowledge in ways that challenge the conceptualization of knowledge as 4 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) singular and universal, looking instead to multiple knowledges and ways of knowing rooted in locations, people, experiences and communities. the use of a discursive framework allows for fluidity and flexibility, for a process of dialogue rather than rigid rules by which to adhere (dei & asgharzadeh, 2001). giroux (2001) positions the dialectal mode of thinking as one that “stresses the historical, relational, and normative dimensions of social inquiry and knowledge” (p. 34). within this dialectical process, multiple ways of knowing are valued, exclusive notions of belonging and difference are challenged, and relationships are valued. the anti-colonial discursive recognizes how oppressions intersect along lines of race, gender, ability, sexuality, class, age, and culture (dei, 2006). within the discursive process, relationships and connections are sought out and valued in recognizance that no practice or person works in isolation. within these relationships, power can be interrogated, exclusions challenged and silences rectified. these processes, relationships, and knowledges are explicitly political in nature, being ingrained and developed in the day to day existences of the oppressed. this article seeks to explore these relationships, especially in regards to schooling in africa. schooling is not separate from the societies it works within nor from the individuals who inhabit its processes. there are very real, day-to-day implications and consequences that stem from education and the power relationships at play within it. pierre bourdieu’s concept of symbolic violence is also important to this paper, examining how dominant bodies and groups impose their worldviews or habitus on others. in this, the dominated accept and legitimate their condition of dominance and are complicit in the domination (bourdieu & wacquant, 1992, p. 167). this complicity works to blur the simplistic lines between oppressor and oppressed, recognizing that “we are all part of the relationship between oppression and resistance” (nabavi, 2006). this is not a dismissal of these categories altogether but recognition of the complex relationships and power dynamics that work within and between these categories, eschewing simple binaries. symbolic violence occurs when intentions are left uninterrogated or misrecognized. i also recognize that in my position as an academic there is complicity; the symbolic violence that occurs within education is often left uninterrogated in favour of discourses that see education as a key tool in achievement, equality, and development, rather than the mechanism of oppression that it often is. as academics we are most intensely subjected to this symbolic violence in education and still complicit in its continuance (bourdieu & wacquant, 1992). the goal of this article is to work towards the recognition and resistance of this symbolic violence in education with the hope of transformation. indigenous knowledge and spirituality central to this article and an anti-colonial discursive framework is an understanding of indigenous knowledges. it is a contentious term which has been operationalized in various ways and which houses a wide array of possibilities and, as such, is quite difficult to define. in mobilizing the term ‘indigenous’ we need to avoid the essentialist tendency to see all indigenous cultures as similar while still striving to see the connections between communities and understanding the worldwide oppression of indigenous peoples (semali & kinchloe, 1999). speaking on indigenous knowledges in the african context is certainly different than speaking of it in north american or australian contexts but there are similarities and connections that can be useful in marshalling resources for decolonization. not only is there the inherent problems of constructing such an “umbrella” term, but also the challenge in even confining a term such as “indigenous knowledges” to a set definition. as battiste and henderson (2000) argue, not only is 5 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) the need for definitions based in a eurocentric need for containment and reification but, “the quest for universal definitions ignores the diversity of the people of the earth and their views of themselves” (p. 36-37). there needs to be room in any understanding of indigenous knowledges for movement and for connections, rather than rigid lines; as davies (1994) points out, “at each arrival at a definition, we begin a new analysis, a new departure, a new interrogation of meaning, new contradictions” (p. 5). as agrawal (1995) argues, too often indigenous knowledges were used in ways that sought to reify it for display in academies, museums or other institutions. instead, indigenous knowledges must be seen as active and embodied, refusing to be contained either in institutions or in a sort of “blind romanticism” of the past. these knowledges are based in personal experience, locations and communities. battiste and henderson (2000) explain, “indigenous knowledge is so much a part of clan, band, or community, or even the individual, that it cannot be separated from the bearer to be codified into a definition. those who have the knowledge use it routinely, perhaps every day, and because of this, it becomes something that is a part of them and unidentifiable except in personal context” (p. 36). in refusing a rigid definition, there is the recognition that for too long indigenous bodies and knowledges have been defined by others for the purpose of control, confinement, and domination. the goal then is a sort of “working definition” in which there is room for fluidity and change. as dei, hall & rosenberg (2000) emphasize, indigenous knowledge is intricately tied to the land and to the lived experiences of the people on that land and, as agrawal (1995) notes, “because indigenous knowledge is generated in the immediate context of the livelihoods of people, it is a dynamic entity that undergoes constant modifications as the needs of the communities change” (p. 429). it is not a traditional knowledge reified in the past but an active and changing body of knowledge, constantly adapting and growing in response to challenges and intersecting knowledges. indigenous knowledges are not isolated from other forms of knowledge but recognize the necessary intersections and diversity of knowledges and viewpoints. there is, in this recognition, an affirmation of the necessary diversity of social realities that are subject to diverse and often oppositional viewpoints (dei, hall & rosenburg, 2000). intricately tied to indigenous knowledges is a sense of spirituality which is grounded in relationships to individuals, communities, environments and larger frameworks. spirituality is also a problematic term because either it is inherently imagined as part of organized religion or, in more recent times, it has come to be imagined in ways that position it as a solely private endeavour focused on “feel good” moments. this endeavour has all too often simply appropriated various indigenous practices and beliefs and muddled them together, often to legitimize privatization, western individualism and white privilege (york, 2001; schneiders, 2003; brown spencer, 2006). too often spirituality has focused on the individual’s journey into themselves, ignoring the vast realm of connections around them and playing into the very western liberalism and individualism that spirituality often purports to challenge (ritskes, 2011a). instead, indigenous spirituality is grounded in relationships. it breaks down the “hegemony of me” (dei, 2002a) and is built through “the engagement of society, culture and nature interrelations” (p. 5). dei (2002b) provides this comprehensive starting point in saying that spirituality is “the building and rebuilding of the human spirit to embrace the gentleness, humility, and compassion in learning about others and ourselves. it is about a powerful force beyond the immediate and more physically observable culture, one that directs social action 6 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) beyond the perspective of human control in terms of what can be counted, evaluated, and physically grasped” (p. 38). indigenous spirituality is not a negation of the self but a refusal to engage in the self/other dichotomy in which it is possible to conceive of the self as autonomous from the community, from the environment, or from the larger economic, political, or cultural frameworks that shape our personal experiences; as kinchloe (2006) states, “a human being simply can’t exist outside the inscription of community with its processes of relationship, differentiation, interaction, and subjectivity” (p. 192). this spirituality is explicitly political and part of the knowledge production processes. it seeks to encourage and establish connections of interdependence among individuals and groups, valuing individual and communal experiences and knowledges and how they interact with each other (ritskes, 2011a). spirituality is wrapped up in the community, “in the african world view, social life was dominated by spirituality” (wangoola, 2000, p. 265). community and indigenous ecology it is impossible to divorce terms from their historical contexts and, in the case of “community,” it is necessary to interrogate how it has been used in the past, especially how it has been use d in western development discourses. gujit and shah (1998) show how “community” became the byword of western development in the 1990’s. within this movement was the push to add more local voices to projects in an attempt to gain local support and to create local stakeholders who had a larger investment in the development projects. unfortunately, this push for community participation was a “trojan horse” of sorts, a rubberstamp to hide the same western, eurocentric frameworks of development under the guise of “community participation.” in these western frameworks, the indigenous community is perceived as dichotomous to western civilization and the use of “community participation” only works to further “other” local populations. andrea smith (2006) explains this logic of “othering” as one of the three pillars of white supremacy, wherein the west needs to define itself as superior through the construction of an oppositional “other” who is exotic and inferior. not only has this, but the use of “community” been used to obscure power relations within and among communities. gujit and shah (1998) explain that communities were too often naively seen as “a harmonious and internally equitable collective” (p. 1) which obscured the voices of the powerless. daniels (2009) echoes this sentiment in her work in south africa which explores how the use of “community” works to obscure the contributions of women, especially in spheres beyond the family or the home. through western development discourses, community was seen as static and bounded, projecting a unified voice which could be discovered and tapped into to create a more equitable development project and, ultimately, a more equitable society. unfortunately, like so many other projects which attempt to include indigenous perspectives, the focus of community participation is on instituting individual, isolated practices rather than challenging or overhauling the underlying cognitive frameworks, which constitute the eurocentric discourses that underpin development theory. as dudgeon & berkes (2003) note, “development science remains the final arbiter” (p. 77). sardar (1999) drives home this point when he argues that “development continues to mean what it has always meant: a standard by which the west measures the nonwest” (p. 49). the result is fragmentary and disempowering for indigenous communities. not only this, but, as young (1990) points out, this static perception of community privileges unity rather than diversity in an attempt to “boil down” the indigenous perspective to one, easily transferable opinion. smith (1999) shows how this is accomplished through the search for an “authentic” indigenous voice or perspective: 7 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) [debates about authentic voices or authentic communities] are designed to fragment and marginalize those who speak for, or in support of, indigenous issues. they frequently have the effect also of silencing and making invisible the presence of other groups within the indigenous society like women, the urban non-status tribal person and those whose ancestry or ‘blood quantum’ is ‘too white’... at the heart of such a view of authenticity is a belief that indigenous cultures cannot change, cannot recreate themselves and still claim to be indigenous. nor can they be complicated, internally diverse or contradictory. only the west has that privilege. (p. 72-74) this idea of the community as static, contained, and somehow “authentic” fails to portray the power of the fluid, dynamic indigenous community and falls prey to what agrawal (1995) fears, the undermining of the power that indigenous people have over their knowledge and ultimately, their development and education. instead, african indigenous communities need to be understood in fluid and dynamic ways that focus on interdependence, diversity, and relationships rather than confinement and borders. dei (1993) states it in this way, “everything is either relative to everything else or every person is related to every other being” (p. 30). knowledge in these contexts does not belong to individuals who can own it but it is produced and shared in collaborative processes. as dei (2005) points out, there is the need to value “diversity in unity” in the effort to gain a collective knowledge and dialogue, rather than privilege the false unity that is seen in current development and nationalistic discourses. in an attempt to conceptualize this fluidity and diversity, many have fallen on benedict anderson’s (1983) “imagined communities” but, as dei & asgharzadeh (2001) aptly point out, despite the fluidity and diversity contained with ‘community’ it is not merely an ‘imagined’ or relative term but it is real in its meaning and evocation and has profound material consequences for the indigenous and formerly colonized peoples in africa. the relationships encompassed within african indigenous communities extend beyond the connections with individuals and into the environment and beyond, a viewpoint which is intricately wrapped up in indigenous spirituality. wangoola (2000) states that, “community means the living, the unborn, the dead, and nature as a whole” (p. 271). within african indigenous knowledges and spirituality, there is an understanding of humans as not apart from nor above nature but as part of an intricate, reciprocal relationship that is vital to maintain. kesby (2003) explains the connection between the spiritual and the physical in this way, “the physical aspect of daily human existence is assumed to be a kind of ‘skin’ in the surface of the metaphysical. the two are in intimate and inseparable contact, and the detailed events of the physical are interpreted by way of the underpinning connections of the metaphysical” (p. 214). mazama (2002) states, “there can be no dichotomy between so-called natural and supernatural worlds” (p. 221). there is an intimate connection between the land and the people, captured by their everyday interactions as through breath itself. there are many aspects of this connection that vary according to location and community. dei (1993) explores how land is seen as a bridge between the living and the dead ancestors in particular communities in ghana. fairhead & leach (1997) look at how communities in guinea are connected to ‘founding trees’, which are linked to past leaders and act as markers for the establishment of contact with the land spirits, as well as how forest sacred spaces can be gendered. wane (2000) looks at how social relations are 8 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) constituted through the land, harvest and food preparation in kenyan communities. whatever the situation, it is in these personal connections that the dynamism of african indigenous spirituality is realized. from this understanding of the intimate relationship between african indigenous communities, spirituality, and nature, stems the concept of ‘sacred ecology’ as part of a broader traditional ecological knowledge (tek). berkes (2008) describes tek as “a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment” (p.7). a sacred ecology recognizes the spirituality imbued in these connections to the environment and with each other. in a sacred ecology, the earth and nature are honored and respected as life-givers, as equal partners in a reciprocal relationship; as appiah-opuku & hyma (1999) note, “failure to honor the spirit of the earth or acknowledge its magnanimity in this way, may provoke anger and vengeance in the form of natural calamities such as famine, excessive rainfall, or death” (p.16). this knowledge has developed over long periods of time, through observation of natural patterns, and through experience. it imbues ecological protection with both spiritual and practical implications; as kwashirai (1999) shows in the case of the ndebele in zimbabwe, they turned mukute groves into shrines because they contained valuable spring water and must be protected. many accounts of tek and spiritual ecology have fallen prey to romanticized notions of the “ecologically noble savage” (buege, 1996; grande, 1999), a fetishisation of indigenous knowledge that only serves to reproduce and enhance the primitiveness and exoticism of the “other.” within this framework of sacred ecology, there needs to be a willingness to interrogate what undergirds such romanticism and a willingness to question how indigenous spirituality can exist in relation to other forms of knowledge; as dei (2000) states, indigenous knowledges cannot afford to sit in pristine fashion outside of other knowledges, it is meant to be used and to “get its hands dirty.” there is also the need to recognize, as brown (2003) points out, that the meanings of sacred ecology are contested even within communities and are deeply embedded, making it difficult to unravel the implications and complexities of the ideas. there must be a commitment to a diversity of ideas and a willingness to not settle for simplistic answers. in this way, spiritual ecology is both a complex framework that guides decision making processes as well as actions and choices made by indigenous communities in how they interact with their environment. colonization and the environment unfortunately, in many parts of africa today, the core tenets of spiritual ecology are not being practiced or recognized. these indigenous knowledges continue to be demonized as unscientific, primitive, folklore, old wives tales and foolishness; tossed aside and confined within the past or outside the status quo as an unreliable relic in favour of western scientific knowledge. as stated earlier in this article, colonization is not something that ended with the political independence of africa, primarily during the 1950’s, but something that continues in africa today. while some have termed these continued relationships of domination as “neo-colonialism,” this ignores how, despite what i call “flag independence” which gestures to the superficial nature of this independence, colonial relationships between western nations and africa continued unabated. the break between the colonial and the neo-colonial is an artificial one that masks the historical roots and trajectory of current oppression in africa. despite national independence, colonization in many other forms continues and fanon (1963) is clear that colonization of the mind is the 9 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) more dangerous and lasting form of colonization that underpins the more physical manifestations. smith (1999) further describes the insidiousness of colonization, disconnecting people from “their histories, their landscapes, their languages, their social relations and their own ways of thinking, feeling and interacting with the world” (p. 28). even in the realm of ecology and sustainable development, which western science has tried so hard to posit as value-free and as “pure science,” harvey (1993) notes that “ecological arguments are never socially neutral” (p.25). through this lens, the colonization continues today through the degradation and devaluing of african indigenous frameworks which guided how communities interacted with each other and with their landscapes. the sacred ecology of indigenous knowledges was and is replaced with a mechanistic, capitalist based model which views nature as something to be subdued and used for gain. sale (1995), in her history of the luddites, traces the rise of this capitalistic model within western societies, and the subsequent breakdown of community, back to the industrial revolution: all that community implies – self-sufficiency, mutual aid, morality in the marketplace, stubborn tradition, regulation by custom, organic knowledge instead of mechanistic science – had to be steadily and systematically disrupted and displaced. all the practices that kept the individual from becoming a consumer had to be done away with so that the cogs and wheels of an unfettered machine called ‘the economy’ could operate without interference (p. 38). with the breakdown of communities and the rise of the economy also came a reliance on western rational science. this mechanistic, reductionist, consumptive worldview saw the environment as a machine with many parts, as isolated and efficient, and as inherently rational and discoverable through western science, which was seen as inherently value-free. nature was seen as “a collection of commodities which had no value until humans make use of them” (dudgeon & berkes, 2003; p. 83). it is this model that shaped europe in the modern era and this model that was the social backing for european colonialism in africa. they justified it through the need to expand markets, bring reason and civilization to “uncivilized” peoples, and to find more raw resources to feed the economic machine. in africa, as in other parts of the “developing” world, western science worked to dismiss and devalue indigenous sciences and knowledges. as dei (2006) notes, “colonialism reinforces exclusive notions of belonging, difference and superiority....it also establishes sustainable hierarchies and systems of power. colonial images continually uphold the colonizers’ sense of reason, authority and control” (p. 3). western science was held up as rational and incompatible with the superstitions of african indigenous knowledges. spirituality was seen in opposition to science and was used to discredit indigenous knowledges, which were seen as “spiritualism,” mythology, or folk tales and thus incompatible with evidence and value-free science. this intellectual colonization and its reliance on western science are also tied to the rise of christianity and religion in africa. as sarfo-mensah & oduro (2010) explore the context of ghana, they find that religion is used to devalue and discredit local beliefs, subsequently leading to the commodification and degeneration of the local forests. the belief was and is that africa, mired in its superstitions and backwards ways, was in need of western science, religion and development. africa needed saving and this was the “white man’s burden.” western science 10 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) continues to demand an either/or approach intended to denigrate indigenous knowledges, as seen by this statement: today the greatest divide within humanity is not between races, or religions, or even, as widely believed, between literate and illiterate. it is the chasm that separates the scientific from prescientific cultures. without...natural sciences – physics, chemistry, biology – humans are trapped in a cognitive prison... they invent ingenious speculations and myths about the origin of confining waters, of the sun and the sky and the stars above, and the meaning of their own existence. but they are wrong, because the world is too remote from ordinary experience to be merely imagined. (wilson, 1998, p. 45) african indigenous knowledges were discredited through their willingness to embrace valueladen frameworks; western science, instead, continued to ignore the reality that no production of knowledge can ever be value-free or devoid of a cultural context. africa becomes the “prescientific,” trapped in a cognitive prison, and just plain “wrong.” not only this, but indigenous knowledges are said to be static, refusing to move out of the antiquated, barbaric past; all this, despite the numerous studies in africa that demonstrate the adaptability, flexibility and evolution of indigenous models (niamer-fuller, 1998; scoones, 1999; marais & marais, 2007; sheridan & nyamweru, 2008). the movement towards rational western scientific knowledge and the colonization of indigenous ecological knowledge separated communities from their relationships to the land and thrust them into commodity based models that ignored the realm of spirituality. it moved the emphasis away from the collective and focused squarely on individual profit. it fragmented the knowledge that intertwined the land, the communities, and spirituality. not only this but indigenous individuals and their communities were demonized as ecologically destructive and thus in need of saving from western science. indigenous communities were “read” as destructive to the environment, despite their ecologically sustainable and reverent beliefs. practices such as “slash-and-burn” farming were seen as examples of indigenous environmental methods, despite their connections to and roots in colonials’ presence. fairhead & leach (1996) explain how this “reading” of the landscape is important in their study of kissidougou, guinea, especially in terms of who has control of resources and ecological frameworks: “the view of kissidougou’s landscape as degraded and degrading has justified state action to take resource control from local inhabitants, and repressive policies to reorient what has been seen as destructive land management” (p.4). despite the communities’ claims, which dispute the governments, they have lost control and connection to their land. brown (2003) documents a similar pattern and argues that, by reading forests as depleting, governments in africa were able to wrest control of forest land through a veiled paternalistic rhetoric of helping communities. similar arguments have been made in the cases of soil erosion in africa, where poor farmers are blamed for soil erosion to justify close regulation by colonial governments (anderson, 1984; millington, 1987; showers, 1989). the discussions revolving around traditional ecology and discursive frameworks are not merely academic ones; there are very real implications for indigenous communities. carbon credits in africa a recent example of this colonization of indigenous knowledges and an example of the real implications for african communities can be seen in the carbon credit initiatives begun in africa. 11 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) stemming out of the kyoto accord, the carbon credit program seeks to aid in the lowering of harmful greenhouse gas emissions into the environment which are the cause of global warming (united states national academy of sciences, 2008). trees, vegetation and soils in forest, agricultural and other terrestrial ecosystems can act as a sort of “carbon stock” in a virtual economy where western companies can buy these stocks to offset their own carbon emissions, giving companies flexibility in their total greenhouse gas outputs which would normally be capped at a hard limit. purdon (2010a) explores some of the current carbon credit projects in africa which include the building and maintenance of community forests. he shrugs off criticisms of the projects which see them as a form of “co2lonialism” (forsyth & young, 2007), as well as arguments which are concerned about the displacement of communities, arguing instead that the carbon credit projects allow communities to overcome economy-of-scale and become more influential players in a global market. purdon (2010a) references the “moral critiques” of such projects and explains that, while sympathetic to such concerns, the potential for economic gain is too much to ignore. he also recognizes that in the current model, “the rights of local and indigenous groups are currently under-specified” (p. 16), but this does not seem to raise any lasting concern in his evaluation. the inherent problem with such schemes is their reliance on western models of development that inherently privilege and aid donors or foreign business more than they aid local communities. these models are built on western eurocentric discourses that refuse to view indigenous knowledges and spirituality as valuable in any way. as an example of this, there was a recent advertisement campaign which highlighted shawn burns, ceo of carbon credit corp, which stated that “a tree, until now, was only worth something when it was turned into lumber.” the whole premise and language of carbon credits is built around ideas that privilege economy and monetary value with complete disregard for the spiritual value of forests and landscapes to communities. in the western mechanistic/commodity model, the environment must be turned into resources to be bought and sold, otherwise it is worthless. purdon (2010a) insists that the ‘virtual’ nature of the commodification somehow circumvents the need for interrogation but, as bryant (1998) aptly points out in terms of ecology, “unequal power relations are as likely to be ‘inscribed’ in the air or water as they are ‘embedded’ in the land” (p.89). these colonial relationships are very real and there is nothing virtual about the implications of these relationships for indigenous african communities. much like the previous example of how the land in kissidougou was read, how the land is read in carbon credit projects has very real consequences. purdon (2010b) explains that, through the western driven carbon credits program, land was taken away from communities by the government to be used for these community forests. while the communities retained nominal control, the decision-making power was given to western carbon credit agencies and central governments. much like furze, delacy & birkhead (1996) document in the case of protected areas, joint-management did not mean that local communities had final decision making authority or that spiritual connection to these areas were respected. both the governments and the western agencies viewed the land as “unused” and thus acceptable to be given to development agencies. it was “bare land” that was not maximizing its economic potential. also, these reforestation projects cannot be divorced from the colonial history of africa that was involved in various “reforestation” projects which, not only were used to bring control over local communities and integrate them into colonial economies, but were also responsible for http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/united_states_national_academy_of_sciences 12 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) the degradation of local ecological systems. brown (2003) notes how the commodification of lumber through reforestation, as dictated by western scientific conservation methods, not only divorced communities from the land but also, through the loss of autonomy over the land and staples such as lumber, the state was given control over local affairs which undermined the communities’ ability to extract resources and pursue religious or spiritual practices. much like current projects, control of traditional lands is being taken away from communities in the name of commerce with a refusal to acknowledge any notions of indigenous knowledge or sacred ecology. brown (2003) also notes that past reforestation schemes have “totally altered the landscape in terms of both vista and ecology” (p. 350). instead of solving problems merely created a new set of ecological problems as non-indigenous species were introduced; the very same species that are used in current reforestation projects. these reforestation projects and their rejection of local communities and their spiritual practices happen despite opposition from communities and despite research that highlights the values of spiritual practices for local conservation. as sheridan & nyamweru (2008) note it must be conservation and reforestation on colonial terms. purdon (2010b) and others justify these projects through the voices of individuals in the community who approve of them on the basis that they bring in jobs, wages and other economic benefits. this is where bourdieu’s understanding of symbolic violence can be especially useful in making sense of these viewpoints. bourdieu explains that symbolic violence is enacted when the dominated come to accept their condition of dominance as legitimate (bourdieu & wacquant, 1992). they are unable to interrogate their own positioning and become complicit in the systems of dominance. brown (2003) notes a similar phenomenon in her study of reforestation, where certain elite members of the community endorse the projects, seeking to further their economic gain through them. it is a continuation of traditional colonial frameworks through local proxies, such as government agents or local elites, much like fieldhouse (1984) notes in his famous study of colonialism. here we can see a concrete example of how, despite “flag independence,” colonialism, its methods, and the logic that underpins it have maintained control. those complicit in the rejection of indigenous knowledges hold up western scientific frameworks and economic reasoning without realizing the colonial power relations that undergird them. through projects such as carbon credit reforestation, local populations are controlled and brought under a western capitalist framework which sees no value in their relationships with the land, divorcing them from their sacred connections and creating a dependency on the marketplace. this is a dependency that forces them to remain in subservient power relationships. this argument is not a rejection of global capitalism or a call to return to subsistence agriculture, but a challenge to interrogate global economic structures that negate and oppress local peoples, their land, and their knowledge of that land. implications for african education all of this discussion has vast ramifications for african development and the education system as a whole. with the continued colonization of the mind, social relations, knowledge production, and relationships to the environment, what is being taught in african schools is disempowering students by failing to recognize and encourage indigenous forms of knowing and indigenous connections to communities and their environments. the breakdown of community relationships is fostered by a western, eurocentric focus on individualistic competition and fragmented knowledges, which are devoid of the people’s backgrounds, histories, and relationships to other forms of knowledge. western imperial knowledge has devalued indigenous ways of knowing 13 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) and learning, replacing them with western models that not only separate individuals from their histories but from their relationship to the land. the breakdown of indigenous knowledges and communities is directly tied to the ecological degradation and colonialism in africa; there needs to be a change. this article, then, is a call for the recognition and valuing of indigenous knowledges and spirituality in schooling, as well as for curriculum, teachers and resources that recognize the relationships that bind individuals, communities, and their environment together. through indigenous knowledges, western discourses of individualism and commodification can be challenged and resisted in powerful ways. instead of a disconnected, fragmentary, and mechanistic model of learning, indigenous knowledges can bring a connected, holistic, fluid and active understanding to knowledge production and learning. indigenous knowledges recognize the value of multiple ways of knowing and value the personal experiences of the learner, as well as their connections to their environments, histories, families, communities and other frameworks. dei, hall & rosenberg (2000) point out that we are facing a “crisis of knowledge” through the process of globalized commoditisation of knowledge; indigenous knowledges can be used to resist this. dei & doyle-wood (2006) argue that indigenous spirituality cannot simply be an aesthetic undertaking but one of activity and of resistance, a resistance rooted in the daily lives of the learners. anticolonial writers such as memmi (1969), fanon (1963) and said (1993) emphasize that the colonial powers never “give anything away out of goodwill” (said, 1993; p. 207) and that the colonial situation can only be broken through sustained resistance. dei & asgharzadeh (2001) assert that to emphasize the “indigenous” is to exist in a state of perpetual confrontation with the colonial order that seeks to negate all forms of opposition. despite the inherency of resistance within discourses of indigeneity, there must also be a willingness to interrogate this resistance and recognize the vast complexities involved in these power relationships; as lila abu-lughod (1990) emphasizes in her work, resistance is too often romanticized and enshrined as necessarily beneficial. giroux (2001) echoes this in realizing that not all oppositional behaviours constitute resistance. in enacting resistance there needs to be careful reflection and interrogation as not to replicate the very dichotomies and systems that indigenous knowledges are seeking to bring down. all too often the “indigenous” is set up in a dichotomy with “western,” where the indigenous is good and the western is evil. this good versus evil narrative is the very thing that has been co-opted by society to exclude indigenous spirituality and label it evil, pagan and not relative to modern society. in this dichotomy, the indigenous is always a return to a romantic, fetishized past, one that remains in stasis and unable to move into the future. this model does a great disservice to the power, adaptability, and active nature of indigenous ways of knowing. the resistance that indigenous spirituality seeks to enact is one that emphasizes the power of creation. it is not simply a reactionary, defensive stance to western hegemony but a constructive force that speaks through inclusivity and transformation. through the exploration of community and connection, indigenous spirituality seeks to empower individuals and groups to enact social change. this resistance is not some vague, universalizing “we are all one” project, but one that willingly and forcefully interrogates difference and dynamics of power. it is the hope that this informed resistance will bring about people who can recognize and identify their lived experiences and how they connect to other’s experiences, how they connect to society and communities, and how they fit into the relationships between oppression and resistance. 14 “a great tree has fallen”: community, spiritual ecology, and african education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) resistance is embedded in the day-to-day; through gestures, choices and actions, both by individuals and the collective, indigenous spirituality is able to resist discourses that seek to silence it. it is not some grand, romanticized narrative of resistance that indigenous spirituality enacts but one that is embodied in the people and their desire to construct something new. more specifically, in the context of sacred ecology, a critical pedagogy of place is important (gruenewald, 2003). bowers (2001) describes this sort of critical pedagogy as one that emphasizes “an explicit understanding of relationships and processes, an embodied knowledge of community relationships and the ecology of place, and an awareness of the layered nature of interdependencies of life-sustaining processes” (p. 152). beyond this is the need for recognition of the value of spirituality, something that has all too often been dismissed as irrational or of no value in schooling (shahjahan, 2006). as appiah-opuku and hyma (1999) state it, there is a need for “that which reconnects human beings to the biosphere and its bioregions, incorporating respect and implicit socio-cultural, moral, and spiritual expressions” (p.16). as agrawal (1995) and others have pointed out, indigenous knowledges and sciences are not incompatible with western science. there is no value in setting up a dichotomy between the two. as tyler (1993) argues, the goal of a critical pedagogy of place can be to restore or reestablish “an emotional relationship with the natural world, to seek to ‘reanimate’ our scientific view of the world, and to restore a sense of spiritual stewardship” (p. 7). as noted before, too often when indigenous knowledges have been brought into education or development discourses, it has been in piecemeal fashion and in ways that still privilege western science as the creator and arbiter of knowledge. a critical pedagogy of place refuses to leave these power relationships uninterrogated and recognizes the cultural assumptions that divide western and indigenous sciences. it looks for ways to value the local, the adaptability of knowledges, and the connections that abound between various forms of knowledge. there is no formulaic answer to how a critical pedagogy can be implemented. just as indigenous knowledges are dependent on place, location and personal experiences, how critical pedagogy is implemented is also dependent on these variables. still, there are certain values that can be affirmed. through the breakdown of the teacher/student dichotomy and the unilateral flow of knowledge from the teacher to the student, collaborative learning can be affirmed (ritskes, 2011a, 2011b). this begins with self-investigation on the part of the teacher or educator. dei (2000) calls the decolonization project one of self-implication and howard (2006) emphasizes the importance for educators of voicing one’s story of implication in colonial processes. decolonization begins with decolonization of the self which, as wane (2006) describes, is much more of a process than an isolated event. bowers (2001) calls for the teachers to recognize and teach both positive and negative aspects of western science, allowing room for multiple viewpoints and critical analysis. a major component of this critical analysis is language; as bowers (2001) states, “giving students the language that names the relationships and behaviours is the first step toward making the patterns [of colonialism] explicit” (p. 152). this language of difference is also necessary for students to “candidly explore all the emerging contestations, contradictions and ambiguities” (dei, 2002, p.7) in a classroom setting. diversity must be valued not only among students but in the experiences and knowledges they bring to the learning experience. language is also important as it is a transmitter of indigenous culture and knowledges (wa thiong'o, 1986). whether it is oral or written, language is a “critical link to knowledge given to us by our creator who blessed us with our languages and in them gave us instructions for our development and survival” (battiste, 1998, p. 17). bowers (2001) calls languages “storehouses of knowledge of 15 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) the characteristics of local plants and animals, weather patterns, and the integration of ceremonies with the natural cycles within the bioregion” (p.177). in language, the spiritual and the practical realities of a community meet and, through the use of language, power to resist is enabled. conclusion it is impossible to ignore the role that location and culture play in the formation of knowledge and, subsequently, of education; despite the insistence of western science which still holds tightly to their vapour-like beliefs of neutrality and universal truth. it is this quest for universal objectivity that has pushed spirituality away from the realms of the academy. despite recent attempts to incorporate spirituality into education, most of these attempts have been plagued by a neoliberal emphasis on the individual and have refused to recognize indigenous spirituality (ritskes, 2011a). in africa, through the continued colonization of indigenous knowledges, indigenous spirituality is still often misunderstood and passed off as “voodoo” or backwards folk tradition. it is this colonization of indigenous knowledges, of the very cultures and grounding of communities themselves, which has left development and education in africa devoid of real connections to communities and their natural surroundings and unable to live up to its transformational promises. the great tree, representing the intersection of ecology, spirituality, and lived experiences of the people, is cut down. there are immense challenges in seeking to resist this colonization of the mind through indigenous knowledges and spirituality and there is no easy, one-size-fits-all answer. there is always a web of power relations and dynamics to navigate, the messy world of reality; as battiste & henderson (2000) state, “indigenous knowledge is the way of living within contexts of flux, paradox, and tension, respecting the pull of dualism and reconciling opposing forces” (p. 42). as difficult as it may seem, engaging with these messy realities and contestations is a necessary task if we are to continue to work for transformation of society into a more equitable place. there must be individuals and communities who willingly step up and claim indigeneity, breaking free from the material and symbolic violence that has held so many communities for so long. finally, this project of resistance must be firmly rooted in the language of hope and creation; as wane (2008) recognizes, “it is imperative that i stop spending my time critiquing the totalizing forms of western historicism and engage in the discourse of possibility, where the missing voices and knowledges can be heard and validated” (p. 194). the ultimate goal of anticolonial resistance is the reinvigoration of indigenous languages and voices and this must be achieved through the act of creation. creation of new critical pedagogies; creation of spaces where learners are able to challenge and name unequal power relations and seek to forge new, equitable relationships with communities, individual and environments; and creation of empowered communities who, through the application of indigenous knowledges, recognize the sacred responsibilities to their environment. references abu-lughod, l. 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(2006). is decolonization possible? in g.j.s. dei & a. kempf (eds.), anticolonialism and education: the politics of resistance, (pp. 87-106). rotterdam: sense publishers. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/united_states_national_academy_of_sciences http://americasclimatechoices.org/climate_change_2008_final.pdf http://americasclimatechoices.org/climate_change_2008_final.pdf http://americasclimatechoices.org/climate_change_2008_final.pdf 21 eric ritskes _____________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 2. no. 1 (2012) wane, n.n. (2000). indigenous knowledge: lessons from the elders – a kenyan case study. in g. dei, b. hall, and d. rosenberg (eds.), indigenous knowledges in global contexts, (pp. 54-69). toronto: university of toronto press. wangoola, p. (2000). mpambo, the african multiversity: a philosophy to rekindle the african spirit. in g. dei, b. hall, and d. rosenberg (eds.), indigenous knowledges in global contexts, (pp. 265-277). toronto: university of toronto press. wilson, e.o. (1998). consilience: the unity of knowledge. new york: alfred a. knopf. york, m. (2001). new age commodification and appropriation of spirituality. journal of contemporary religion, 16(3), 361-372. research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria olutoyin mejiuni obafemi awolowo university, nigeria abstract although all research involves knowledge production processes; research activities that explore the real life experiences of adult participants are also learning or educational interactions in and of themselves. this article focuses on the author's reflections on two feminist studies that she carried out in nigeria that support this position. these educational interactions are reflected in her discussion of the framework on which her studies are based, the context of these studies, the identity politics of participants, and the enhancement and limitations (informal and mutual) learning among many participants and the researcher as a participant-observer. key words: research, feminist studies, feminist knowledge production, informal learning, mutual learning. introduction: the two feminist studies research a. in 2000, colleagues in the political science department of a nigerian university, who are democracy and human rights activists and aware that i take part in community education and women’s rights activism, invited me to participate in a research project, politics of ethnicity, nationality and identity: restructuring of state-society relations. i was the only female in the research group comprising eight nigerian academics. the research was supported by the ford foundation. i wrote the chapter that focused on women, “engendering political power: women and the struggle for empowerment”. henceforth, i refer to this research as either “research a” or “2000 research”. at the time in 2000, when research a was initiated, nigerians were breathing a sigh of relief after the end of military rule in 1999. in the 40 years (1960-2000) since gaining formal independence from britain, nigeria had experience civilian rule for only 10 years. prior to independence and afterward, nigerian men and woman engaged in many struggles. they included the struggle for independence, the war to keep nigeria as one entity, the struggle for 2 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) freedom of the press, and the struggles around ethnic and religious identities. there were struggles waged against structural adjustment programs. there was also the dilemma feminists faced as a result of state feminism (the appropriation of feminist demands by government and wives of military rulers). in the 1990s, two struggles stood out, one was that of the ogonis in the niger delta region against shell petroleum development corporation and the federal government of nigeria, and the other was against the annulment of the june 12, 1993 presidential elections. after 1999, inter-ethnic and religious violence erupted in some places. apart from the ogonis, other groups in the niger-delta region, mainly the ijaws became very vocal. while in the northwestern part of nigeria, the zamfara state government decided to adopt the islamic sharia law as the state’s legal code. finally, there were struggles around women’s rights issues and the rights of children and youths (i-idea, 2000). nigerian women had participated alongside men in all the struggles identified above and probably expected to enhance their social, economic, cultural, legal, and political status as a result. however, the quality of life for nigerian women remained unchanged particularly when compared with that of men. for instance, by 1999 figures, adult literacy rate was 50% for women compared to 64.6% for men in nigeria, whereas, the average adult literacy rate for developing countries was 73% (undp, 1997; nwosu, 2000). while the unemployment rate for the active male labor force in 1999 was 2.8%, the rate for the female labor force was 3.4%. in addition, nigerian tax laws and conditions of service for women in the formal sector of the economy were discriminatory (fashina, 2000; amadiume, 2000; icheen, 2000). the economic status of nigerian women reflected that male headed households had a higher income than their female counterparts. but, the female headed households had a higher per capita expenditure when compared with male headed households. the explanation given for this was that female headed households spend most of their income on food (50.1%) which, according to engel's law, is an indication of poverty (nwosu, 2000). nigeria's rating on both the gender-related index (gdi) and gender empowerment measure (gem) of the united nations development programmes’ human development report for 1997 was very low. in the gdi, nigeria was in the hundredth place out of 130 countries and ranked 108 out of a total number of 116 countries on the gem. in addition, women did not hold many key and senior decision making positions in the public sphere. as we know, state power goes a long way in determining what rights and privileges different groups have, including whether or not some groups will have access to key resources and facilities such as land, water, credit facilities, motor able roads, education, and health. the general elections held in 1999 in the transition from military rule to civilian administration resulted in women filling elected and appointed offices as follows: only 13 women were elected to the 360 member house of representatives; 3 women were elected into the 109 member senate with 9 women appointed out of 44 ministers and special advisers; only 1 speaker out of the 36 speakers of house for state assemblies in the country was a woman; and there was also one female deputy governor and no state governors (nwosu, 2000; i-idea, 2000). beyond statistics, entrenched attitudes and convictions persisted about nigerian women’s subordinate position to men. this has led to continuous maltreatment of women, and at times resulted in outright violence against women. by way of example, the perception of women as objects of desire and lacking in will power, within the context and culture of ingrained lawlessness ensured that increasing number of nigerian girls and women became victims of rape, sexual harassment, and early marriage (that resulted in damage to the reproductive organs of female children), acid attack, battery, and discriminatory widowhood rites. olutoyin mejiuni 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) the key question for the researcher in this first research study was: why has the social, economic, political, legal, and cultural status of nigerian women not improved markedly with the aggregate of struggles in which they participated especially when their status is compared with that of men? this was a qualitative research study that used the case study research design. the framework for the study was an eclecticism of the strengths of essentialist, social constructionist, and deconstructionist notions of female identity. i proposed that in reality women make demands based on these notions of female identity. data were obtained from primary sources (documents from the legislative and executive arms of government and interviews held with key actors in, and a few observers of the struggles or identity politics in which nigerian women were involved), and secondary sources. i focused on 4 categories (cases) of identity politics: 1) the struggle against the military, a struggle which women participated in, alongside men against military hegemony; 2) the identity politics of the ogonis, a struggle in which ogoni women participated alongside men, against the degradation of their environment by multinational companies and marginalization of their ethnic group by majority ethnic groups in the country; 3) the identity politics of women, in the context of opposition to the adoption of the islamic legal code in zamfara state; and 4) the identity politics of women in cross rivers state. i adopted the descriptive, interpretive/explanatory, and evaluative case study models, and also cross case analysis. i examined the demands that women made as part of mixed gender groups or as women. i considered whose interests these demands would serve and i considered whether they will serve women’s strategic gender interests. i examined the context in which those demands were made and examined the language of the demands. i examined the point at which women entered into the struggles and the strategies they employed in those struggles. women’s demands. against the military, women and men demanded freedom for nigerians and in particular for their children. ogoni women demanded economic and political freedom including an environment where they could farm and fish without obstructions and pollution. women challenged the introduction of sharia law in zamfara state demanding the education of girl children and women in higher institutions. they demanded the constitution of a council of ulamaas that would include women, and enactment of laws to protect women’s rights at work, and prohibit polygamy, domestic violence, and forced marriage. two women’s groups in cross river state demanded prohibition of female circumcision, childhood marriage, and demeaning widowhood practices. calling for improved economic conditions for women, they insisted on peace and demanded protection of their political and civil rights. methods of struggle. many women participated in demonstrations for actualizing the june 12 presidential elections and ousting the military; this resulted in their brutalization and imprisonment by the military regime. on one occasion, women in lagos, nigeria’s commercial capital, stripped themselves naked as part of the protest. ogoni women participated in peaceful demonstrations, praying and fasting. they walked several kilometers to attend meetings, and although every ogoni person donated n1 to the struggle, a pregnant ogoni woman paid n2: n1 for the unborn child and n1 for herself. older women and young women and at times three generations of women in a family were raped in retaliation to the protests. concerning the 4 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) demands of women regarding the introduction of sharia law in zamfara state, there was no immediate move to the realm of a struggle at the time the research report was written. that is to say the women made public their complaints about the imposition of sharia law, but did not follow up with campaigns, demonstrations, or other means of ensuring their demands were met. the cross river women carried out voter education, monitored elections, pressed for passage of a bill to prohibit female genital mutilation and childhood marriage. they also intervened to diffuse tension that could have escalated into a war between ekori and nkpani communities after the killing of an ekori youth by an nkpani person. they played an active role in achieving peaceful change in the state. results of the struggles. in 1999, the military handed over power to a civilian administration. the brutal repression of the ogonis resulted in a huge outcry from individuals and groups both within and outside nigeria. consequently in 1995 nigeria was suspended from the commonwealth of nations. shell suspended operations in ogoniland, and the nigerian government began to pay attention to some demands of ogoni people. many of the cross river state women’s demands were met as the state house of assembly passed laws prohibiting female circumcision and childhood marriage. the women also stopped two neighboring villages from going to war. however, not all women who had participated in the june 12 presidential elections and ogoni struggles felt they had benefited from the struggles. madam b, highly literate, deputy governor at the time of interview, was disenchanted with how a conservative, male dominated political party structure was treating her in her role as deputy governor in spite of her role in the june 12 election struggle. alhaja i, semi-literate, leader of a mixed gender market group) expressed the opinion that once politicians settled into their offices, they forgot the street demonstrations, imprisonment, and other risks that women took to ensure the installment of democracy as they failed to involve women in decision making processes. unlike the 2 women above, mrs. y, highly literate, appeared pleased with what her people, the ogonis had achieved with their struggles. although she was still hurt from the violence (killings, rape, and destruction of houses) wreaked on her people, especially the execution of the ogoni 9 by the military regime, she was already working on how the ogonis could progress by preserving their language. however, unlike mrs y, madam d of wiiyakara (an ogoni village), who led a group of seven women in our interview, made it clear that ogoni people were weary of researchers and outsiders. she said they were tired of journalists and researchers like me coming to talk to them about their experiences because the talks have not translated into any change in their condition. from my analyses of data, i concluded that as long as women do not voice gender specific claims within larger or broader struggles, whether ethnic/racial, religious, economic, domestic or political, and they do not actively pursue their strategic gender interests, their social status will not improve markedly, thus their quality of life will continue to be comparatively worse than that of their male counterparts (fashina, 2001). after research a. after i turned in a research report on the study cited above in the first quarter of 2001, my reflections on the research focused on the relevance of the entire study and the implications of the results for my work as an adult education teacher and researcher. i knew in the course of conducting the research that i had picked up lessons which had implications for women’s studies and my activist work, but i was searching for the relevance of the research to olutoyin mejiuni 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) my work as an academic in the field of adult education. it was in the process of this search that i came up with the idea of research b. i knew i needed to undertake the research to understand and gain new insight on the low status of women in nigeria. i had personally experienced this phenomenon as a university teacher who interacts regularly with male and female colleagues and young female adults in the university. i had also experienced it as a community educator who interacts with young and older women in town, an activist, a wife, and a mother. research b. i initiated the second research project, “the dialectics of ‘magic consciousness’, the hidden curriculum, and formal education in the construction of the identity of nigerian women”. it was supported by the council for the development of social science research in africa’s (codesria) advanced research fellowship programme. the research was initiated in the second half of 2004 and concluded in july 2005. i refer to this research as either “research b” or “2004 research”. from the premise that all educational provisions are value-laden and from the poststructuralist feminist pedagogy framework, research b challenged the position often taken for granted, that women’s acquisition of formal education is the key to their socio-cultural and political empowerment. the question i set out to answer in the study was why the social, political, and cultural status of nigerian women when compared with that of men has not improved in spite of their education. this question became necessary because apart from salaried employment and healthier households (these are important too), there were no indications that education had benefited women in the area of political participation and freedom from violence. i-idea (2000) reported that, “despite a comparatively large pool of well trained and able women, their absence in major institutions of power and decision making processes is particularly striking” (p. 3). this observation was apt and the situation persisted for three years after that observation. after the 2003 general elections, two out of 36 deputy governors were women, 3 women were elected into the 109 member senate, and 21 became members of the 360 member house of representatives (akiyode-afolabi and arogundade, 2003). violence against women both in private and public contexts persisted; and there were no indications that more illiterate than literate girls and women were victims of violence and overt sexism and discrimination. equally important was the fact that many men and women, boys and girls, even in educational institutions, were uncomfortable with the campaigns around a fair share of rights and resources between men and women. for instance, during a workshop that deliberated on human rights in tertiary institutions, a male respondent who was a leader of a students’ organization, in response to the presentation on women’s human rights said, “in african tradition, women are expected to be submissive. it is not right for women to be claiming that they have equal rights with men. it is not done” (fashina, 2001, p.112). yet, the consensus among opinion moulders at public talks and in newspapers, as well as discussants in non-formal education settings, like workshops and seminars, is that access to formal education and literacy training for girls and women will ensure more active involvement of women in politics. the argument presented in research b was that although colonialism met unequal relations of power between women and men in many nigerian communities, its legacies, in formal education, for instance, remain and the processes that it created have fused with the omnipresent christian and islamic religious ethos within and outside classrooms and schools (as part of the hidden curriculum and socialization process respectively) to construct women’s identity: an identity that is essentially disempowering. 6 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) the approach adopted for the study was a phenomenological reading of the lived experiences of women. through open-ended questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and observations, data were retrieved from female and male religious leaders; lecturers in tertiary institutions; literate women and men in the formal sector of the economy; semi-literate women in the informal economy; and female and male students in tertiary institutions in two locations in nigeria. the locations were ibadan in the south west, and lokoja in the middle belt in central nigeria. in the proposal submitted to codesria, i expressed hope that the process of data collection would be a learning and consciousness raising process for participants in the research, e.g. the researcher and the respondents. the results of data analysis showed that the four groups of female respondents in this study defined themselves in at least 15 different ways and many in more than one way. many inhabit multiple identities. however, all categories of women connected most with their identity as women and their individual character. for literate women, gender identity ranked first, and character ranked second. semi-literate women ranked character as first and gender as second (mejiuni, 2006a). respondents categorized their gender identity as: female human person reflected as the following: a) socially constructed female, i.e. caregiver and one who accepts the leadership of men; b) feminine, i.e. caring, feeling, and nurturing, which has the potential to be put to productive use; and c) socially constructed male, i.e. aggressive, bold and breadwinner. women defined their character as being honest, forthright, hardworking, and, or, any, or some of the following: being gentle, peace loving, and submissive to men. notably, there was a substantial appeal to religion or to god in their responses. sixty eight percent (68%) of highly literate women in formal work settings made references to religion, and half of this percentage group referred to religion more than once. sixty nine percent (69%) of female students, 91.1% of semi-literate women in the informal economy, and 39.5% of female apprentices made obvious references to religion. with respect to literate men’s perception of women’s gender identities, we found that men who saw women as female human persons, affirmed women’s rights to be whoever and whatever they wanted. there were few men in this category. many of those who saw women as socially constructed females supported their views with religion and indicated that women should either take low level civic and political leadership positions, or should not take leadership roles at all. most of the men who took a positive view of femininity affirmed women’s capacity to provide leadership even at the topmost level of civic-political life. for the others, although being feminine was a positive trait in the public sphere, it was a negative for leadership in the public sphere especially in higher institutions. half of the men who identified some women as having “masculine traits” thought the women would make good leaders, while the other half thought such women were bad omens for men and women because they would oppress everybody. regarding literate men’s perception of women’s character, most of the men who thought women should aspire to low level positions only, and those who affirmed women’s capacity to hold topmost positions viewed women as honest and hardworking. however, those who held that women should be submissive to men because it had been “ordained” and was the “natural” order expressed the view that women should attend to care giving, lead other women, or at best aspire to low level civic-political positions. it was also in this category that we found most of the men who said they could physically beat a woman. olutoyin mejiuni 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) the major findings of this study were: first, that because christianity and islam have, in some respects fused with traditional cultures when they have similar interests and goals and the two religions have in the main superseded traditional religions in most places in nigeria to the extent that many adherents and custodians of traditional religious rites are openly christians or muslims, these two religions have imposed many of their beliefs and practices on traditional cultures across much of nigeria. further, since patriarchal norms prevail in the teachings and practices of the new religions and power preserves itself, many of the women who try to make meaning of life by balancing spirituality rooted in religion with critical reflections on their experiences and those of others were usually unable to transform their gender identities to realize their full potential and/or to convince other women to do the same (mejiuni, 2006b). second, female students and respondents who had gone through tertiary education experienced discrimination and sexism within the school, in teaching-learning interactions and classroom contexts, as well as outside the school. higher education was thus an arena where unequal relations of power were perpetuated, women’s identities constructed, and where many women internalized these constructions (mejiuni, 2006a). for some women however, their experiences in tertiary institutions helped them question taken-for-granted positions about who they ought to be. also there were female and male lecturers who were conscious of the need to make tertiary institutions a place of emancipatory learning for women. finally, concerning the empowering potential of women’s identities specifically related to how they enhanced or impinged on women’s ability to attain political power or transform gender relations, research b found the following: that these identities shaped how women experienced violence and women’s ability to resist violence. in addition, two types of identities favored by highly literate and semi-literate women, in particular their character as defined by their religion, and the identities that men would rather women favor were potentially disempowering because of the preservative nature of power (mejiuni, 2006a; mejiuni, 2006c). after research b. my reflections on the experience of research b, and then research a began immediately after i submitted the report on the second study. my thoughts continuously reverted to the learning experiences that the research participants and i gained from the process involved in the two feminist studies. this article represents my reflections on informal learning and non-learning, and mutual learning by participants in the two feminist studies described above. these reflections have implications for adult learning. why were the two studies feminist? when i agreed to embark on research a and chose to carry out research b, i wanted each study to yield knowledge that would serve women’s interests. so i knew they were not going to be value-free studies. it is doubtful that there can be value-free research or what is sometimes referred to as objectivity or dispassionate neutrality in conducting research. blackburn (1996), in discussing nietzche’s position about objective knowledge said, “objectivity is revealed as a disguise for power or authority in the academy” (p. 295). i therefore decided to develop an explicit framework. each study had to be feminist and had to take cognizance of the context of the study. this was why the framework for the first research was an eclecticism of the strengths of essentialist, social constructionist and deconstructionist notions of female identity, and the approach adopted was a case study research design. the case study research design was chosen because the complex phenomenon of women’s identities and their social status needed to be 8 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) studied within the context of their socio-economic and political realities along with other contending identities. the second research was based on tisdell’s post structuralist feminist pedagogy framework which connects the psychological orientation of the gender model (personal perspective) of feminist pedagogy with the structural factors of the libratory model (the collective, systemic perspective) of feminist pedagogy (merriam & cafarella, 1999). the approach that was adopted for the second research was a phenomenological reading of the problem of the low social status of highly educated nigerian women. the author followed bakare-yusuf’s (2003) suggestion that a phenomenological reading of african women’s everyday experiences is imperative. bakare-yusuf indicated that it is through lived experience in concrete situations that an african woman, for instance, comes to understand what her context has contributed to her identity as an african woman. that is a woman’s lived experience alludes to the complex layers of socio-historical (personal and collective) and cultural context that makes an african woman who she is. so apart from the goal of serving women’s interests, especially women’s strategic gender interests, the frameworks that under gird the two studies’ approaches paid attention to women’s experiences, their voices and realities. they took cognizance of the socio-economic and political contexts of participants in the research and explored the lived experiences of women in concrete situations in 21 st century nigeria. hooks (2000) offered a definition of feminism that persons who subscribe to different strands of feminism, including african feminism would understand as addressing the basic minimum issues that are central to feminist thought. she defined feminism as “a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation and oppression” (p. viii). according to mackenzie (1993), sexism is “when people stereotype, discriminate against or show prejudice against other people because of their sex” (p.162). hooks (2000) argued that we can only end institutionalized sexism and patriarchy, if we all, women and men, change our minds and hearts, and let go of sexist thoughts and actions into which we have been socialized from birth. one is of the opinion that an understanding of how sexism works is essential to understanding the low social status of nigerian women. of course some would argue that the inferior social position of nigerian women today is attributable to a whole range of historical processes, i.e. colonialism, neocolonialism/globalization. these influences are acknowledged in the two studies. in fact, nigerian men, as much as women, were and are victims of those historical processes. however, the findings of the two studies have shown that nigerian men, like men around the world, continuously exploit sexism for many ends. they benefit by it and they are trapped in it. so when i chose to approach each of these studies from a feminist framework, i knew my research was going to be guided by politics. in each study, i wanted to use the experiences of women to generate new knowledge, skills and attitudes, and provoke a rethink of or a rupture in knowledge, beliefs, and frames of reference that were constraints. each research study was a process of knowledge production and political engagement (harding, 2004). after i began the process of systematic reflection on the two studies, i realized they had resulted in and held the potential for learning and mutual learning. they also resulted in non-learning for some participants in the research. in my opinion adult educators, feminist educators, and persons who engage in feminist research would find the reflections contained in this article useful. in the paragraphs that follow, this author will: 1) draw the attention of adult education researchers, theorists and practitioners to olutoyin mejiuni 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) the fact that feminist research, situated within the social purpose tradition of adult education, is a human, intellectual, and political activity that presents opportunities for informal and mutual learning by and among participants in the research; and 2) show that informal learning and nonlearning resulted from interaction of participants during fieldwork. together these reflections affirm the position in the adult education literature, usually taken in respect of formal and nonformal education that learning depends on: the framework from which learning commences; the politics of identity in which teachers and learners are engaged; the relations of power that shape the context of learning, and the environment in which learning is being fostered. a discussion of key concepts on informal learning and non-learning and experiences related to these concepts found in these two studies follow. informal learning, mutual learning, and non-learning prior to the establishment of formal educational institutions, human beings were involved throughout life in activities and experiences that resulted in learning (hrimech, 2005.) obanya (2004) pointed out that in nigeria, the colonial experience resulted in the formalization of education in a non-indigenous language supported by a system of values and beliefs largely foreign to the colony. the result is that formal and to a lesser extent non-formal education institutions have displaced indigenous education systems. in indigenous education systems persons, young and old, learned their languages; acquired farming and hunting skills; acquired knowledge about medicinal plants, roots, leaves and fruits, the weather and climatic conditions; acquired knowledge about the meaning of songs and drumming, and acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes that shaped their character through structured practices and apprenticeships (fafunwa, 1974). some ways these knowledge, skills, and attitudes were acquired included intuition practices, observation, imitation, and socialization (hrimech, 2005), as well as reflection on experiences and oral tradition. this is informal learning to the extent that specific buildings or comprehensive programs were not established and labeled “education”. marsick & volpe (1999) described informal learning as “learning that is predominantly unstructured, experiential, and non-institutional” it is the acquisition of new knowledge, understanding, skills or attitudes, which people do on their own and which has not been planned or organized in formal school settings (hrimech, 2005) nor in non-formal education settings, and it involves action and reflection on experiences (larsson, 1997; marsick & volpe 1999; english, 2002). while there are specific structures and practices involved in indigenous education, these were not readily identifiable to islamic and western groups, so much of indigenous education was and continues to be labeled “informal” (abidogun 2007; dei 2010). while islamic and western style formal education institutions are here to stay, it is clear that they cannot teach many of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that adults and young people require. fortunately, opportunities for indigenous and informal learning abound in nigeria today, even if they are inaccessible to many (evans, 2003). individuals learn through reading, traveling, exposure to the mass media, and socialization. they learn as they take part in: income generating activities or work (marsick & volpe 1999; marsick, volpe & watkins, 1999); household, leisure, voluntary and community activities (english, 2002; findsen, 2006); social movements and as they reflect on their own experience and those of others (hernendez, 1997; lander, 2003; obilade & mejiuni, 2006; gouin, 2009). this discussion focuses on informal learning. some scholars have attempted to explain the different types of informal learning that are observable. hrimech (2005) identified four types of informal learning. they are self directed learning, tacit informal learning, explicit informal 10 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) learning, and auto-didactic learning. two of the four types of informal learning he identified, tacit and explicit informal learning, are similar to those that evans discussed. he described tacit informal learning as experiential, unconscious, and unplanned. it could be socialization and the conditions for learning could be set by others or by contingencies of the environment resulting in incidental learning. hrimech (2005) described explicit informal learning as learning, which occurs when the individual situates himself where the learning can take place, and he consciously chooses or recognizes the situation or persons as capable of providing significant learning. an example is when individuals decide to watch specific programs on television. from these descriptions of informal learning, we observe that tacit and explicit informal learning are the most common forms of informal learning in nigeria today. however, there is yet another form of informal learning which is insidious in nigeria’s education system and constitutes the hidden curriculum. garrett (1987) refers to the “‘hidden curriculum’ as values, attitudes, and behavior that are not part of the official curriculum, but which are nevertheless communicated to pupils and students in educational institutions” (p. 81). informal learning thus takes place outside of formal and non-formal educational institutions, as incidental and or explicit learning), during teaching-learning interactions in formal and non-formal education and in formal and non-formal teaching-learning contexts (fashina, 2001; mejiuni, 2006a&b). when informal learning is compared with formal and non-formal education, differences are evident in several areas of intentionality including planning, determination of contents, methods and methodology, measures of impact, budgeting for the programs or learning experiences/contents, and the choice of who will benefit from the programs or learning experiences. these are the obvious areas on which scholars under immense pressure to publish what is deemed relevant to the educational needs of their country would focus. in spite of the pervasiveness of informal learning in nigeria, this form of learning remains shadowy within the context of adult education. perhaps this is also a source of concern in the global north since some scholarly works have drawn attention to the need to focus on how informal learning occurs, what can enhance and inhibit it, and how it can be supported, encouraged and developed (marsick & volpe, 1999). mutual learning is a recognition that individuals learn, alone as individuals, but they also regularly learn from others; persons with whom they interact in different settings. they can be co-workers, co-participants in a social movement, persons with whom they interacted at a conference, a seminar or workshop; or as it happened in the case of this research, persons met in the course of participating in a research project. anyone who interacts with others in any of these settings could be a source of new knowledge and attitude. they could provide a fresh insight on an issue, initiate a discussion, or make a remark that triggers learning. in these contexts, individuals may not learn the same content from one another, and learning would probably take place on either or many sides, if there is mutual respect and trust. informal learning is so closely linked with mutual learning that a distinction may be unnecessary. however, persons who are interested in factors that enhance or limit informal learning, and the role of intentionality in learning will find the distinction useful. an understanding of the concept of mutual learning is a good framework from which to track the direction of informal learning, i.e. who is learning what from whom and under what conditions in different settings (nedergaard, 2006). i adopt jarvis’s description of non-learning, which is the acknowledgement that people do not always learn from their experience or those of others (1995). he indicated that nonlearning could be presumption, non-consideration, or rejection and explained each of them. olutoyin mejiuni 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) presumption is when persons assume their present knowledge is valid and sufficient to see them through circumstances not so different from the ones they have always known. nonconsideration is when a person does not apply her mind to a potential learning experience, perhaps because she did not have room for reflection or she fears the outcome of such reflections. rejection is when a person has had an experience, reflects on it, but then rejects the possibility of changing a form of knowledge, attitude, skill, orientation or belief as a result. s/he digs in, not because it would dehumanize her to learn from the experience or it is beyond her capacity to do so, but because s/he may not want to be changed by the experience. s/he might also fear the loss of perks and power if she allows herself to learn from the experience. finally, who is a literate person, a semi-literate person and an illiterate or non-literate person? the questions that i sought to answer in the two studies influenced my operational definitions. a literate person is someone who possesses the ability to read, write and perform basic numeracy tasks, with understanding in the language of formal institutions in nigeria (english) and who is able to employ those skills for functioning in daily activities. an illiterate is someone who is unable to read, write and conduct basic numeracy tasks in the english language. this person may also be non-literate in that he/she has command of their indigenous or mother tongue and numeracy skills in that language. as many nigerian languages are not taught as written languages, it is customary to consider these individuals non-literate (abidogun 2007, dei 2010). while a semi-literate person is a person who can read in the english language, but has limited writing skills, e.g. can only write his/her name or signature for legal purposes or reads and writes but without understanding such that these limited skills cannot then be applied to a wide range of daily activities. informal and mutual learning and non-learning from two feminist studies in the following discussion, i will explore the (potential for) informal learning that occurred in the process and as a result of the two feminist studies described above, and also examine the nonlearning that took place. the author will show who learned what. for example, what new knowledge, skills and attitudes did the researcher and the respondents acquire in the course of the research, or as a result of the research? what frames of reference or perspectives were changed, reinforced or re-assessed? what knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs did the researcher and respondents fail to comprehend? the author will discuss how and when learning occurred and what supported or limited learning. research a learning. in my interactions with female interviewees, i found that they all had a strong sense of self; they were confident people who were comfortable with and proud of their roles in their different struggles of identity. i learned from women who were illiterate or non-literate, madam i and madam d in particular, that “intellectuals do not hold the monopoly of revolutionary consciousness” (olukoshi & nyamnjoh, 2006). madam d was very clear and articulate about the issues at stake in the struggle of ogoni people. during the interviews with women involved in the june 12 elections and ogoni struggles, i asked questions to suggest that if women had made gender-specific demands (mikell, 1997; hassim, 2002) within the broader struggles against the federal government/military regime and shell, the multinational oil company, they would feel less disenchanted and perhaps women’s condition and status would have improved. the following are some of the women’s responses to my suggestion: 12 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) madam b said all hands had to be on deck to send the military oppressors packing. i reckoned her response as non-learning but did not rule out the possibility that a seed may have been sewn that would trigger critical reflection on that suggestion. alhaja i did not quite see the point, and she reiterated the position that nigerians needed to send the military packing so they do not have to serve the military forever. i reckoned her reaction as non-consideration. mrs y made it clear that while the struggle was on, the gender question was secondary to the environmental question. she thought that once the environmental question was addressed, the gender one would fall in place. when i persisted in my line of questioning, she admitted that she had never really thought of bringing both demands together in a struggle. i reckoned her response as rejection, that is, non-learning and then learning. madam d dismissed the suggestion. although she had indicated that ogoni men were like other men around the world, and reeled out a list of their misdeeds, she was categorical that shell was the source of all problems, and has actually been responsible for why their men behave the way they do. this was rejection, nonlearning. discussion the question asked actually suggested an alternative strategy to the ones used, but most of the key participants failed to catch the strategy that the question was supposed to offer in the context of hindsight. perhaps it was because they were not feminists, so they were convinced that the gender question was not a serious enough issue to consider along with the struggles against the military and environmental degradation. in this case, it is not clear that we (researcher and interviewees) approached those interviews from the same framework (taylor, 2005); that is a feminist framework that would insure they could draw lessons from my suggestion. patriarchy may have such a strong influence that among men and women, raising the issue of women’s rights would have been considered a betrayal by both genders at the time of the struggle. what is obvious from the responses of the women is that they favored a particular identity at a period in their history, and struggling around that identity would serve their interests. so my suggestion, which was a lesson subtly overlooked, resulted mainly in non-learning and in one instance a movement from non-learning to learning. in that one instance, the participant was conscious of the ambiguity that men within and outside of her ethnic group felt about her activist work for the ogonis in the heat of the struggle. in her response to a question about the status of ogoni women she said: a lot of people like me and thank me all the time for the work i’m doing …, but i have a problem. most men want their wives to be like me but not like me (laughs) … they don’t want their wives to be talking about rights … they like me, but they don’t like me. (mejiuni, 2001) olutoyin mejiuni 13 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) in addition, the research participants (madam d in particular), may have sensed that i was trying to “teach” them something, and that resulted in resistance because i was an outsider. she may have seen me as a researcher who is well off and a member of one of the major ethnic groups oppressing ogoni people. someone who has never experienced anything close to the trauma the ogoni people have lived through as a result of the degradation of their environment, and as someone who has probably never suffered the hazards of direct conflict. clearly then the different politics of identity in which the feminist researcher and the interviewees were engaged effectively limited or constrained learning (mejiuni, 2005). i was also aware of the dynamics in the practice of power that characterized the nature of our interactions (foucault, 1980). when i decided to use interviews as the major instrument for data collection, i did not anticipate that interviewees would learn from my interactions with them. i went to the field with much empathy and respect for the roles prospective interviewees had played in the different struggles in which they were engaged. my mind and heart were in the struggle against the military and the struggle of the ogonis. i noticed that my interviewees in 3 of the 4 case studies exerted nearly absolute control over our discussions most of the time which was okay by me. i went to the field so they could tell me about their experiences, their own stories, which i needed to analyze so i could discover truths and gain insight. in this context, it was improbable that i could hope to “teach” my interviewees any lessons in how to or how not to conduct struggles or that they would learn from me even though they listened to my suggestion couched as a question. in research a it was not apparent that there was mutual trust and respect between the researcher and the interviewees, especially madam d, at least, not enough to result in mutual learning. the obvious informal learning that occurred was on the part of the researcher. this made the direction of learning one-sided and the learning incidents were too few. perhaps the seed of insight and movement to learning had been sown in the hearts of the women? only follow up interaction could confirm that our initial exchanges offered anything meaningful to them. research b. on the last page of the open-ended questionnaires that male and female participants completed, i asked them to comment freely on the questions they had responded to if they so wish. most of them responded. many of their responses indicated that informal learning and non-learning had resulted from the process of providing data for my research. first we examine non-learning among female participants. one woman complained that the questionnaire was time consuming. a few women wondered about the purpose that my line of questioning served. another woman said the problems between women and men were not that big, so we should not overstate them, and someone else said the problems were so big, the questions will not solve them. i was able to categorize the first three responses as non-learning because one woman felt safe as a woman, and two others either rejected the messages that the questionnaires carried or were unwilling to consider them. unfortunately, i could not categorize the last respondent who did not learn because she thought the problems between men and women were so big that my attempts at provoking critical reflection and doing consciousness raising through research would not work. the responses provided by female participants reflect substantial informal/incidental learning on the part of interviewees. a female student reflected that the questions were therapeutic and would like the issues raised in class: these questions have helped me to pour out my heart about men. i think if issues like these are raised in lectures, male dominance will fade out. 14 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) another saw the research as awareness or consciousness raising: i am happy because i know this is another forum for enlightening women to wake up and take their rightful positions in the contemporary nigerian society. i am also the outgoing president of nappads (2002/2003) session in kogi state polytechnic and i’ve been encouraging other female students to take their rightful position in the campus and in the society at large. thank you. a highly literate woman indicated the questions asked provoked critical reflections and sparked her yearning for gender equality: the questions gave me the opportunity of thinking deep into some areas i’ve not really thought about before. they are very stimulating questions – stimulates my quest for gender equality. another woman declared the research as sisterhood, holding our sisters’ hands (hooks, 1994) and affirming one another, stating: it is good to know that there are still women like you who have the welfare of the women folk at heart. i must say i dove my hat for you and more grease to your elbow. please keep the flag flying i am solidly behind you in your course to free women from the wicked hands of men. there is really a case of inequality between the sexes and we must fight it collectively. thanks. the response from yet another woman portrayed a deep understanding that the research was to serve women’s interests: they are questions that work through the life of women, and how to make maximum use of the potential of women in the public and as public figures. thank you. many men who commented on the questions understood the purpose that the line of questioning was supposed to serve and they thought the issues needed to be raised. however, some men were resistant, defensive, and unprepared to begin the process of reflection on strongly held beliefs. some sample responses from men included: actually, women play roles that are different from those of men, but are also important. but no matter their urge to be like men, it is not possible, for god has already made it that men are superior to women. so let women respect men, for the position is a divinely endowed one. thanks. they are normal questions but somehow myopic. men are still regarded as the head of the family when it comes to decision making and this will continue to be so even in usa, russia, britain. olutoyin mejiuni 15 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) when a semi-literate woman was asked whether she would vote for a female aspiring to the topmost leadership position in the civic-political arena, she answered with an unconditional and emphatic, “yes”, indicating that she does not understand why men think that women cannot do what they do. she then added, “after all there is no role for the …. in those jobs and some women attain higher [achievements] than men.” i thought that statement was profound. this woman ruptured the presumed positive relationship between maleness and decision making and wanted to be convinced that men brought more than the physiological male to those offices that they insist are theirs by right. her response and those of other semi-literate sisters in their questionnaires reinforced my belief that although these women are highly knowledgeable, the formalization of education and language does not readily allow us access to this knowledge. informal and mutual learning also took place in the focus group discussions. women told wonderful and inspiring stories about how they wrested other women from oppressive relationships; helped other women with few resources get started in the retailing business, and paid the school fees of children whose parents they did not know. once again, i learned the lesson that intellectuals do not hold the monopoly of revolutionary consciousness and action. the informal learning that resulted from the focus group that involved semi-literate hairdressers, tailors, and market women in lokoja could be regarded as transformative. in the informal sector of the economy in nigeria, hairdressers (or beauticians as they would rather be called) perceive themselves as superior to tailors, market women, etc. there is the widely held belief that market women are poor because their retailing businesses do not usually amount to much, many are illiterate or non-literate and they do not dress in fashionable ways. so when we began exploring our assets and sharing our dreams in the group, the two hairdressers who were present felt like they did not belong in the group. they sat askance and whispered across the table intermittently. then one of the market women began telling the group about her assets. she said her strengths were determination and wealth creation. she said a few years back on a rainy day, after a neighbor refused to give her son a ride in his car to school and her boy came crying, she promised him she would get a car. two years later, she bought a pick up van from income she earned through her retail trading in foodstuff and she employed a driver. now, the two hairdressers were all ears. they became part of the group. she also told us how she mentors women in the art of retail trading by helping them begin with very small quantities of foodstuff. the countenance of the hairdressers changed completely. their faces showed respect. when we got to sharing our dreams for ourselves and other women, that market woman, who was then in her 50s, apparently sensing respect from others and feeling safe (cranton, 1994) declared that her dream was to obtain formal education once she has seen all her children through school. when the focus group was over we all hugged one another like long-term friends. what enhanced learning in research b? the environment in which the research took place was conducive for informal learning. it was 5 years into civilian rule and the few women who were in key leadership positions were visible and performing well, while their male counterparts were perceived as bumbling. in addition, many international and local organizations were raising women’s rights issues seriously within nigeria, having recovered from the prohibition on state feminism posed during the military regimes. in this context, it was easier to further women’s interests through research. this was more so because the research focused on the experience of women as women in the public and private spheres, not their experiences as women participating in the identity politics of their ethnic and religious groups. there was therefore mutual trust and respect, and mutual learning. the questionnaires allowed women to express themselves freely, 16 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) and guaranteed anonymity; and the focus groups explored women’s assets and their dreams, so the focus group was not a space for trading blames and feeling guilty. the questionnaires and the focus groups were therefore safe spaces for women. what limited learning in research b? although we had observed that the environment of research b enhanced informal learning, we also need to consider that the same environment created resistance and rejection because some men and women were generally uncomfortable with the seriousness with which international and local organizations in nigeria were raising women’s issues and concerns. in this context, the overtly feminist framework of this research led to some resistance, rejection or non-learning among a few men and women. but then, the questions contained in the questionnaires simply asked women about their experiences. to summarize what resulted in non-learning was the presence of sexism or institutionalized patriarchy; the very problems that feminism seeks to end. so while a few female participants did not see the problem with patriarchy, and one was overwhelmed by it, a few men insisted on patriarchy. feminist knowledge production and learning it could be observed in the preceding paragraphs that the researcher encouraged respondents in the two studies to cite their stories, and share their experiences; and also engage in critical reflection and critical self reflection through the questions raised and issues explored in interviews, open-ended questionnaires and focus group discussions. hence, in the two studies, the research process was also a consciousness raising exercise (hart, 1990), during which the researcher subtly suggested alternative perspectives to respondents (mejiuni, 2012) and also through some of the questions raised and issues explored in those three instruments. the instruments of the research were therefore the vehicles of consciousness raising because it was through them that one-on-one and group dialogue took place. as the researcher, i also observed that the respondents who provided data for the researchhad themselves been involved in the process of knowledge production, albeit informally, when they cited and reflected on their primary experience and others’ experiences, and when they sought to understand and proffer explanations for those experiences. for instance, we recall the position of the woman who ruptured the presumed positive relationship between male anatomy and decision making, and wanted to be convinced that men brought more than the physiological male to those political offices that they insist are theirs by right. this is what aspers (2009) referred to as the “first order constructs of the people studied.” aspers cited schutz (1962) as referring to this as the common sense thinking of persons living their daily life within their social world. on the part of the researcher, the two studies resulted in insights, understanding, and (re)discovery of facts about: why, when compared with men, few benefits have accrued to women from their participation in different politics of identity, and why and how women’s social status has remained low in spite of their educational attainments. these were products of her systematically planned search for knowledge. the point here is that while the researcher was engaged in systematically planned search for knowledge, the respondents who participated in her studies were also engaged in informal knowledge production or common sense thinking; even though the researcher had apprehended some of the products of respondents’ thinking as “data.” most significantly the process of a systematically planned search for knowledge led to informal knowledge production on the part olutoyin mejiuni 17 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) of some respondents and was also a consciousness raising exercise for the researcher and respondents, but more so, on the part of the respondents. informal learning and mutual learning therefore resulted from these processes; but, we do not want to forget that some of the respondents in the research rejected the messages in the research, while some were unwilling to consider or reflect on the messages. the learning outcomes from research b and to a much lesser extent from research a were enhanced insight; disruption of some taken-for-granted positions; new knowledge and attitudes; reassessment of one’s positionality; reinforcement of life enhancing beliefs, and a change in behavior resulting from the process of recalling, writing about, sharing, listening to, and reflecting on experiences. in research b, the issues explored in the open ended questionnaires and focus group discussions led the informants and the researcher to face and address questions previously avoided due to denial and fear. from the point of view of the respondents in the two studies, the learning that took place among them could be classified as tacit informal learning because it derives from experience, the learning outcomes came to the respondents unintentionally as they did not plan to learn. on the part of the researcher, in addition to achieving the goals of a systematically planned search for knowledge, she had situated herself in the research to learn so her own learning can be described as explicit informal learning. it is important that we observe that it is expert knowledge that allows the researcher to separate the process of knowledge production from the lessons that participants in the research took away from the process of research. it is also expert knowledge that allows the researcher to acknowledge that the learning that took place on the part of the respondents that she calls attention to in this reflection was the product of a process of informal knowledge production. however, for many people who are not professional researchers, especially women and other minorities whose experiences and concerns are not represented in classrooms and textbooks; they cope with life by continuous engagement with informal knowledge production, learning, unlearning and knowledge production. a thin line therefore separates knowledge production from learning among such persons; the process of knowledge production is for them, a process of learning. so research that requires participants in the research to cite and reflect on their experiences is an opportunity for informal and mutual learning for the researcher as much as it is for the other participants. conclusions based on reflection on these two feminist research studies, the following conclusions are drawn. the two studies cited in this reflection explored respondents’ experiences around issues central to their lives. this includes their identities and identity politics, status as persons, educational attainments, participation in politics and community life, and experience of violence. second, the researcher and respondents engaged in formal and informal knowledge production that were also consciousness raising exercises. in this way informal and mutual learning resulted from the process of research for some while a few others did not learn. third, informal learning, mutual learning, and non-learning resulted from the process of research because of the context of the two studies. contextual factors included the identity politics of the participants, the practice of power between and among participants, and the framework from which the two studies proceeded. finally, in a study conducted on how international adult educators learn, english, posed this question, “if a more systematic, but yet informal effort were made to ask people to name their experience and to reflect critically on it, would more learning result and would the transfer of learning be more effective?” (2002, p. 246). given the reflections discussed in this 18 research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in nigeria ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3. no. 2 (summer 2013) article, i would respond to english’s query with: yes, if the politics of identity in which co-learners are engaged are not multilayered and/or oppositional, the relations of power are not skewed in favor of a party. the framework from which learning is approached affirms co-learners and the context or environment supports or is, at least not overtly opposed to, naming and reflecting critically on experiences. references abidogun, j. 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(2005). learning. in l. m. english (ed.), international encyclopaedia of adult education (pp. 348-352). new york: palgrave macmillan. united nations development programme (1997). nigerian human development report, 1996. lagos: undp. the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria dr. james l. morrison university of delaware, us dr. john oyedele kwara state university, nigeria professor g. t. oladunjoye kwara state university, nigeria mr. joshua maman kwara state university, nigeria abstract the objective of the study was to determine how frequently social media is being utilized by business teacher educators in nigeria and for what purpose. specifically, the research problem was to determine the kinds of pedagogical practices associated with using social media for teaching. surveys were received from 69 business teacher educators situated in 5 states in nigeria of which 41 were from polytechnic institutions, 22 from colleges of education, and 5 from universities. the findings indicate that social media is only being marginally implemented in business teacher education in nigeria. however, a significant number of business teacher educators would like to see the use of social media expanded by becoming more informed as to instructional alternatives. introduction there are approximately 200 social media platforms (wikipeda) being utilized around the world. the five most often used are facebook, youtube, google+, and twitter. in nigeria, 28.4% or 48.4 million citizens are active social media users with 45% of these being students under age 18 (ejechi & nelson, 2014.) the youth in nigeria are very aware of social media and its capacity to enable africa journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 6 no.1 2017 pages 22-38 morrison, oyedele, oladunjoye & maman 24 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. them to connect with one another during their daily lives. of the 82 colleges of education in nigeria, 21 are classified as federal, 41 state, and 20 private institutions. there are also 81 polytechnic institutions where business teachers are also prepared. the use of social media in education in nigeria is primarily reflected in the use of facebook, and twitter etc. (ejechi, & nelson, 2014). a primary issue investigated in this study was whether school managers, especially of post-secondary institutions, are currently providing the leadership required to bring their programs in line with the social media capabilities of students arriving to their institutions, and in this case, for business teacher preparatory programs. business teacher preparatory programs in nigeria are part of a national effort to provide vocational education throughout the country. the availability of social media as an instructio na l enhancement provides an intriguing alternative for business teachers to advance new approaches for teacher training. social media has been defined in different ways. for this study, we use the definition advanced by bryer and zavatarro (2011, p. 327): “social media are technologies that facilitate social interaction, make possible collaboration, and enable deliberation across stakeholders. these technologies include blogs, wikis, media (audio, photo, video, text) sharing tools, networking platforms (including facebook), and virtual worlds.” successful adaptation of social media as an instructional aid also depends on the skill levels of business teachers who would use them. this study provides an insight into the extent of social media use in the learning process by business teacher educators across nigeria. the findings of the study will be useful in determining the desire, both current and in the future, of business teacher educators to address issues related to utilizing social media for meeting the educational needs of those undergraduates preparing to become business teachers. literature review social media use is gaining traction, especially in educational institutions around the world. social media consists of a variety of internet-based applications built on the technology associated with web 2.0, which enables the creation and exchange of client produced content (kaplan & haenlein 2010). social media facilitates interaction among users through the creation and sharing of information via virtual communities. social media is known to play an important role in collaboration, community building, and partnering. an intriguing aspect to social media is its use of mobile and online technologies (jan & hermkens 2011). this technology exists in a variety of the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria 25 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. formats such as online forums, social-blogs, wikis, podcasts, and social networks (mazer, murphy, & simonds, 2007). correspondingly, web-based technologies today support the social architecture of an educational community that enables students to become more fully engaged in the learning process (suter, alexander & kaplan, 2005). direct impacts of social media upon the educational process. as educators search for approaches to connect with and motivate students, they are discovering that social media platforms are turning into an intriguing alternative to the conventional learning environment (ebner, lienhardt, rohs, & meyer, 2010). a search of the literature in social media use in educational programs in the us, turkey, and india, among other nations, indicates that social media is redefining relationships between students and their teachers (miller, et.al.,2016). its use has resulted in creating collaborative opportunities to discover and share information (solis, 2008). in this regard, sherer and shea (2011) suggest that social media can be an instructio na l alternative to get across a teacher’s ideas from the very start of classes. it is also a strategy for tracking learning outcomes online. the social media’s most distinctive aspect is its potential to transform from pushing content outward to engaging in conversation for actually exchanging information. such platforms as facebook, twitter, myspace, linkedin, slideshare, and flickr are examples of tools available to business teacher trainers for use in the classroom. blogs, wikis, online videos and podcasts are other forms of connecting to students as they learn how to become effective business teachers in the future (sherer, & shea, 2011). a study conducted by osharive peter (2015) at the university of lagos, using a random sample of 378 students selected from 24,661 full-time undergraduate students, found that undergraduate students are very much familiar with the use of social media. peter (2015) also found that there is a positive relationship between academic success and use of social media. he thus recommended that utilizing social media in education is helpful for enhancing academic activities, but he also cautioned that students should be monitored by teachers on how they use these sites. social networking media included as examples for adoption were twitter, yahoo messenger, whatsapp, facebook messenger, blackberry messenger (bbm), 2go messenger, skype, google talk, google messenger, among others. a study by umoru (2015) of kwara state university, nigeria, revealed that appropriate use of social media for instructional purposes reinforces the role of teachers in nigeria universities to morrison, oyedele, oladunjoye & maman 26 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. better prepare graduates for a global workforce. he argues that the use of social media will enhance the exchange of ‘user generated content’ for bringing the classroom experience in line with workplace realities. to umoru (2015), the need to prepare business education students to fit into the world of work in the 21st century (and combat high unemployment in nigeria) is the major reason that social media skills must be acquired by them. applying connectivism theory to learning. in the new digital age, siemens (2004; 2005) and downes (2007) proposed the ‘connectivis m theory,’ where social learning is integrated with social media technologies. in the world of social media proliferation, learning is not an internal, individualistic activity. rather, learners gather information from connecting to the knowledge of others using wikipedia, twitter, rss (rich site summary), and other similar platforms. one of the principles of ‘connectivism’ is that the capacity to learn is more critical than simply accumulating knowledge (siemens, 2004). the responsibilit y of a teacher is not just to produce content, but to help students build learning paths and make connections between existing and new knowledge (anderson & dron, 2011). the theory of ‘connectivism’ enables business teacher educators to gain insight on how to design a more inclusive learning environment. on a daily basis they use desktop computers, laptops, e-readers, tablets, and cell phones to actively engage in social networking, text messaging, blogging, content sharing, online learning, and much more (cassidy, griffin, manolovitz, shen, & turney, 2011). in this regard, the theory of ‘connectivism’ is being considered by some teacher educators as a useful approach to learning, a perspective that is addressed in this study in the country of nigeria. social media currently utilized by students . liu (2010) studied a sample of american students’ use of different social media tools and their attitudes and perceptions towards these tools. liu sought to identify the knowledge and trends of using 16 social media tools that included facebook, wiki, youtube, bulletin board, linkedin, blogs, twitter, podcasts, virtual worlds, rss, stumbleupon, netlog, delicious, digg, plurk, and jaiku. as part of the study, 221 students were asked to rate their knowledge of each social media tool. study results revealed that about 70% of the students in the sample were either “very knowledgeable” or “knowledgeable” about youtube, wiki, and facebook. in addition, about 40% were “somewhat knowledgeable” about podcasts, blogs, and forums. finally, only 25% were “not at all knowledgeable” about using twitter. the study results also revealed the top four reasons the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria 27 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. why students use social media tools were for general social engagement (85%), for direct communication to close friends and family (58%), for speed of feedback/results (48%), and for relationship building (47%) however, fewer than 10% of the students used social media tools as part of their academic program. in a similar study, browning, gerlich, and westermann (2011) surveyed 141 undergraduate students regarding their perceptions of social media. the data revealed that there were favorable perceptions of social media as well as a high degree of readiness to embrace social media portals to have course content delivered to them. social media currently utilized by business teacher educators. research on the use of social media in teaching by business teacher educators in countries around the world, and specifically in nigeria, is quite limited. although outside the field of business teacher education, one notable study of interest regarding use of social media in general in education is the survey of student engagement (fsse, 2010). in this study, 4,600 faculty members from 50 u.s. colleges and universities were surveyed. the outcomes of the study indicated that over 80% of the faculty surveyed never used social media technologies in the classroom. unfortunately, that study did not disaggregate data for business education facult y; hence, we lack empirical research identifying to what degree social media is currently being integrated into their teaching. however, there is considerable research supporting ‘connectivis m theory’ that connects the benefits in using social media to success in learning (mazer, et. al., 2007). this research showed that students generally attribute higher levels of instructor credibility and learning to those faculty who willingly self-disclose or distribute information through social media than those who did not. mills (2011) also draws attention to the value of social-networking tools for their capacity to attract, motivate and engage faculty in meaningful interactive teaching practices, content exchange, and collaboration. some attributes that mills associates with social networking as an instructional tool in education include: 1. flexibility. to mills (2011), face-to face classes can be somewhat inhibiting for some to learn effectively, while the convenience and flexibility of online components can motivate students to complete educational tasks. expanding the choice on what, when, where and how people learn supports different styles of learning. utilizing instructio na l forums, such as chat rooms that exist in social networking, provide opportunities for morrison, oyedele, oladunjoye & maman 28 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. faculty and students to exchange views on topics without intimidation or direct fear of rejection (see also, cheong, et.al., 2005). 2. repetitive capacity to recall what has been learned. research findings indicate that repetition is rarely featured in traditional educational methods (dobrzañski, brom & brytan, 2007). however, the capacity of social networking enables faculty and students to revisit past learning on a systematic basis, thus providing a strategy for learners to retrieve information in a timelier fashion. to these researchers, repetition of thought enables information to become embedded in the learning centers within the brain. thus, it can provide for a stronger understanding of what is being taught as well as an increased degree of retention by enabling students to recall past information at a moment’s notice. 3. accessibility. the social networking is easy and quick in term of accessing, reviewing, updating, and editing learning material anytime and anywhere (cheong, et.al., 2005). it allows students to select learning materials from a large quantity of courses offered online. social networking allows students to access courses for learning at any time, permitting the learner to overcome the limitations of space and time in the educationa l process. also, access to information from sources around the world the knowledgebase for learning. videos, scholarly articles, learning forums, and global exchange networks become accessible as a low-cost alternative for gathering data. in summary, the research suggests that as social media is becoming increasingly ubiquitous to millennials, and educators are correspondingly beginning to recognize the potential benefits of using these tools for academic purposes (hughes, 2009; nellison, 2007). uses of social media as learning tools are also being perceived more as connecting informal learning to the formal learning strategies. for instance, third-party social media tools, such as wordpress, wikipedia, and linkedin, can include members outside the class and beyond the one-semester time duration at typical universities as well as connect learners with learning communities, experts in the field, and peers across the world. research methodology this study attempts to determine the degree to which pedagogical practices associated with using social media for teaching and learning are currently being utilized by business teacher educators the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria 29 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. in schools situated in nigeria. the focus of the study is upon finding answers to three research questions • rq i: how frequently is social media utilized by business teacher educators in nigeria? • rq ii: for what purposes are social media utilized in teacher training? • rq iii: what concerns do business teacher educators have regarding the use of social media for teaching? significance of the research area. business teacher preparatory programs in nigeria are very important component to deliver ing effective educational vocational programs to residents of the country. however, business teacher preparatory programs in nigeria have been suffering somewhat over the past decade due to reduced funding, resulting in lower student enrollment and thus fewer teachers being trained. study sample. participants in the study were from 5 states of nigeria. the sample included 90 business teacher educators, of which 10 were situated in a university, 30 in a college of education, and 50 in polytechnic institutions. the nomenclature for each classification of educational institution used in this study is that provided by the ministry of education in nigeria. data collection methodology. given that there is relatively little data on pedagogies related to using social media in classrooms in nigeria, we used a written survey that was administered by department chairs in each institut io n to gather our data. the survey instrument that we drew on was part of a pilot study consisting of 15 business teachers in preparatory programs at the university level. the trial run based on the pilot study indicated to us, when designing the survey, that our data gathering instrument had content validity. the survey instrument gathered data on the types of social media being utilized for both personal as well as professional purposes, the frequency of their use, the kinds of interactive instructional strategies being used, and the concerns of faculty relating to the impact of their use on learning. also, the questionnaire included questions relating to what direction the use of social media is likely to take in both the short-term and long-term in nigeria. data were collected between january and february of 2016. morrison, oyedele, oladunjoye & maman 30 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. data analysis. all responses to the written survey were recorded in excel spreadsheet. ibm spss statistica l software package was utilized for developing frequency tables. of the 90 surveys distributed to business teacher educators, 50 were situated in polytechnic institutions; 30, colleges of education; and 10, universities offering teacher preparatory programs in nigeria. a total of 69 surveys were returned, representing an overall return rate of 76%. of those 69 survey instruments returned, 41 (or 60% rate of return) were received from business teacher’s educators in polytechnic institutio ns; 22 (or 31% rate of return), from colleges of education; and 5 (or 6% rate of return), from universities. demographics of the sample. of the 69 surveys returned, 47 were responses from full-time faculty; 2 from part-time lecturers; 3 from adjunct lecturers, and 9 from heads of educational business teacher preparatory programs. (eight respondents did not indicate their titles.) in terms of academic ranking, 23 were classified as instructor; 4, an assistant professor; 2 an associate professor and 1, a professor. in addition, 34 indicated other nomenclature in regard to title of position currently held in a business teacher preparatory program in nigeria. (five respondents did not indicate their rank.) in terms of access and use of the internet, 40% of the sample indicated that they spend less than 5 hours per week on the internet. another 32% indicated that they spend between 6 to 10 hours per week on the internet. finally, 28% spent on the average each week over 11 hours per week. finally, in terms of teaching experience, 13 had been business teacher educators for less than 5 years; 14, between 6 and 10 years, and 39 over 11 years of experience. two respondents did not indicate length of service on their survey forms. frequency of use of social media in the classroom. as indicated in table 1, business teacher educators in nigeria in the study sample appear to incorporate the use of social media into their personal lives more frequently than into their instructional methodology when interacting with their students. of the 69 business teacher educators responding to the survey, 56.5% or 39 teacher educators indicated that they used social media in their personal lives very often while only 33% or 23 of those in the sample indicated the same degree of use as part of their instructional methodology. 39 or 56.5% of these teacher educators integrate the use of social media into their classroom activities. the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria 31 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. table 1. frequency of overall use of social media applications* by business teachers educators (n=69) used as part of personal use instruction no. % no. % very often** 23 33.3 39 56.5 occasionally 7 10.2 18 26.1 never 39 56.5 12 17.4 total 69 100.0 69 100.0 *note: social media – facebook, google, linkedin twitter youtube, etc. **note: very often = almost every class or at least 3 times per week for personal use of the 39 business teacher educators who indicated they never used any forms of social media in the classroom, the most frequent reason indicated was fear of abuse when used by their students. (table 2). the two reasons that ranked next in importance were the lack of social media experience and of technical support. table 2. reasons to not to incorporate use of social media in instruction (n = 39) reason no. fear of abuse when used by students 7 lack social media expertise 5 unit lacks technical support to use it effectively 5 too much work to monitor 4 students post negative comments about you 1 not worth bothering with 1 missing data (no responses) 16 total 39 morrison, oyedele, oladunjoye & maman 32 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. degree of use of social media as part of instructional methodology. when asked how interested they were in integrating social media into the classes, the majority of those 30 business teacher educators in the sample who currently incorporate it into their instructional methodology indicated a great deal of interest. responses on exploring ways to integrate social media into the classroom via instructional activities revealed 21 or 70% of these business teachers showing great interest in having their students identify creative applications for integrating a variety of social media tools when teaching problem-solving. 20 or 66% had a similar interest in having their students integrate social media tasks into their lesson plans (table 3). responses on specific social media being used as part of classroom instruction revealed only 9 or 30% of the business teachers indicating they used facebook; 8 or 27%, youtube; 6 or 20%, tweet posts; and 3 or 10%, blogs. however, 19 or 63% of the business teacher educators did have their students discuss the ethical use of social media, along with 16 or 53% of them teaching individ ua l responsibility not to abuse the process. table 3. degree social media integrated into instructional methodology (n = 30) instructional activity somewhat a great deal no. % no. % specific competencies initiated use facebook for students to share ideas 9 30 14 46 use youtube, etc., for students to view teaching strategies 8 27 8 27 tweet/post status updates to students 5 17 6 20 write blogs about teaching topics 3 10 3 10 social media exploration have students identify creative applications for social media when problem-solving 5 17 21 70 have student integrate social media when designing lesson plans 4 13 20 66 teach ethical uses of social media 9 30 19 63 have students explore ways to integrate social media into their teaching strategies 6 20 19 63 promote responsible use of social media 8 27 16 53 the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria 33 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. administrative interest in having teacher educators integrate social media into their classes. as depicted in table 4 below, in terms of administrative interest in getting faculty to integrate social media into their instructional methodology systematically, 48 of the 69 business teacher educators in the sample indicated that there is not much interest on the part of their unit leadership or chair for promoting the use of social media in the classroom. similarly, between 42 to 59 business teacher educators perceive their units as not having specific goals, policies, or assessment procedures in place for guiding business teacher educators with their social media utilization. the findings reveal that generally, most department chairs, 48 in number and well over 60%, are not actively leading their units in having social media become an integral part of instructio na l methodology used by their faculty. table 4. educational unit leadership on use of social media by business teacher educators ( n = 69) administrative interest yes no use of social media by department faculty is assessed each year 10 59 the chair of my department/unit actively promotes its use in the classroom 21 48 specific goals have been established for using social media in the classroom 26 43 department policies are in place to guide teachers in its use 27 42 issues identified by business teacher educators regarding uses of social media in the classroom. respondents recorded several concerns with integrating social media into the instructio na l methodology when preparing future business teachers. the three major ones among business teacher educators include how to gain access to appropriate instructional apps (59.4%); how to measure the actual impact of learning outcomes (62.3%); and how to actually design activities that are meaningful (53.6%). concerns over the amount of time business faculty spend on planning and implementing social media for the classroom is a serious issue for only 33% of the sample (table 5). morrison, oyedele, oladunjoye & maman 34 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. table 5. issues identified by business teacher educators (n=69) taking too designing measuring gaining access much time useful actual impact to instructional to implement activities on learning apps no. % no. % no. % no. % not an issue 25 36.3 8 11.6 12 17.4 11 15.9 moderate issue 21 30.4 24 34.8 14 20.3 17 24.6 serious issue 23 33.3 37 53.6 43 62.3 41 59.4 total 69 100.0 69 100.0 69 100.0 69 100.0 future use of social media in the classroom. when asked how they would like to adapt social media as part of the general instructio na l methodology in their department/unit, 45 or 65.2% of faculty in the sample indicated that they would like to see more integration into their instructional methodology (table 6). however, there remains a considerable number, 19 or 27.6% that do not envision any significant change in faculty use of social media over the next 12 months from that used today. table 6. foreseeable use of social media in the next 12 months (n = 69) direction for social media integration no. % like to see more integration of social media 45 65.2 like to continue at same degree 2 2.8 like to be used to a lesser degree 3 4.4 do not foresee faculty integrating social media at all 19 27.6 total 69 100.0 conclusions extant studies show that social media is currently only marginally implemented in business teacher education in nigeria. our study indicates that nigerian business teacher educators are hesitant about its use for a number of reasons. one of these reasons is their fear of student abuse of the use of these social media. the study also shows what appears to be some hesitancy among teacher the utilization of social media in the classroom by business teacher educators in nigeria 35 ajote vol. 6. no. 1, (2017), 22 -38. educators in nigeria to integrate social media into instructional methodology. the most frequent reference to social media, and the furthermost they currently implement social media in business teacher preparatory programs, is to sensitize future teachers to alternatives they could adopt when putting together their lesson plans once employed after graduation. the other issues that appear to hinder the acceptance and more use of social media in the classroom are lack of expertise and information as to what instructional apps are readily accessible for use. lack of infrastructure to support use of social media was not identified as an obstacle. nonetheless, it is encouraging that a significant majority of business teacher educators would like to see the use of social media expanded. this is indicative of a willingness on the part of many business teacher educators in nigeria to engage themselves in the process of becoming more informed as to how to use social media in the educational process. references anderson, t., & dron, j. 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(2011). use of social networks as an educational tool. contemporary educational technology, 2(2), 135-150. umora, titus amodu (2015). challenges and opportunities of utilization of social media by business education students in nigeria universities. (retrieved from: http://waset.org/publications/10003052/challenges-and-opportunities-of-utilization-of social-media-by-business-education-students-in-nigeria-unive rsities http://waset.org/publications/10003052/challenges-and-opportunities-of-utilization-of-%20%20%20%09%20%20%20%20social-media-byhttp://waset.org/publications/10003052/challenges-and-opportunities-of-utilization-of-%20%20%20%09%20%20%20%20social-media-by atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation scott l. stabler grand valley state university, usa mary owusu university of cape coast, ghana abstract “who benefited more from the trans-atlantic slave trade: ghanaians or europeans?” that’s the test question on the official government syllabus/standards for ghanaian schools. the syllabus also lists the benefits of colonization and that list far outweighs the detriments. the lack of a broader understanding about the devastation brought on by the trans-atlantic slave trade (tast) is not exclusive to ghana, but proves similar in the united states and likely throughout the world. generally, the tast appears lost in trans-lation in secondary schools. the transatlantic slave trade forms the most transnational exchange surrounding africa and the african diaspora. the tast to the americas relocated millions of people, killed untold more, and treated those who survived as property based on their melanin, causing many wars that affect the world to today. to broaden our understanding of the pedagogies of the tast, ghanaian secondary teachers were interviewed; textbooks and the national standards were reviewed along with ghana's role at the heart of the tast with cape coast as a central embarking point. we discovered a lack of instruction about the transnational and contemporary impacts of the tast at the secondary level. through our study of the tast’s instruction in ghana’s secondary schools a need to expand how teachers inform students about the breadth of the tast was discovered. this article will focus primarily on ghana’s lack of transnational reach at the secondary school level due to the limits of standardized testing, the ghana educational service’s syllabus, the textbooks utilized, assessments, poverty, teacher awareness and neocolonialism. this study also examines why transnational exchange in teaching the tast proves essential in the secondary school classroom in ghana and beyond. 2 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) introduction “who benefited more from the trans-atlantic slave trade: ghanaians or europeans?” (ghana ministry of education 2008, 17). that is the test question on the official government syllabus and standards for ghanaian schools. the syllabus also lists the benefits of colonization and that list far outweighs the detriments. the lack of a broader understanding about the devastation brought on by the trans-atlantic slave trade (tast) is not exclusive to ghana, but proves similar in the united states and likely throughout the world. the teaching of the tast in ghana needs nuance that places more blame on the european intruders and their continued legacy in ghana and africa. the axiom for ghanaian “capture or be captured” originated from europe’s drive for slavery. generally, the tast appears lost in trans-lation at the ghanaian secondary school level. this article, which came out of our 2011 presentation at “the black atlantic: colonial and contemporary exchanges” conference at stanford university and at grand valley state university’s 2012 african diaspora series, focuses primarily on ghana’s lack of transnational reach at the secondary school level due to the limits of standardized testing, the ghana educational service’s syllabus, the textbooks utilized, assessments, poverty, lack of teacher awareness, and neocolonialism (stabler and owusu 2011, 2012). though the ghanaian syllabus for secondary schools covers a lot of social studies topics, the authors believe the transnational exchange in teaching the tast proves essential in the secondary school classroom in ghana and needs more emphasis. it is an understatement that a broader outlook of the tast is imperative. the authors emphasize the standardized exams, teachers, syllabus and the textbooks because they believe that a person is as good as what he knows. in the case of ghanaian youth, they are and will be as good as what their teachers teach them. the authors posit that broadening assessment and giving more local control of assessment will aid in the understanding of the tast by ghanaians. only one question on the standardized exam, that all british former colonized west african countries’ secondary students take, might deal with the tast. this lack of focus on the standardized exam trickles down to the government syllabus, textbooks, study guides, and teachers. in ghana a minority of senior secondary school students take history courses. the tast gets little attention in the 3 rd year class in the course, “coming of the europeans.” this is the only course in ghana’s secondary system that addresses the tast and very narrowly at that. students do take some history at the junior high school level that deals with the tast. however, our main focus entails the lack of contextualization of the tast at the senior secondary school level. owusu and stabler focus on ghana due to logistics and history. there is no assumption that the situation in ghana is unique to west africa in both the impact of the tast and the teaching of it. rather ghana fits a model for other countries in sub-saharan west africa that can inform the legacy of the slaveholder and enslaved and the colonized and colonizers. the authors hope to educate the diaspora (manning 2002, 117). the trans-atlantic slave trade forms the most transnational exchange surrounding the african diaspora, yet the history seems lost on ghana’s secondary students. the tast for the americas relocated millions of people, killed untold more, and treated them as property based on their melanin, which caused many wars and continues to affect the world today. to broaden our understanding of the pedagogies of the tast, ghanaian secondary teachers were interviewed; and textbooks and the national standards were reviewed. a lack of instruction about the transnational and contemporary impacts of the tast was discovered. through this study of the 3 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) tast’s instruction in ghana’s secondary schools the authors realized a great need to expand how teachers inform students about the devastation and breadth of the tast. david northrup, historian of the african slave trade underscores its importance in his statement, “the atlantic commerce in african slaves has attracted more attention than any other slave trade because of the magnitude of its historical legacy” (2002, xiii). the tast serves as a conduit and a sample of transnational history. the tast impacts the world, but most directly the populations of the americas, europe, and africa and its diaspora. educating students about the latitude and consequences of the tast will not only erase ignorance, but also present a case for a broader understanding of their world, country, community, personal heritage, and inequalities that still hold sway. teaching the complexities of the slave trade will expand higher thinking and nourish the appreciation for our collective past. our study, as well as others, reveals how little the tast’s transnational character reaches ghanaian students. teachers, the syllabus, and textbooks in ghana’s secondary schools fail to reach beyond the slave ships’ departures and do not scratch the surface of the contemporary impact of the tast. though a plethora of historical documentation exists and is readily available, the textbooks, teachers, and syllabi mention next to nothing about what happened to africans when they arrived in the americas. the lack of a broader understanding about the devastation brought on by the tast is not exclusive to ghana, but proves similar in the united states. even after the popular 1977 television mini-series roots raised americans awareness of slavery’s foundations in the gambia, k-12 history courses still lack almost any focus or understanding of the historical context of the tast. for example in michigan, the impact of the slave trade on africa is presented at the 5 th grade level (history alive, 2003, pp. 78-80). according to michigan’s state standards, secondary school students should understand “the diffusion of africans in the americas.” in addition, pupils ought to do some “comparing and contrasting the trans-atlantic slave system with the african slave system and another system of labor existing during this era.” nevertheless, nothing in michigan’s grade level content expectations (glces), which details the content related to the standards, mentions the impact of the tast upon africa (michigan high school social studies content expectations, nd, p. 17). though ghana’s standards/syllabus mention africans in the diaspora, the term appears nowhere in any secondary school literature or standards for michigan. finally, in close to 1,000 observations of secondary social studies classrooms reviewed for this study, there was no observed discussion enmeshing the tast with africa or the african diaspora. generally, the tast is lost in trans-lation in the united states that leaves africa on the margins, while in ghana it leaves the impact in the america’s out of the curriculum. it is therefore significant that most ghanaian teachers stop at the slave ship, the place where most american teachers start. the authors hope this article can begin a discussion across boundaries so the human cargos on those horrendous slave ships have a base and a legacy grounded in contemporaneous relevance. the study teachers who teach near the location of the two most infamous slave castles, cape coast and elmina, were interviewed; neither the castles nor the schools’ curriculum, seemed to enlighten the locals about the tast. though the castles form a central landmark and tourists from across the globe frequent them, the local population seems to care little about the history 4 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) they represent. anthropologist bayo holsey in her work routes of remembrance: refashioning the slave trade in ghana confirms this lack of historical memory and interest in the tast in the same area (2008, 1-2). the local students were no different. this point was made evident, as the authors sat outside the history department at the university of cape coast and two local teenagers in school uniforms walked by them. owusu asked them what they knew about the slave trade in both english and twi and neither of them knew anything. in cape coast, the two authors spent five months researching how tast is taught in ghanaian secondary schools. first, the ghanaian national syllabus and standards for the tast were reviewed which revealed that neither a transnational context nor tast’s relevance to contemporary ghana. the national standards or syllabus discuss nothing about what happened to ghanaians when they reached the americas or how the slave trade impacts students today. the textbooks fell into a similarly limited framework. in relation to the tast, the textbooks did not involve europe or the americas explicitly, but only europeans in africa. finally, the authors interviewed senior secondary school teachers in some of the purportedly best schools in ghana about their content. the conversations found a majority of the teachers rarely or barely reach beyond the standards. interestingly, many teachers and textbooks disproportionately blame african forbearers for the tast. the overarching cause of this involves how standardized testing drives ghana’s curriculum. however, a legacy of interethnic rivalries also forms an unspoken cause of the tast’s contextual suppression. these quandaries are addressed and the importance to all educational levels in this article. transnational background the historical importance of the tast is undoubtedly transnational. just consider the origins of barack obama and john mills. obama, of african and american descent, is president of the united states, while john mills’, recently deceased president of ghana, name bears witness to british influence in ghana. only a transnational understanding of history and its correct translation can make sense of this seeming dichotomy. the authors of this study, one ghanaian and the other american hope to add understanding to the tast transnational context. ghana and the united states have a more symbiotic relationship than just presidential visits. ghana’s first post-colonial president, kwame nkrumah, was also a founder and spokesperson for africa’s pan-african movement. before nkrumah only a few african leaders pushed to unite africans across the diaspora so effectively. nkrumah remains the most conspicuous ghanaian besides perhaps former united nations secretary general kofi anan. nkrumah studied in the united states and helped free ghana from british control. most significant nkrumah abetted the formation of the african union. he was a pioneer in independent african politics. while studying in the united states (1935 to 1945), nkrumah learned a lot about the african diaspora. he gained some of his ideas about pan-africanism from jamaican marcus garvey who promoted black unity in early 20 th century through the united negro improvement association. the black star line shipping company serves as garvey’s attempt to help blacks return to africa and break euro americans stranglehold on merchant shipping. garvey’s “back to africa” and black pride mantras became imbedded in nkrumah so much that the black star at the center of ghana's flag symbolizes garvey’s movement. the connection with the united states and the diaspora continued under nkrumah’s presidency (1957-66) to the benefit of african americans. he welcomed muhammad ali and malcolm x to ghana along with richard wright, maya angelou, and martin luther king jr. 5 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) the country served as a beacon of freedom to african americans during the civil rights movement. in order to support pan-africanism and out of frustration with the lack of progress for civil rights in the united states, american historian and activist w.e.b. du bois migrated to ghana at nkrumah’s urging in 1961. he died there two years later at the age of ninety-five, the day before martin luther king’s “i have a dream” speech. from the same podium during the march on washington many people learned of du bois’ death. another african american activist, stokley carmichael, studied under nkrumah during nkrumah’s forced exile in guinea. carmichael, leader of the black panther and black power movement eventually changed his name to kwame ture, the forename to honor kwame nkrumah. the connection between ghana and the united states demonstrates the multiple connections within of the african diaspora. this diaspora to a large extent originates from the tast, so making ghana an appropriate starting place. ghana’s background ghana, formerly the gold coast, was a british colony from 1874 until 1957 when it gained independence. like most african countries, the basis of ghana’s borders evolves mostly around the geography of colonization. therefore, ghana’s population is far from a homogenous. at least forty ethnic groups and over fifty language families reside within its borders. no less than five of these ethnic groups remain dominant. at the time of the tast, those living within the borders of contemporary ghana would not describe themselves as africans or ghanaians and likely did not have these words in their vocabularies. race and nationality fit nowhere in the peoples’ lexis prior to the arrival of europeans, and up to the late 19 th and into the 20 th century, identities as african or even ghanaian lay at the margins if at all(holsey 2008, 122). within ghana national identity is still not strong compared to ethnic identification. slavery in ghana well before nkrumah, colonialism, or trans-atlantic slave trade, the area now known as ghana had a rich history. slavery forms only a slice of that history. slavery has long existed in west africa though the terms servant, serf or subject would probably fit better. at some point in a west africans’ life almost all were probably labeled a “slave” unless they were royalty. the practice of slavery or indenture in sub-saharan west africa varied greatly throughout its history from pawning to panyeerring to human sacrifice. for example, much of slavery in pre-european ghana solved problems. people would sell themselves or family members in order to pay debt. this was often called pawning. the pawn would likely rejoin their family or gain adoption in to their new household. though initially held in lower esteem, the prospect always remained for pawns to better their lot. the idea of chattel slavery was rare, as was involuntary separation of families. the virtual lack of any hope for a change in slave status proved uncommon in subsaharan west africa. tast arrival in sub-saharan west africa a major difference in slavery between indigenous african systems and the americas’ chattel slavery was reflected in the immense wealth that traders could accumulate from european slave traders. thus, with time, a lucrative business venture evolved (blackburn 2011, pp. 82-84; davis 2003, 30-31). historian david brion davis described the tast as, “the peoples of west africa, 6 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) as well as those of every maritime nation in western europe and every colony in the new world played a part in the creation of the world’s first system of multinational production for what emerged as a mass market” (2006, 2). both lucrative and dehumanizing, the tast was a business venture. to many africans, the tast provided another avenue for continuing an existing practice, but with the ability to gain greater wealth and power. historians have long debated the driving force for the tast. was the tast’s impetus african or european? generally two schools of thought exist. historian john thornton, who primarily focuses on angola, follows the “emergent africa” theory. he writes, “the preexisting social arrangement [african slavery] was thus as much responsible as any external force for the development of the atlantic slave trade” (2002, 131). walter rodney, patrick manning and authors of this article follow the historiography of “afrique engage”. this group supports the idea that the tast had a devastating and lasting impact on the continent and the europeans drove it. rodney writes, “the european slave trade was a direct block, in removing millions of youth and young adults who are the human agents from whom inventiveness springs” (2002, 109). european capitalism served as the tast’s stimulus. this perspective is generally ignored in ghanaian schools. the great african slave exportation began in 1532 when 200 slaves left the island of sao tome to santo domingo and san juan. the 16 th century saw about 125,000 human exportations increasing to almost 1.3 million by the 17 th century and heightening at almost 6.3 million in the 18 th century. an estimated 11 million africans arrived in the western hemisphere with a little more than half coming from west africa. the statistics become even more astounding when one considers that for every slave arriving alive, two probably died in transport, capture or war. the growth in the tast traces directly to the sugar trade in the caribbean and south america, and rice and cotton production in the united states (okyere 2000, 24-27; hansen 2002, 42; miller 2002, 48). over one million slaves boarded ships from the coast of ghana. for ghana, the average slave numbers leaving approximated 7,000 a year for the first decade of the 18 th century, rising to about 7,500 a year until the 1750s, 10,500 until the 1780s, and about 9,000 per year until the 1790s. a majority came through the infamous cape coast and elmina castles that are only separated by ten miles (okyere 2000, 24-27; hansen 2002, 42). human trading served as the gold coast’s number one economic endeavor in the 18 th century. as demand for african slaves in the americas almost always exceeded supply, the trade proved lucrative and competitive. the exchange in the 18 th century reached a value of $1 million a year or over $30 million a year in 2011 dollars, though the financial cost proves hard to calculate in dollars (lovejoy 2000, 57-58; boahen 1975, 89; blackburn 2011, 86). the tast brought mayhem. the 18th century saw many violent inter-ethnic wars known as the ashante wars partly based on expansion and wealth made from the tast. this all led to excessive conflict previously unknown in the area (okyere 2000, 27; blackburn 2011, 86). the dutch and british proved the primary perpetrators in ghana due to governmental support, their merchant capital, and excellent navies (okyere 2000, 24-27; hansen 2002, 42). they brought guns and alcohol, which in turn wrought violent conflicts unseen in the country before their arrival. between 1796 and 1805 over 1.6 million guns came to west africa from england and england controlled about 45 percent of the trade (inikori 2002, 52-53). by the end of the 17 th century the dutch had sold 20,000 tons of gunpowder in ghana alone. alcoholism also increased leading to more violence. the ghanaian workers at anomabo’s slave fort demanded brandy for 7 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) its completion. rebecca shumway (2011), in her new work on slavery and the fante said the tast “was a business steeped in alcohol and violence” (2011, 1). the blame game the common western detraction that “africans sold africans into slavery” forms a miniscule part of the truth. that contextual inaccuracy, africans sold africans, has strong connotations not only in the west, but also in ghana today. no doubt africans and ghanaians did most of the kidnapping, capturing, and selling of slaves to the europeans, but this description is without adequate historical context. europeans did not enter the interior of africa. in travelling inland whites faced great dangers partly because of hostilities and disease. however, most did not trek inland because africans controlled most trade into the interior (regardless of its type). some did profit from the slave trade, nevertheless european demand completely drove the tast leading to africans giving up other forms of trade and industry to sell people for the west’s wealth. the west’s introduction of a cash economy through merchant trade and later forced cash economies through colonization plays a significant part in ghana’s teaching of the diaspora. the increase european trade that includes tast created a thriving network of employment for africans, especially along the coast. for example, the village of cape coast had twenty houses in 1555, but by 1680, when the tast peaked, it had 500 or more. in the eighteenth century the population of elmina averaged 14,000, larger than most north american cities at the time. employment went beyond just the trading of humans, but included an array of related professions. african canoe men ferried goods, longshoremen loaded and unloaded ships, warehousemen stored goods, european traders used local guides and interpreters, inn keepers housed visitors, skilled tradesmen repaired everything from firearms to ship riggings and they all “benefited” from increased european trade, unfortunately this included trans-atlantic slave trade (holsey 2008, 3-5). indigenous slavery never resulted in anything like the complete devastation the tast wrought. the enormous loss of labor and productive industry relates to one thing-tast. when the european demand for human chattel ended, slave markets in west africa continued to capture humans for sale, but the market evaporated almost instantly in the region. the trade did nothing to develop domestic economies and created sizeable inequalities. though some africans gained wealth from the tast, its end, determined just like the beginnings by europeans, left west africa’s economy in shambles. a commercial, cultural, political, and societal revolution occurred, but not for the betterment of africans (davis 2006, 100; berlin 1980, 18-22). the akan and the tast the akan ethnic group has long held sway in ghana. they are monarchical, matrilineal in inheritance, and share common naming and marriage institutions, as well as a common calendar and religious beliefs. the akan include among others the fante, asante (ashanti or ashante), and assin ethnic groups. these groups did not always get along and were never completely unified or homogeneous, but in their collective they proved to be some of the most powerful traders in the region. their traditions, especially among the asante, including the king, gold, matrilineal inheritance, and slavery, date from the beginnings of the trans-saharan trade and continued through the trans-atlantic slave trade and beyond. the akan, as a group, took 8 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) advantage of other groups in trade with both north african groups and europeans. gold trade and later the slave trade made them the richest of the ethnic groups in ghana (boahen, ajayi, and tidy 1986, 56-59; flynn 2002, 132-33; shumway, 2011, 16-19). it remains doubtful that the akan knew or really cared what happened to their captives when they sold them to europeans. however, the akan certainly knew “slavery”. it existed among them before and after the tast. the twi language has six different categories to describe slavery or subjugation. before european arrival, “slaves” in the akan region had rights and could marry a free woman. children were born free. slaves could own property, swear an oath and serve as a witness in court. pawned “slaves” mostly became members of the family to which they had been pawned. masters’ families adopted many slaves. subject states also sold “slaves” as tribute payments. such slaves mostly served in the court of kings (ward 1991, 16970). in the 17 th century and beyond the akan ethnic group dominated most of the conflicts involving the tast. they used guns traded by europeans to vastly expand their empires and capture more slaves to gain wealth, but the trade with europeans marked a cultural and political change among the akan (shumway 2011, 2). wealth and military victories amassed during the tast made the akan the most prominent ethnic group in ghana today. they make up at least 40 percent of the ghanaian population and occupy roughly two-thirds of the country. though the akan, especially the asante, share authority in a democracy their influence is unrivaled. again, the akan include many divergent ethnic groups. the fante benefitted from trading on the coast and the asante dominated the interior trade. these two groups fall under the akan ethnic group, but have as many differences as similarities. nevertheless, the akan dominance in the slave trade remains without question, but is not discussed or included in the tast’s pedagogy. this factor will be expanded on later. the asante ruled the slave trade in the ghanaian area. african historian walter rodney wrote, “ashante was in this process using its strength to insulate itself from the worst consequences of slaving, for those consequences were transferred beyond its boundaries” (1969, 25). nevertheless, to blame the asante ignores the question of choice. if the asante chose not to participate another ethnic group likely would have and that group would become the power brokers and the asante the enslaved. european greed, not africans, ghanaians, or the asante, served as the impetus for tast. again, the adage of “capture or be captured” serves as indispensible instigator of conversations in ghana. this understanding is lacking in the country’s classrooms today. the context and conflicts in teaching the tast another area of contextual importance to the teaching of the tast involves the legacy of colonization. the basis of the tast did not entail colonies in west africa, but in the americas. the purpose of european trade initially involved primarily human chattel. however, to find more wealth after the tast, the british and other europeans began to colonize west africa in earnest. the british colonization of ghana still shapes much of the country. from the form of education and government, british style, to the affection shown towards white people, to the statue of queen victoria near the cape coast slave castle, it remains undeniable that neocolonialism affects how ghanaians view the tast. the national language is english. all government business and schooling is done in english even though it is not the first language of any ghanaian. even in christian religion, the authors noted that pictures and portrayals of jesus 9 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) continue as white regardless of education or class. also ghanaian dolls and mannequins are for the most part all white. colonialism and neocolonialism impact tast’s legacy today. neocolonialism’s relation to the tast comes partly in the fact that ghanaians have a colonial education system installed by their colonizers. there exists little balance in the teaching of colonization. most textbooks reference colonization as a positive that brought many “good” things to the country such as infrastructure, modern medicine, western-style education, and especially christianity. even one of ghana’s most famous historians and activists, albert adu boahen, portrays missionary activity as positive. a personal beneficiary of a missionary education, adu boahen emphasizes that missionaries, who primarily arrived after the european slave trade ended, discouraged indigenous slavery and tried to set up legitimate business enterprises. the undue emphasis placed by ghanaian scholars on the positive contributions of colonialism indoctrinates secondary school students and much of the country’s populous in a fashion that definitely resonate neocolonialism, thus complicates the contemporary teaching of the tast’s detriments (teaching syllabus for social studies, 2007). ghanaian schools and the curriculum overwhelmingly emphasize the colonization period and the struggle for independence and not the tast. in the classroom, the tast does not go beyond the country’s coast or the slave ships that docked there. virtually no instruction exists about the large numbers of ghanaians that died or were raped on these tight packed feces-filled dreadful vessels that made the trek across the atlantic ocean some 43,000 times between 1550 and 1870 (blackburn 2011, 85). while independence from colonialism remains important, the authors suggest that the foundations lie in the tast. slavery in the americas, like the transatlantic voyage, are lost in translation. secondary school system in ghana in regards to colonialism, a key area of importance involves the confines of the ghanaian education arrangement. ghana’s school curriculum, pedagogy and structure are all based on their colonizers system – the british. another constraint in reaching ghanaians with tast content or any educational content comes in the fact that poverty plays a big role in ghanaian’s education. while 76 percent of ghanaians attend primary school through junior secondary school, only 31 percent ever attend senior secondary school, which is translated as grades 10 through 12 in the united states. thus, though the country spends between 20 and 40 percent of its budget on education, there are eleven-times more junior than senior secondary schools (ghanaian embassy, education information). secondary schools receive limited support from the government and require tuition payments that most ghanaians cannot afford. access to higher education proves even more limited with only about 3 percent of ghanaians attending one of the four national universities and eleven small private universities (ghanaian embassy, schools and universities). even more exaggerated than in the united states, the well off obtain the best education in ghana. the top ghanaian secondary schools’ structures entail many similar characteristics. they are largely segregated by gender and board their pupils. these students spend three years away from their parents. all schools in ghana require uniforms and all students, including girls, must have closely cropped hair. corporal punishment, though publicly denied, remains in use nearly everywhere, as experienced by one of the authors’ children, who received corporal punishment while in ghanaian schools. though the country’s syllabus advocates against using “rote 10 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) learning” and promotes the ideal that application forms the key element of learning, this is not reality. pedagogy is rote and geared towards high stakes standardized testing. the breadth of the tast’s teaching faces sober limitations throughout schools. the focus here is only on the top secondary schools in the country that are reserved for the upper class. some work has already been conducted on junior secondary school history teaching. bayo holsey’s study (2008) affirms the lack of teaching about the tast at the junior secondary school level, “school textbooks are the prime example of how the slave trade is minimized as an element of national history” (123). she goes on to affirm the notion of “beneficent” rule by the british and that the junior secondary school syllabus give little agency, but disproportionate amount of the blame, to africans for the tast (holsey 2008, 123-27 & 205-08). another limitation to teaching the tast entails the tracking system (generally six tracks from home economics to business to general arts) at the senior secondary schools. this means only a minority of the secondary students takes history as part of their course load. thus, it can be safely stated that even educated upper class ghanaians have little understanding of the context of the tast itself. this study focuses on senior secondary schools, as they produce the teachers and leaders of ghana’s future. most importantly the focus is on upper secondary school education’s lack of a transnational approach that serves to highlight how far all ghana’s schools have to go in providing a fuller approach to the tast (teaching syllabus 2007, 6; boahen 1975, 82). standardized testing all ghanaian students, to advance in their education, have to pass standardized exams that cover a variety of subjects. the west african examinations council (waec) conducts the west african senior secondary certificate examination (wassce) exam for all west african countries colonized by the british. sixteen countries make up west africa, but the british colonized countries include ghana, liberia, nigeria, sierra leone, and the gambia. these countries all use the high stakes wassce standardized tests in their schools. students must pass these exams to move on to senior secondary schools and to university. the waec itself is a product of colonialism. the organization was formed in 1948 in london by two british universities and west african educators trying to standardize education in the african commonwealth countries. though now controlled by west africans the format has changed little in it more than sixty years of existence. one of the five compulsory examination areas includes social studies. social studies comprises everything from history to family formation to sex education. the exam questions may involve the tast or domestic slavery, but never assess the tast beyond ghana or its contemporary impact. as one will see, the syllabus, textbooks, and teachers are all geared towards helping students pass the wassce. assuring the wassce exam covers the tast should form the primary short-term goal in increasing the understanding of the tast. the syllabus it goes without saying that the heart of secondary education the world over includes the syllabus (national level in ghana) and standards (state and national in the usa). in ghana, this important teaching and learning guide is put together by the ghana education service (ges). the ges is in charge of primary and secondary education including the primary and secondary teachers and is administered by the ministry of education and sports. the ges works in partnership with 11 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) west african exams council to set the syllabus for ghanaian schools at the junior and senior school levels. in year 3 of senior secondary school, the “coming of the europeans” forms one unit in the national syllabus that does address some of the dilemmas of slavery. the syllabus (2008) speaks to the creation of the african diaspora. it also asks teachers to tackle, “the nature and volume of the slave trade and its contribution to the creation of africans in the new world” (p. 17). however, these topics did not find their way in to classrooms, textbooks or even the syllabus’ details. the syllabus also wants students to consider the effects of the tast, both positive and negative. according to the government syllabus there were positives to the tast. the syllabus portends that the positive effects of the tast outweigh the negative in number. this list comes directly from the syllabus (2008) include: “positive effects: introduction of new crops, european cloths, home and work equipment, literacy, religion and employment opportunities in office and factory type work. negative effects: intensification of the inter-ethnic wars, depopulation and the displacement.” the final portion of the unit asks students to evaluate, “who benefited more from the trans-atlantic slave trade: ghanaians or europeans?” (p. 17). the question itself proves astounding. to believe that the ghanaians out-benefitted the europeans in the tast boggles the mind. noting the “positives” of the tast in seeming balance with the negatives demonstrates the dearth of transnational or contemporary context of the ges syllabus and the lasting effects of colonialism. this fashions a perfect place to show the benefit of potentially merging the teachings of the tast in the united states and ghana. as stated earlier, the term african diaspora would be foreign to most k-12 students in the united states and, for example, is not mentioned in the michigan “grade level content expectations,” which gives the details of the state standards (michigan high school social studies content expectations, n.d., 17). the ges syllabus’ question involving a value judgment about african versus european benefit from the slave trade would never appear in a standardized test in the united states. there is a high probability that no teacher in the united states would ever consider the tast a positive for africans. the contrast elucidates the nuances involved in interpreting history in which the “right” answer is nonexistent. the two points above demonstrate some of the complications involved in making the tast transnational, but also the necessity for students to understand their and the world’s past. the textbooks due to the curricular limitations of the wassce and the syllabus, the textbooks used in ghanaian classrooms only reinforce the lack of breadth in teaching the tast. though better than in the past, contemporary textbooks generally reinforce neocolonialism and do not approach history transnationally. after the ges and waec have collaborated to prepare the syllabus, the former contracts textbook authors to prepare textbooks based on the accepted examinable areas. this statement from vincent okyere’s textbook (1996) demonstrates the wassce’s importance, “topics treated have been handled with great care to meet what is expected of candidates for the senior secondary school certificate examination (sssce) conducted by the west african examinations council” (i). due to the wassce, the current textbooks, written by ghanaians, have limited the slave trade to ghana with only a minimal amount of time on the europeans’ role 12 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) in slavery and nothing about its transnational impact. they also often try to prove the positive affects on ghana of both the tast and british colonialism. the textbooks play a crucial function as all ghanaian secondary schools generally use the same two to three textbooks that are geared towards the passing of the wassce. most upperclass schools provide textbooks for individual students, but poorer ones often rely on a class set or less. according to the ges, for every 100 students in ghana there are 57 social studies textbooks (report on basic statistics 2010, 11). even the senior secondary school “study guides” for the wassce, that most local bookstores sell, list the rote information that will be tested (gadzekpo 2003; duah n.d.). for ghana’s schools the study guides feed directly from the textbooks that feed directly from the syllabus that derives its content directly from the wassce. colonial textbooks. an old, but long-used textbook that demonstrates the foundations of colonialism in student learning in post-colonial ghana is godfrey n. brown’s an active history of ghana, from the earliest times to 1844. brown, who was british, a few years after ghanaian independence in 1961, published a eurocentric view of ghana. a ghanaian, philip mamondo was the illustrator for this book. brown sought help from a female history professor at the university of ghana, who was also of british descent. the author had assistance from two other british professors. the book’s publisher was headquartered in norwich, so there is little doubt that brown’s work did not reflect ghanaian historical perspectives (brown 1963). brown (1963) dedicates a chapter to the slave trade and handles the tast ably. he does not sugarcoat the issues surrounding the tast and even notes the existence of contemporary slavery. he highlights the triangular trade, the sale of slaves by the asante to european traders for “cloth, iron bars, gunpowder, and strong drink” and discusses the horrid conditions on the slave ships. he concludes by pointing out the auctions and inspections, the broadsides, the branding and the other horrors of slavery (58-63). brown states the reason for the tast was sugar (brown 1963, 72). he does not discuss slavery in the americas, but neither do the contemporary ghanaian textbooks. brown’s chapter 10 begins the anglo-centrism in the history of ghana, even when it comes to the tast. the entire chapter titled “granville sharp and the abolition of slavery” tells the story of british abolitionist granville sharp’s re-colonization of slaves back to africa by having them reside in the country of sierra leone. how 400 freedmen “returned” in 1787 to sierra leone related to ghana is difficult to envision, except that some of them were originally from ghana, but were not returned to their homeland. finally, the failure to mention the freed african american former slave thomas peters that introduced the re-colonization idea, while glorifying a white, british man makes the already tainted perspective more overt (brown 1963, 72-77). this scenario is just the type of transnationalism that is not advocated in this study. england, not ghana, forms a common focus in the textbook. a later chapter reverts back to great britain with an exposé of englishman william wilberforce. brown goes through parliamentary debates over slavery even laying out a map of the parliament’s chamber. the chapter reveals the near-decade deliberation over the abolishment of the tast, but the word ghana never appears (brown 1963, 86-92). the next chapter “thomas buxton and the abolition of slavery in the british colonies” discusses how slavery ends in british colonies, but again, ghana gets no mention. the chapters illustrate how “good” the british were for abolishing the slave trade (93-97). brown’s book lays the foundation for assuaging europeans from culpability for the tast because they did so much to try to redeem them. the textbook also promotes british colonialism as a common good. this may seem preposterous, but the current strength of 13 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) neocolonialism in ghana makes brown’s work a good overview of a bad problem—lack of contextual understanding of the tast and colonization. this textbook, used in classrooms until the 1990s, illustrates how the secondary curriculum helped to perpetuate a colonial mentality amongst ghanaians. mary owusu’s article, “the mis-education of the ghanaian” confirms colonial education’s influence in ghana. in the chapter she recalls her secondary education experience in the 1990s in two catholic missionary schools in ghana, st. louis secondary school and st. rose secondary school. as part of her education, she actually experienced a name change in order to “fulfill” the apparently pious requirement of a christian first name and a paternal surname. upon entry into the school she acquired a “good” baptismal name, mary, and her father’s surname, owusu (even though children lineage is identified through the mother). both these name changes were imposed on her through a christian western education system. thus, she entered school as akosua seiwaa, her ghanaian forename and maternal surname, and left mary owusu her christian and paternal name (owusu, 2007). in addition, owusu’s secondary school, based on the british system, gave her two experiences with history as a subject. in order to participate in the ordinary level exams (o levels) administered by waec, history students were required to study british and european history for one part of the exam. the second part assessed student knowledge of west african history in two segments. the first segment essentially portrayed british colonial activities in west africa as positive. the second segment covered ghanaian independence. advanced level history formed a continuation of the european and british histories with a slight variation in the african component, which included her specializations in both christianity and islam’s influence in west africa. she gained little knowledge in the history of her own country, ghana, before entering the university (owusu, 2007). owusu experienced neocolonial indoctrination. in addition, all of owusu’s knowledge of her asante ethnicity came outside formal schooling. anything on ethnic identity or history finds little coverage in the syllabus or textbooks and nothing in the post-colonial era. her knowledge of the asante’s role in the tast came at the university level. as discussed in more detail later, this is perhaps in hoping to maintain, or advance, ghanaian national unity. contemporary textbooks. though contemporary textbooks focus more on ghana they do not address the tast or colonialism with much breadth or context. professor bayo holsey (2008) writes ghanaians around cape coast and elmina “are regularly assailed with european popular and academic historical narratives about the slave trade” (8). the textbooks, though written by ghanaians, assail students with a similar neo-colonial mentality. vincent okyere, a ghanaian, wrote topics on early african and ghanaian history for senior secondary schools. it serves as one of early textbooks for senior secondary schools written in 1996. mr. okyere, ghanaian educated, teaches at a senior secondary school in accra. he previously taught at mfantsiman girl’s secondary school in saltpond, which the authors visited. in topics, okyere amazes in his language involving the european slave castles and forts along ghana’s coast. okyere (1996) writes, “these structures were meant to protect the inmates from attacks by their enemies – black or white, and to serve as warehouses where their goods were safely kept. apart from goods, the castles at cape coast and elmina served as bases for slaves” (222) how passé can one be about these structures? in the eleven pages covering the “coming of the europeans” slavery gains mention two times, once in the above sentence and the 14 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) other offhandedly, “hawkins [explorer john hawkins] took home some slaves.” he carefully notes the friction the “trade” brought to the gold coast and he specifies what people in ghana “gained” from the slave trade like sugar cane, avocado, etc., but never mentions the tast until the end. in his final section, “the slave trade” okyere addresses the tast and some of its injustices, but not until the last page of the book (okyere 1996, 222-26 & 240). the textbook currently used by many schools is okyere’s ghana: a historical survey (2000). okyere takes on the slave trade and its impact very early in this work. he differentiates between african and chattel slavery and spends time noting its impact on the country. he ably narrates how the tast made many ghanaian merchants wealthy, but also how it negated the pursuit of other economic activity. the slave trade, when ended, would not only deprive the country of labor, but also of other productive economic activities, such as gold production and the training of craftsmen. the trade also eliminated a lot of farmers who found the slave trade more lucrative (okyere 2000, 28-31). okyere’s book does not address the violence related to the trade, the slave trade’s history beyond ghana’s coast nor the contemporary impact of the tast such as the diaspora or its impact on global economics. nevertheless, his second text serves as a vast improvement over the first and is still widely used even though it is over a decade old. though okyere’s second text does a good job of showing the economic devastation of the tast on ghana he does not do the same in dealing with post-tast colonization. his narrative reflects the influence of colonization on ghanaian educators. he, as do many indigenous authors, portray missionary activity as positive for helping enforce the 1874 slave emancipation ordinance, promoting western-style education, putting native languages in written form, and introducing western-style medicine and hygiene (okyere 2000, 48-49). nothing negative comes out about the loss of culture, racism, violence, economic disadvantage, environmental impact from the mining of natural resources or loss of indigenous tradition due to colonial occupation. even though okyere’s recent work came out in 2000, only two of the books in his small bibliography come from the 1990s and most of the works come from the 1960s, all written by europeans. the text is colonial in its main approach to the british occupation of ghana (okyere 2000, 292-93). not nearly the most popular, but the most afrocentric text is j. k. flynn and r. addo – fening’s history: for senior secondary schools. the authors pronounce the lack of indigenous writing of ghanaian history as “racist” (flynn 2002, 116). the first part of the text gives an indepth look at the origins of africa and its west coast. they start the book’s section on the “coming of the europeans” with “we now know that the people of the ancient west africa kingdom [ghana] had a civilization at a time when other peoples in europe were backward and primitive” (99). the authors note the many sources and academic disciplines used to compose history beyond the written word to affirm the extensive history in west africa (flynn 2002, 103). the text gives a balanced history of all forms of slavery that affected the country. they point out the positives and negatives of colonialism, but not the long-term impact of the tast in africa or the americas. even this most historically balanced text disregards the effects of the tast and colonialism that remain so apparent, yet so ignored, in ghanaian society today. despite these concerns this text proves a big advancement over brown’s and okyere’s books in the past few decades. the teachers teacher interviews were conducted in the cape coast municipal district in the central region, which holds reportedly the best schools in the country, save achimota in accra. the central 15 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) region has the highest number of secondary schools with the largest enrollments even though it is not the most populous region. the region also has the highest percentage of university-trained teachers of all regions, except the sparsely populated northern and upper west regions. the central region also has the greatest number of classrooms and writing places in all the country’s secondary schools. the cape coast municipal district serves as the epicenter of top class secondary school education in ghana. though full of secondary schools and a major university, ironically the central region forms one of the poorer areas in the country. its school population is augmented by an influx of wealthy students both at the secondary and college level during the school year, particularly at the university of cape coast (ucc), which enrolls 24,000 students and serves as the country’s primary teaching college. students who attend ucc to become educators receive quite adequate training. they take classes in content and pedagogy, and complete student teaching requirements. however, many education students have little desire to enter teaching because the ghanaian upper class does not respect the profession. any college student is upper class by ghanaian standards. students’ university education mostly serves as a launching pad for graduate school or working in a family business. because of the shortage of students of university educated students in the teaching field, a majority of ghanaian teachers have only a secondary school education and many university graduates teach for only one-year as part of their post college graduation national service requirement. however, since the authors interviewed teachers at schools placed in the top echelon of the nation, they all held university degrees mostly from ucc. the teacher interviews were conducted at local schools. the edifices are generally large cinderblock buildings surrounding a dirt courtyard. they contrast with american high schools in the general disrepair, large campuses (more like a small college), lack of computers, lack of security or need for it (at one school a hunter walked through the campus shouldering a rifle), student deference to adults, and massive stacks of papers in the teachers’ lounges. each of the schools visited had other similarities, such as admission requirements based on standardized exams. the vast majority of students did not come from the cape coast area and boarded at or near their schools. due largely to tradition, the cape coast municipal district holds many boarding schools that draw top students from all areas of ghana, except the largely muslim northern part of the country. adisadel college is a typical example of the typical cape coast “college” as some secondary schools in ghana are called. the all male boarding school has 2,000 students with only 5 percent coming from the area and only 20 percent of the student body taking any history. adisadel’s website lists wassce scores, which are statistically some of the nation’s highest to aid its prestige. within the cape coast municipal district of ghana, eleven history teachers at eleven different secondary schools were interviewed. those questioned included a wide range of age and experience. though all the teachers were ghanaian, about one half were new (1 to 3 years) and the other half had over a decade of teaching experience. the gender breakdown was 50/50. in general out of the teachers interviewed, only one had travelled abroad (to the united states), almost all lived on the school campus, and all were classified as middle class. the interviewers asked the teachers a standard list of questions about how they taught the tast. the authors made specific inquiries about: slavery’s different variations, slavery in the americas, the transnationalism of the slave trade, and the tast’s contemporary impact. the 16 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) questions also focused on the interactions between europeans and ghanaians in the trade. the interviews took about 1 to 1.5 hours each. unfortunately, due to time constraints, the interviewers did not ask about colonialism. a variety of information was garnered from the interviews. they all teach slavery because it is a common question on the wassce exam. teachers, especially the younger ones, stated any subject not on the syllabus was not covered. all but one of the educators understood the basics of slavery in ghana and could differentiate between chattel and indigenous slavery. several believed the necessity for african slavery came from “weak indians” who had died from disease in the americas. some teachers, particularly those with more experience, claimed to cover all the wreckage the tast brought. one listed eight negative effects of the tast without mentioning a single positive. only one teacher addressed the tast beyond ghana’s borders or its contemporary impact. responses to one question demonstrated that the “blame the african” theory has credence. the question asked was “on a scale of 1 to 10, one being ghanaians being completely to blame for the tast and ten being europeans completely to blame, what number would you give.” most gave twos and threes, putting the blame on their african predecessors. one instructor who gave an 8 to the europeans did so because europeans were more “enlightened and should have known better.” another stated, “the africans masterminded everything.” one teacher’s objective includes students “recognizing the positive and negative effects…on ghana arising from contact with europeans.” another teacher did the same. this comes straight from the ges syllabus. the responses faulting their ancestral countrymen reflect the neocolonial mentality of the wassce exam, the syllabus, the teachers, and the textbooks. the interviews shape a gloomy echo of the obvious inadequacies of the ghanaian education system. the lack of in-depth instruction of the tast exhibited by most teachers reflects a general paucity of appreciation in ghana for the effects of the tast on their own nation, africa or even how the tast led to the creation of the atlantic world and its resultant globalization. even the country’s most famous historian, albert adu boahen, gives a nuanced perspective of responsibility, “the slave trade did not confer any benefits of any kind on west africa,” but he blames african greed for the tast without indicting europeans (boahen 1986, 109). discussion: diaspora lost? academics deserve some blame. professors may be the most erudite, but where is the hegemony? do professors surfeit themselves for the sake of the masses? university professors have responsibility to train future secondary school educators and even more to edify the citizenry. it was therefore sobering to see the ‘protégé’ and discover that the context of the tast was lost. those at the university often too narrowly focus their research. the impact of the trans-atlantic slave trade has to be passed down from the universities for now that translation seems lost outside of african studies programs which remain on the fringes of university enrollments. tourism has become a major effort by the government in order to attract foreign dollars, but also to enlighten the world about the tast through the slave castles and forts. over a hundred slave castles and forts dot the largely undisturbed ghanaian coastline. ironically, one of the castles, the christiansborg castle, remains the working office and residence of the ghanaian president. 17 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) in the cape coast municipal district, most teachers took their classes on field trips to the elmina and cape coast slave castles. in 2000, just over 34,000 visitors toured the cape coast castle with elmina castle’s guestbook nearly parallel. seventy percent of the visitors were nationals with students making up 60 percent of the ghanaian sightseers. the government and even the smithsonian institution have made the castles major centers of tast education. the tours do not sugarcoat the tast and the horrors that took place there (holsey 2008, 178). though ghanaian students visit the castles, especially those enrolled in schools located within cape coast; the ges syllabus makes no mention of them (shumway 2011, 9). though the two historical sites are outside the classroom, the impetus for tast education has begun. to broaden the importance of transnationalism and the tast and colonialism’s impact one should understand contemporary problems/issues. the contemporary impact of the tast becomes obvious when one looks at the statistics on poverty, infant mortality, life expectancy, etc. ghana ranks fairly low worldwide in these areas and well below western countries that forced the migration of an estimated 11 million enslaved africans. though ghanaian teachers and textbooks mention the fact that the country lost an entire generation of able workers due to the tast who would have contributed to the economy, they fail to connect this to poverty in ghana and for that matter africa. for all intents and purposes the syllabus, the textbooks, and most teachers interviewed seemed unaware of the undeniable evidence in existing scholarly literature of the magnitude or of the demographical impact on africa of the tast. historian david northrup’s extensive work on the slave trade in africa clearly makes the connection from the tast to current day tribulations in west africa (northrup 2002, xiii). teaching the tast from a broader worldview will only help students in comprehending how slavery and colonization still affects them. the wreckage the tast left upon ghana and africa served to bolster and industrialize the west. for example, explaining how slaves added to the wealth of the united states and how that has helped make the united states fiscally prosperous to this day would be transnational and important. that consideration can aid students in comprehending how the capitalism of human chattel brought upon their continent was not advantageous. the tast and the oppression it created have not been overcome. today capitalist and neocolonial encroachment continues. the west has injected and injects itself all over africa, mostly for self-interest. for example, western and eastern corporations have for years extracted gold from ghana’s interior mines. one south african family living in ghana for five years serves as a practical example. the husband works for an american gold mining company. the family had sold everything they owned in south africa and were banking his entire salary because all his living expenses and a stipend were paid while he worked in ghana. his job involved repairing, monitoring and ordering tires for mining vehicles. could not a ghanaian be employed to carry this out? another example of neocolonialism or neo-imperialism comes in how the ghanaian government has decided to allow foreign oil companies to help in the extraction of the country’s newly found offshore oil reserves. this has led to ghana receiving a much smaller percentage of revenues in order to remove the oil immediately rather than wait for their own people to gain the technical knowhow to extract the petroleum. these examples serve to illustrate how apt the tast’s history is when informing ghanaians about their own agency. relevance of the past must reach the ghanaian classroom to enrich and empower the youth of ghana by educating them on the dangers of slavery, colonialism and neocolonialism. 18 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) the dialogue most ghanaians won’t have the contemporary effects lead to another point of present-day significance, that of intertribal tensions. as discussed earlier, the most powerful and largest ethnic group in ghana today is the asante. for almost the entire 18 th century the asante rulers primarily, osei tutu and opoku ware, conquered and controlled vast swaths of what today forms modern ghana. the asante still have large sway in ghanaian politics, and their language, twi, dominates the market economy. this dominance in one respect directly relates to the asante “success” in the tast. historians generally agree that the asante became very wealthy and powerful because of its gold reserves and the ingenuity of its leadership, but also largely because of their control of interior slave trade during the tast in ghana. the asante proved the best at supplying the europeans with human beings partly because they received the best guns in return. those guns were then used to capture more humans for export often through bloody wars with other ethnic groups that are today also ghanaian. early on many of these war captives were traded north through the trans-saharan trade routes, but as the tast grew more captives were traded to the coast. because of the asante’s “success” in the tast, it took british colonizers until the early 20 th century to militarily conquer them. the british became so desperate for conquest that they resorted to kidnapping and exiling the asantehene (asante king). none of this, the asante basis for power or british military aggression, gain note in the classroom, the textbooks or the syllabus (brown 1963, p. 70; shumway 2011, 7; boahen 1975, 18). the tast obviously caused a great amount of conflict among the peoples of ghana and left tensions that still linger. other ethnic groups, including some from the akan cluster who are not asante, today live in fear of asante dominance. the same legacy left tensions between the peki ethnic group and its neighbors in the volta and northern regions of ghana and the dagomba and its neighbors. this unhealthy suspicion continues to cause tensions that are manifested in individuals’ choice of political parties and voting patterns. ghana, like most other african countries, has experienced tensions and pockets of violence during elections that often breakdown along ethnic or regional lines. the geographic integration of boarding schools, as discussed earlier, may also account for the lack of context and content involved in teaching the tast. though boarding schools have existed since the colonial era, the government of kwame nkrumah emphasized them so that wealthy students from all over the country would school together. nkrumah thought this melding of students from a variety of ethnicities would quell interethnic tensions. he believed that this lessening would then filter down to the lower classes when students returned home. however, the ghana education system does not address these interethnic apprehensions. they lie just beneath the surface and the foundations relate directly to the history of the tast. the problem of education involving the contemporary context of the tast is nuanced. despite the fact that ghana is a stable nation when compared to most other african countries, the unhealthy misgivings handed down through generations owing to the role played by these erstwhile dominant groups during the tast cannot be overlooked. the authors hypothesize that many ghanaian leaders fear that if educators share with students how the asante dominated the tast, accrued wealth, gained influence and how that legacy still exists, it could create interethnic strains within the school and even the country. asante dominance maybe one reason for the palliating of the tast and colonialism in ghana’s education system. fully informing the populace about the history of tast would be cathartic, but could also spark confrontation or at least that seems the trepidation of those in power. the solution is not silence. ignorance has 19 scott l. stabler and mary owusu _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) never erased violence. it is for this reason that the tast cannot be papered over in the formation of the ghanaian child. a civil dialogue must begin so that ghana’s entire history gains comprehension. schools form a good place to start the conversation. conclusion the lack of contextual understanding of the tast and colonialism are entrenched in ghana’s schools. even the europeans of the era knew the devastation brought upon africa through the tast. a 1730 dutch memorandum announced, “the great quantity of guns and powder that europeans have brought here [west africa] has caused terrible wars…there is very little trade among the coast negroes except in slaves” (blackburn 2011, 86). the authors believe the following five actions would aid in a better understanding of the tast in ghana: 1. schools, at all levels, should encourage a dialogue that addresses the issues of the tast and colonialism and their impact. 2. promote continuing education and professional development for teachers. 3. encourage more local control of what is assessed and how students are assessed. 4. a broader liberal arts education at the secondary level that does not use tracking based on the interests of a teenager. 5. a better connection at the university level between content (history departments) and pedagogy (schools of education) for students. these points will not be easy to instill in ghana, but the authors hope that at least they can spark a dialogue that will bring about change in how the tast is taught. though the article promotes a broader teaching and discussion of the tast, ghanaians have made strides. the relatively newly minted celebrations of panafest and emancipation day lead to increased nationalism. the authors of ghana’s textbooks are nationals and are more nationalistic. the amplification of the castles’ importance, along with other sites like the slave trading posts at assin manso and salaga that seek to elevate the memory of the tast demonstrates the agency of peoples impacted by the very event they seek to enlighten. there is no denying the fact that knowledge of the tast is central to understanding the interactions that have existed between europe, africa, and the americas. it is about human society on these four continents and how it has come to be what it is. this article seeks to make a claim for full and well-rounded knowledge of the tast because the danger of not knowing fully can make present and future generations victims of that evil, slavery. in the words of the historian a. l. rowse, “the trouble with human beings has always been not that they ate of the tree of knowledge but that they did not eat enough of it” (1963, 8). it is our view that teaching a fuller version of the tast forms the only way for educational institutions to contribute properly to preventive knowledge. the message must not get lost in translation--never again should humanity visit such evil on itself. 20 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 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(2007). the mis-education of the ghanaian. in d.e k. amenumey, ed. challenges of education in ghana. accra: woeli publishing services. rodney, walter. (1969). the groundings with my brothers. chicago: frontline distribution international. -----. (2002). “the unequal partnership between africans and europeans,” in northrup ed., the atlantic slave trade. 2 nd ed. problems in world history series. boston: houghton mifflin. 22 atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 3, no. 2 (summer 2013) rowse, a. l. (1963). the use of history. london: the english universities press. shumway, rebecca. (2011). the fante and the trans-atlantic slave trade. rochester, ny: university of rochester. stabler, scott and mary owusu. (2011). global slavery: lost in trans-lation. stanford university’s the black atlantic: colonial and contemporary exchanges conference. retrieved april 14, 2013 from http://history.stanford.edu/events/span-classdate-displaystart-propertydcdate-datatypexsddatetime-content2011-10-28t000000. -----. (2012). atlantic slavery: lost in trans-lation. grand valley state university african diaspora conversation series. retrieved april 14, 2013 from http://www.gvsu.edu/aaas/module-event-view.htm?eventid=cae3376d9c12-4233cc55712fa1b1bfa2. teaching syllabus for social studies. (2007). junior high school. accra: ghana ministry of education and sports. -----. (2008). senior high school. accra: ghana ministry of education and sports. thornton, john. (2002). africa’s effects on the slave trade. in david northrup ed. the atlantic slave trade. 2 nd ed. problems in world history series. boston: houghton mifflin. ward, w.e.f. (1991). my africa. accra: ghana universities press. http://history.stanford.edu/events/span-classdate-display-start-propertydcdate-datatypexsddatetime-content2011-10-28t000000 http://history.stanford.edu/events/span-classdate-display-start-propertydcdate-datatypexsddatetime-content2011-10-28t000000 http://www.gvsu.edu/aaas/module-event-view.htm?eventid=cae3376d-%099c12-4233-cc55712fa1b1bfa2 http://www.gvsu.edu/aaas/module-event-view.htm?eventid=cae3376d-%099c12-4233-cc55712fa1b1bfa2 teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria. saheed olanrewaju jabaar faculty of education yusuf maitama sule university, kano nigeria. abstract the objective of the study was to examine the prevailing teaching style and educational philosophies of teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria, and to determine whether there was a relationship between the two variables. descriptive survey research design was used in the conduct of the study. the population of the study consisted of a sample of 124 secondary school teachers in kano metropolis. robert leahy philosophic inventory (1995) was adapted as data collection instrument. the data obtained were analyzed using percentage, mean, t-test and anova. findings of the study reveal that lecture method was the most frequently used teaching method by teachers while essentialism was the predominating educational philosophy of teachers. a moderate positive relationship exists between teachers’ preferred teaching style and their educational philosophies but no statistically significant difference was found in the teaching styles of the male and female teachers in kano metropolis. similarly, there was no significant difference in teachers’ teaching styles with respect to their qualifications. among other things, the study recommends continuous professional development of teachers through regular in-service training in order to equip them with modern and contemporary educational philosophies and teaching styles. keywords: teaching styles, educational philosophy, teachers, kano nigeria introduction it is imperative for teachers to critically recognize and utilize best teaching practices. teaching requires knowledge of the subject matter and the skills to effectively engage learners. the best teachers conceptualize teaching as anything that might promote student learning. many educators believe that learning is the purpose of all education. however, educators differ substantially in how african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 3 2018 pages 37 49 teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria 38 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49 they engineer the learning environment through their classroom teaching styles and educational philosophies. some educators consider the role of the teacher to be transmission of knowledge through a teacher-centered approach, while others consider the role of the teacher to be leading the student to construct knowledge through a learner-centered approach (mccarthy & anderson, 2000). the teacher’s role in the learning process is often defined by educational philosophy. as such, the manner in which teachers view their role in the classroom, how they view the student-teacher relationship and the method of instruction, all reflect their philosophy and beliefs about education (petress, 2003). at the most basic level, philosophy is a love, quest or desire for wisdom, knowledge and understanding. it raises basic and fundamental questions about what we do and why we do it. a philosophy of education is a set of ideas and beliefs that guide teacher’s actions and provides a framework educational practices. a clear understanding of philosophy provides a solid foundation for effective analysis of educational practices and professional growth (conti, 2004). methods of teaching according to dada (1999) relates to what a teacher does in order to provide suitable learning experiences that help the learner to interact appropriately with the subject matter in order to bring about desired, effective learning. conti (2004) describes teaching style as the qualities and behaviors displayed by a teacher which are consistent from situation to situation regardless of curriculum content. in order words, teaching styles refer to various approaches teachers adopt in the course of teaching a particular subject and what a teacher believes is best practices to enhance learners’ learning. teaching methods and styles emanate from specific philosophy of education whether the teacher is aware of it or not. the five traditional western philosophies which form the foundation of most educational practices are idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, and reconstructionism. these western philosophies serve as a foundation and perspective for analysis of educational practices (ozmon, 2004). the five educational philosophies have each been categorized as influencing either teachercentered or learner-centered teaching styles (conti, 2004). teacher-centered teaching styles are consistent with traditional philosophies of idealism and realism, and the educational philosophies of liberalism and behavioralism. learner-centered styles on the other hand, are consistent with philosophies of pragmatism, existentialism and reconstructionism, progressivism, humanism and realism (conti, 2004; zinn, 2004). saheed olanrewaju jabaar 39 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49. teacher-centered style is defined as a formal, controlled, and autocratic instructional style which assumes that learners are passive. learner-centered style on the other hand, is defined as a pattern of instruction that is responsive, problem-centered, democratic and employs a collaborative learning environment which enables critical thinking rather than mere collection of facts. (weimer, 2002) a number of studies have been conducted on teachers’ teaching styles and their educational philosophies. uyangor et’ al (2016) conducted a study on student teachers at necatibey university faculty of education and teachers working in karesi and altieylal provinces of balikesir in turkey during the 2014 – 2015 academic year to determine their preferred teaching philosophies. it was reported that progressivism and re-constructionism, which are based on contemporary approach to education, are preferred to essentialism and perennialism philosophies, which advocate more traditional approaches. ghazieni (2014) investigated the educational philosophy and philosophical mindedness of iranian physical education and sport science teachers. it was reported that experimentalism and realism were the first and second educational philosophy of iranian physical education lecturers. it was also reported that comprehensiveness, penetration and flexibility are their first, second and third philosophical mindedness preference respectively. bicer (2013) conducted a study to determine teachers’ educational philosophies about teaching and learning activities in a turkish state university education department’s pedagogical training program. according to the study, philosophy group teacher candidate adopted the existentialist philosophy the most while they adopted the essentialist philosophy the least. it also reported that there were no differences among teacher candidate in their educational philosophies on the basis of gender and educational status variables, except that more female teacher candidates adopted essentialism. considering the importance of education, there is the need to make sure that students are properly taught. the poor achievement of students in public secondary schools has been associated with the use of poor teaching styles and lack of retention by the students. in view of these, education researchers have always been searching for better teaching styles and fitting education philosophy of teachers to enhance students’ achievement. the purpose of this study, therefore, is to describe and examine the teaching styles and the educational philosophies of teachers in public secondary schools in kano metropolis, so also to determine the extent to teachers are adopting contemporary teaching styles that can promote learning and students’ retention of the subject matter. teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria 40 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49 the scope of the study will be limited to public secondary schools within kano metropolis. the study will be specifically carried out in six randomly selected public secondary schools, one from each local government of the metropolis. the study seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. what are the prevailing teaching styles of the teachers in the public secondary schools in kano metropolis? 2. what are the prevailing educational philosophy of teachers in public secondary schools in kano metropolis? 3. is there a relationship between teachers preferred teaching styles and their educational philosophies? the study seeks to address the null hypothesis which states: is there a difference in teacher’s teaching style in the basis of gender, qualification sex? methodology research design this study adopted the use of descriptive survey research design. the design was considered suitable for the study since data will be collected from the respondents through the use of questionnaire. descriptive research gives a picture of a situation or a population. the population of the study consists of all the secondary school teachers in kano metropolis. there are nine local governments within kano metropolis. six out of the nine local government were randomly selected. thus, for this study, secondary school teachers within kano metropolis constitutes the population of the study. the sampling technique adopted in this study is the simple random sampling. simple random sampling technique as a form of probability sampling which gives each member of the population equal and independent chance of being selected and the selection of an individual does not in any way affect the selection of the other. the sample size of this study was 124 randomly selected teachers across the six schools under study. the sample size was drawn using table for the determination of sample size developed by researchers’ advisors (2006). thus, the figure (124) serves as representative of the larger population. table 3.1 provides a breakdown of the study population. saheed olanrewaju jabaar 41 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49. table 3.1 sample of the study schools number of teachers governors’ college 36 army day secondary school bukabu 36 government girl secondary school magwan 34 government girl secondary school kofar mazugal 37 government secondary school kofar na’isa 37 government girl secondary school hausawa 34 total 214 the researcher used structured questionnaire to collect data for the study. the researcher adapted robert leahy philosophic inventory (1995) as data collection instrument for determining educational philosophies of teachers while the aspect of teachers’ teaching styles were developed by the researcher. the questionnaire consisted of three sections, a, the bio-data of respondents, b, teaching philosophy and c, teaching style. the questionnaire was developed on four points likert scale ranging from 4 strongly agree to 1 strongly disagree. items in the questionnaire were generated in line with the objective of the study. the instrument was validated by two experts in the philosophy of education and two experts in instructional technology in order to check the suitability of the language and appropriateness of the questions. reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach’s alpha to determine the internal consistency of the instrument. this was done after the instrument was administered on a few respondents who were not part of the target population. the internal consistency reliability coefficient obtained for the instrument was .825 and .849 for sections b and c respectively. these indicated that the instrument was reliable enough. the data was analyzed using excel and statistical package of social sciences (spss). frequency count, percentages, mean, independent sample t-test and analysis of variance (anova) were used in analyzing the data and determining the differences between the study variables. data presentation and analysis the participants in this research are the teachers of senior secondary school students in kano metropolis. the demographic information of the respondents is presented on table 4.2.1 below: table 4.2.1: demographic characteristics of the respondents (124) teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria 42 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49 variable level frequencies % gender male female 62 62 50% 50% qualification nce b.a/sc/b.ed m.sc. 71 35 18 57.3% 28.2% 14.5% experience less than 1year 1-3 years 4-5 years 5above 21 28 27 48 16.9% 22.6% 21.8% 38.7% source: field study (2017) table 4.2.1 above presents the distribution of the respondents based on gender qualification and experience. the distribution based on gender shows that 62 (50%) of the respondents were male while 62 (50%) of the respondents were female. distribution based on qualification shows that 71 (57.3%) of the respondents were nce holders, 35 (28.8%) of them were graduate teachers while only 18(14.5%) were masters degree holders. similarly, distribution based on experience shows that majority of the respondents 48 (38.7%) have a teaching experience of 5 years and above. those with less than 1 year teaching experience are the least 21 (19.9) while those with 1-3 years and 4-5 years teaching experience were 28 (22.6%) and 27 (21.8%) respectively. the results are presented under each research question/hypothesis and interpreted in relation to previous studies. research question one (1): what are the prevailing teaching styles of the teachers in the public secondary schools in kano metropolis? to answer the above question, the teachers’ teaching styles were measured in this study through the administration of designed and validate questionnaire. the results of teachers’ teaching styles are presented on table 4.3.1 below: saheed olanrewaju jabaar 43 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49. table 4.3.1: teaching styles in public schools s/n teaching style scores f % mean (sd) 1 lecture method 8 49 39.5% 3.3 (0.74) 2 demonstration method 8 20 16.1% 2.9 (0.82) 3 activity method 8 20 16.1% 3.0 (0.80) 4 questioning method 8 18 14.5% 2.9 (0.79) 5 discovery method 8 17 13.7% 3.1 (0.77) 124 100% 3.08 (0.57) source: field study (2017) table 4.3.1 describes the teaching styles of teachers in public schools. the table indicates that lecture method is the most frequent style of teaching used in public schools with the highest frequency of 49 (39.5%). the table also reveals that discovery style of teaching is the least used method of teaching in public school with frequency of only 17 (13.7%). demonstration and activity methods of teaching styles are the second most used style of teaching in public schools with frequency of 20 (16.6%). this finding is consistent with the submission of abimbola (2008) who opined that lecture method is still the most widely used form of teaching in nigerian schools. he submitted that lecture method is still the best method for teaching students new concepts and principles. in the view of siagh and rana (2004), the lecture method has received more criticisms than any teaching strategy yet it continues to be used extensively. this indicates that the majority of teachers in nigerian schools still consider lecture method as one or the most efficient ways of teaching. this is not unconnected with the fact teachers are likely to teach the way they have been taught. research question two (2): what are the prevailing educational philosophies of teachers in public secondary schools in kano metropolis? to answer the above question, the teachers’ educational philosophies were measured in this study through administration of designed and validate questionnaire. the results of teachers’ educational philosophies are presented on table 4.3.2 below: teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria 44 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49 table 4.3.2: teachers educational philosophy in public schools s/n educational philosophy scores f % mean (sd) 1 essentialism 18 -20 48 38.7% 16.33 (3.07) 2 progressivism 18 -20 24 19.4% 15.69 (3.14) 3 existentialism 18 -20 23 18.5% 18.15 (3.47) 4 reconstructionism 18 -20 29 23.4% 14.79 (3.11) 124 100% 16.24 (2.28) source: field study (2017) table 4.3.2 ranked essentialism as the most prevailing educational philosophy of teachers in public secondary schools in kano metropolis with frequency value of 48 (38.7%). the table also reveals that progressivism is the second most prevailing philosophy while existentialism is the least with. 18.5%. this finding is not consistent with uyangor (2016) who reported that progressivism and reconstructionism philosophies which are based on contemporary approach to education, are preferred essentialism which advocate traditional approaches. the finding of this study is not consistent with the findings of ghazieni (2014) which shows that experimentalism and realism were the first and second educational philosophy of iranian physical education lecturers. in the same vein, bicer (2013) investigated teacher candidates’ educational philosophies about teaching and learning in turkey and reported that a majority of the teachers adopted the existentialist philosophy while a minority adopted essentialist philosophy. this is also inconsistent with the findings of this study. this may be attributed to the fact that most of the studies were conducted in asia and the global north where contemporary philosophies of progressivism and existentialism are gaining popularity and teachers have access to modern and contemporary information about teaching and learning. most saheed olanrewaju jabaar 45 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49. teachers in kano metropolis still hold on to the traditional philosophy and method of teaching probably as a result of lack of information about current developments in education or as a result of their training while they were students. research question three (3): is there a relationship between teachers preferred teaching styles and their educational philosophies? table 4.3.3: correlation between teaching styles and educational philosophies teaching styles 124 3.08 0.57 0.489 122 0.00 educational philosophies 124 16.24 2.28 source: field study (2017) the results in table 4.3.3 indicates that relationship between teachers’ preferred teaching style and their educational philosophies is positive though moderate with r = 0.48. it also indicates that there is a significant relationship between teaching styles and educational philosophies with p – value of 0.00 which is less than 0.05 confidence level. this finding is in line with the submission of dada (1999) who established a link between educational philosophy and teaching styles. he submitted that educational philosophy is rooted in two premises – what is considered to be the truth in terms of education and what man’s original nature is. when a prospective educator enrolls in the course of the philosophy of education or the foundations of education, they learn a myriad of theories postulated by child psychologists, educators, ethicists and philosophers. by implication whatever their beliefs are in terms of man, nature of the universe, nature of society, values and the like would influence their teaching style. hypothesis one (ho1): there is no significant difference in teacher’s teaching style on the basis of gender and qualification. to test the above hypothesis, the teaching style scores of female and male teachers as well as their scores on the basis of their qualification were used to conduct an independent sample t test for gender and anova for qualification, the results of the analysis are presented on table 4.3.2 below; test variables n mean sd r cal df p value teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria 46 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49 table 4.3.4: teaching style in public school (gender) teaching style male 62 3.11 0.53 0.683 122 0.496 accept female 62 3.04 0.62 field study (2017) the results presented in table 4.3.4 indicate that there is no statistically significant difference in the teaching styles of male and female teachers in kano metropolis. the mean score for male teachers is 3.11 while the mean scores of female teachers is 15.11. the difference is not significant because the sig (2 tailed) which is 0.496 is greater than 0.05. this finding is consistent with the findings of bicer (2013) that there were no differences among the teachers surveyed in their educational philosophies on the basis of their gender. table 4.3.5: teachers’ teaching style (qualifications) test variables sum of squares df mean square f sig. ho2 between groups 1.865 2 0.932 2.882 0.060 teaching style within groups 39.143 121 0.323 accept total 41.007 123 source: field study (2017) the result for the test for differences using the one – way anova obtained, as shown in table 4.3.2, shows that the f statistics (121) = 2.88, and p value = 0.06, α = 0.05 the result of the analysis reveals that the teaching styles of the teachers are not significantly different with respect to their qualifications because the p – value is greater than the alpha value of 0.05. the null hypothesis which says that there is no significant difference in teachers’ teaching styles with respect to their qualifications is accepted. this finding is consistent with bicer’s (2013) study which reported that gender n mean s.d. t cal df p value h0 2 saheed olanrewaju jabaar 47 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49. there were no differences among the teachers surveyed in their educational philosophies on the basis of their educational status variable (qualification) based on the findings of the study, the following inferences were made: 1. lecture method was the most frequently used teaching style among public school teachers in kano metropolis. 2. essentialism was the most prevailing educational philosophy of teachers in public secondary schools in kano metropolis. 3. a statistically significant positive relationship exists between teachers’ teaching style and their educational philosophies. 4. there is no statistically significant difference in the teaching styles of teachers on the basis of gender and qualification of teachers in kano metropolis. 5.4 recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: 1. there should be continuous professional development of teachers through regular in-service training in order to equip them with modern and contemporary philosophies and teaching methods. 2. secondary school teachers should be employing a teaching method that would facilitate the achievement of lessons’ objective. thus they should avoid uncritical use of a given method in all their lessons. 3. secondary school teachers should adopt philosophical assumptions that fit in well with contemporary approaches to education. this greatly facilitate easy transfer of knowledge. 4. workshop and seminars should be organized for secondary school teachers of all cadres and gender in order to expose them to contemporary educational philosophies and teaching styles so as enhance their competence in teaching. reference abe, t.o. (2014). the effect of teachers’ qualification on students’ academic performance in mathematics. sky journal of educational research 2(1) retrieved on the 16th july 2015 from www.skyjournal.org/sjer teaching styles and educational philosophies of secondary school teachers in kano metropolis, nigeria 48 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49 abimbola, o. (2004 jan 20). schooling issues: ict for teaching and learning. department of education, employment and workplace relations. retrieved from www.emeraldinsight.com/journal.htm adhan, a. a.& smith, e.(2010). the social functions of education in a developing country: the case of malaysia. journal of intercultural education 12(3):325-337. bicer, b. (2013). philosophy group teacher candidates’ preferences with regard to educational philosophies of teaching and learning activities. anthropologist, 16 (3), 428 conti, g. (2004). identifying your teaching style. in m.w.galbraith (ed.), adult learning methods (3rd ed.).malabra, fl: kreiger publishing. cook, c. (2008). philosophical foundations of us education. retrieved from www.myeducationlab.com on the 12th july 2016 dada, a. (1999). teacher and the curriculum. ibadan: tajama general enterprises. ghazieni, f.g. (2014). preference of educational philosophy and philosophical mindedness of iranian physical education and sport science lecturers. annals of applied sport science, 2(1), 81-86. retrieved from www.aassjournal.com kauchak, d. and eggen, p. (2011). introduction to teaching: becoming a professional (4th ed.). boston: pearson education, inc. mccarthy, j. p, & anderson, l. (2000). active learning techniques versus traditional teaching styles: two experiments from history and political science. innovative higher education, (24) 4, 279-294, (an 14990493) noddings, n. (1995). philosophy of education. usa: westview incorporated. ozmon, h.a., and craver, s.m. (2003) philosophical foundations of education. upper saddle river, nj: pearson education, incorporated. petress, k. (2003). an educational philosophy guides the pedagogical process. college student journal. (37)1, 128-134 robert, l. (1995 feb.2015). becoming a teacher. retrieved from http:// www.myeducationlab.com rocha. (2014). a primer for philosophy and education. oregon: cascade books. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journal.htm http://www.myeducationlab.com/ http://www.myeducationlab.com/ saheed olanrewaju jabaar 49 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 37 – 49. scheffler, i. (1960). language of education. springfield iii: charles c. thomas. siagh, o. &rana, i. (2004). aristotle, the politics of aristotle: with an introduction, two prefatory essays and notes critical and explanatory, clarendon press, 1887. uyangor, n. &sahan, h.h. (2016). an analysis of educational philosophies and teacher competencies. international journal of current research. vol.8 issue 04. retrieved from www.journalcra.com weimer, m. (2002). learner – centered teaching: five changes to practice. san francisco: jossey bass. zinn, l.m. (2004). exploring your philosophical orientation. in m.w. galbraith (ed.), adult learning methods (3rd ed.), 39-74. malbar, fl:kreiger publishing company http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1039150189.html?fmt=ai(assessed 2017-04-05) http://www.journalcra.com/ http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1039150189.html?fmt=ai http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1039150189.html?fmt=ai teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya. kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru kenyatta university abstract this article presents the findings from our investigation of teachers’ characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary pupils. the study was conducted in 83 schools in kibra sub-county, kenya. questionnaires and observation schedules were used to collect data. data was analysed using spss. the main findings of the study indicate that teaching strategies that were mostly used by pre-primary school teachers were code-switching, examples, repetition, substitution and explanation. on the other hand, questions, direction, expansion of children words and contrast were the least used teaching strategies when teaching oral language skills. the study revealed that the there is a slight correlation between the type of training teachers received and the teaching strategies they used as most of the dicece (district centres for early childhood education, kenya) trained teachers used more teaching strategies when teaching oral skills compared to non-dicece teachers. the findings also revealed that there was some correlation between teacher’s academic qualifications and their use of a few teaching strategies. there was also some correlation between teaching experience and the use of a few teaching strategies. since the strategies used by pre-primary school teachers under the study were less than half of the recommended teaching strategies to promote oral skills, the study recommends that teachers should be encouraged to use more in structural strategies to improve children’s oral language skills. keywords: oral language skills acquisition, kenya education, kenya preschool, kenya early childhood education, preschools, teaching methods and determinants. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 3 2018 pages 50 63 kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 51 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. introduction development of oral language skills is a precursor to writing and reading acquisition. according to yaman (2007), this implies that supporting oral language skills in early childhood will promote better performance in literacy. atkinson (2011), assert that supporting oral language skills in early and later childhood contributes to better development in comprehension skills in later years. similarly, oral language skills have also been found to be leading to effective learning of vocabulary and comprehension skills (chowdhury, raqib, and phan, 2008). in view of expected long term benefit of early oral language skills acquisition, there was need to focus on oral language skills to boost the compression skills for children. hall, quinn and gollnick (2014) argue that, oral language competency forms the foundation for reading, writing as well as for learning in other activity areas. children find it much easier than adults to acquire oral language skills because of their high adaptation capacity. the pre-primary school years are crucial for the development of children’s oral language (cummins, 2007). bang (2003) ascertains that remarkable and rapid developments in spoken language take place during the preprimary school years. given the importance of oral language skills in developing language, researchers have sought to identify and evaluate teachers’ interaction styles. pre-primary school teachers, who guide the child’s attention, lead those who label, describe, or comment upon objects, actions or events to which the child is currently attending are generally facilitative of children’s oral language development (atkinson, 2011). on the other hand, pre-primary teachers with more directive, responding styles that seek to control children’s communicative behaviour and to change their focus of attention inhibit development of oral skills. athiemoolam (2004) opines that appropriate teaching strategies enhance oral language skills development. studies by atkinson, 2011 in uk; bang, 2003 in south korea; chowdhury, raqib, and phan, 2008 in bangladesh identified some appropriate instructional strategies that promote oral language skills development among pre-primary school children. these include role play, scaffolding, repeating, giving contrasting words and phrases, giving examples, substituting words and phrases with learning materials, expanding on what has been said by children, asking questions, explaining words and phrases, code-switching and giving direction as appropriate when teaching oral language at the pre-primary school level. however, factors such as teachers’ training, experience, and academic teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya 52 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. qualification have been cited to be the major factors influencing the use of the above teaching strategies (chowdhury, raqib, and phan, 2008). brown (2001) in his study on approaches used by teachers to teach english language in new york suggests that teachers should make time and develop the confidence and skills to hold conversation with young children regularly through books, songs, stories, and experiences. brown argues that, using children’s interests as a basis for conversation, teachers should speak courteously to children and plan or take advantage of spontaneous opportunities to talk with each child informally. they should also refrain from talking judgmentally about children or others to them or in front of them, show affection and sincere interest in children, and send consistent verbal and non-verbal messages. in addition, he urged that teachers should invite children into extended conversations with peers and adults and listen attentively to what children have to say. however, most teachers in kenya often ignore the child’s mother tongue as they use a second language (english in kenya) as the medium of instruction when teaching oral language skills (harrow and mpoche, 2008). according to breen and candlin (2001), second languages (english, french, german, spanish, and italian among others) are the most used language in primary schools in europe, asia, and america. these second languages are used for instruction and assessment of all subjects. most children are expected to have achieved second language competency as early as their entry in preschool despite the fact that most families use their first language at home. this trend is similar in african countries where the language of instruction and national language is inherited from colonial rulers. for example, in most west and central african countries, french is the main language while east, south and north african countries use english and portuguese. according to owólabí, dasylva and banjo (2004), the nigerian ministry of education has incorporated such languages into the national school curriculum. athiemoolam (2004) also notes that, second languages have taken central stage in teachers’ training and children’s teaching. this study therefore, strived to find out whether teachers’ characteristics influence their use of appropriate teaching strategies in developing oral language skills among preprimary school children in kenya. studies carried out in kenya have recommended the use of the language of the catchment area or mother tongue as the medium of instruction (gok, 2000; mwathe, 2003; odera, 2011). this is important because young children first come to school familiar only with their mother tongue or a language spoken in their home environment. the kenya primary school curriculum by the kenya kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 53 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. institute of curriculum development (kicd) emphasizes the importance of english language as both a compulsory and examinable subject (odera, 2011). the primary school english syllabus postulates that fluency in all aspects of the english language will enable children to perform better in all other subjects whose medium of instruction is english (kie, 2006). this therefore, suggest that teachers should adopt appropriate methodology that enhances children’s listening and speaking skills in the language of instruction so as to enable children to perform better in all activity areas. a study conducted by karanu (2002) on production and use of resources for english language found that all the schools in kibra use english and kiswahili as the language of interaction. from her findings, the least used instructional strategies in teaching english language were expanding on children's words and phrases and using contrasting items (providing opposites of words and phrases). she also observed that contrasting items, explaining, giving examples, and expanding on children's sentences were never used. inappropriate teaching strategies hinder acquisition of oral language skills (mwangi, 2007). these necessitate studies on the reasons why teachers are not employing such better teaching strategies. this study therefore, intends to find out teachers’ factors influencing their choice of strategies in development of oral language skills inside and out of classroom. objectives of the study this study was guided by the following objectives: i. to establish the strategies teachers use to develop oral language skills among pre-primary school children in kibera sub-county ii. to determine the relationship between training and strategies teachers use to develop oral skills among pre-primary school children in kibera sub-county. iii. to determine the relationship between teachers’ experience and the strategies they use in developing oral language skills among pre-primary school children in kibera sub-county. iv. to find out the relationship between teacher’s academic qualification and the strategies teachers use to develop oral language skills among pre-primary school children in kibera sub-county. methodology this study employed descriptive survey design. according to mcroy (2009), descriptive survey design involves either identifying the characteristics of an observed phenomenon or exploring possible correlation among two or more phenomena. this research design is suitable for this study as it allows teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya 54 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. investigations of issues at hand in detail as well as finding the correlations among them. the design enabled the researcher to gain a deep insight of the pre-primary teachers’ characteristics such as their training, experience and academic qualifications. then correlate them with the strategies pre-primary school teachers use to promote development of oral language skills among children in kibra subcounty. thus, this study involved in-depth repeated observations of pre-primary school teachers to establish any significant relationship between type of training, teaching experience and academic qualifications and the ways in which they use instructional strategies in teaching oral skills. this study used qualitative and quantitative methods. qualitative data was collected through selfadministered questionnaires to pre-primary school teachers. while quantitative data was obtained through observation checklists. the researcher adopted this strategy since it captures both qualitative and quantitative data, which could otherwise have been lost if only one method was, used (mcroy, 2009). sampling techniques the researcher used multistage sampling technique to come up with the sample of this study. multistage sampling strategy involves sampling in two or more stages (gerhardt, 2004). in the first sampling stage, kibera sub-county was purposively selected out of 15 sub-counties in nairobi county since most of the teachers used few instructional strategies as pointed out by karanu (2002). at the second stage, all the eight public pre-primary schools were purposely selected since they are few in number. the third stage was to use stratified random sampling to select private pre-primary schools whereby all of them had equal chances of being selected (mcroy, 2009). wards was used as the strata and from the five wards of woodley, sarangómbe, makini, lindi, and laini saba, a sample of 75 private pre-primary schools was obtained. after determining the sample of schools to be used, one teacher from each school was randomly selected to ensure that only pre-primary teachers were included as respondents for this study. data collection techniques in order to obtain data on the strategies used by the pre-primary school teachers, the researcher administered questionnaires to pre-primary school teachers from the sampled schools. selfadministered questionnaires were applicable since teachers were to read and fill the questionnaires. in addition, in each school the researcher observed one teacher during the lessons. the researcher sat in the classroom during the lesson to observe the number of times each teacher used the six teaching kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 55 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. strategies (repetition, substitution, explanation, contrast, exemplification and code-switching). each teacher was observed five times in one day. each observation lasted for ten minutes. data analysis the researcher carried out descriptive analysis on the qualitative data collected. data from open-ended questions in the questionnaires was categorized into themes and analysed respondents’ views on teaching strategies used in developing oral language skills in pre-primary school children. while data from closed ended questions was coded and analysed numerically. responses from the participants on part b and c of the research instrument (questionnaire) was coded. the coded data was directly entered in the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) which is a computer package used in analysing data. frequencies of responses were computed into percentages and presented in bar charts and tables. chi square test was used to determine the association between variables. findings strategies pre-primary school teachers use in teaching oral language skills through the use of observation checklist, data was collected in a 3-point likert scale. the data was analysed through means, standard deviation and skewness. according to the scale, a mean of 2.5 and above represented ‘always’, 1.5-2.4 represented ‘sometimes’ and less than 1.5 ‘never’. the standard deviation (sd) was used to determine the level of variability of the responses. a sd of less than 1.0 indicated less variability (consensus) and a sd of more than 1.0 indicates more variability and lack of consensus. table 4.1 mean frequency of strategies teachers uses in teaching oral skills n min max mean std. dev skewness st. error code-switching 83 2 3 2.96 0.19 -5.06 0.26 examples 83 2 3 2.92 0.28 -3.05 0.26 repetition 83 2 3 2.88 0.33 -2.38 0.26 substitution 83 2 3 2.86 0.35 -2.06 0.26 explanation 83 1 3 2.65 0.53 -1.15 0.26 questions 82 2 3 2.60 0.49 -0.41 0.27 teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya 56 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. directing 83 2 3 2.55 0.50 -0.22 0.26 expansion 83 1 3 2.29 0.60 -0.19 0.26 contrasts 83 1 3 1.80 0.73 0.34 0.26 key: 1=never, 2=sometimes, 3=always table 4.2 shows that, the most frequently used method when teaching was code-switching (m=2.96) followed by exemplification (m=2.92) and thirdly repetition (m=2.88). the above data indicates that on average most teachers used all the above strategies when teaching. other strategies the teachers sometimes used when teaching included substitution (m=2.86), explanation (m=2.65), use of questions (m=2.60) and use of directing strategies (m=2.55). the results show that expansion (m=2.29) and contrast (m=1.8) strategies were least used by the teachers. the values of the skewness in all the variables except contrast were negative indicating that most of the teachers always used the strategies when teaching. contrast was positively skewed showing that most of the teachers did not use the method. studies reviewed in the literature also point out such commonly used strategies to promote oral language skills by pre-primary school teachers (atkinson, 2011; bang, 2003; chowdhury, raqib, and phan, 2008). mitchell, (2008) and gains & redman (1990) established in their study that most teachers used at least six instructional strategies while fillmore (2005) and richards & rodgers (2005) found that most teachers used three instructional strategies. however, the teachers in the present study reported use of more instructional strategies than featured in the literature reviewed. this could be associated with the demographic of the teachers in the present study, most of who had more than six years’ experience and have a diploma in early childhood education (ecd) training. teachers training and strategies for teaching oral skills the second objective was to establish the association between the type of teacher training and the use of teaching strategies for oral language skills. the researcher tested the association between types of training and the teaching strategies using independent chi square test and the results presented in table 4.2. kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 57 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. table 4.2 chi-square test between training and teaching strategies chi value df sig substitution 0.578 2 0.749 contrasts 7.535 4 0.110 explanation 26.971 4 0.000 repetition 2.585 2 0.275 examples 0.312 2 0.856 code-switching 0.151 2 0.927 expansion 0.944 4 0.918 questions 2.861 2 0.239 directing 1.722 2 0.423 from the results in table 4.4, there is a significant (χ2 (2) =26.971, p<0.05) association between type of teacher training and the use of explanation as teaching strategy. that is, most dicece trained teachers used explanation strategy as compared to their counterparts who had attended other types of training. however, other strategies such as substitution, contrasts, repetition, examples, codeswitching, expansion, questions and directing did not show significant association with the type of teacher training. from this study, use of the teaching strategies were similar across the three types of training programs (dicece, kha (kindergarten headmistresses’ association kenya) and university) and untrained teachers. this may suggest some basic similarity of these teacher training programmes regarding the teaching strategies used to promote development of oral language skills among preprimary school children. these results agree with the rest of the findings in the study that all preschool teachers' use of the various teaching strategies in teaching oral language skills was similar across the different types of trainings. ng'asike (2004) in his study of the use of play as a medium for bridging preschool children's mathematical experiences in kasarani division, also found no significant association between the type of training and teaching strategies. this could be due to similarity in teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya 58 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. training curriculum in all the training types since the kenyan ministry of education harmonises curriculum of all the training institutions. this implies that the type of training a teacher underwent did not impact their choice of appropriate teaching strategy. mwangi (2007), in her study on the use of oral instructional strategies in teaching english in kasarani, established that when new teachers are recruited, they tend to adapt to the teaching strategies being used by the teachers in that school. this might explain the insignificant association between the type of training and appropriate teaching strategies that promote development of oral language skills among pre-primary school children. similarly, a study by nguyen and khuat (2012) on effectiveness of learning vocabulary through games in asia established association between teacher training and the english language teaching methods. in addition, they advanced the importance of ensuring effective training of teachers for the provision of quality education. since during such trainings teachers develop professional attitudes, skills and knowledge to adapt to the teaching and learning environment. however, the current study finding contradicts the study by mitchell (2008). according to mitchell’s study (2008) on communicative language teaching practice in london, teachers who used more appropriate teaching strategies were found to have undergone adequate teacher trainings. therefore, they were able to engage children in learning and sustain their interests through the use of multiple strategies. such variations witnessed between mitchell’s study and the current study could be attributed to the fact that most pre-primary schools in london do not employ untrained teachers (mitchell, 2008). the findings from the current study indicates inadequate use of appropriate strategies by teachers across all types of training in the teaching of oral language skills in kibra sub-county. the inadequacy of appropriate teaching strategies when teaching oral skills is likely to affect the academic performance of pre-school children in the sampled population. it is important for teachers to use several strategies when teaching children oral language skills (richards and rodgers, 2005). this is observed despite the importance of oral skills as a precursor to writing, reading acquisition and learning in different activity areas in pre-primary schools sampled in this study. teacher’s experience and strategies used for teaching oral skills the third objective was to establish the association between teachers’ teaching experience and the use of teaching strategies. to determine the association between the teacher’s experience and the usage of kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 59 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. various teaching strategies, the researcher used chi square test and the results were presented in table 4.3. table 4.6 chi square test between experience and teaching strategies chi value df sig substitution 6.623 8 0.578 contrasts 22.617 16 0.124 explanation 26.280 16 0.049 repetition 5.014 8 0.756 examples 10.145 8 0.255 code-switching 10.761 8 0.216 expansion 26.663 16 0.045 questions 10.086 8 0.259 directing 9.015 8 0.341 table 4.6 shows a significant association between explanation strategy (χ2 (16) =26.280, p<0.05) and teacher’s experience. similarly, the study also shows a significant association between expansion strategy (χ2 (16) =26.263, p<0.05) and the teachers experience. however, other strategies such as substitution, contrasts, repetition, examples, code-switching, questions and directing did not show significant association with the teacher’s experience. these findings, therefore, imply that the more experience a teacher has the more likely he/she will use expansion and explanation teaching strategies while teaching. the findings from the current study agree with other findings by nyangeri (2014) on determinants of pre-primary school teachers’ use of music as a medium of instruction in kitale municipality. in her findings nyangeri (2014), established that teaching experience influences teachers use of music as a medium of instruction. however, the current study also shows that there is no significant association between teachers’ experience and other teaching strategies. this is consistent with a study by mwangi (2007) on the use of oral instructional strategies in teaching english in kasarani which indicates that teachers adopt teaching strategies they find being used in schools they are teaching at. however, the use of such teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya 60 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. limited teaching strategies could in turn negatively affect children’s acquisition of oral skills and could lead to poor academic performance. teachers’ academic qualifications and strategies used in teaching oral skills the fourth objective was to establish the relationship between teacher’s academic qualification and the use of appropriate teaching strategies to promote development of oral language skills. to determine the association between the teacher’s academic qualifications and the usage of various teaching strategies, the researcher used chi square test and the results were presented in table 4.4. table 4.4. chi square test between qualifications and teaching strategies chi value df sig substitution 2.242 2 0.326 contrasts 7.430 4 0.115 explanation 6.306 4 0.177 repetition 4.837 2 0.089 examples 2.859 2 0.239 code-switching 0.164 2 0.921 expansion 11.441 4 0.022 questions 0.992 2 0.609 directing 5.814 2 0.055 table 4.8 shows a significant association between expansion (χ2 (4) =11.441, p<0.05) and the teacher’s academic qualification. however, other strategies such as substitution, contrasts, explanation, repetition, examples, code-switching, questions and directing did not show significant association with the teacher’s academic qualification. these findings on the use of substitution, contrasts, explanation, repetition, examples, code-switching, questions and directing strategies agree with other studies. the studies by mwangi (2007) and nyangeri (2014) indicate that there is no significant correlation between teacher’s academic qualification and the teaching strategies. however, the current study also found out that teachers’ academic qualification influences the use of expansion when teaching children oral language skills. kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 61 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. on the other hand, the finding on expansion which showed a significant association with academic qualification agree with the findings by umar-ud-din, khan and mahmood (2010). according to the study by umar-ud-din, khan and mahmood on the effects of teachers’ qualification on students’ second language performance at the secondary level in usa, teachers with formal education (elts) had positive influence on the performance of the students in the final examinations. recommendations the findings revealed that not all teachers were using appropriate teaching strategies to promote pupil’s oral skills. the national centre for early childhood education (nacece) should ensure pre-primary school teacher trainees in diceces and other training institutions are trained on appropriate teaching strategies used to promote oral skills development. this will assist teachers to gain knowledge and skills on such strategies. this will offer them with a wide variety of teaching strategies to choose from while teaching oral skills. pre-primary school teachers should also be given refresher courses on the emerging teaching strategies that promote development of oral language skills. the results indicated that there was a significant association between teacher’s experience and the use of some teaching strategies. however, from the findings of this study most pre-school teachers have less than five years’ experience. the school managements should come up with strategies to hire and retain experienced teachers in pre-primary schools to improve the use of appropriate teaching strategies. the findings also established association between the use of a few teaching strategies such as expansion and teacher’s academic qualifications. from the study, about three quarter of the teachers sampled are currently trained up to diploma level. this therefore, implies that more than a quarter of the pre-primary school children in kenya are taught by untrained teachers. the school managements should ensure that they only recruit trained teachers according to the ecd (2008) standard guidelines. references athiemoolam, l. (2004). drama-in-education and its effectiveness in english second/foreign language classes. in the first international language learning conference(illc). atkinson, d. (2011). alternative approaches to second language acquisition. london: routledge. bang, y. (2003). developing communicative competence through drama-oriented activities in an efl classroom. myongji university. teacher characteristics that influence development of oral language skills among pre-primary school pupils in nairobi city county, kenya 62 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. breen, m.p. & candlin, c.n. (2001). the essentials of a communicative curriculum in language teaching. in innovation in english language teaching. london and new york: routledge in association with macquarie university and the open university. brown, h. d. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. white plains, ny: longman. chowdhury, raqib, & phan le ha. (2008). reflecting on western tesol training and communicative language teaching: bangladeshi teachers’ voices. asia pacific journal of education 28 (3), 305–16. doi:10.1080/02188790802236006. cummins, j. (2007). international handbook of english language teaching. new york: springer. fillmore, l. (1985). second language learning in children: a proposal model. in reshch & provinzano (eds.), issues in english language development. roslyn, va: national clearinghouse for bilingual education. gok, (2000). guidelines for early childhood development in kenya. nairobi: kie/nacece. hall, g. e., quinn, l. f. & gollnick, d. m. (2014). introduction to teaching: making a difference in student learning. harrow, k. w. & mpoche, k. (2008). language, literature and education in multicultural societies: collaborative research on africa. newcastle, uk: cambridge scholars pub. karanu, n. j. (2002). training in production and use of resources for english language teaching in selected nairobi lower primary schools. unpublished m. ed thesis, kenyatta university. mcroy, r.g. (2009). qualitative research. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. mitchell, r. (2008). communicative language teaching in practice. london: clt. mwangi, m. w. (2007). pre-school teachers' use of oral instructional strategies in teaching english: a study in kasarani division, nairobi province. unpublished master theses, kenyatta university. mwathe, g. n. (2003). english second language (l2) literacy instruction and acquisition in kenyan rural primary schools: a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of m. ed. (special education), massey university, palmerston north, new zealand kenneth odhiambo okelo, esther waithaka & maureen mweru 63 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 50-63. ng'asike, t. (2004). teachers' use of play as a medium for bridging preschool children's mathematical experiences. kasarani division, nairobi, kenya. unpublished m. ed thesis, kenyatta university nguyen, t. & khuat, t. (2012). learning vocabulary through games: the effectiveness of learning vocabulary through games. asian efl journal 1 (2): 4–16. nyangeri e. j. (2014). determinants of pre-primary school teachers’ use of music as a medium of instruction in kitale municipality, trans-nzoia county, kenya. unpublished m. ed thesis, kenyatta university. odera, f. y. (2011). learning english language by radio in primary schools in kenya. new york: david publishing. owólabí, k., dasylva, a. o., & banjo, l. a. (2004). forms and functions of english and indigenous languages in nigeria: a festschrift in honour of ayọ banjọ. ibadan: group publishers. richards, j. & rodgers, t. (2005). approaches and methods in language teaching. a descriptive analysis. new york: cambridge university press. yaman, m.b. (2007). crossing borders: drama in the second language classroom. saarbrucken, germany: vdm verlag. prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools stephen mabagala university of dar es salaam, tanzania abstract the purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools. this study employed descriptive survey research design. the sample consisted of 403 respondents in which teachers and students were randomly selected, while heads of schools and teachers services department (tsd) officials were purposively selected based on their administrative roles. data for this study were collected through questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide. data were analyzed using descriptive statistics using spss version 20. findings revealed that teachers’ professional misconduct was low. however, financial mismanagement, negligence of duty, and absenteeism were among the common professional misconduct acts in secondary schools in nzega district. findings also revealed that, poor remuneration, failure to fulfill teachers’ needs, and lack of motivation were among the sources of teacher’s explanations for misconduct. based on the findings, the government through the ministry of education and vocational training (moevc) should respond to teachers’ needs in a timely manner, and conduct regular seminars on teacher professionalism. moreover, a similar study should be conducted to assess teachers’ misconduct at primary school and higher institution levels. keywords: tanzania secondary education, professional teacher misconduct, public secondary school introduction teachers play a vital role towards achieving quality education. they are responsible in transforming the predetermined educational goals and objectives into practical terms. teachers are role models as well as educators in the classrooms and even outside the classroom (green, 2010). in other words, teacher’s actions, beliefs, sense of humor, self-discipline, and bearing are all lessons that are presented to students throughout the education experience (ebert & culyer, 2012). in the school settings and even at the society level, teachers are highly trusted and considered to be role models in school and in the community. teachers, therefore, are the key element to ensure that learners are supplied with relevant skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes. 2 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) therefore, achievement of quality education abides within their maintaining the ethical standards of the teaching profession. despite all the values, qualities and importance given to teachers, still professional misconduct among teachers is an alarming problem all over the world (anangisye & barrett, 2005; prinsloo, 2006; education international, 2007; william & lebrun, 2009). for example, williams and lebrun (2009) report that in new york state the number of professional misconduct accusations against educators between 2001 to 2005 increased to about 134 cases involving teachers and other school employee into sexual acts and other improper relationship. in africa, a report on a survey conducted by education international (2007) indicated a severe problem with teacher absenteeism. similarly, a study by prinsloo (2006) indicated that sexual abuse is quite rampant among male teachers who abuse young female learners in schools. another study by ng’oma and simatwa (2013) indicated that in kenya particularly in nyando district, frequent cases of misconduct such as teacher absenteeism, lateness, financial mismanagement, and “carnal knowledge” are the great problems. in kenya, each year about 1,400 teachers faced disciplinary actions (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). in tanzania, there was evidence of widespread professional misconduct among teachers in almost all institutions of education from primary schools to higher learning institutions (anangisye & barrett, 2005). a study by batweli (2013) revealed the professional misconduct of teachers in sumbawanga municipality and rural districts that included absenteeism, drunkenness, sexual abuse, examination fraud, abusive language, drug abuse, and unethical dressing. similar observations were also made in a study by anangisye and barrett (2005). batweli (2013) indicated that between 200 to 300 teachers in tanzania were dismissed each year on grounds of professional misconduct. during training at colleges, student teachers are oriented to several disposition standards related to professionalism to which they are to adhere when dealing with students and other clients. in addition, every school or college has a written professional code of ethics and conduct guide for teachers in their daily fulfillment of duties as professionals (mabagala, 2013). despite various orientations and training based on professionalism offered to teachers as trainees in teachers colleges, presence of code of ethics and conduct for teachers, and the measures taken by teachers services department (tsd) against teacher’s professional misconduct; the problem of teacher professional misconduct continues in schools. professional misconduct has serious negative implications for students’ achievement, the status of the teaching profession, the culture of the society, and may deny students’ basic rights to education (anangisye & barrett, 2005). teachers are trusted and given the responsibility of not only teaching students in the classroom, but also shaping appropriate student behavior. this cannot be achieved if teachers themselves behave unethically towards their profession. according to mosha (2006), the quality of education is largely dependent on the quality of teaching and teachers’ efforts. in other words, lack of adherence to professional code of conduct among teachers threatens the achievements of quality education. in tanzania, there are very few studies that address professional misconduct of teachers in nzega district. therefore, this study stephen mabagala 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) investigated the prevalence of professional misconduct among nzega district public secondary school teachers. objectives of the study the objectives of the study were twofold: i. to identify the common types of professional misconduct practiced by teachers of public secondary schools. ii. to identify the explanation(s) or cause(s) cited for professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers. conceptual framework the conceptual framework for this study assumed that several factors, such as school leadership, work environment, lack of motivation, and teacher’s attitudes towards the teaching profession may influence professional misconduct of teachers, including but not limited to acts of absenteeism, sexual abuse, tardiness, alcoholism, dishonesty, and lack of accountability. for example, without better salaries teachers may lack motivation that could result in decreased accountability in their duties, absenteeism, lateness, and dishonesty among teachers. but, if there are interventions strategies, such as effective administrative support to enhance teacher’s motivation and proper management of schools, these may lead to effective teaching and learning. with better informed teachers, they may demonstrate increased professionalism that leads to a positive school climate where quality education is achieved in secondary schools. in addition, if the mentioned interventions are to be considered then respect and dignity of the teaching profession is likely to be attained. figure 1.1. conceptual framework design, showing sources of teachers professional misconduct this conceptual framework helped to establish the concepts or variables and their relationships addressed in this study. this conceptual framework helped the researcher explore the prevalence and sources of teachers’ professional misconduct. this conceptual framework helped the researcher to specify and explain the relationship existing between the key concepts of this st udy. administrative support -teachers motivation -proper management -professional code of ethics and conduct -informed teacher -positive school climate -effective teaching and learning sources of misconduct -poor administration -lack of motivation -school leadership -school environment teacher’s misconduct -absenteeism -alcoholism -sexual abuse -lateness -dishonest 4 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) methodology research design this study utilized a descriptive survey design to obtain a snapshot on the prevalence of professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers. in addition, descriptive survey helped the researcher to investigate the problem of teachers’ professional misconduct in a field setting, enabled the collection of large amounts of data with relative ease from a range of participants, and allowed the researcher to examine many variables. target population the target population for this study comprised teachers from all selected public secondary schools found in nzega district in both rural and urban areas. the target population included students, head of schools, and officials of tsd in nzega district. per the district statistical and logistic officer for secondary schools of nzega district (personal communication, december, 2013), nzega district has a total of 39 public secondary schools with 4,221 public secondary students and 340 public secondary school teachers. the officials from tsd were selected to participate in this study because of their administrative responsibilities to teachers including monitoring discipline. the heads of schools were selected because at the school level, they are expected to ensure that the teachers work according to the standards of the teaching profession. students were selected because they are the potential victims of teacher professional misconduct. teachers were selected because of their actions and professional responsibilities in their teaching careers. sample and sampling technique the sample size of students was determined by using yamane’s (1967) formulae, n=n/1+n (e) 2 , where ‘n’ is the sample size, n is the target population, and “e” is the percentage error (bhujel, 2008). by using yamane’s formula, a sample size of 403 respondents was obtained. in which 366 were students, 30 were teachers, 6 were head of schools, and 1 was tsd officer. these respondent groups were useful to the study as they provided relevant and sufficient information on the prevalence of professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers. both simple random and purposive sampling techniques were used to obtain the sample. schools, teachers, and students were selected by using simple random sampling. district chief teachers services department officer and heads of schools were purposively sampled because of their administrative and managerial functions. instruments for data collection the study used a close-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide for collecting data. the researchers developed the study questionnaire based on a literature review regarding professional misconduct and best practices. close-ended questionnaire items required respondents to identify the prevailing common professional misconduct on a 5 point likert scale ranging from high prevalence (5), prevalent (4), neutral (3), low prevalence (2), and no prevalence (1). the questionnaire also required respondents to identify the sources or causes of professional misconduct among secondary school teachers on a 5 points likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1). a semi-structured interview was used in this study to obtain information from the teacher service stephen mabagala 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) department official on the prevalence of professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers. validity and reliability of instrument to ensure validity and reliability the instruments for this study were reviewed prior to their implementation to validate that the instrument met the study objectives. there was peer and panel review of the instruments and their evaluations were considered in finalizing the questionnaire. the questionnaire was piloted in two schools; one located in a rural area and the other located in an urban area. piloting of the study involved two head of schools, four teachers, and six students. consecutively the questionnaires for this study were tested between two periods of time and for each time cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.7 were obtained. according to cohen, manion & morrison (2007) reliability level of an instrument is acceptable if it ranges from 0.67 and above. therefore, the instruments used in this study were reliable. for an interview instrument, reliability and validity depended on transparency, communicability, and coherence of data analysis and interpretation (ndibalema, 2013). data analysis and presentation data were mainly analyzed using a quantitative approach. qualitative data analysis was also completed to augment the primary findings. quantitative data from the questionnaire were analyzed using the statistical package for social science (spss) statistics version 20. data from the collected questionnaires were coded and entered into the spss program for analysis. data were analyzed descriptively by calculating percentages, mean, and standard deviations for easy interpretation of the information. the qualitative interview data was analyzed using content analysis. findings common prevailing teachers’ professional misconduct respondents of this study were asked to identify common professional misconduct types committed by public secondary school teachers. a list of fifteen items on teacher professional misconduct were provided in the questionnaire and respondents were instructed to identify common, prevalent professional misconduct types using a 5 point likert scale ranging from ‘high prevalence (5), prevalent (4), neutral (3), low prevalence (2), and no prevalence (1). the highest score on the likert scale indicated prevalence of misconduct, while the lowest score on likert scale indicated lack of prevalence of professional misconduct. the results were presented in table 1.1 below. table 1.1 descriptive statistics on the common prevailing teacher’s professional misconduct items: common professional misconduct students teachers head of schools totals m sd m sd m sd m sd drunkenness 3.51 .99 3.00 .91 3.33 .82 3.28 .91 absenteeism 4.13 .83 4.03 .49 4.17 .41 4.11 .58 use of abusive language 4.07 .99 2.13 1.11 1.83 .98 2.68 1.03 6 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) examination malpractices 1.40 .96 1.00 .00 1.00 .00 1.13 .32 drug abuse 1.19 .65 1.00 .00 1.00 .00 1.06 .22 unethical dressing 4.01 .73 1.43 .57 1.33 .51 2.26 .60 negligence of duty 4.19 .84 4.23 .63 4.17 .41 4.19 .63 financial mismanagement 4.25 .80 4.03 .62 4.33 .52 4.20 .65 sexual harassment 4.12 .96 2.00 1.23 2.67 1.03 2.93 1.07 lateness to school 4.05 1.07 4.10 .55 4.17 .41 4.11 .68 corporal punishment 4.13 1.33 1.10 .54 1.17 .40 2.13 .76 insubordination 3.31 1.13 1.63 .92 4.17 .41 3.04 .82 corruption 1.17 .55 1.43 .81 1.00 .00 1.20 .45 teaching without preparation 1.49 .94 1.46 .77 1.50 .83 1.48 .85 theft and forgery 1.19 .65 1.00 .00 1.00 .00 1.06 .22 total 3.08 .89 2.24 .61 2.46 .45 2.59 .65 from table 1.1, general findings revealed that teacher professional misconduct was at a low prevalence (m = 2.59, sd = .65). professional misconduct types respondents of this study identified included financial mismanagement (m = 4.20, sd = .65), negligence of duty (m = 4.19, sd = .63), absenteeism (m = 4.11, sd = .99), and lateness to school (m= 4.11, sd = .68) as a common prevailing professional misconduct by public secondary school teachers both in rural and urban areas. additionally, sexual harassment (m = 2.93, sd = 1.07), use of abusive language (m = 2.68, sd = 1.03), unethical dressing (m = 2.65, sd = .81), and corporal punishment (m = 2.13, sd = .76) were identified by the respondents at low prevalence. table 1.1 also indicated that public secondary school teachers were not involved in professional misconduct related to teaching without preparation (m = 1.48, sd = .85), examination malpractices (m = 1.13, sd = .32), corruption (m =1.20, sd = .45), drug abuse (m = 1.06, sd = .22), theft of school property and forgery (m = 1.06, sd = .22). most respondents were neutral in their identification regarding the prevalence of drunkenness (m = 3.27, sd = .99) and insubordination (m = 3.04, sd = .82) as professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers. findings from heads of school were at m = 4.33, sd = .52, with student ratings at m = 4.25, sd = .80, and teacher ratings at m = 4.03, sd = .62 in identified financial mismanagement as a common professional misconduct prevalence among public secondary school teachers. this indicated that public secondary school teachers did not properly manage school finances. during the interview with the tsd official, it was revealed that cases involving teacher financial mismanagement were prevalent in different forms, such as misuse of money collected for student fees, and misuse of money allocated by the school authority to various department for sports and games. the interview with the tsd official also revealed that one teacher in school x was taken to the court because of mismanagement of school funds. this study paralleled with the study by ng’oma and simatwa (2013) who found that financial mismanagement was a serious problem among teachers of primary schools in nyando district in kenya. stephen mabagala 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) from the findings respondents revealed that negligence of duty was among the professional misconduct committed most often by public secondary school teachers. teachers reported it at m = 4.23, sd = .63, students reported it at m = 4.19, sd = .84 and heads of school at m = 4.17, sd = .41. this indicated that teachers did not consistently perform the duties assigned to them effectively. negligence of duty impacted negatively on teachers’ curriculum delivery in that set targets were not consistently met (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). in other words, the instructional objectives were not achieved and hence there was poor quality delivery of education. head of schools identified absenteeism misconduct overall at m = 4.17, sd = .41, with students rating it a m = 4.13, sd = .83 and teachers rating it at m = 4.03, sd = .49 as a common professional misconduct that was prevalent among public secondary school teachers in their areas. similar observation was made in an interview with tsd official; it was revealed that 24 cases on absenteeism involving secondary school teachers were reported between the years 2012-2013 to the tsd office. this implied that the time scheduled for teachers to implement the curriculum was not appropriately met as most of the time teachers were not at school. these findings concur with the study by betweli (2013) who found that absenteeism was prevalent among public primary school teachers in sumbawanga municipal and rural districts in rukwa region whereby teachers spent few work hours at school and used the rest of their time in private issues. it is likely that students may go to school and all too often find some of their teachers absent (kueckeny & valfortz, 2012). the instructional objectives will not be successfully achieved when there are severe rates of teacher absenteeism. betweli (2013) observed that teacher absenteeism may lead to failure to complete curriculum implementation and poor academic performance among students. teacher absenteeism may also be evident by poor performance in national examination results. lateness to school was another misconduct as reported by heads of schools at m = 4.17, sd = .41, teachers reported it at m = 4.10, sd = .55, and students rated it at m = 4.05, sd = 1.07 to be prevalent among public secondary school teachers. this implies that public secondary school teachers did not report on time to their working station. this study concurs with the observation made by ng’oma and simatwa (2013) that teacher tardiness to school, the morning lessons were not fully taught. it is clear that once teachers report late to school, the school time table was likely to be disturbed. for example, the cleanness of school environment by students would not be effective in absence of teacher supervision. furthermore, findings from respondents indicated that sexual harassment of students by their teachers was a low prevalence at m = 2.93, sd = 1.07. however, responses from students indicated it significantly higher at m = 4.12, sd = .96 on sexual harassment as common professional misconduct that prevailed among public secondary school teachers compared to responses from heads of schools rating at m = 2.67, sd = 1.03, with teachers rating it even lower m = 2.00, sd = 1.23. these differences are likely due to the reason the fact students were most often the victim of such misconduct committed by teachers. responses from students at m = 4.12, sd = .96 indicated that students were sexually harassed by their teachers in public secondary schools. manos (2004) summarized that engaging into sexual relations with students may change the relationship between teachers and students. sometimes, due to sexual harassment received from teachers, students may feel like or even stop going to school. 8 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) sexual harassment disturbs students psychologically to the extent of losing concentration on studies, and interferes with their future dreams. many students have had their future dreams shattered due to pregnancies attributed to their teachers (ng’oma and simatwa, 2013). on the other side, responses from heads of schools at m = 2.67, sd = 1.03 and teachers at m = 2.00, sd = 1.23 indicated low prevalence of sexual harassment of students by teachers in their schools. for the heads of schools such a response implied that probably few students reported to the heads of schools about their teachers’ abuses, so the majority remained silent. for teachers, such response implied that possibly they knew some teachers in their schools have sexual relations with students but did not want to reveal misconduct of their fellow teachers. this could also imply that teachers who were involved in the study were part of the perpetrator group. in addition, students identified the use of abusive language at m = 4.07, sd = .99 prevalence among teachers when communicating with students. however, teachers rated this at m = 2.13, sd = 1.11. unlike the heads of schools, who rated at an even lower prevalence rating of m = 1.83, sd = .98, so they viewed the problem as not prevalent at all. possibly abusive language cases of such nature were not reported to their offices. in their study anangisye and barrett (2005) provided an example of a teacher who consistently insulted his students by calling them goats. such examples signified that the use of abusive language among teachers to their students was prevalent. teachers use of abusive language when communicating to students humiliated and embarrassed students. generally abusive behavior within education institutions can have far reaching consequences for the individuals affected and to the wider society (anangisye and barrett, 2005). it is from these educational institutions we expect to get members of the society who are educated, but this is difficult to achieve this if students are abused both verbally and physically by their teachers. looking at the data in table 1.1 above, responses from the heads of schools at m = 4.17, .41 indicated that insubordination as professional misconduct was prevalent in their schools. this shows that teachers in public secondary schools failed to obey the authority. during an interview with tsd official, it was revealed that there was a case reported to tsd office that involved a teacher from school x who showed disobedience by insulting the head of school in front of other teachers. with respect to other forms of misconduct committed by teachers as identified in this study by respondents such as negligence of duty, late reporting to school, and absenteeism, probably were the reasons that made the heads of schools to reach into a decision that majority of teachers in their schools disobeyed the authority. insubordination is a serious offense as it interferes with delivery of services by teachers (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). it is hard for the school authority to achieve the predetermined educational goals and objectives without consistent support from teachers. findings also revealed that unethical [unprofessional] dress among secondary school teachers was prevalent. this was identified by students at m = 4.01, sd = .73. that means the way teachers were dressed was viewed as inappropriate by students. this provided an indication that teachers were not dressed in accordance to the standards of the teaching profession. teachers are expected to dress in a manner that is appropriate to their status. in other words, dressing slovenly is inappropriate to a teacher’s role as an exemplar to students and community members (anangisye & barrett, 2005). however, the heads of schools rated it at m =1.33, sd = .51 and stephen mabagala 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) teachers rated it at m = 1.43, sd = .57, reflecting that they assessed the frequency of unethical dress among teachers as not prevalent. that meant dress codes for teachers were adhered to in the schools. these contrasting views among students, heads of schools, and teachers on teachers dress perhaps showed that either students or teachers and heads of schools lacked knowledge or agreement on what constituted ethical dress. moreover, responses from students at m = 4.13, sd = 1.33 uncovered that misuse of corporal punishment was prevalent as a common professional misconduct committed by secondary school teachers. corporal punishment is commonly administered unofficially in tanzania (anangisye & barrett, 2005). in tanzania, officially only the head of school or a teacher selected by the head of school has a mandate to provide corporal punishment, but there should be records for its use and caning should be not more than four strokes at a time even for serious offences (ibid). however, the survey result from students implied that corporal punishment was a problem in their schools. it was obvious that most teachers preferred to cane students as it was believed to achieve immediate results in instilling discipline in students. corporal punishment has serious potential consequences as it may lead to loss of life or permanent injury or create stress in learners (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). some students may even drop their studies if severe corporal punishment persists in schools. sources of teacher professional misconduct the objective of the study was to identify the sources of teachers’ professional misconduct. respondents were asked to identify the sources or causes which they thought could be the reasons for teachers to act contrary to the standards of the teaching profession in their areas. in order to gather information on teacher’s sources of misconduct, questionnaires were administered to teachers, heads of schools, and student respondents. all questionnaires were successfully completed. a list of nineteen items on sources of teacher professional misconduct were provided in a questionnaire in which respondents were required to rate the sources of professional misconduct using a five point likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1). the higher the score on the likert scale the stronger or more closely identified it was as a source or cause of misconduct, while low score indicated a weak identification of it as a source or cause of misconduct. also, an interview was conducted with a tsd official. the results are presented in table 1.2 below. table 2: descriptive statistics on the sources of teacher’s professional misconduct items: sources of teacher’s professional misconducts students teachers head teachers total m sd m sd m sd m sd long distance from home to school 4.03 .66 4.53 .68 4.50 .55 4.35 .63 low level of professional knowledge 2.30 1.25 2.00 1.26 2.00 1.09 2.10 1.20 lack of frequent visits by educational officers 4.31 .83 4.23 .77 4.17 .41 4.23 .67 failure to fulfill teacher needs 4.22 .83 4.80 .41 4.50 1.22 4.51 .82 lack of motivation to teachers 3.98 .98 4.73 .45 4.50 .55 4.40 .66 poor school leadership 4.30 .55 4.47 .73 1.67 .52 3.48 .60 stress due to poor working environment 2.31 1.31 2.23 1.25 3.67 1.75 2.74 .48 working for a long time in the same school 2.09 1.17 3.90 1.39 3.00 1.67 2.99 1.41 inadequate salaries 4.19 .96 4.70 .47 4.67 .55 4.52 .66 10 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) poor living environment 3.47 1.31 2.50 1.11 1.50 .55 2.48 .99 shifting classes (double session) 1.58 .49 1.70 .47 1.50 .55 1.59 .50 overloaded subjects/periods 1.73 .69 2.27 .91 1.67 .52 1.89 .71 poor training received 2.00 .74 1.60 .49 1.00 .00 1.53 .41 lack of sense of commitment 4.06 .68 4.10 .89 4.00 .00 4.05 .52 failure to identify their status 2.30 1.25 2.00 1.26 2.00 1.09 2.10 1.20 lack of teacher personal discipline 4.01 1.11 4.50 .82 4.17 1.17 4.23 1.03 poor attitude towards work 2.42 1.09 4.10 .31 4.83 .41 3.78 .60 ignorance of code of ethics and conduct 2.10 .83 3.80 .55 3.83 .98 3.24 .79 family problems 2.30 1.25 1.97 1.25 1.50 .55 1.92 1.02 from table 1.2, respondents of this study rated inadequate salaries at m = 4.52, sd = .66, failure to fulfill teacher needs at m = 4.51, .82, lack of motivation to teachers at m = 4.40, sd = .66, long distance from home to school at m = 4.35, sd = .63, lack of teacher personal discipline at m = 4.23, sd = 1.03, lack of frequent visits by educational officer at m = 4.23, sd = .67, lack of sense of commitment at m = 4.05, sd = .52 as the serious sources of teachers’ misconduct. additionally, teacher’s poor attitude towards work was rated at m = 3.78, sd = .60, poor school leadership at m = 3.48, sd = .60, and teacher’s ignorance of code of ethics and conduct at m = 3.24, sd = .79 as additional sources of teacher professional misconduct. a review of the data in table1.2, resulted in the following observation that inadequate salaries for teachers were identified as one of the top sources or causes of professional misconduct among secondary school teachers. students identified this at m = 4.19, sd = .96, teachers at m = 4.70, sd = .47, and heads of schools at m = 4.67, sd = .55. during the interview with tsd official, it was revealed that teachers inadequate pay forced them to engage in private endeavors to supplement their income. this could lead to absenteeism. this meant that the monthly salaries paid to teachers are very low compared to their daily living costs. inadequate salary can influence absenteeism among teachers as they are forced to use official hours to engage into self-initiative activities such as petty business to supplement their income (ndibalema, 2013). this study is in line with betweli (2013) who asserted that, low salaries are prime causes of dissatisfaction amongst most teachers which consequently, results in teachers’ violations of code of professional conduct. second, respondents observed that failure to fulfill teachers’ needs influenced teacher’s involvement into professional misconduct; this was supported by all respondents; students at m = 4.22, sd = .83, teachers at m = 4.80, sd = .41, and heads of schools at m = 4.50, sd = 1.22. this indicated that teacher work-related needs were not resolved in a timely manner by the officials responsible, consequently this resulted in teacher’s misconduct, such as absenteeism, negligence of duty, and lateness. the failure of official’s responsible and timely response negatively impacted teacher morale and job commitment. this was true in connection to such teacher requests, such as promotion, transfer allowance, salary arrears, and other benefits not being addressed in a timely manner (betweli, 2013). it is obvious that teachers could not work effectively if at all their needs are not taken into consideration by responsible officials. in such situations, it is likely to find teachers misbehaving in their profession leading to poor implementation of curriculum. stephen mabagala 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) third, findings revealed that lack of motivation influenced teachers to indulge in professional misconducts. this was indicated by responses from teachers, who rated this source at m = 4.73, sd = .45 and heads of schools rated it at m = 4.50, sd = .55. such responses indicated that teachers were not motivated and therefore even their commitment to carrying out various school responsibilities were low. this study is in line with kueckeny and valfortz (2012) who noted that, lateness and laziness among teachers in schools were influenced with low level of teacher’s motivation connected to lack of adequate salaries and housing. a survey report conducted by education international (2007) in six anglophone sub-saharan african countries revealed that attrition among teachers was related to low levels of motivation. low levels of motivation may influence teachers to leave the teaching profession and look for other jobs that may lead to shortage of teachers in schools. once the morale of teachers become low it is possible for them to indulge into professional misconducts such as neglecting duties, disobeying authorities, and/or absenteeism, and lateness. this may pose a threat to student learning. fourth, data in table 1.2 indicate that long distances between home and school was another source or cause for teachers to engage in professional misconduct such as lateness. students rated this source at m = 4.03, sd = .66, teachers rated it at m = 4.53, sd = .68, and heads of schools at m = 4.50, sd = .55. similar observations were made in an interview with tsd official who revealed that shortages of school houses led teachers to report late to school. it was further revealed that even most teachers teaching in rural areas resided in town. this indicated that residing far from the school compound contributed to teacher lateness. for teachers who are teaching in rural areas, this study would concur with betweli (2013) who asserted that residing far from school compounds attributed to either lack of quality houses for teachers or lack of social services around the school. therefore, lateness among teachers was attributed to long distances from home to school, a situation which resulted in the morning lesson not effectively taught. fifth, respondents of this study, lack of teachers’ personal discipline as a source of professional misconduct was rated by teachers at m = 4.50, sd = .82, heads of schools rated it at m = 4.17, sd = 1.17, and students at m = 4.01, sd = 1.11. these ratings indicated a lack of teacher’s personal discipline as a source for teachers to act contrary to the teacher professional standards. this means that teacher’s professional misconduct was a result of personal behavioral attributes. teacher’s personal discipline plays a great role in various forms of professional misconduct, such as absenteeism, sexual abuse, and financial mismanagement (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). that means well-disciplined teachers take their work seriously and rarely absent themselves from duty, neither engage in sexual relations with students nor mismanage the school funds. at school well-disciplined teachers are considered as second parents (anangisye & barrett, 2005). however, some teachers who lack self-discipline take opportunities to engage in misconduct, like abusing students verbally and physically. therefore, lack of personal discipline among teachers, as it was rated by respondents of this study, had a negative impact on student achievement. sixth, the findings of this study also revealed that lack of frequent visits by educational officials in schools was another source or cause of professional misconduct as reported by students at m = 4.31, sd = .83, teachers at m = 4.23, sd = .77, and heads of schools at m = 4.17, sd = .41. such responses indicated that educational officials were not frequently visiting schools to inspect or 12 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) monitor school progress. this situation provided opportunities for teachers to misbehave knowing that educational officials or school inspectors were not watching them. this study concurs with betweli (2013) who observed that increase in misconduct among teachers is influenced by lack of frequent visits to schools by education officers, particularly school inspectors. in an interview with tsd official, it was revealed that shortage of education funds hindered frequent visits by educational officers to schools to assess school upkeep and adherence to official policies. hence teachers engaged in professional misconduct, such as absenteeism, lateness, and/or negligence of duties. such observations by the tsd official provided an indication that possibly heads of schools do not regularly report various forms of misconduct to the educational offices, but rather wait until educational officials conduct school visits to identify such misconducts. seventh, poor school leadership as another source of misconduct was agreed upon by teachers at m = 4.47, sd = .73 and students at m = 4.30, sd = .55. respondents of this study believed that poor school leadership of some heads of schools influenced teachers to display character contrary to the teaching profession, such as lateness, absenteeism, negligence of duty, insubordination, and sexual harassment. poor school leadership and supervision led to misconduct among teachers (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). students may have reported poor leadership perhaps because of lack of effective measures against teachers who misbehaved. for teachers, such observation might be due to failure of heads of schools to present their claims to educational officials. in the interview with the tsd official, it was observed that there was an incidence where the head of school x refused to sign a release letter from a teacher who asked for chance to go for further studies. hence the teacher neglected duties and reported late to school. this provided a picture that leadership style and supervision influenced the teacher’s professional misconduct. eighth, it was further observed by respondents that lack of commitment among teachers also a source of their misbehavior in schools. respondents of this study agreed with this as a source with teachers’ agreement at m = 4.10, sd = .89, students at m = 4.06, sd = .68, and heads of schools at m = 4.00, sd = .00. they believed that some misconduct committed by teachers, such as absenteeism, lateness, and insubordination were due to a lack of commitment among teachers. mabagala (2013) observed that commitment to student learning is the key determinant of teacher professionalism. this means that if commitment among teachers is lacking, then student learning achievement will be at risk as there is a likely increase in teacher professional misconduct. for example, a teacher who always reported late to school may lead students to lose their morning lessons. a teacher should be committed to his or her duty fully and consider it as a calling. teaching is a fulltime profession that requires total commitment and dedication on the part of the teacher (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). therefore, increased teacher misconduct may be a result of lack of sense of commitment among teachers. ninth, another source of misconduct as agreed upon by teachers at m = 4.10, sd = .31 and heads of schools at m = 4.83, sd = .41 was teacher’s poor attitudes toward work. possibly poor attitudes toward work by teachers was linked to inadequate salaries paid to teachers, lack of motivation, failure to fulfill teacher’s need timely, and poor school leadership. this poor attitude could lead to professional misconduct, such as negligence of duty, insubordination, lateness, and absenteeism. a poor attitude to an activity is exhibited in the way one does his or her work stephen mabagala 13 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) (ng’oma & simatwa, 2013). therefore, the way teachers acted in their working station were viewed by respondents due to a poor attitude towards work that led teachers to act contrary to the standards of the teaching profession. tenth, findings of this study also revealed that ignorance of the code of ethics and conduct was another source of professional misconduct as agreed upon by head of schools at m = 3.83, sd = .98 and teachers at m = 3.80, sd = .55. this implied that most teachers indulged in professional misconduct perhaps due to a lack of clear information on what the code of ethics and conduct for the teaching profession entailed. this can further be interpreted that possibly the document for the code of ethics and conduct in some schools was not available or it was available, but heads of schools did not take time to remind teachers about the code of ethics and conduct. this study concurs with ng’oma and simatwa (2013) who noted that teachers engaged into professional misconduct because they lacked information on what code of ethics and conduct stated regarding teacher performance. conclusions and recommendations there is low prevalence of professional misconduct among public secondary school teachers in both rural and urban areas of nzega district. however, some misconduct such as financial mismanagement, absenteeism, negligence of duty, and lateness were noted to be prevalent in some secondary schools. the causes of misconduct in secondary schools were a result of poor remuneration, failure to fulfill teacher needs, and lack of frequent visits by education officials. based on these findings, it is recommended that there is a need for the government through its ministry of education and vocational training to have effective monitoring of teachers’ conduct. at the school level, school administrators should regularly conduct seminars to teachers or at staff meetings, whereby such opportunity is used to remind teachers of their roles and responsibility to students. also, they should regularly review the importance of adhering to the codes of ethics and conduct. since this study was limited to public secondary schools, a similar study should be conducted in private secondary schools and in other levels of education such as primary school and higher learning institutions. references anangisye, w., & barrett, a. (2005). professional status and responsibility: tanzanian teachers views on misconduct. paper presented to the 8th ukfiet international conference on education and development: learning and livelihood, university of oxford, 13-15 september 2005. bennell, p., & akyeampong, k. (2007). teacher motivation in sub-saharan africa and south asia. department for international development: educational papers. retrieved from http://www.r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/policystrategy/researchingtheissuesno71.pdf betweli, o. (2013). the nature of teacher professional misconduct in tanzania primary schools. international journal of education, 5(1), 81-93. carr, d. (2000). professionalism and ethics in teaching. london: routledge. http://www.r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/policystrategy/researchingtheissuesno71.pdf 14 prevalence of professional misconduct in nzega district, tanzania public secondary schools ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) cohen, l., manion, l. & morrison, k. (2007). research methods in education. new york: routledge. ebert, s. e., & culyer, c. r. (2012). school: an introduction to education. usa: cengage learning. education international. (2007). teacher supply, recruitment and retention in six anglophone sub-saharan african countries. retrieved fromhttp://www.download.eiie.org/docs/irisdocuments/research%20website%20documents/20090003801pdf. gay, l.r., & airasian, p. (2003). educational research: competencies for analysis and application (6th). london: prentice hall international. gray, e. d. (2004). doing research in the real world. london: sage publications ltd. green, t. (2010). how to be successful in your first year of teaching elementary school. florida: atlantic publishing group. kuecken, m., & valfort, m. (2012). does teacher misconduct prevent students from learning? retrieved from http://www.touteconomie.org/conference/index.php/afse/aim/paper/viewfile/456/196 mabagala, s. (2013). the extent of physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania. unpublished phd thesis, kenyatta university, kenya. mosha, j. h. (2006). planning education system for excellence. dar es salaam: e & d limited. ndibalema, p. (2013). stakeholder’s attitudes towards the prevalence and problems associated to primary school teacher’s professional misconduct in tanzania. journal of international academic research for multidisciplinary (jiarm), 1(7), 31-54. ng’oma, o. p., & simatwa, m. e. (2013). forms, factors and preferred strategies in management of professional misconduct among public primary school teachers in kenya. international research journal, 4(1), 44-63. prinsloo, s. (2006). sexual harassment and violence in south african schools. south african journal of education, 26(2), 305-318. stewart, n. (2009). ethics: an introduction to moral philosophy. u.k: polity press. tayie, s. (2005). research methods and writing research proposals. cairo: center for advancement of postgraduate studies and research in engineering sciences-cairo university. http://www.download.ei-ie.org/docs/irisdocuments/research%20website%20documents/20090003801 http://www.download.ei-ie.org/docs/irisdocuments/research%20website%20documents/20090003801 http://www.touteconomie.org/conference/index.php/afse/aim/paper/viewfile/456/196 stephen mabagala 15 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) tichenor, s. m., & tichenor, m. j. (2005). understanding teacher’s perspectives on professionalism. the professional educator, 27(2), 89-95. williams, k., & lebrun, m. (2009). keeping kids safe, healthy and smart. usa: rowman & littlefield education. africa journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.6 no. 1 2017 pages 1-21 assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone ukoha akuma ukoha phd department of industrial technology education michael okpara univeristy of agriculture, umudike umuahia, abia state nigeria. abstract the study examines teaching and assessment methods used by vocational technical education teachers in teaching and assessing entrepreneurship education learning outcomes in colleges of education in the south-south geo-political zone of nigeria. the study used survey research design. a census of entrepreneurship teachers conducted in the three federal colleges of education in the south-south geo-political zone yielded a population of 30 teachers. structured questionnaire was the research instrument. data were analyzed using spss. the findings show that teachers routinely use ineffective traditional teaching and assessment methods in entrepreneurship education instruction. pedagogies that maximize entrepreneurial learning outcomes for achieving the self-employment objective of entrepreneurship education in colleges of education were recommended. keywords: pedagogies, entrepreneurship education, teaching method, assessment method, self employment, competencies, colleges of education introduction youth unemployment and poverty are major social problems in nigeria. with a population of 173.6 million (world bank, 2014), nigeria is home to 7% of the world’s poor. nigeria, according to the world bank president ranked third (after india and china) among the top five countries with the largest number of the poor. the official poverty lines (% of population) were 48.4% in 2004, ukoha akuma ukoha 2 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. 46.0% in 2010 and 33.1% in 2014 (world bank, 2014). even with an impressive gross domestic product annual growth rate average of 6.1% 8.6% between 2004 – 2014 (trading economics, 2014), the national unemployment rate as at 2014 was 23.9% (national bureau of statistics, nbs, 2014) with the youth mostly affected. according to the central bank of nigeria, cbn (2014), 70% of the 80 million youth in nigeria are either unemployed or underemployed. the unemployme nt rate among nigeria certificate in education (nce) graduates was 22.2% as at 2010 (nbs, 2011). the federal government of nigeria recognizes that unemployment and poverty among the youth constitute a menace to the society. governments, past and present have mapped several social, economic and educational strategies to tackle the problems. the recent educational initiative is the national economic empowerment and development strategies (needs) 2004 plan. as part of strategies to create wealth, generate employment and reduce poverty, the policy recommended providing courses in colleges that build entrepreneurial skills (national planning commission, npc, 2004). hitherto, higher education curricula in nigeria lacked contents to deliberately develop values, attitude and skills that enable graduates to nurture their entrepreneur ia l abilities to realize entrepreneurship opportunities around them. entrepreneurship knowledge and skills make vital contributions to economic growth. entrepreneurship education is an inevitable strategy for inculcating entrepreneurial culture and orientation in a nation; creating employment; raising individual incomes; and transforming communities to enhance national economic development (mkala and wanjau, 2013). to pfeifer, oberman-petreka and jeger (2014), entrepreneurship is a vital part of every society’s prosperity and a driving force behind more employment, more growth and more competitiveness. nations that have embraced entrepreneurship have achieved impressive results in addressing the problems of unemployment and poverty (alakbarrov, 2010). the increasing importance of entrepreneurs hip education and its ability to contribute to economic growth, job and wealth creation and poverty reduction made it a national policy issue in nigeria, and inspired its integration in higher education curricula generally and colleges of education (coes) in particular. entrepreneurship education studies were first introduced in national certificate of education (nce) vocational/technical education (vte) curricula in 2002 by the national commission for colleges of education (ncce). the contents were taught in two compulsory courses: vte 220entrepreneurship in vte i and vte 310entrepreneurship in vte ii. in the assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 3 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 2012 edition of the minimum standards the ncce made entrepreneurship education a compulsory course for all nce students in colleges of education (coes) in the coursegeneral studies education (gse) 324introduction to entrepreneurship. thus, beyond teaching subject matter related contents and foundation courses, students in coes are taught sets of abilities and meta abilities needed for enterprise development and management (ukoha, 2012). the abilities are diverse but unique body of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour possessed by successful entrepreneurs. experts (e.g. gibb, 2006a and henry, hill and leitch, 2005) indicate that entrepreneurship is teachable, since it is perceived as behaviours patterns which among other factors can be influenced by education. jones and english (2004) in pfeifer, oberman-petreka and jeger (2014) defined entrepreneurship education as the process of providing individuals with the ability to recognize commercial opportunities and the knowledge, skills and attitudes to act on them. entrepreneurs hip education is a complex process. it relates to contents, methods and activities supporting the creation and development of knowledge, competencies and experiences that make it desirable and feasible for students to initiate and participate in entrepreneurial value creating process (moberg, et al, 2014). two major areas of entrepreneurship education have been recognized; education about entrepreneurship and education for entrepreneurship (lukkannen 2000 in olomi and sabokwigina, 2010). education about entrepreneurship deals mostly with awareness creation. the aim is to transfer knowledge about the field of entrepreneurship by educating students on the various aspects of entrepreneurship from a theoretical perspective. education for entrepreneurship deals more with the preparation of aspiring entrepreneurs for career in self-employment. the objective is to develop in students entrepreneurial competencies, skills, attitudes and values to encourage students to setup and run their own businesses. students are taught the practical skills required to set-up and manage small businesses. contents of gse 224, vte 220 and vte 310 adequately cover the two areas of entrepreneurship education (ukoha, 2010). the contents among other themes cover the four phases (opportunity study or conception of business idea; feasibility study; business/enterprise planning and implementation of business plan) of enterprise development, management and growth. by this curriculum structure, entrepreneurship education in coes presents a formidable array of ukoha akuma ukoha 4 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. entrepreneurial competencies-attitudes, skills, knowledge, experiences and ways of behaving that need to be taught (anderson and jack, 2008). thus, if efficiently implemented, the curriculum is expected according to the policy initiatives to develop in students the transferable entrepreneurial awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of entrepreneurs they need to seek investment opportunities, establish and managed a business venture successfully. niam, baker and islam (2014) and moberg, stenberg and vestergaard confirmed this assertion by noting that the outcome of entrepreneurship education depends on how effectively the course is taught using appropriate teaching and assessment methods. nonetheless, johnson, justin and hilderbrand (2006) noted that pedagogically, entrepreneurship is still a “connundrun” to teachers as the conventional pedagogies they apply may not fit well with nor be able to fulfil the different entrepreneurial promises of skills, abilit ies, attitude and knowledge contained in the curriculum. statement of the problem what justifies the worth of entrepreneurship education programme is the outcome. entrepreneurship in coes aims at preparing students for careers in self-employment as a more viable alternative to paid employment amidst rising youth unemployment. in self-employme nt, students are to create wealth and generate income to sustain living above poverty line. literature search reveals no study on impact assessment of entrepreneurship education on coe graduates. what seems evident after 12 years of teaching entrepreneurship education in coes is increasing unemployment among nce graduates (12.6% in 2002, 22.2% in 2010 and 24.9% in 2013, nbs, 2014) and debilitating poverty compelling graduates to take up menial jobs notably commercia l cyclist business. the increasing unemployment and underemployment among nce graduates point to a gap between the entrepreneurship education programme and the intended outcomes. mwasalwiba (2012) asserted that lack of coherent proof of the impact of entrepreneurship education triggers doubts about its efficacy. granted that several interrelated factors could account for the apparent inability of entrepreneurship education to produce the intended outcomes, mkala (2013) specifically reported that teaching and assessing methods affect learning outcomes of entrepreneurship education. by implication, the prevailing unemployment among nce graduates despite the teaching of entrepreneurship education could be attributed to teachers’ use of teaching assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 5 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 and assessment methods which do not promote students’ acquisition and use of entrepreneur ia l competencies for self employment. identifying the most effective methods of teaching and assessing learners in entrepreneurship education instruction which promote acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies are keys to a successful entrepreneurship education (kitz, 1991 in esmi, marzoughi and torkzadeh, 2015). thus, the purpose of this study, focusing on federal colleges of education in the southsouth geo-political zone of nigeria, was to assess: 1 the teaching methods used by entrepreneurship teachers in teaching entrepreneurs hip education courses; and 2 the assessment techniques used by entrepreneurship education teachers in assessing students’ learning outcomes in entrepreneurship education courses. research questions in respect of the two specific objectives, this study answered two questions: 1 what are the teaching methods used by entrepreneurship education teachers in teaching entrepreneurship education courses? 2 what are the assessment techniques used by entrepreneurship education teachers in assessing students’ learning outcomes in entrepreneurship courses? hypotheses four null-hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study at p<0.05. the mean scores of teachers on the teaching methods they use in entrepreneurship education instructions will not differ significantly by: 1. gender 2. institution 3. teachers’ department 4. teachers’ educational qualifications review of literature industry canada (2011) identified a framework for delivering entrepreneurship in colleges. the framework includes institutional infrastructure, resources, outreach or link with stakeholders, and ukoha akuma ukoha 6 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. teaching and learning. the teaching and learning dimensions focus on course curricula, extracurricula activities administered through the institution’s entrepreneurship framework, teaching methods and assessment techniques. teaching methods are used to convey entrepreneurship education knowledge skills and attitudes to learners. the method of teaching, according to nian, baker and islam (2014), is an important factor in determining the effectiveness and outcome of entrepreneurship education programme. studies (e.g. fredrick, 2007 and gatchalian, 2010) have established that entrepreneurs learn differently from others. thus, entrepreneurs require active and concrete pedagogical intervention requiring deepening learning in theory, process, and practice of entrepreneurs hip. based on this differentiation, levie (1991) and klandth (1993) in olomi and sabokwigina (2010) identified methods in courses for and about entrepreneurship. courses for entrepreneurs hip, according to them use case studies, guest speakers, group projects, business plan writing, students’ oral presentation, assessment of class participation and video. others include practical work on computer simulation, role playing games, working with entrepreneurs and joining students’ entrepreneurial clubs. courses about entrepreneurship they noted tend to be taught using traditiona l lecture, textbooks and consulting services by students. smith and patton (2011) reported that using traditional methods such as lecture and its variant “chalk and talk” to teach entrepreneurship education merely results in a knowledgeab le person. the method they added lack initiative for application. while they are effective in teacherlearner knowledge transfer (sherman, sebora and digman, 2008) they are static and unable to respond to the naturally dynamic business environment (smith and patton, 2011). on their part, nian, baker and islam (2014) noted that while traditional teaching methods might be able to develop the critical characteristics of entrepreneurs and business strategies, they might not be able to develop in students creativity and autonomy. the traditional teaching methods sustain their utility only in entrepreneurial awareness. however, mere awareness cannot develop entrepreneurial practice (mkala and wanjau, 2013). developing entrepreneurial practice requires experiential methods capable of instill ing transversal entrepreneurial skills. green (2011) thus recommends that business education pedagogies feature hands-on experience, real world projects and learning by doing and engaging in real world venture creation using methods such as team projects, field work, case studies, business plan writing and games. experience acquired through these methods are superior to assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 7 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 knowledge acquired through course work (schon, 1999) and studying books on manageme nt (igbo, 2008) as they take into consideration reality of practice. despite the criticisms of traditional methods over practical or experiential methods, the literature shows that a variant of both methods is widely used in colleges and universities across the world. traditional methods even seem to be most favoured by teachers. teachers in canadian institutions use a combination of traditional and experiential methods such as lectures, project teams and simulation (industry canada, 2011). in american universities, solomon (2007) reported that development of business plans, class discussion, and guest speakers are popular. the study also shows that even as traditional methods like creation of business plan still remains popular, institutions are shifting toward knowledge sharing pedagogical methods like class discussion and guest speakers. nian, bakar and islam (2014), in a recent study in malaysia, found that lecture, case study, and practicals are the common methods used in malaysia university to deliver entrepreneurship knowledge and skills. other methods as guest speakers, intervie w ing entrepreneurs, business simulation, role play, and multimedia exercises were used, but to a lesser extent. the researchers concluded that though teachers use interactive teaching methods in entrepreneurship education, yet their regularity remains low. there seem to be no difference in the entrepreneurship education teaching methods used in institutions in united states, canada, malaysia and those used in african countries. in tanzanian business schools, for instance, olomi and sabokwigina (2010) identified the predominant methods by teachers’ preferences as lecture, individual projects, group project, real case studies, guest speakers (entrepreneurs and bankers), interviewing entrepreneurs, reading books and journals, and business simulation. these methods showed that the teachers predominantly adhere to the use of traditional in-class methods. out-side class methods (e.g. onsite visits, feasibility studies, business plans) are rarely used, though they have potentials to teach both knowledge and skills. in a study in nigeria, obikeze and onyechi (2010) discovered that teachers in anambra state tertiary institutions regularly use lecture, studying books in business management, games and stimulation. other methods include career talk, excursion, film shows, debates, discussion, formation of business clubs and pep-talk. the ncce (2012) recommended the use of lecture and practical methods in teaching entrepreneurship education in coes. traditional methods (e.g. lecture) of teaching entrepreneurship education are inappropriate. they merely amount to “feeding passive students” (european commission, 2008) and do not ukoha akuma ukoha 8 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. encourage students to learn through experience (cooper, et al, 2004 in olomi and sabokwigina, 2010). besides, the methods leave little room for insight and intuition that students necessarily need for the dynamic entrepreneurial environment (olomi and sabokwigina, 2010). since most teachers would readily use traditional methods, kirby (2002) suggested balancing conventio na l methods with more advanced techniques to enable entrepreneurs develop vertical (or critical) and lateral (creative) thinking in problem solving. the european union (2008) gave credence to kirby’s suggestion, by recommending methods based on “group and team” techniques for creating business ideas: use of case studies, business planning workshops, inviting guest speakers (entrepreneurs), business simulation and methods based on undertaking some practical entrepreneurial activity and creativity. the methods ensure better entrepreneurship education learning outcomes. assessing entrepreneurship education learning outcomes is a big challenge to educators. entrepreneurship educators are often at loss with regards to evaluation and assessment practices to measure learning outcomes of their students (moberg, et al, 2014). the typology of entrepreneurship education indicates that assessment of entrepreneurial outcomes demonstrate not only knowledge, but also entrepreneurial mindset, attitudes and perceived skills acquired by students (moberg, et al., 2014) and the transversal entrepreneurial competencies that operationalize entrepreneurship in the economy (edward and pittaway, 2012). these concepts are complicated to observe directly which make them difficult to measure (moberg, et al., 2014). sherman, sebora and digman (2008) and pittaway, rodriguez-falcon and aiyegbayo (2009) note that there are critical concerns about the use of conventional methods such as written tests and examination to measure entrepreneurial skills and attitudes. these methods, they argue, do not bring out outcomes educators expect. despite the concerns, current entrepreneurs hip education assessment practices remain fairly traditional in european union (eu) countries (moberg, et al., 2014). the trend is the same in some african and asian countries. in kenya, mkala and wanjau (2013) found that teachers in technical training institutes routinely use the relatively ineffective traditional methods of written test and examination. the most commonly used assessment methods in order of preference in tanzanian business schools are course examination, class participation assessment, preparation of business plan, students’ oral presentation and essay (olomi and sabokiwgina, 2010). similar ly, nian, baker and islam (2014) discovered that teachers at universiti malaysia perlis in order of rank frequently use written assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 9 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 examination, group project, writing business plan, individual project, oral presentation and essay in assessing entrepreneurship education learning outcomes. assessment methods predict the methodologies selected to deliver entrepreneurs hip education contents (tranchet and reinstra, 2009). evidence from different countries seem to confirm a balance between traditional teaching and assessment methods. much as entrepreneurs hip education teachers make their choices of methods, the choices however depend on diverse factors. some of the factors include infrastructures available, support services, type of institution and teachers’ experience (industry, canada, 2011). gender according to obikeze and onyechi (2010) does not affect teachers’ choice of entrepreneurship education teaching method. on types of institution and entrepreneurship education teachers’ choice of teaching methods, nwokike, (2017) found no significant difference in mean scores of business educators teaching in federal, state and private universities on teaching methods that could improve entrepreneurial competencies of business education students. methodology this study used a survey research design. a census of all the teachers of entrepreneurs hip education in the three federal colleges of education (fce) at obudu, cross river state; omoku rivers state and asaba, delta was conducted during the first semester of the 2014//2015 session to determine the population of the study. this yielded a population of 30 teachers; distributed as follows: fce (technical), omoku 11; fce (t), asaba 9 and fce, obudu 10. the entire population participated in the study. the fcoes were chosen for investigation because their programmes are fully accredited by the ncce, funded and supervised by the federal ministry of education. the instrument was a structured self-administered questionnaire, which was refined after a pilot study. the cronbach’s alpha reliability index was 0.72. the value was deemed acceptable in comparison with the 0.70 recommended minimum by santos (1999). the items (differe nt methods of teaching and assessing entrepreneurship education) were generated through literature review. the instrument consisted of three sections, a, b and c. section a sought preliminar y information on the teachers’ gender, educational qualifications, institution and department. section b consisted of 18 items (teaching methods). section c comprised 9 items (assessment techniques). the respondents were required to rate the regularity of teaching and assessment methods they use ukoha akuma ukoha 10 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. in entrepreneurship education instruction based on their judgment on a scale of frequently, often, rarely and never. thirty copies of the questionnaire were administered. the researcher personally administered copies of the questionnaire at fce, obudu. copies administered at fce (t), asaba and fce (t), omoku were mailed by post to colleagues (lecturers) in the colleges who administered them and returned completed copies by post. twenty-six copies (86.66%) were collected and used for analysis. descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistical (t-test of independent samples and one-way analysis of variance) were used to analyze the collected data. the analysis was done using spss package. research questions 1 and 2 were answered using mean, standard deviation and rank. calculated means were interpreted as never (1.00 -1.49), rarely (1.49-2.49), often (2.50-3.49) and frequently (3.50-4.00). the means were further ranked to identify the most preferred methods. null-hypotheses 1 and 4 were tested using t-test; while 2 and 3 were tested using one-way analysis of variance (anova). all the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significant. results results of the data analyzed are presented in tables 1-6. table 1: mean and standard deviation responses of teachers on the methods used in teaching entrepreneurship education courses s/n methods of teaching sd mean rank remark 1 lecture .52 3.76 1 frequently 2 class discussion .69 3.04 3 often 3 field trip (on-site visit or excursion) .83 1.39 4 never 4 individual projects .88 1.39 4 never 5 group projects .63 1.32 6 never 6 case studies .62 1.39 9 never 7 writing business plan 0 1.00 11 never 8 feasibility studies 0 1.00 11 never 9 guest speakers (entrepreneurs) .81 1.24 10 never 10 interviewing entrepreneurs 0 1.00 11 never assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 11 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 11 business simulation 0 1.00 11 never 12 role play .60 1.45 7 never 13 studying books on management .51 3.41 2 often 14 film shows 0 1.00 11 never 15 business planning workshops/seminar .72 1.44 8 never 16 multimedia exercises 0 1.00 11 never 17 business clubs 0 1.00 11 never 18 games 0 1.00 11 never data in table 1 show that entrepreneurship education teachers frequently used lecture method and often use class discussion and studying books on management in teaching entrepreneurs hip education courses. lecture method was the most preferred method. table 2: mean and standard deviation responses of teachers on the assessment techniques used in assessing entrepreneurship education learning outcomes s/n assessment techniques sd mean rank remark 1 written examination .48 3.86 1 frequently 2 written test .54 3.75 2 frequently 3 class participation 0 1.00 6 never 4 preparation of business plan 0 1.00 6 never 5 oral presentation 0 1.00 6 never 6 individual project .60 1.45 4 never 7 group project .66 1.38 3 never 8 practicals .60 1.35 5 never teachers frequently used written test and examination in assessing entrepreneurship education students’ learning outcomes. ukoha akuma ukoha 12 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. table 3: t-test analysis of gender differences in the teaching methods used by entrepreneurs hip education teachers gender mean sd n df t-cal t-table male 2.20 1.30 5 24 .72 1.71 female 1.76 .89 21 the teaching methods used by entrepreneurship education teachers did not significantly differ by gender since the calculated t-value of 0.72 is less than the table t-value of 1.71 at 0.05 level of significance. table 4: anova of differences in the methods of teaching used by entrepreneurship education teachers by institution sources of variation df sum of squares mean squares f-cal f-crit s decision between groups 2 17.938 8.969 .249 3.00 ns accept ho2 within groups 48 1729.116 38.023 total 50 1747.054 the table f-ratio value of 3.00 is greater than the calculated f-ratio value of .249. null-hypothe s is 2 of no significant difference is accepted at 0.05 level of significance. this means that entrepreneurship education teachers’ choice of teaching methods were not influenced by their institutions of affiliation. assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 13 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 table 5: anova of differences in the methods of teaching used by entrepreneurs hip education teachers by department sources of variation df sum of squares mean squares f-cal f-crit s decision between groups 4 46.661 11.665 .851 3.32 ns accept ho3 within groups 80 1095.402 13.692 total 84 1142.063 the calculated f-ratio value of .851 is less than the table f-ratio value of 3.42. null-hypothesis 3 is accepted at 0.05 level of significance. this implies that the teachers’ choice of teaching methods were not influenced by their departments of affiliation. table 6: t-test analysis of differences in the methods of teaching used by entrepreneurs hip education teachers by educational qualifications educational qualification mean sd n df t-cal t-table bachelors degree/hnd 2.00 1.26 6 22 .318 1.71 higher degree 1.82 0.95 17 ukoha akuma ukoha 14 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. the calculated t-value of .318 is less than the critical t-value of 1.71. null-hypothesis 4 is accepted at 0.05 level of significance. the methods of teaching used by entrepreneurship education teachers did not differ by educational qualification. findings 1. entrepreneurship education teachers in fcoes frequently use the traditional lecture method in teaching entrepreneurship education courses. 2. the teachers often use class discussion and studying books on management in delivering entrepreneurship education contents. 3. the teachers do not use practical/experiential methods such as case studies, games, field trips (on-site visits), project methods etc in teaching entrepreneurship education. 4. the traditional written examination and test are the dominant assessment methods frequently used by entrepreneurship education teachers in assessing learning outcomes. 5. individual and group projects are often used by the teachers in assessing entrepreneurship education learning outcomes. 6. the teaching methods used by the teachers in teaching entrepreneurship education in fcoes did not show statistically significant differences by teachers’ gender, institution, department and educational qualifications. discussion of findings increasing unemployment and poverty among nce graduates necessitated the introduction of entrepreneurship education in coes curricula. the objective is to equip students with entrepreneurial competencies, attitudes and behaviours they necessarily need for new venture and wealth creation in self-managed enterprises as an imperative for poverty reduction. achieving the programme objective require teachers’ use of active and concrete teaching and assessment methods capable of delivering and precisely assessing entrepreneurial knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours acquired by students. on teaching methods, data in table 1 shows that the traditional lecture, class discussion and studying books on management were the common methods used by teachers in their instruction. table 1 also reveals that the teachers never used the interactive practical/experient ia l methods such as case studies, games, field trips, project teams, business planning workshops, inviting guest speakers and business simulation even though these methods have the potential to assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 15 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 teach practice, important skills and exposure to necessary behaviour critical to entrepreneur ia l development. on the frequency of use scale, the teachers indicated they frequently used lecture method compared to discussion and studying books on management which they often use. entrepreneurship education teachers’ frequent use of lecture method and non-use of practical/experiential methods partly agrees with, and partly negates ncce (2002 and 2009) recommendation for entrepreneurship education teachers to use practical and lecture methods in teaching the courses. aside ncce recommendation, teachers use of lecture and discussion methods could be because both are classroom-based and can easily be used by both experienced and less-experienced teachers. if interspersed with questions, lecture method like discussion method, enlists learners’ active participation in instruction. the finding on teachers’ use of traditional teaching methods is in agreement with the findings of solomon (2007) in the usa; industry canada (2011) in canada; obikeze and onyechi (2010) in anambra state university; olomi and sabokwigina in tanzania, and nian, baker and islam (2014) in malaysia. as widespread as the use of the conventional methods are, they have been variously criticized as being inappropriate. the methods are only suitable in teaching entrepreneurial awareness (nian, baker and islam, 2014) and knowledge transfer (sherman, sebora and digman, 2008). other shortcomings of the traditional methods include their inabilit y to encourage students to learn through experience (cooper et al, 2004 in olomi and sabokwigina, 2010), develop entrepreneurial practice (mkala and wanjau, 2013); develop creative and autonomy nian, baker and islam, 2014) and exploit their problem-solving potentials (pittaway, 2002 and green, 2011). these reports implied that entrepreneurship teachers as revealed in table 1 are merely teaching entrepreneurship awareness and knowledge to the students while neglecting practice. this is not acceptable. mere knowledge of entrepreneurship is grossly inadequate for students to set-up and successfully manage a small-scale business to generate income as part of the employment generation objective of entrepreneurship education. if the self employment objective of entrepreneurship education in coes must be achieved, the students need a balance of entrepreneurship education theory, practice, attitudes and behaviours. thus, teachers need to balance traditional in-class methods with the experiential/practical methods (example, case studies, field trips and project methods) in table 1 which they never used. the neglected practical/experiential methods encourage students to learn through experience (eu, 2008 and sherman, 2011) as they come face-to-face with realities of ukoha akuma ukoha 16 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. entrepreneurship which are not possible with the in-class lecture and discussion methods. in addition, the methods inculcate in students the entrepreneurial skills, attitudes, behaviours, lateral and vertical thinking in problem solving (levie, 1999 in olomi & sabokwigina, 2010) which they need to succeed as entrepreneurs. the teachers’ use of lecture and discussion methods in table 1 was confirmed by the data in table 2. the data showed that the teachers predominantly used written test and examination to assess learning outcomes. the two techniques are basically used to assess learning outcomes related to awareness of information, knowledge of facts, concepts, theories and principles in bloom’s hierarchy of educational objectives in the cognitive domain. thus, the teachers’ use of lecture and discussion methods were not in error. it was an informed choice. the teachers knew they taught entrepreneurial awareness and knowledge to the students and selected the appropriate assessment tools to measure them. teachers’ use of traditional written test and examination in table 2 is not isolated. it is consistent with the findings of nian, baker and islam (2014) in malaysia, mkala and wanjau (2013) in kenya; olomi and sabokwigina (2010) in tanzania and moberg et al (2014) in eu countries. data in table 1 and table 2 further confirmed the noted balance between traditiona l teaching and assessment methods reported by tranchet and reinstra (2009). the tests of the four null hypotheses in tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 showed that the mean scores of the teachers on the teaching methods they used in teaching entrepreneurship education did not differ significantly by teachers’ gender, institution, department and educational qualificatio ns. these findings showed complete agreement among the teachers on their choice of methods in entrepreneurship education instruction. findings on null hypotheses 2 and 3 in tables 3 and 4 were in agreement with obikeze and onyechi (2010) and nwokike (2017) who found no significa nt differences between university teachers’ gender and institution, and teachers’ choice of teaching methods. conclusion inappropriate and ineffective teaching and assessment methods are used in the nigerian colleges researched to teach and assess entrepreneurship education. the curricula no doubt provides contents in education for entrepreneurship and education about entrepreneurship which demand the use of traditional in-class and interactive practical/experiential teaching methods. nonetheless, assessing entrepreneurship education pedagogies in three federal colleges of education in nigeria’s south-south geo-political zone 17 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 1 -21 based on variables independent of gender, department, institution and educational qualificatio ns, the teachers neglected the experiential methods adjudged more effective, and predominantly used the traditional methods of discussion and studying books on management used mainly in deliver ing theoretical entrepreneurial knowledge. the entrepreneurship education teachers’ adherence to traditional teaching methods was confirmed by their use of conventional written test and examination in assessing learning outcomes. the observed balance between teachers’ choice of teaching and assessment techniques established two possibilities. either the teachers taught and assessed entrepreneurial knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours with the traditional teaching and assessment techniques or they concentrated on theoretical entrepreneurial knowledge for the traditional teaching and assessment methods to suffice. the second possibility seems more plausible. theoretical knowledge of entrepreneurship alone is not enough to drive the enterprise spirit in students to establish their own businesses to achieve the poverty alleviation/reduction objective of entrepreneurship education. students need balanced knowledge of entrepreneurship, skills, attitudes and behaviour characteristics of enterprising individuals to be able to venture into self-employment. recommendations the findings from this research show that teachers of entrepreneurship education in these nigerian coes do not use the appropriate pedagogical approach that the subject deserves; they seemed resigned to using ineffective traditional pedagogies. thus, the results of this study call the attention of entrepreneurship education teachers in coes to employ effective strategies for developing in students the key entrepreneur ia l competencies they need in self employment as entrepreneurs. teachers should abandon their over reliance on traditional teaching and assessment methods, and embrace experiential, interactive and practical oriented methods which teach and measure entrepreneurial knowledge, skills, attitudes, connectedness to labour market and mind set. it is through the use of appropriate pedagogies that nce students will develop practical business experiences and ideas for setting up and managing small business ventures in line with the self employment initiatives of entrepreneurship education in coes. ukoha akuma ukoha 18 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 1 -21. references alakbarov, i. 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(2010). adequacy of vocational technical education curriculum for entrepreneurs hip development in students of colleges of education in nigeria. orient journal of education, 5 (1), 80-88. world bank (2014). nigeria economic update: world bank cites positive economic trends and poverty reduction. retrieved on 11/04/15 from: www.worldbank.org/.../nigeria-e... www.ask.com (2014). nigeria gross domestic product annual growth rate. retrieved on 11/04/15 from: www.ask.com. http://www.worldbank.org/.../nigeria-e http://www.ask.com/ http://www.ask.com/ african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 2 2018 pp. 38-52 responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania francis william the university of dodoma, tanzania (k yambo20001@yahoo.com/fkyambo@gmail.com) gilbrita hamaro horombo secondary school, tanzania abstract this article proposes strategies for designing and evaluating curriculum materials for enhancing english language grammatical competence among form one learners in tanzanian secondary schools. using quasi-experimental and phenomenological designs, the authors developed an exemplary learner centered instructional grammar material (lcigm) focusing on form one learners. materials design approach and constructivism theory of learning guided the exercise. the data for the study were collected through documentary review, interviews, questionnaires and teaching and learning observations of 40 form one learners chosen from three randomly selected secondary schools in the dodoma region of tanzania. both pre-test and post-tests were done to understand the suitability of the newly developed material to meet the purpose of enhancing grammatical competence among form one learners. the findings and observations revealed that both teachers and learners benefited from the designed activity-based material which, in turn, enhanced learners’ grammatical performance, both in spoken and written form. the authors concluded by urging the stakeholders to design the material that are activity based to improve the learners’ grammatical competence. keywords: exemplary material, grammar, design, evaluate, efficiency, effectiveness, lcigm responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 39 introduction english has become the language of business in the world (schutz, 2005; neeley, 2012; triumph of english, 2013). this claim is consistent with the findings which indicate that about 85% of the international organizations use english as the language of communications (triumph of english, 2013). it is an irrefutable fact that many academic works and publications worldwide are written in english (negash, 2011). currently, english is both the subject and language of instruction in post-primary education in tanzania (william and ndabakurane, 2017). given the extensive use of the language, communicative competence in english becomes necessary among people in tanzania. this demand is further necessitated by the fact that english is the language of instruction in post primary education in both tanzania mainland and zanzibar (mary, 2014 and barrett et al., 2014). however, research has revealed that the learner’s command of english language within and outside tanzania is low (barrett et al., 2014; muzale and rugemalira, 2008). the sociolinguistic situation in tanzania poses challenges in using english as a medium of instruction. for instance, it is often claimed that poor performance in english among learners in tanzanian secondary schools is attributed to the learners’ low command of english language (vuzo, 2010), especially for the learners with different linguistic backgrounds (fielder, 2011). the problem of limited performance in english among learners in tanzanian secondary schools is also associated with teaching approaches in use, inadequate learning and teaching supportive activity-based materials, the lack of quality textbooks (including reference books), inadequate skilled and incompetent english language teachers among many other factors (mtana, 2013, mosha, 2013, bhalalusesa, westbrook and lussier, 2011 and osaki, 2007). the noted limited performance in english grammar in tanzanian secondary schools raises the need to devise some strategies that would enhance learners’ grammatical competence in the nation’s secondary schools. this need is primary because communicative competence requires pupils to be able to write and rewrite sentences with specific word choices, alter tenses, change the sentence types, and explore the impact of different connectives when they have attained communicative competence. according to hedge (2008), achievement in english language writing proficiency requires explicit pedagogy in grammar. hymes (1972) argues that communicative competence consists of not only an inherent grammatical competence but also the ability to use grammatical competence in a variety of communicative situations. canale and swain (1980) contend that grammatical competence is concerned with mastery of the linguistic francis william & gilbrita hamaro ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 40 code which includes vocabulary knowledge as well as knowledge of morphological, syntactic, semantic, phonetic and orthographic rules. this is what this article seeks to address here by proposing the appropriate strategies to develop the material that would enhance learners’ grammatical competence. senior (2006) suggests that the central aspect of learner-focused teaching is creating a classroom functioning as a community of learners. enhancement of language competence and performance in language teaching requires teachers’ collaboration and effective introduction of the learners to collaboration (johnson, 2009). throughout the planning process, teachers draw on outside resources, including textbooks, research and teaching theories and encourage extended conversations while focusing on learner learning and the development of specific outcomes (richards, 2011). the government of tanzania has endeavoured to combat the challenges of english learners although there are shortfalls. our study addresses these shortfalls. for example, based on tanzania’s 2010 curriculum reform, the tanzania institute of education (tie) under the ministry of education and vocational training changed the ordinary secondary english syllabus from content-based to competence-based focus which accord, among other things, with developing communicative competence. this reform aimed at promoting the learners’ linguistic ability and effective use of english in various settings and at improving academic performance in all content areas. although the english language syllabus defines the communicative competences to be acquired by learners at each level of secondary education, one of the limitations that faced this reform was a lack of authentic materials that were prepared for its implementation. given this shortcoming, learners’ competency in the language has worsened rather than improved. it is important to recognize that english as the language of instruction is difficult for many form one students in tanzania. this is a transition class from primary school to secondary school (william and ndabakurane, 2017). statement of the problem several studies and projects on improving the quality of education in tanzania have emphasized the design of supportive material for implementing competence-based curricula (william, 2012; william, 2009; mafumiko, 2006; ottevernger, feiter, o-saki, and van de akker, 2005). these authors support the implementation of the new curriculum through designing innovative instructional materials to promote a new change rather than the traditional use of textbooks and teacher guides. one of the reasons for limiting the materials currently used for teaching and responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 41 learning english language grammar in tanzania is that they promote surface learning rather than deep understanding of concepts. there have been some research and projects, like teams project (ottevernger, feiter, o-saki, and van de akker, 2005), to improve learning in tanzania but most of them are set to provide supportive education material in science subjects: chemistry (mafumiko, 2006; william, 2009; william, 2012, mathematics (kitta, 2004) and physics (tilya, 2003). only a few studies were conducted on the social sciences, and none on english subject. sylvester (2013), maghembe (2012) and kamugisha (2010) conducted studies on geography subject area. while this situation of lack of appropriate competence-based teaching and learning materials remains pervasive as those authors insist, learners’ command of english language continues worsening. based on that reason, this study is an attempt to prepare a learning material that would enhance the learners’ command of english grammar. this article, therefore, provides information about applicable strategies to design, implement and evaluate interactive teaching english grammatical material to enhance communicative competence for form one in tanzania’s ordinary level education. such projects are emphasized by schneider and krajcik (2002) who insist that the designed educative curriculum material should support teachers’ and learners’ teaching and learning respectively. objectives of the study the study seeks to provide information on three objectives, namely: 1. design interactive exemplary learner centered instructional grammar material (lcigm) for enhancing form one learners’ communicative competence. 2. try-out the material in the classroom to assess their practicality. 3. investigate the effectiveness and efficiency of the material in enabling the implementation of learner centered approach (lca) in english language grammar. the conceptual framework for the study we deem the description provided by van den akker (2010) and nieeven (2010) a suitable approach to meet the purpose of this article. the approach was linked with the three typologies of curriculum representation. intended curriculum francis william & gilbrita hamaro ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 42 this is what the teacher plans to teach. it is considered to either be ideal or formal curriculum. ideal curriculum is related to the vision of each specific country; focusing on the rationale or basic philosophy underlying the curriculum. the formal curriculum refers to the target as identified in curriculum documents. formal curriculum was the main focus during design. the teaching and learning target as stipulated in tanzania’s formal curriculum was met by developing the material to suit different levels of proficiency. it started with design guidelines and specifications based on the challenges or difficulties encountered by the teachers and learners during teaching and learning. the learner centered instructional grammar material (lcigm) was designed from the competence-based english syllabus of 2010 that, among other things, emphasizes the learners’ acquisition of competences that would enable them to manage their life in school and after school. implemented curriculum this is what was designed to actually be taught. this type of curriculum is either perceived or operational curriculum. the perceived curriculum is what is interpreted by its users (especially teachers) and operational curriculum is the actual process of teaching and learning. the design and development of the material were done focusing on learning outcomes as proposed by kirkman (2014) the classroom try-out assessment of practicality, effectiveness, and efficiency (validity and reliability) of the material was done using a single group followed by a control, and experimental groups. attained curriculum this can be experiential or learned. experiential curriculum refers to the experience as perceived by the learners and learned curriculum is the resulting learning outcomes of learners during and after the process of interacting with the designed materials (kirkman, 2014). the study assessed the ability of the material to enhance communicative competence of learners and ability of teachers to adopt the designed approach in improving grammatical competences. hence, the study proposed cooperative leaning and role play methods to enhance grammar in communicative english language. this was done with the knowledge that in communicative language teaching, the teacher must utilize a variety of approaches and create situations that would allow learners interact and communicate with each other to facilitate their mastering of the rules of grammatical sentences. richard (2011) proposed that communicative responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 43 language teaching methodology should make real communication to be the focus of language learning; should provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know, and should be tolerant of learner’s errors as these indicate that the learner is building up his or her communicative competence. such methodology, he argued, should provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency, and should link different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together, since in the real world they usually occur together so that learners can induce or discover grammar rules. methodology to come up with the relevant information about practicality, effectiveness and efficiency of the designed lcigm, the authors adopted a developmental research approach adhering to the principles and methods of designing and developing education instructional material (akker, 2010). a mixed methodology was used in which both quantitative and qualitative paradigms were used to generate and analyze the data. a phenomenological design enabled the study to build up teachers conception of the ability of lgigm to enhance learning of english language grammar. this was possible by creating an understanding of what was done in both the control and treatment groups. unstructured interview protocols were used to get teachers and learners’ views on the usefulness of the lessons designed through lcigm in enhancing their understanding of linguistics and correct grammar expressions. a quasi-experimental design was used for studying the expected and actual practicality, effectiveness, and efficiency of the lcigm in classroom settings. the study did not sample the participating learners during field-testing of the effectiveness and efficiency of the material in the treatment and control schools. rather, non-equivalent groups (negs) preand post-tests quasiexperimental design was used during the field testing in the treatment group. the traditional approach was used in non-treatment groups to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of the material in enhancing english communicative competence and addressing grammatical challenges among teachers and learners in secondary schools. a total of four ordinary level secondary schools in dodoma municipality in dodoma region in tanzania were selected for data collection; their form one learners and teachers participating in the study. the selected schools were st. peter high school for the pilot study, sechelela secondary school for the try-out, viwandani secondary school for the control group francis william & gilbrita hamaro ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 44 and ng’ong’ona secondary school for the treatment group. sechelela secondary school and st. peter high school were selected purposely for formative evaluation in assessing the validity and practicality of the material before field testing. two schools were selected for field testing one treated as the treatment group (ngo’ng’ona secondary school) and the other as a control group (viwandani secondary school). ng’ong’ona secondary school experienced intervention with the new material whereas viwandani secondary school did not receive the intervention and their teachers kept on teaching using the traditional approach. the pre-post test was used in both schoo1s to find out the effectiveness and efficiency of the material by calculating the significant difference, mean and standard deviation. the methods that were used to solicit the data are interview protocols, observations, tests, and questionnaires. documentary review was also used to collect secondary data on the features of the learner-centered lesson during the material design. data analysis the qualitative data obtained from observations, questionnaires and interviews were analyzed thematically. the organization of data involved making key statements, coding them, categorizing, analyzing and, finally, generating the message. spss version 16 was used to analyze quantitative data collected from the questionnaires and test scores. the analysis of the descriptive and inferential statistics (mean, standard deviation, standard error and t test) was used to compare mean scores and test for significant difference of the mean scores. an independent sample t test analysis was used to find out any significant difference in mean scores of preand post-tests between the control and experimental group. the paired t test was used for the comparison of the pre-and post test in sechelela, ng’ong’ona and viwandani secondary schools. findings and discussion the findings of the study were presented in line with the data collection tools and procedure used during the study. the discussion considered only a few findings that are important for readers to get a comprehensive idea about the implementation and evaluation of the lcign. lcigm design the design specifications and guidelines used in designing lessons in the lcigm were guided by the question, what is the nature of the material suitable for enhancing communicative ability among the learners? the identification of the research problem was done through a preliminary study which revealed that grammar was a communicative challenge among form one learners. responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 45 hence, the designed lessons contained grammatical instructional activities that focused on the learner-centered approach. the exemplary material aimed at improving pedagogical content knowledge (pck) in the teaching and learning process to motivate the learner’s interest and communicative competence. a sample of the lesson (lesson one) developed using the selected design guidelines and specifications for lcigm is presented in table 1. table 1: a sample lesson in lcigm developed through this study lesson 1: expressing likes and dislikes lesson overview the lesson is organized in such a way that it stimulates the learners’ critical thinking skills through a variety of interactive activities that motivate them to learn english grammar. these activities are such as argumentative sentences, filling in the table, discussions, presentation and role play. basic competence to enable learners’ demonstrate oral and writing ability in order to express their needs, feelings and ideas using appropriate english grammar expressions in their daily communications. general learning outcomes to enable learners express what they like or dislike and retell what others like/dislike in appropriate english grammar. specific learning outcomes by the end of 80 minutes, every learner in form one class should be able to: a) use real objects to express on likes/dislikes; b) demonstrate different activities which express likes and dislike and c) construct negative and positive sentences using the vocabulary like. teaching and learning materials/resources varieties of real objects such as fruits, balls and different colored flowers. lesson plan and timing activity and teaching strategies time (mins.) introduction i) a teacher has to assign learners to brainstorm learners on argumentative sentences. ii) the learners have to listening to teacher’s argumentation and then deduce the objectives of the lesson. (iii) the learners have to carry out presentation of the subject matter and teachers’ follow up activities through their pairs or groups. 10 presentation the teacher is advised to guide the learners through: (i) correct pronunciation and spelling of various words during the lesson; 30 francis william & gilbrita hamaro ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 46 (ii) construction of grammatical sentences using likes/dislikes with reference to real and objects (iii) demonstration and role play by expressing themselves using likes/dislikes. practice the teacher has to guide the learners in group discussion & presentation as they make conversation using likes/dislikes by: a) filling in a table b) constructing grammatical sentences from the table 30 lesson summary/closure the teacher is advised to provide a brief summary on the important lesson points such as how to construct sentences using expressions “likes/dislikes”. then, the teacher has to wind up the lesson by assigning the homework questions to individual learners. 10 lesson notes evaluation of the lesson in a friendly situation, the teacher has to discuss about the evaluation of the lesson with his/her learners. if the learners show fear, he/she may give them exit cards without mentioning their names. reading material randolph, q. & sidney, g. (1993; pg 47-49). university grammar of english. longman group, england. murphy, r. (2012). english grammar in use: 4t h edition. cambridge university press. bukagile, g.r (2005). english for secondary school book . nyambari nyangwine,dar es salaam, tanzania. it was observed that clear design guidelines and specifications are very crucial in any developmental study because they act as a blueprint for any intervention material or programme. they also give the interventions shape and direction. the findings are supported by davis and krajcik (2005) who maintained that curriculum material, when properly designed, are expected to support teachers to increase their pedagogical content delivery knowledge and skills through authentic activities that address the needs of learners. findings from lesson observation and english usage the study observed that grammar posed a challenge to the learners’ communicative competence especially in the area of tense formation and identifying subject-verb relationship. the reason identified is that teachers did not properly address the grammar patterns in english lessons. teachers lacked pedagogies and instructional materials to guide them on how to explore and teach sentence structures. the study finds that english teachers lacked adequate linguistic skills and vocabulary to express complex ideas and ask critical questions. this agrees with the study on ensuring quality by attending to inquiry learner centered pedagogy in sub-saharan africa done responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 47 by vavrus, thom1as and barletta (2011) that teachers often do not have adequate linguistic skills in their communication. this is also supported by the responses of 33 or 73% of the 40 interviewed learners on the likert scale who were discouraged by the use of english language frequently in classroom teaching. moreover, their teachers used teacher-centered approach in implementing the syllabus. these findings concur with tilya (2003), william (2012) and mafumiko (2006) who found that tanzanian classrooms were still dominated by traditional ways of teaching (talkchalk way of teaching). contrariwise, teaching and learning should be learner-centered, the learners interacting with the material, the teachers, and among themselves. likert scale and interview findings of learners use of lcigm the study findings show that both teachers and learners found the exemplary lessons useful in supporting teaching and learning. the designed material significantly enhanced the learners’ participation and understanding of grammar. most of the learners were able to demonstrate knowledge using real objects as reflected in the small group discussions and presentations and activities they were given. feedback was given to the learners on grammar mistakes they committed. the findings concur with makundan’s (2009) formulation that a classroom should be like a jungle where chances, challenges, spontaneity, creativity and risk work are completely structured into planned activities. william (2009) also found that his newly designed activitybased material for improving teaching and learning chemistry in tanzanian secondary schools enabled learners to reflect learned knowledge and skills in real life; and that it promoted inquiry learning and improved learners’ performance. this implies that developing materials for teaching and learning putting the learner in mind by using learner centered approach would help learners to acquire the required competence. also, the newly designed lcigm facilitated learners’ understanding of linguistic skills and helped to produce correct grammar expressions in their daily communications. the responses of 40 (100%) learners based on the likert scale of the learners’ responses on their perceptions on the ability of lcigm to enhance english language grammatical competence among form one learners in the treatment school indicated that teaching strategy in lcigm excited and motivated them in learning grammar rules in english language. it also enabled them gain more confidence as they took their learning responsibilities seriously, and became competent in solving their communicative problems through role play, demonstration, discussion and presentation activities. the findings concur with constructivism theory which assumes that knowledge emerges through francis william & gilbrita hamaro ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 48 interaction and experiences among learners’ own ideas (du plessis and muzaffar, 2010). hence, it is important to recognize that teachers need to be flexible in designing and using individualized grammar material when teaching certain contents in the syllabus and give continuous feedback to learners. effective implementation of the learner-centered teaching is determined by the teachers’ understanding of the approach and by their pedagogical motivation to engage learners in the instructional practice (mushi, 2004). comparison of schools preand post-test findings finally, the pre-post test results show that despite the shorter time learners had during the trial with the material, the performance of the learners’ post-test results revealed some improvement. the mean (m) scores for the pre-test in the control school was 34.44 (sd = 19.19) whereas the mean score for the post-test was 34.28 (sd = 20.77). table 2 statistical findings from pre and post tests treatment group control group pre-test post-test statistical test pre-test post-test statistical test m std m sd t p m sd m sd t p 32.50 15.65 47.25 21.12 0.39 < 0.005 34.44 19.19 34.28 20.77 6.68 < 0.005 key: m = mean; sd = standard deviation; t = statistical test value of difference between pre and post-test mean scores; p is confidence interval. if 2.00 ≤ t ≤ +2.00, and p < 0.005 then, the mean difference is significant. the significance of pre and post-test in treatment school was t (35) = 0.39, p > 0.005. this shows that there was no statistically significant difference increase in the performance between pre-test and posttest in control school. however, in the experimental school, the mean scores for the pretest was 32.50 (sd = 15.65) whereas the mean score for the post-test was 47.25 (sd = 21.12). the significant increase from pre-test to post-test in school m was t (39) = 6.68, p < 0.005. this shows that there was improvement in performance between pretest and post test in school m. the findings are in line with the findings by kamugisha (2010) who designed and tried out materials in geography following a similar methodology. the study found that both experimental and control schools showed significant statistical improvement between preand post-test mean scores. however, the level of improvement in the experimental school was higher than that of control school. responding to english grammatical challenges: the design and development of exemplary material for form one learners in tanzania ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 49 conclusion and recommendation the study concludes that although teachers are aware of competence based curriculum, they lack the necessary skills to use learner centered materials in classroom. hence, there is a need to guide teachers and authors of secondary school books on how to develop learner centered materials which our study and similar others have proved to be useful. the use by learners and teachers of the lcigm material that we designed and implemented in our study show evidence of raising teachers content and pedagogical knowledge of teaching english grammar. this material enabled constructive learning that engaged students in active learning as individuals and in groups helping them in acquiring grammatical competence. findings from the use of our lcigm material thus support the position of pham (2011), davis and krajcik (2005) and william (2009) who call for study materials that actively engage learners in the learning process and those that integrate new knowledge with the existing one. the activities that were structured into our lcigm material improved students learning and performance in the intervention school because of life experiences they included. therefore, the authors recommend similar materials in other subjects to be used in tanzania’s secondary schools to enhance learning of english along with the subjects’ contents. reference bhalalusesa, e., westbrook, j., & lussier, k. (2011). teacher preparation and continuing professional development in africa (tpa): the preparation of teachers in reading and mathematics and its influence on practices in tanzanian primary schools. canale, m., & swain, m. (1980). theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. applied linguistics, 1, 1 47. davis, e. a., and krajcik, j. s. (2005). “designing educative curriculum materials to 193 promote teacher learning, educational researcher, 34(3), 3-14. du plessis, j. & muzaffar, i. (2010). professional learning communities in the teachers’ college: a resource for teacher educators. equip 1, usaid. fielder, s. (2011). english as a lingua franca –a nativeculture-free code? language of communication vs. language of identification. apples – journal of applied language studies, 5(3), 79-97. university of leipzig. retrieved from http://apples.jyu.fi. francis william & gilbrita hamaro ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 38-52 50 hymes, d. h. (1972). on communicative competence. in pride, j. b., & holmes, j. (eds.), sociolinguistics, 269-293. baltimore, usa: penguin education, penguin books ltd. johnson, p. (2009). must the whole world speak english? forbes.com johnson, r. k. (1993). using english as the medium of instruction. hong kong: longman. kamugisha, (2010). implementing a learner-centered approach in geographical research techniques at alevel. a case of morogoro municipality. master dissertation submitted for the partial fulfillment of the m.a. education at the university of dodoma. kirkman, j. (2014). learning study: the potential of learning study to enhance initial teacher education and continued professional development at the university of birmingham. university of birmingham. kitta, s. (2004). enhancing mathematics teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and skills in tanzania. doctoral dissertation: eusched. university of twente. mafumiko, f. (2006). micro-scale experimentation as a catalyst for improving the chemistry curriculum in tanzania. doctoral thesis. enschede: (the netherlands) university of twente. available from: http://purl.org/utwente/55448. makundan, j. (ed). (2009) reading on elt material iii. petaling. jaya: pearson malaysia. mary, m. a. (2014). factors affecting learners’ performance in english language in zanzibar rural and urban secondary schools. dar es salaam. faculty of education, university of bagamoyo: tanzania. maghembe, n. (2012). teaching kiswahili syntax through the learner-centered approach. unpublished ma. education dissertation. university of dodoma. mosha, h. j. (2013). a case study of learning material used to deliver knowledge and skills or competence-based curriculum in tanzania. working document submitted for the adea. triennial on education and training in africa 12t h -17t h february 2012. ouagadougou, burkina faso. mtana, n. 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(2011). english language in africa: an impediment or a contributor to development? perceptions of english. osaki, k. m. (2007). science and mathematics teacher preparation in tanzania. lessons learned from teacher improvement project in tanzania: 1965-2006, nue journal of international education cooperation, 2, (5), 51-64. ottevanger, w.j.w., feiter, l., o-saki, k. m., & van de akker, j. (2005). the teams project in tanzania: from intervention to capacity building, in journal of international cooperation in education, 8(1), 111-128. pham, h. (2011). theorybased instructional models applied in classroom context. literacy information and compared education journal (licej), 2 (2). richards, jack c. (2011). competence and performance in language teaching. second edition. new york: cambridge university press. schneider r .m & krajcik j. (2002). supporting science teachers in learning: the role of educative curriculum material. clawer academic publisher. netherlands. senior, r. 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(2012), enabling science teaching and learning in rural high schools in tanzania: design and development of integrated chemistry modules (icm) for a-level secondary education. unpublished doctoral thesis. university of dodoma, tanzania. william, f & ndabakurane, j. (2017). language supportive teaching and textbooks (lstt) for bilingual classrooms mathematics teaching and learning in tanzania, african journal of teacher education, 6 (1), 96-118. an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge among retired teachers in zambia robinson mambwe university of zambia, zambia chisha mwape university of zambia, zambia abstract this study investigated the preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge among retired teachers in zambia, as well as the success of their post-retirement business ventures. descriptive survey design utilising both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed through use of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. convenient and purposive sampling techniques were utilised in sampling. the conclusion shows that most retired teachers lack survival and entrepreneurial skills to manage their business ventures. lack of pre-retirement entrepreneurial training, lack of pre-retirement counselling, and poor planning for retirement life were found to be the major hindrances to retired teachers’ success in managing their business ventures. the article points to the need for major reforms in teacher training and in pensions scheme policies in zambia to accommodate issues of financial literacy and entrepreneurial skills among teachers as a way of preparing teachers and other civil servants for life after formal employment. keywords: zambia retired teachers; entrepreneurial skills education; business skills, zambia education. introduction work has been an integral part of human life and the development of societies from time immemorial. people engage in informal and formal forms to they meet their needs as well as the needs of the vast society. for the formal kinds of work, there comes a time for disengagement from active employment, a phase referred to as retirement. retirement is a fluid concept because it connotes different things and is fraught with different experiences for different people. however, its importance is made more glaring by the fact that the retired person is made to face some challenges because of his/her new status as a retiree. mein, higgs, ferrie, & stansfeld (1998) noted that retirement is a stressful experience to many because of its associated life decisions on the matter of life arrangements generally. 2 an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) retirement is commonly defined as a state of being withdrawn from business, public life or active service. in the views of kemps and buttle (as cited in ubangha & akinyemi, 2005) retirement is a transfer from one way of life to another; they noted that many people suffer from retirement shock such as a sense of deprivation during the early period of their retirement. this phenomenon involves several changes in values, monetary involvements, and social aspects of life. hence retirement may lead to termination of a pattern of life and a transition to a new one. retirement can also be conceived as an age-related withdrawal from active pensionable employment (mitchell, 1993). teachers in zambia were expected to retire at the age of 55. in 2015 the retirement age was changed to 60 years old. while some individuals view retirement positively and plan for it with anticipation, others dread its eventuality with great anxiety. thus, retirement is not a homogenous experience for everyone. billings (2004) described retirement as the transition from first adulthood to second adulthood which is often a jarring and unsettling experience. tembo (1991) recounts that when zambian teachers retire from active service; they seem to adjust poorly to retirement life just like most civil servants. it is no wonder, as kamwengo (2004) observed that most retired teachers live in destitute positions due to the fact that anticipating and planning for retirement is not easy. even when it is a known fact that entrepreneurial and vocational skills can be useful survival skills, little is known about what kind of survival and entrepreneurial skills exist among retired teachers in zambia. moreover, no studies exist that assess the survival skills and entrepreneurial knowledge as well as the effectiveness of business ventures retired teachers engage in for sustenance. these are the reasons for this study. theoretical framework the theories that inform this study are structured dependence theory, disengagement theory, activity theory, and the theory of the third age. structured dependence theory focuses essentially on the role of financial resources in conditioning the experience of older people (mein et al., 1998). peter townsend developed this theory in the 1980s to explain how, among other things, retirement experience can help to explain how the dependency of older people is artificially structured (townsend, 1981). central to the theory is the proposition that society has created the negative position occupied by some elderly people through compelling them to depend upon the state for pensions and benefits. it focuses on the role and action of the state and society in creating a dependent older population, through retirement, pensions, and residential care. the resultant factor is that older people do not want to use their survival and entrepreneurial skills to make ends meet, but would rather depend on the state. townsend (1981) also suggests that the loss of family members and friends through retirement would lead to deprivation of access to resources and additional costs. however, it is important to acknowledge that in contrast to the low status in which older people are held in society, families may hold them in much higher status. therefore, the family can act as a means of escape from societal norms and dependencies that are created by the state. overall, the structured dependence theory shows how pensions and resources that are restricted for older people can lead them to have a lower status in society and into poverty. this in turn means they may become more dependent on their families and the state. walker (1981) adopts the structured dependence theory, stating, “retirement, low pensions, institutional care and passive forms of community care have effectively created the robinson mambwe and chisha mwape 3 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) dependency of a group of elderly people” (as cited in mein, 1998, p. 535). it is significant to note that walker (1993) later recognised that the degree of dependence of the retiree in terms of pensions related to their occupational status during their working life. the disengagement theory developed by cumming and henry in the 1950s pointed to the older persons’ gradual but inevitable withdrawal from their social context in preparation for the ultimate disengagement from society, that is death. retirement from work is thought to mark the beginning of disengagement from society and leads to social isolation, illness, and a decline in happiness (cumming & henry, 1961). the functionalist influence over this theory is highlighted in the proposition that disengagement is mutually beneficial for both the individual and society. it argues that order is maintained as workers retire and younger generations take on their jobs. moreover, society is less impacted by the deaths of the older generations as they already detached themselves from society. this process is thought to be natural and desirable. the pivotal focus of the theory is on the withdrawal of older people from the labour market, which the theory suggests allows the seamless adjustment in society, as younger people replace older people in their jobs (higgs, 1995). the activity theory has its roots in the functionalist role theory which holds that the central activity in peoples’ lives is work and retirement connotes the loss of that role and consequently signals the commencement of isolation from society. the main proponent of this theory is talcott parsons. anchored on the assumptions of the role theory, the activity theory seeks to understand the different roles present in the activities in which people participate after retirement (havighurst, as cited in mein et al., 1998). hence the theory seeks to explore the various roles engaged in by retired people. a task, in part, that this research seeks to undertake with a specific focus on survival skills of retired teachers in zambia. the theory of the third age this theory was partly in reaction to the widely-held view that post-retirement life was full of negative experiences in life. it was developed by peter laslett in 1989 with an attempt to reverse many of these negative assessments about the nature of life beyond retirement by declaring the third age which coincides with retirement age to be the crown of life. therefore, the focus of the theory is on the possibility of a new condition of a freely chosen healthy retirement leading to a life of self-realisation and fulfilment (mein et al., 1998). it is vital to note that these theories may not be the only ones informing this research as many other theories around human social life can be drawn upon. for instance, maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory may also contribute to the understanding of the drive for retired teachers’ choice to invoke survival skills. maslow postulates that every human being has a set of needs which they seek to meet through activities, behaviours, and roles (maslow, as cited in chongo, 2013). these needs per maslow can be classified from lower needs to higher ones in which the individual always starts with satisfying lower needs before other needs can emerge. maslow arranges these human needs in a hierarchy where the lowest needs are physio logical and security needs with self-actualisation being the highest order need (basu, as cited in chongo, 2013). the middle order needs are the social and self-esteem needs. in this hierarchy of needs, the satisfaction of lower needs precedes the fulfilment of higher order needs. hence a person will be more concerned about fulfilling the physiological and security needs which include food, thirst, shelter and rest. although these assumptions can be challenged, they 4 an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) provide a framework for understanding the need for retired teachers in zambia to engage in survival skills and entrepreneurial related ventures. history of retirement in zambia the development of social security in zambia is better understood by viewing it in three historical phases, pre-colonialism, colonialism, and post-colonialism. pre-colonial times were traditional characterised by a mutual aid system where each one was his/her brother’s/sister’s keeper (mhone as cited in mkandawire, 2004). this covers the period before 1911 there were several different african civilizations living in what is now known as the country of zambia. society served as the social security/social protection where the family was the main provider (nooyo, 2000). there was no such thing as retirement pensions as formal employment (within a nation-state institution of employment) with which it is associated. the nation-state emerged as a western imposition tied to colonial borders accompanied with industrialisation that created a national bureaucracy replete with education, government, and industrial complexes and a global cash economy in what is zambia today. the colonialism period, beginning 1911 till 1964, brought with it a shift as industrialisation and western ideas were introduced into the traditional system. pivotal in this period was the beginning of the copper mining industry on which zambia’s economic development was centred (nooyo, 2000). during this period, the british colonisers ensured that social policy for the indigenous citizens was paternalistic and prescriptive mainly meant to cater to the labourers of the mining industry and not the rural population (mhone as cited in mkandawire, 2004). this period saw to the emergence of the establishment of the earliest coverage in social security in the country which provided for work injury benefits which is presently administered by the workers compensation fund control board (wcfcb). the local authorities superannuation fund (lasf) was established later in 1954 to provide pensions for employees in the local authorities (cheta, 2005). the mutual aid system still existed but it was diminishing. there was a mix of the family’s and the state’s (colonial) role in social security provision. post colonialism began after independence was obtained in october, 1964. this brought about the government recognition for social and economic policy that would cover the whole country. under the political ideology of humanism within universalistic principles, zambia’s nation government provided social services which characterised the country’s path to development for the creation of a more just and equitable zambia (nooyo, 2000). not only did the country inherit a strong mining based economy, but also administrative structures on which public affairs were run (ministry of finance and national planning, 2002). the earliest of civil service pension coverage following independence was that formed under the colonial structure. public pressure to extend coverage resulted in the creation of the civil service pensions fund (cspf) four years after independence which was later reformed and renamed the public service pensions fund board (pspfb) (cheta, 2005). in this system of inheritance of retirement schemes, the provident fund system that was common for former british colonies was what zambia adopted. no longer were livelihoods within this formal employment sector sustained by the informal traditional social support system of mutual aid alone, but a formal income centred social security system. like many developing countries within africa and in other parts of the world, there were efforts overtime to improve the pension system through national development plans and strategies. there is much left to be desired in these systems as the countries face increasing population and poverty rates in relatively unstable economic contexts. the traditional social robinson mambwe and chisha mwape 5 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) support networks of extended family and communities were diminished as nation state institutions disrupted these structures and processes. it is in this context that the social security system became an embedded aspect of zambia’s formal employment sector (cheta, 2005). from 1991 when the second republic began, a shift of political ideology ushered in principles of liberalisation and privatisation of industries hence impacting the social security system as the government was no longer the only formal actor. currently, the zambian so cial security system is predominantly based on a social insurance model. it includes three statutory pension schemes. these include the national pension scheme authority (napsa), local authorities superannuation fund (lasf) and the public service pension fund board (pspfb). these three are defined benefit schemes which run on a defined formula. the private pensions schemes are defined contributions in which there is a specified contribution rate and the interest accrued on these accumulated contributions determine the benefits (national assembly, 2010). supervision of the existing social security schemes is carried out by various government ministries and agencies established for this purpose through acts of parliament. in 2013, the zambia’s government announced an increase in retirement age from 55 to 65 (napsa, 2013). this was adjusted by 2015 to 60 years with 55 and 65 years being early retirement and late retirement respectively. zambia’s employment statistics and demography given the intergenerational resource distribution role that social security systems are designed to support, a brief description of the country’s demographic characteristics is necessary. zambia’s population is approximately 14.8 million with life expectancy at birth at 57 (central statistical office, 2013). this is an increase from 13,092,666 population recorded in the last population and housing census of 2010 where the annual rate of population growth was recorded at 2.8. based on this census report, it was discovered that zambia was a highly urbanised developing country with an urban population percentage increase from 34.7% in 2000 to 39.5% in 2010 (central statistical office, 2013). this urbanisation however does not translate into poverty reduction in the country as unemployment and poverty rates remained high. proof that the country’s recorded population and urbanisation increase is not coupled with increase in formal employment participation was reflected in household surveys undertaken by central statistical office (cso) which reflected approximately 90% of the population as being in informal employment. according to the 2005 and 2008 labour force survey, only about 12% of the employed population was in the formal employment of which the civil service is a part (cso, 2013). by 2012, the comprehensive coverage of all statutory schemes was such that approximately only 511,338 people, which represented only 11% of the employed people in the country, were covered whereas the remaining 4,095,508 people were estimated to be in informal employment (pspf, 2014). given a total dependency ratio of 97% by 2013, the youth dependency ratio was 91.8% whereas the elderly dependency ratio was 5.2% (central intelligence agency, 2014). amid all this are the retirees from the formal employment sector and their families. comparison of selected country civil servants retirement systems per fields and mitchell (1984) retirement differs not only from nation to nation, but from one person to the next. in many developed nations, a transition to retirement is taken to mean the 6 an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) point where one accepts a public pension; this may or may not coincide with labour force withdrawal. in sweden for example, many retirees were partially employed after accepting a public pension, while in the united states pension acceptance and work cessation were most often synonymous similar to zambia. in other countries, accepting a privately provided retirement payment, rather than a public pension, constitutes retirement. in japan, for instance, many workers retire from their career job with a lump sum pension, and often move to some other, usually lower paying employment, for several years (rebick, as cited in mitchell, 1993). akinade (2009) posited that retirement could be voluntary, mandatory, or compulsory. voluntarily retirement is where the teacher after putting in a number of years decides to retire voluntarily before he/she attains the retirement age. mandatory retirement involves the teacher retiring either at a certain age based or attaining the required service years to meet retirement, while the compulsory retirement involves the teacher's retirement before the mandatory age or service years. there are several types of retirements in nigeria as enumerated by akinboye (2004). in most formal employment in nigeria, there are specific age limits due to age related retirement statutes. the nigerian teacher is expected to retire from active service at the age of 60. among the nigerian lecturers in the universities, the retirement age is 65 years, whereas judges are expected to retire at the age of 70. however, the length of service is 35 years and it is also a policy of the service commission that any worker that has spent ten years in formal employment is also entitled to a gratuity, but must retire once he/she reaches 35 years of active service. another type of retirement is forced or involuntary retirement where teachers may be forced to retire if they fall foul of the law or institution’s regulations. in this respect teachers who are involved in fraudulent practice, if tried and found guilty, may be forced to retire if the number of years they have served is reasonable enough. they may be entitled to certain benefits depending on the determination of the employer. a teacher could be forced to retire without any benefit depending on the gravity of the offence committed (akinboye, 2004). on the other hand, forced or involuntary resignation may take another form where a teacher may be forced to resign his appointment when the employer considers the services of the teacher no longer needed as a result of ill health or such a teacher is found guilty of a particular offence and as his continual stay on the job will be inimical to the progress of the establishment (akinade, 2009). teachers may also be advised to resign their appointment if they are considered non-productive on the job. furthermore, teachers may voluntarily retire from the job once they reach the required age limit or attain the maximum years of service in which cases they may be entitled to all their benefits. conversely teachers may also voluntarily resign their appointments even when they have not attained the required age limit or years of experience. depending on the years spent in the service, they may be entitled to certain benefits. however, voluntary resignations often occur when teachers have found better jobs or opting for different professions. in another instance a teacher may disengage from active work life as a result of poor health. a teacher incapacitated due to ill health, thereby affecting his effectiveness and efficiency on the job, may retire prior to reaching the full years of service (akinboye, 2004). robinson mambwe and chisha mwape 7 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) retirement due to redundancy also takes place when teachers may be retired from active work life if the state or school structure incurs fiscal or population reductions. in some cases, teachers may be redundant if they fail to obtain the most recently established qualifying credentials. for instance, in nigeria, current credential for secondary, standard six, grade three, and grade two teachers require he nigerian certificate in education (nce) as the minimum qualification for teachers (oladunjoye & omemu, 2013). life after retirement retirement is a phase of life in which retirees’ attitudes, expectations, and experiences are in a period of transition. omoresemi (1987) stated that retirement is a real transition in the sense that it is a passage from one place and stage of development to another. with this transition comes a change in the retiree’s attitudes, expectations, and experiences. considering that retirement is a withdrawal from customary activity in business industry or service, this phase is bound to come with several changes upon the individual (olatunde & onyinye, 2006). hence this transition could mean a passage from one career of active service to another, a second stage of life development. these findings are supported by the study of hirsch which revealed that “older persons would rather remain in employment” (as cited in chongo, 2013, p. 44). this is also consistent with the retirement confidence survey firm which found that, “more than three quarters (77%) of today’s workers expect to work for pay even after they retire” (as cited in chongo, 2013, p. 45). in a study conducted by gustman, steinmeier, and tabatabai (2011) it was discovered that very few workers nearing retirement age experienced multiple adverse events. these findings seem to agree with harris and cole (1980) who noted that retirement may be a ceremony between one career and another; it may represent the opportunity to start one’s real life work or to draw two salaries. in a study conducted in nigeria, it was discovered that some retirees were engaged in various activities after retirement with some being actively involved in politics, some in industry or private establishments, while others were providing academic leadership in various institutions particularly tertiary institutions. furthermore, akinboye (2004) stated that retirement is often perceived as the realisation of a life goal and it represents the happier time of one’s life. these studies seem to suggest that retirement is a pleasant experience for retirees and a mark of honour and appreciation from their employers. however, other researchers have found such findings to be inconclusive. from the study of bolarin (1998) it found that some people regarded retirement as a bitter pill and hence viewed it from a different perspective. oladunjoye and omemu (2013) postulated that, in most cases retirees leave their work life to assume other roles for which they may not be prepared. similarly, akinboye (2004) found that most nigerian teachers did not prepare for their retirement. this leads to frustrations as soon as they retire and a sense of worthlessness creeps in as well. haynes (2011) identified fear, anger, and guilt as some of the negative attitudes exhibited by retired teachers especially when they were not prepared for retirement. retirees get angry with the organisation they worked for, for not appreciating them enough especially when pension entitlements were delayed or denied. coupled with this was the fear of loss of identity, loss of power, fear of financial need, and fear of ageing. moreover, obimba (2005) enumerates the anxieties of potential retirees as uncertainties of life, financial insecurity, reduced social life, and health related problems. in milazi’s study titled livelihood impacts of challenges in accessing pension benefits: a case of civil service teacher retirees in kapiri-mposhi district zambia, it found that, “zambia’s pension system struggles with pressures that are exerted upon it in a context of 8 an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) growing population and externally influenced policies” (2014, p. 5). this context created inefficiencies in the pension system that inevitably did not offer much hope to the retirees. milazi further noted that with retirement comes a sense of loss of the security offered by privileges that accompanied employment hence the retirees’ reliance on the pension fund they invested in. however, considering that the pension system is marred with inefficiencies, retiree teachers often suffered delayed payments. moreover, the monthly pension salaries paid to pensioners are not commensurate with the current cost of living in the country. although this study addressed some of the coping strategies employed by retiree teachers, it did not examine specific survival skills and the effectiveness of the businesses they ran or the associated entrepreneurial challenges they faced. therefore, there was need for a study to ascertain survival skills employed by retired teachers and establish entrepreneurial challenges they faced in zambia. teacher pre-retirement planning retirement has profound implications for changes in an individual’s social and economic status as well as inter-personal relationships, self-perception, and morale. increasing evidence indicates that realistic pre-retirement planning improved the chances of making a good adjustment to retirement (white house conference on ageing, as cited in manion, 1976). however, many workers do not really know what they want as a lifestyle in retirement. it therefore becomes necessary for the teacher to plan and make effective preparations towards retirement. nevertheless, in their study, ubangha and akinyemi (2005) found that very few teachers made the necessary provision for their lives after retirement. hence when the time came for their retirement, they found it difficult to leave the classroom and faced crises like shock, and emotional and psychological trauma which made life difficult for them. it therefore becomes necessary to find out what pre-retirement plans teachers had before retiring; a task this study undertook. concerning retirement preparations, atchley (1988) is of the view that, it is very important to expose workers to the facts of life about retirement income. this can be best done by exposing teachers who are just entering the service to entrepreneurial and change of mind-set training programs. future search zambia (2014) agrees with this proposition by adding that when workers are prepared for retirement, their preparation for life after retirement is better than workers with no pre-retirement sensitisation. therefore, during the preparation, workers must be put in a position to see the need to make additional individual financial preparation to assure themselves of a happy and productive life in retirement. in another study, jorgensen and henderson (1990) concluded that people can benefit from preparation for retirement years, if they were able to identify act ivities such as entrepreneurial roles in their lives. this would eliminate the feelings that they have nothing to contribute to society. additionally, preparation programs help the individual to develop an identity in addition to work identity. this implies that, one should not be pre-occupied with only ones’ work, so time should be included for other activities to maintain a positive self-image in retirement years. retirement can be gradually entered into through partial retirement programs instead of a sudden point of change. workers should have the option of gradually retiring, such as reducing the number of hours to part-time work or take longer vacations prior to retirement. this will help to help the person adjust to the realities of life in retirement (jorgensen & henderson, 1990). kroeger and szinovic (1982) shared the view that it is useful to critically examine the planning that precedes retirement. this implies that the individual should plan for their retirement. however, a minority of people make concrete plans for retirement and very few people are exposed to retirement preparation programs. robinson mambwe and chisha mwape 9 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) in zambia, a study was conducted by chongo (2013) to find out whether serving teachers participated any pre-retirement education programs. in that study, some basic school retiring teachers indicated that pre-retirement education existed in the teaching service, though most of them could not explain the nature of those pre-retirement education programs. however, nearly all basic and high school teachers refuted the existence of such programs. in this vein, this study intends to establish the nature of pre-retirement education programs and whether they exist or are implemented. coping strategies for retirees chanda (2011) did a study to compare the survival strategies that the aged used in the rural and urban areas in chongwe and lusaka districts respectively. the purpose of the study was to establish the types of survival strategies the aged used to sustain their lives in the rural and urban areas and determine whether or not these strategies addressed their financial as well as material needs. the study revealed that several types of survival strategies were used by the aged in rural and urban areas. senior citizens in chongwe and lusaka districts were found to be trades men and women, while others depended on their extended family members for support and care. however, it must be noted that the study by chanda (2011) included both retirees and nonretirees in the population sample as the principle variable used to pick this sample was age. this study, therefore contrasted with chanda’s study as the researchers’ view was that education may influence the coping strategies of the aged. hence, the current study intends to fill that gap by establishing survival skills and challenges peculiar to retired teachers as well as coping strategies they employ. findings teachers preparedness for retirement. the study revealed that most retired teachers are not prepared for their life out of formal employment. this was evident from the fact that most respondents had no concrete plans or business activities they were involved in to sustain their income once out of employment. what came out was that most respondents were depending on their retirement benefits as capital for them to start any form of entrepreneurship or business venture. this was viewed as a risky undertaking as it evidently contributed to many teachers living miserable lives after retirement. survival and entrepreneurial skills of retiree teachers. a question on whether retired teachers received entrepreneurial training before retirement revealed that 67 (94.0%) of the retired teachers did not receive any form of entrepreneurial training before they retired. only 4 (6.0%) indicated that they received some form of entrepreneurial training before their retirement. the four (4) respondents who received some entrepreneurial training were asked to indicate how beneficial the entrepreneurial skills were to their life after employment. three (3) respondents indicated that the skills were very beneficial, while one (1) respondent indicated that the skills were not beneficial. during an interview with a respondent from the retired teachers’ association of zambia (rtaz), the respondent mentioned that rtaz provided opportunities for its members who retire as teachers to attend entrepreneurial skills training workshops conducted by future search and other similar organisations. 10 an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) retired teachers involved in running business ventures. the study revealed that 54 (76.0%) were running some form of business venture, whereas 17 (24.0%) where not engaged in any form of business. those who indicated running some form of business venture were asked to indicate exactly what type of entrepreneurial activities they were engaged in. the results showed that of the 54 (76.0%) respondents who were engaged in entrepreneurial activities 17 (31.5%) were in the agro-industry and crop farming, 11 (20.4%) were running shops, 8 (14.8%) were in the poultry business, 5 (9.3%) were involved in transport business, and 3 (5.6%) were running piggeries. further, 2 (3.7%) respondents indicated engagement in hospitality, real estate, and running a school; and 1 (1.9%) respondent identifying engagement in construction, cross-border trading, media business, and selling books. success of retired teacher business ventures. the retired teachers engaged in entrepreneurial activities were asked to indicate whether their businesses were growing. the results obtained indicated that of the 54 (76%) of the retired teachers who agreed to be running some form of business venture, 29 (54%) indicated that their businesses were growing, while 25 (46%) indicated that their business ventures were not growing. entrepreneurial challenges of retired teachers. the 54 (76.0%) of the respondents running business ventures were asked to state the challenges they encountered in running their businesses. the responses obtained were themed and revealed 11 (20.4%) of the retired teachers experienced the challenge of insufficient resources in terms of funds, 9 (16.7%) lacked business management skills, 6 (11.1%) complained of high cost of doing business, while 5 (9.3%) faced a challenge of competitors in their lines of business. additionally, the challenge of family demands, especially from children, as well as fluctuating weather patterns were reported by 4 (7.4%) respondents. lack of capacity to employ qualified staff, difficulties in accessing land and the lack of credit facilities were each reported as entrepreneurial challenges by 3 (5.6%) retired teachers. lack of market and poor road infrastructure to markets were indicated by 2 (3.7%) respondents. some retired teachers also indicated that delays in processing retirement packages affected them negatively as they could not inject enough capital into their businesses. however, one revealing find of the study was that many retired teachers indicated they lacked prior experience in running businesses. this pointed to the fact that most retired teachers lacked business management skills and navigation skills necessary to run entrepreneurial ventures. analysis of retired teachers who received retirement benefits. the responses obtained revealed that 56 (79%) of the respondents received their retirement package, while 15 (21%) of the respondents indicated that they had not received their retirement package. when the 56 respondents who received retirement packages were asked as to how long it took for them to receive their retirement packages, 16 (22%) had waited for 1 year, 33 (46%) waited for 2 years, 5 (7.0%) waited for 3 years, while 1 (1.4%) waited for 5 years, and 1 (1.4%) received the package after 7 years. these statistics showed that on average, it took at least two (2) years for retired teachers to receive their retirement package. further, those who did not receive their retirement package were requested to state the period they waited since they retired. their responses were that 6 (8.5%) retired teachers were waiting for 2 years for their retirement package, 5 (7.0%) were waiting for 1 year, and 1 (1.4%) was waiting for 3 years, while the remaining 3 respondents were waiting for 6 years robinson mambwe and chisha mwape 11 __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) (1.4%), 8 months (1.4%), and 6 months (1.4%) respectively. these delays in processing retired teachers’ retirement packages were a recipe for most miseries retired teachers reported experiencing. recommendations this study revealed that to help mitigate the problems retired teachers went through, training in business management should be given to teachers. teachers must also be encouraged to engage in entrepreneur activities while in active employment so they may gain knowledge and expertise on running businesses. there is also a need to revisit the teacher training curriculum to include issues of entrepreneurship to better equip teachers with skills needed in entrepreneurial undertakings during and after active employment. government offices should also accelerate payment of retirement benefits, so that there is no void experienced by retired teachers between active service and retirement. retired teachers should also be encouraged to acquire entrepreneurial skills and financial literacy to support their successful management of resources and businesses in their retirement life. conclusion this article investigated the level of preparedness, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge as well as the effectiveness of business ventures retired teachers engaged in for sustenance. the study revealed a lack of preparedness, as well as a lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and poor planning for retirement life among retired teachers. what emerged was that most teachers were not prepared to handle the challenges that came with retirement life. most importantly, it was revealed that most retired teachers did not engage themselves in any serious money generating investment during their formal employment life. this meant that most retired teachers had limited knowledge in entrepreneurship, and no experience in running any business of their own prior to retirement. in addition, poor planning for retirement life made it difficult for retired teachers to cope with the lack of a monthly salary during the period when retirement packages were in process or delayed. references akinade, f. (2009). determinants of early retirement in the nigerian public service. paper presentation. pathfinders consultancy services, benin-city, september 26. akinboye, k. (march 1, 2004). unsweet rest after labour: retired nigerians are not living a rosy life. african concord. atchley, r. c. (1988). social forces and aging (5th ed.). belmond, ca: wadsworth. billings, g. (2004). seven steps for creating a satisfying retirement. retrieved from http://wwwretireplanabout.com. bolarin, v. w. 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(1991). the influence of socio-economic factors in post-retirement adjustment of retired civil servants in lusaka. unpublished master’s thesis, the university of zambia, lusaka, zambia. http://www.napsa.co.zm/?cat=4 14 an assessment of preparation level, survival skills, and entrepreneurial knowledge __________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) townsend, p. (1981). the structured dependency of the elderly: a creation of social policy in the twentieth century. aging and society, 1, 5-28. ubangha, m. b., & akinyemi, b. a. (2005). the relationship between attitude to retirement planning and retirement anxiety among teachers. the counsellor, 21, 156-163. walker, a. (1981). towards a political economy of old age. ageing and society, 1, 73-94. _____. (1993). poverty and inequality in old age. in j. bond, p. coleman and s. peace (eds.), ageing and society. london, uk: sage publications inc. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 2 2018 pp. 1-16 mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1 -3 student teachers in south africa anna hugo department of language education, arts and culture college of education university of south africa abstract mentor teachers play a vital role in the pre-service training of teachers. the role of mentor teachers assumes even more significance when the training is done at a distance education institution. it is impossible for lecturers and university representatives to reach every teacher student during the weeks of teaching practice done at schools in a big country like south africa. the feedback obtained from the mentor teachers is thus important to train student teachers when they present their lessons during weeks of teaching practice at schools. but the feedback from mentor teachers can also be used for the future training of student teachers. mentor teachers should, however, also be informed about their role as mentors for student teachers. in this article the way feedback of mentor teachers could be used to improve the quality of the lessons of student teachers when offering language lessons in grades 1 – 3, is discussed. keywords: mentoring, mentor teachers, teaching practice, mentors’ feedback, language teaching, reflection introduction the main aim of teacher training is to develop well-rounded students who are professionally trained and informed about the many requirements and skills to be mastered to become a successful teacher. students also need to have the necessary theoretical knowledge. the mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 2 undergraduate and postgraduate diploma in education (pgde) curricula for teacher training offered by various institutions in south africa, seem to successfully address many issues involved when teaching learners at school. provision is made for good subject content knowledge about, for instance, language teaching, mathematics, social sciences, art and music, multicultural issues and diversity, as required in the various school phases. the experience that student teachers gain during their periods of teaching practice is, however, a very valuable component of their actual training as teachers. the days and weeks spent at school during teaching practice remain important for future teachers, as they are provided with the opportunity to plan and present their lessons according to their knowledge and interests. they also have the chance to reflect on their own teaching when they offer lessons. thus, the teaching practice weeks become a continuous learning occasion for the inexperienced teacher students (verkler & hutchinson, 2011:17). student teachers’ learning is enhanced by the quality of feedback and support that they receive from mentor teachers. during teaching practice, student teachers are dependent on learning the practice of teaching and the way in which a school is managed from the management and staff of a school and especially from the teachers in whose classes they do their teaching practice and who act as their mentors. the preparation that is done at university level to develop student teachers into professional teachers, the experience gained during school visits and the cooperation of the mentor teachers is crucial for the professional development of student teachers. “as gatekeepers to the work and norms of teaching, mentor teachers play a highly influential role in how preservice teachers understand the work of teaching … [t]he position of a mentor teacher as arbiter of teacher knowledge in practice affords opportunities to significantly influence the values, opinions, and perspectives of prospective teachers” (butler & cuenca, 2012:297). the selection of teachers who can act as mentors during students’ teaching practice weeks can pose a problem as they are often not informed about the teacher education programmes offered by the institutions where the students do their teaching practice. they are usually selected based on the assumption that any person who has taught for some years, can effectively teach student teachers. mentors are often left to fend for themselves because they are not provided with the aims and practices of the various higher education institutions at which the anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 3 students study. this leads to uncertainty about the roles and responsibilities of mentor teachers (butler & cuenca, 2012:297). a general request to the teachers who acted as mentors was included in the official letter from the university that student teachers whose lessons are discussed in this article took to the principals of the schools where they spent the weeks of teaching practice, these requests include the introduction of the student to the staff and the learners, that ideas about teaching should be shared and that the student teacher should be involved so that his or her stay at the school could be meaningful and informative. the mentor teacher was also asked to help the student cultivate a positive attitude towards teaching at a school, to discreetly discuss mistakes that the student teacher could make, to act as a role model, and to provide the university with an honest, detailed and useful review of the student teacher (university of south africa, 2014:11). teacher training in south africa in 1994 south africa had its first democratic election when every south african citizen could vote. the establishment of the anc (african national congress) government brought about a growth and a restructuring of the education system. this demanded for qualified teachers capable of transforming knowledge production and transfer beyond apartheid era practice. however, samuel and stephens (2000:477) noted that the training of student teachers in the new south africa was hampered, among other factors, by a lack of physical resources and funds. the influences from the cultural environments and the years at school that student teachers brought with them also posed additional challenge. schools in south africa face the challenge of a demographics of a student population growing and changing in diversity as the country has witnessed an influx of immigrants whose children it has to accommodate in its schools (zozakiewicz, 2010:137). the many cultures and languages they represent has added to the official-language difficulties that south african schools already struggle with. young people, like the student teachers in this study, have not had enough opportunity to learn about the various cultures represented by the eleven official languages in the country, not to mention those of the many new immigrants. yet, a knowledge and understanding of the culture of the learners the teacher engages with are important aspects of teaching that must be overlooked. thus, zeichner (2003:493) notes that a cultural rift between teachers and learners at school is further mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 4 complicated if enough attention is not paid in teacher training to prepare future teachers to teach across race, culture, and languages. proper tutor mentoring of student teachers is one of the means available to help qualify prepare teachers capable of meeting some of these challenges. marais and meier (2004:221) observe that problems of resource availability and the geographical distances between the homes of learners and their schools are problems that hamper the success of students’ teaching practice. they also observe that some of the teachers, especially those in rural areas, who acted as mentors for student teachers often had low expertise and training. to not affect the success of student teachers’ lesson presentation and their ideas about what the teaching profession entails, these problems must be properly handled. (quick & sieborger, 2005). mentoring is not an easy task for all teachers. it requires interpersonal skills and the ability to teach about teaching. mentor teachers sometimes find it more difficult to guide adults in their learning process than they know how to with young learners. the mentor teacher often grapples with the problematic of dual loyalty to learners’ learning and student teachers’ learning. some do not know exactly what is expected from them and most have to struggle with the problem of time constraint. (jaspers, meijer, prins & wubbels 2014:106-107). kiggundu and nayimull’s research at the vaal university of technology in south africa (2009:354-357) includes reports of mentor teachers’ impact on student teachers. some students described their mentors as role models who set an example worth following. they offered good guidance on how to engage with both the classroom and the school system. but some student teachers lamented that their mentor teachers saw them as relief teachers who had to take over the full loads of the teaching of the mentor while the mentors would sit at the back of the class. also, some mentor teachers not trusting the student teachers, refused to leave their classes in the care of the student teachers. the support that the students received from their mentors thus varied from school to school. unfortunately, apart from the studies by marais and meier (2004) and kiggundu and nayimull (2009), not much research about mentorship in schools has been done in south africa. this article is thus an attempt to shed light on the way in which a group of students at a distance education institution in south africa received support and feedback on their lessons from mentor teachers. anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 5 theoretical framework this article takes off from a social constructivist viewpoint. social constructionists emphasize the importance of recognising the implications in the schools of teachers’ work in context, in social terms as well as in political terms. the idea is to create more democratic and inclusive conditions in the school and beyond the school (zeichner, 1993:494). in line with the social constructivist research method, the data used in this article was collected using a qualitative research approach. in a classroom, there is often an overlap between a constructivist and a social constructivist approach, though the latter lays a greater emphasis on learning through social interaction than on the importance of looking at the cultural background of learners. according to vygotsky, culture is very important in the development of a child, as it gives a child the cognitive tools needed for development. learners carry from their environment the tools of culture into the classroom; their language, cultural history, social background and also electronic forms of information access (constructivism and social constructivism in the classroom, 2015:1). for social constructivists, both the context in which learning occurs and the social contexts that learners bring to the school are crucial. how learners, and especially young learners, interact with members of their society is important. interaction with other people, especially adults, is the means by which young learners master the social meaning of important symbol systems, like language, and how to use systems. thinking skills are also developed through interaction with adults (kim, 2014:1). this also applies to young student teachers whose thinking skills could be enhanced through quality interaction with the teachers who act as their mentors. statement of the problem mentor teachers’ support and advice are important in developing student teachers into professionals capable of applying what they have learned in theory to the classroom context. since lecturers and supervisors are not always present when student teachers offer their lessons, students are dependent on the feedback and support that they receive from their mentor teachers. working through the teaching practice workbooks of a group of postgraduate certificate in education (pgce) students as the lecturer responsible for coordinating the module, i realised mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 6 that not all their mentor teachers provided their student mentees during the weeks of teaching practice with appropriate and constructive feedback. been prompted thus to reflect on feedback from mentor teachers who provided some, it became apparent to me that gaps exist in the way that mentor teachers were requested to give feedback in the students’ workbooks. i concluded that the mentor teachers’ feedback pages in the students’ workbook needed to be better planned and designed. i also observed some excellent feedback from some mentor teachers that provide relevant guidance for observing student teachers in the future and on how student teacher should write the feedback they receive. the research method the data that is used in this article was drawn from the written language lessons and the mentor teachers’ feedback on the lessons of students enrolled for pgce. this is a professional teacher’s qualification program in south africa for into which people can enroll who have obtained a bachelor’s degree in subjects that align with those offered in the school system. the lessons that are captured in the workbooks were presented in the language classes of grade 1 – 3 learners, since in south africa, both a home language and a second language, referred to as a first additional language in official documents, are taught in grades 1 – 3. the student teachers had to present six lessons in the home language and in the second language of the learners in the class. some of the learners were taught in english, although it was their second language. as explained later in this article, this happens in south africa because many non-english speaking parents opt to send their children to schools where english is the language of instruction from grade 1 onwards. the fact that students whose information is used in this article are open distance education students made them even more dependent on quality support and feedback from the teachers in the various schools who mentored them during their teaching practicum. employing the qualitative research method, i used document analysis, working through the student teachers’ workbooks and specifically looking at the comments that the mentor teachers wrote after each lesson that the student presented. as noted by mcmillan and schumacher (2010:457), document analysis is a non-interactive strategy used to obtain qualitative data when there is little or no exchange between the researcher and the participants anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 7 who provided the information. i analysed the various comments written by the mentor teachers after each lesson that a student teacher presented and placed them in categories that arose from the data. afterwards i reflected on the information that i obtained from my reviews of the mentor teachers’ feedback. there has been a growing awareness of the positive role that reflection can play in education. lew and schmidt (2011:530) in their definitions of reflection in education emphasize focused critical analysis of knowledge and experience in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the situation. participants in 2014 a total of 307 students enrolled for the pgce at the university of south africa. at the end of the year after the students’ workbooks were submitted for assessment, i randomly selected thirty of the workbooks on teaching a first and a second language in the foundation phase. however, based on addresses of students, i tried to include workbooks from both rural areas and cities and i tried to spread the choices across all the provinces of the country. i numbered the workbooks 1 to 30; thus, in this study reference is made to a student by referring to student number 1 to 30. permission to use some of the content of the workbooks for research purposes was obtained from the ethics committee of the college of education at the university of south africa, pretoria. mentor teachers’ reports the classroom teachers where the students did their teaching practice were appointed as the supervising teachers for the students, thus, the students’ mentors. the students did their teaching practice at functioning schools in all the provinces of south africa. being an open distance institution, lecturers and part-time staff representing the university visited some students. but not every student teacher could be visited, hence, the crucial role that mentor teachers play in the training of these students. the mentor teacher’s assessment of each lesson offered by the student teacher consisted of a page which, after the discussion of the completed lesson with the student, was entered in the student’s teaching practice workbook. questions were posed under the following headings: mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 8 planning, presentation and general impression. under the various headings, the supervising teachers had answer questions such as: • how well did the student meet the needs of all the learners in the group according to their language levels? • how well did the student show creativity by integrating educational media to accommodate the learner? • how well did the student use repetition to establish vocabulary without boring the learners? • to what extent did the student ensure that all the learners participated in the activities? • did the student give positive feedback to the learners? • was the language used simple enough for all the learners to follow? • did the student succeed in making the learners enthusiastic about reading? reflecting on the questions, i realized that they did provide for logical and complete information about the lesson presentation and the many issues that are required to present good lessons. the teachers had to give the student a mark out of four for each option about which a question was posed. in the rubric for the marks ‘1’ represented ‘excellent’ and ‘4’ meant ‘needs attention’. out of the 30 randomly selected workbooks that formed part of this research, 11 supervising teachers provided no remarks after the lessons. two teachers provided only some feedback on one of the lessons offered by the student teachers. another teacher only wrote ‘excellent’ or ‘very good’ in some instances, which in the end did not mean much to the student teacher and the lecturers at the student’s institution. it could be accepted that some teachers gave verbal feedback to their mentees, but from the viewpoint of the distance education institution, this was unfortunate as written comments were important for lecturers to assess how well their students performed in the classroom. going by the feedback and, in some instances, the lack of feedback, i concluded that teachers who acted as mentors for students need to be better informed about their tasks as mentors. anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 9 data collected from mentor teachers’ written reports on students’ lessons most of the pgce students whose workbooks i used in this research were teaching for the first time. they might thus be nervous and unsure of themselves when they eventually had to offer a formal lesson during which important language skills, such as reading and writing were taught. in the selected workbooks, some teachers provided positive written post-lesson comments to the student teachers. there was, however, only one reported incident in which a teacher provided a student with positive encouragement and motivation before the lesson started. student 3 stated that she “was a bit nervous and felt rushed”, but after discussing it with the supervising teacher, she was reassured. this is the type of emotional support that student teachers often need because it is difficult to function optimally when one is emotionally disturbed. how to plan a good lesson forms part of any teacher training. there was good feedback from a couple of the supervising teachers about their mentees’ lesson planning. a wellstructured lesson plan carries a good lesson, but unfortunately, not all the teachers provided feedback on the student teachers’ lessons plans. one supervising teacher complimented her mentee (student number 12) by writing that the lesson started by testing the learners’ preknowledge to establish which levels of knowledge and understanding the learners were. student number 11 was also complimented by her mentor teacher because the introduction of her lesson was a recap of the lesson of the previous day. what these two student teachers did at the beginning of their lessons signifies good instructional practice. in the workbooks, provision is made for the teacher students to provide feedback on and examples of the teaching media that they used when presenting their lessons. most of the workbooks include examples of beautiful teaching media often made by the students themselves about which many teacher mentors wrote remarks that these were excellent. in some instances, there were remarks (e.g. in student number 2’s workbook) that the cards that were used should be bigger or that the pictures in the storybook were too busy (student number 9). student number 21 was advised to use more media, and the font of the newspapers that student number 10 used was too small. such comments are valuable when one is an inexperienced teacher. the mentor of student 30 commented in two of her reports: “excellent strategies for much repetition”; and “consistently repeated new words”. this mentor helped the student by praising her and at the same time reminding her in her feedback on the lesson that repetition is always important. the mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 10 mentor to student number 25 referred to the teaching principle of moving from the known to the unknown. this mentor commented that the student started to teach new sight words in the reading lesson by beginning with the sight words that the learners already knew. the mentor of student number 20 wrote that when teaching new words, the student teacher did it well because the “[f]ocus was placed on difficult words.” student 29’s mentor noted that the reading lesson that she offered was a “well-integrated” lesson. integrating information from the various subject contents offered in grade 1 – 3 is not an easy task for a student teacher, but it seemed as if student 29 managed to do it well. the difficulty of imparting into student teachers the appropriate classroom management skills to ensure young learners’ disciplined good behaviour is always a major concern to both the students and the teachers. in some classes the mentor teachers mentioned that the classes were occasionally too noisy, but due mainly to over-excitement on the side of the young learners. most teachers reassured the student teachers that discipline was not easy in grade 1 – 3 classes and that the student teachers would master the ‘art’ of good discipline over time. some of the students whose workbooks are used in this study realised that a good classroom behaviour could be maintained by their giving positive feedback and motivation to pupils. one student teacher acted proactively by building on the good behaviour. the supervising teacher commended student number 3 on how she handled her young learners’ behaviour well when she “[c]omplimented them on good behaviour.” student number 22’s mentor wrote that the student strived to focus on positive reinforcement as feedback and discipline. another mentor commented that student number 30 gave encouraging and motivating comments on the learners’ answers making the young learners to realize that they had the attention of the student teacher and this helped with the general attention levels in class. the content that is offered in a lesson and the methods used could impact learners’ participation and experienced teachers know how to get and hold young learners’ attention. regarding an oral lesson about fire, it was interesting that a mentor teacher wrote: “[e]ven some learners who are normally shy, were involved” (student number 17). this student teacher learned the importance of getting and holding young learners’ attention during a lesson. in the theoretical modules on teaching a first and a second language, which form part of the pgce training, student teachers are trained to use various techniques and methodologies. anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 11 this accords with the requirement in language teaching, that student teachers be trained to be versatile in using diverse teaching techniques, such as songs, poems, and dialogues. the different approaches to the teaching of reading are also included in the curriculum of the students. it was thus encouraging to note that some students were flexible in their use of techniques and methodologies in the language lessons that they offered. the learners in the class of student number 15 thoroughly enjoyed riddles and a poem as part of their oral activities. the mentor of student number 22 also commented, “the student recited the poem with lots of actions, humor and expression.” student number 19 used puppets for role-play in her language lesson and the learners were very interested, interactively engaging in the activities. student number 7 made use of dramatisation and dialogue to prevent repetition when teaching new vocabulary. this also prevented the lesson from becoming boring. student number 1 used role-play effectively to teach the second language. there was also good feedback from some of the mentors about the way in which the student teachers in their classes taught reading. in student number 17’s lesson on reading, she used the whole-word approach to teach new words to the learners. she outlined the ‘shapes’ of the words and it worked well “because of the different shapes/forms of the words.” students number 6 and number 11 used the charts of the thrass (teaching handwriting, reading and spelling skills) approach when teaching new vocabulary, which, according to their mentors, worked very well. this is a positive development because students are encouraged to attend training in the thrass methodology during the theoretical part of their training. thrass training can only be done by registered thrass trainers and cannot be offered to students as part of their study materials. the teaching of a second language, which in most instances in south african schools is english, also forms part of this teaching practice module on language teaching. the total physical response (tpr) approach is one of the many that student teachers are introduced to in the theoretical module on second language teaching. commendably, student number 30 made use of the tpr approach using “facial expression and body language” to teach new words. by law, all learners in grade 1 – 3 in south africa should be taught in their home language, if it is one of the eleven south african official languages. but many non-english speaking parents opt to send their children to schools where english is the language of mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 12 instruction when the children enter formal schooling for the first time. many of these children are english second language (esl) speakers who cannot speak english and have not been exposed to english when they enter school. this causes a big discrepancy in the language abilities of young learners in english schools and teachers have to plan their lessons well to be able to use multilevel teaching according to the language needs of their learners. reading the comments of some of the mentors shows that several student teachers made provision for the different language levels of the learners in the lessons that they offered. for instance, student number 20 stated that “it was a challenge to fully include learners whose home language was not english.” the mentor of student number 22 wrote that the student teacher’s vocabulary was well chosen and simple enough for the weaker esl learners to understand and to follow instructions. it is necessary to develop young learners’ visual and auditory perceptual skills. this should be done regularly rather than incidentally during class activities as it has become common to do. student number 30 was commended for reinforcing the learners’ auditory memory skills when they had to retell the story used for oral activities. student number 6 introduced the tactile element that required the young learners to physically move coloured tokens according to their colour and according to the required number of tokens in specific blocks of their worksheets. the way teachers speak and project their voices could influence learners’ learning during a lesson, especially regarding the intensity and duration of the young learners’ concentration. only one mentor teacher (of student 23) gave advice to a student teacher about her voice. the teacher advised her, “try to speak up and use different ‘tones’ in your voice to keep the learners’ attention.” the necessity of training in the use of higher-order intellectual abilities is often forgotten in the junior classes. the comment in the workbook of student number 30 noted that the oral activities s/he included in her lesson provided the young learners with an opportunity to reason. this is a sign of an excellent grade 1 – 3 teacher in the making. similarly, in the workbook of student number 6, it is stated that the learners had the opportunity to reflect and to raise insightful opinions about a story during the lesson. anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 13 using reflection to enhance mentor teachers’ feedback the analysis of the feedback that the mentor teachers gave on their mentees’ presentations was very useful. it was clear that the various aspects that arose in the discussion of the data from the workbooks containing the lesson plans should be attended to in a planned and logical way. during reflection, i realised how important the mentors’ feedback was and i used it to redesign the workbooks, especially the pages for the mentor teachers’ feedback. reflection on the workbooks and the mentor’s feedback demonstrates that the bridging between the theoretical modules and the practical application in the classroom during teaching practice should be done through mentoring and especially the professional mentoring of classroom teachers. professional mentoring is what could guide student teachers on how to attend to the practical teaching issues in the teaching of language that may arise in their classrooms. this can be done not by providing the student teachers with quality theoretical knowledge only. it should be enhanced by placing the students with knowledgeable and experienced mentors. reflection on the mentor teachers’ feedback in the student teachers’ workbooks indicates the need for mentors to be well informed and trained enough to understand and fulfil their roles of advising and supporting their mentees. they should also be well motivated to complete their mentees’ workbooks carefully after each lesson offered. teachers willing to act as mentors for young students should also receive proper recognition for the important roles they play in the training of student teachers. recognition of each mentor teacher could be done officially with its documentation sent to the various departments of education and the various teacher unions in the country so that it can form part of the teachers’ professional profiles. not all the teachers provided feedback about the student teachers’ lessons plans because there were no direct questions posed to the mentors about lesson planning. however, the 16 teachers who provided good professional feedback and who, based on their written responses, were real mentors to the student teachers, afforded me a valuable understanding of the nature of the existing gaps in way that the workbooks structure the feedback that is expected from them. the need for teacher mentors to comment on students’ lesson plans calls for a creative and logical planning of the feedback pages in the workbook for the teaching practice. the planning manifest in the feedback pages of the student workbook does not demonstrate the necessity for mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 14 the mentor teachers’ comment to reflect what the student teachers were taught in the theoretical modules. thorough lesson planning is key to successful lesson presentation. therefore, specific questions about each step in the lesson planning should be included in the feedback and comments that are expected from the mentor teachers. for mentor teachers to be able to assess how their mentees link the theories they were taught at school to lesson presentations during the teaching practicum, i recommend that they be provided with access to the contents of the theoretical modules that student teachers have to study. the lesson presentations required students’ preparation and use of different teaching media. therefore, specific questions about the quality and the appropriateness of teaching media should be included in the feedback from the mentors. the richness and diversity of south africa’s cultures and languages also needs to be reflected in the choice of the learning content and teaching media. the visual media used should relate to the world of the young learners, their home environment, and their socio-economic status. the opportunity should thus be made available to the mentors to discuss the ways that their mentees addressed cultural and language issues in their choice of teaching media and learning content. the request to the teacher mentors that is included in the letter to the university that the student teachers take to the principal of the schools where they fulfil their teaching practicum should highlight the importance of reflecting cultural and language diversity in the classrooms. this aligns with the viewpoints of socioconstructivists who stress the importance of the context in which learning occurs, as well as the social contexts that the learners bring to school (kim, 2014:2). the important issue of the development of young learners’ perceptual skills is not included in the existing questions that mentor teachers are required to answer. it is recommended that this be included in all the teaching practice workbooks that students have to complete. the workbooks could also include a section on general impressions that the mentors should complete. this should guide them to attend to issues such as the way the student teachers speak and project their voices, whether they pronounced words in the second language correctly, whether they developed the young learners’ higher-order intellectual abilities or whether the student teachers encouraged the participation in the lesson activities of the shy and silent learners. to help the mentor teachers be knowledgeable about reflective supervision so that they anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 15 could reflect on the quality of the they provide their mentees to improve their teaching, a section about reflective supervision should be included in the request made of them. conclusion mentor teachers serve as the “gatekeepers of the work and norms of teaching” (butler & cuenca, 2012:297). they play an important role in the training of student teachers. this important role could be enhanced by providing clear instructions about their roles as mentors. this should be included in the official letters from the university to them and also in the forms and the student’s workbook pages designed for their feedback. this will help to improve the quality of the teaching practice experience for student teachers. it will also help to ensure that the theoretical knowledge that students gained in the various teaching modules, is applied successfully in classrooms. this is necessary and will be especially helpful to distance education teacher students. references butler, b.m., & cuenca, a. (2012). conceptualizing the roles of mentor teachers during student teaching, action in teacher education, 34:296-308. constructivism and social constructivism in the classroom. (2016) open educational resources of ucd teaching and learning. , university college of dublin. retrieved from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/education_ theory/ constructivism_and_social_constructivism_in_the_c lassroom. retrieved on march 7, 2016. jaspers, w.m., meijer, p.c., prins, f. & wubbels, t. (2014). mentor teachers: their perceived possibilities and challenges as mentor and teacher, teaching and teacher education, 44:106-116. kiggundu, e., & nayimull, s. (2009). teaching practice: a make or break phase for student teachers, south african journal of education, 29:345-358. http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/education_%20theory/%20constructivism_and_social_constructivism_in_the_classroom http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/education_%20theory/%20constructivism_and_social_constructivism_in_the_classroom mentor teachers’ feedback role in improving the training of grades 1-3 student teachers in south africa ajote vol.7. no. 2, (2018), 1 -16 16 kim, b. (2014). social constructivism. http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php? title= social_constructivism rerieved on august, 7 2015. leech, n.l., dellinger, a.b., brannagan, k.b., & tanaka, h. (2010). evaluating mixed research studies: a mixed methods approach. journal of mixed methods research, 4(1),17-31. lew, m.d.n., & schmidt, h.g. (2011). self-reflection and academic performance: is there a relationship? advances in health sciences education, 16(4), 529-545. marais, p. & meier c (2004). hear our voices: student teacher's experience during practical teaching. africa education review, 1220-233. mc millan, j.h., & schumacher, s. (2010). research in education: evidence-based inquiry. boston: pearson. quick, g. & sieborger, r. (2005). what matters in practice teaching? the perception of schools and students. south african journal of education, 25,1-4. samuel, a. & stephens, d. (2000). critical dialogues with self: developing teacher identities and roles – a case study of south african student teachers, international journal of educational research, 33:475-494. university of south africa. (2014). tutorial letter 101/2014 for the module pcf410x. pretoria: university of south africa. verkler, k., & hutchinson, c. (2011). developing qualified teachers: mentoring pre service teachers for a professional development initiative. journal of learning in higher education, 7(2),17-24. zeichner, k. (2003). the adequacies and inadequacies of three current strategies to recruit, prepare and retrain the best teachers for all students. teachers college record, 105(3), 490-519. zozakiewicz, c. (2010). promising practice culturally responsible mentoring: exploring http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?%20title=%20social_constructivism http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?%20title=%20social_constructivism anna hugo ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 1-16 17 the impact of an alternative approach for preparing students for diversity. the teacher educator, 45, 137-151. ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018) 53-66 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 2 2018 pp. 53-66 family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda athanansio bashaija ankole western university, uganda sbashaija@awu.ac.ug & aloysius rukundo mbarara university of science and technology, uganda abstract this paper reports research on levels of family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda (bim). the study employed a crosssectional survey design with quantitative method of data collection and analysis. proportionate stratified, and systematic simple random sampling techniques were used to arrive at the final sample of participants. data was collected using a self-administered questionnaire with standardized scales. the instrument comprised bio-data, ses scale, religiosity, spiritual scale for youth, and audit test for alcohol use. responses were obtained from a total of 404 participants who included females as the majority (54.7%). the mean age of the students was 15.91. results show that majority of the students came from families with moderate levels of socioeconomic status. it was further discovered that students had low levels of alcohol use and high levels of religiosity. implications of the study findings are discussed. keywords family socioeconomic status (ses), alcohol use, religiosity, adolescents, psychoactive substance. mailto:sbashaija@awu.ac.ug athanansio bashaija & aloysius rukundo ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 54 background adolescence is a critical stage in the life-course and can be considered the most transforma t ive period in the individual’s lifespan. at this critical period, students begin to experiment with experiences including alcohol use (carter et al., 2007). alcohol is the most commonly used psychoactive substance in secondary schools, compared to other drugs globally (rehm et al., 2009). many people initiate alcohol and drug use during their years as teenagers (carter et al., 2007). the use of alcohol among adolescents from different socio-economic statuses is a public health concern. collins et al. (2012) posit that socioeconomic status (ses) is one of the major factors influencing a person’s alcohol use and related outcomes. socioeconomic status (ses) is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation. it is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an individual or group. when viewed through a social class lens, privilege, power, and control are emphasized (aggarwal, et al., 2005). it has been discovered that socio-economic status influences the frequency of alcohol use among adolescents (collins et al, 2012). in societies with low socio-economic level, where immigration and unemployment is intensive, factors such as harsh living conditions, familial conflict due to financial strain, coping ability of individuals and depression direct adolescents towards alcohol use (goodman & huang, 2002). although some researchers report that alcohol use is observed more frequently in societies with low socio-economic status, others report that it can be obtained more easily and consumed more commonly by those at high socioeconomic levels (tot et al., 2004). three cross-sectional studies done usa and canada show that adolescents growing up in higher ses families were more likely to use alcohol than those born in lower ses families (blum et al., 2000; humensky, 2010; hanson & chen, 2007). for high ses adolescents, family income is a stronger predictor of alcoh ol use than family status (hanson & chen, 2007). hanson & chen (2007) further posit that the availability of financial resources is more influential on teen alcohol use than the social status associated with having parents with high education and good jobs. it is indicated that people with higher ses may consume similar or greater amounts of alcohol compared to people with lower ses, although the latter group seems to bear a disproportionate burden of negative alcohol-related consequences (collins et al, 2012). wills et al. (2003) on the other hand assert that the education level of an individual’s family has an effect on alcohol use in adolescence. it is found that high family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 55 education level of parents is related to increased alcohol use and rate of getting drunk (o’malley, johnston, & bachman, 1998). considerable variation in the prevalence of alcohol use among adolescents exists between countries (kokkevi, 2007). while alcohol use among adolescents tends to be higher among adolescents from the more developed countries (benjet, 2007), lack of solid data from the less developed countries makes comparisons difficult. the data available from less developed countries suggest that the drug abuse problem among youth both in school and out of school is on the increase (mndeme, 2003; kaduri, 2008; mbatia & kilonzo, 1996). chikere and mayowa (2011) found that in a number of school surveys in nigeria, alcohol use is the most common among students, with many drinking students having had their first drink in familial settings. the 2003 ugandan gshs findings show that 14% and 12% of boys and girls aged 13-15 years respectively reported having ever drunk so much alcohol that they were really drunk (kabiru, 2010). on the other hand, the study conducted among school-going adolescents aged 11-17 years in uganda, indicated that 18% of the adolescents reported having ever consumed alcohol (rudatsikira, 2007). in africa, various populations and individuals are mostly adherents of christianity, islam, and to a lesser extent traditional african religion. in christian or islamic communities, religio us beliefs are also sometimes characterized with syncretism, beliefs and practices of traditiona l religions (tewahedo & tijaniyyah, 2015). according to the bureau of democracy, human rights, and labor (2009), an estimated 85% of the population in uganda was christian, 12% is muslim, and the remaining 3% follow indigenous and other beliefs (hinduism, baha'ism, and judaism). of the christian population, the roman catholic church had the largest number of followers (42%) followed by anglican (36%). empirical data on levels of family ses, alcohol use, and religios it y among secondary school adolescents in rural uganda is lacking. this study was carried out to find out the levels of ses, alcohol use and religiosity among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality. methodology the research for this paper adopted a cross-sectional survey design. it is quantitative in nature and meaningfully describes the distribution of variables using standard procedures of frequencies and percentage. bushenyiishaka municipality in south western uganda has 13 schools; 4 government and 9 private. the schools for the study were selected through a proportionate https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/christianity_in_africa https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/islam_in_africa https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/traditional_african_religion https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/syncretism http://www.state.gov/j/drl/index.htm http://www.state.gov/j/drl/index.htm athanansio bashaija & aloysius rukundo ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 56 stratified sampling technique. uganda’s post-primary education is structured into two levels; the first level lasting four years (senior 1 – senior 4) and the second senior level, two more years (senior 5 and senior 6) before admittance into the university or vocational institutions. the schools exist in the two categories of government/public and private. proportionate stratified sampling was used to select six secondary schools; three private and three public. the study sampled 404 students, 293 students from government schools and 111 students from private schools drawn from a population of 3012 ordinary level students in secondary schools, using systematic simple random sampling. the study population consisted of students of both private schools which are owned by individuals and public secondary schools owned by the government of uganda aged from 11 to 20. the data collection instrument was a structured, self-administered questionnaire the scale for measuring the socioeconomic status of family (aggarwal, bhasin, sharma, chhabra, aggarwal, & rajoura, 2005) was used to collect data on family ses. the composite reliability coefficient of ses scale was α=.78. it has 22 items scored from zero to maximum of 10 points regarding the possessions of a family. the 22 items are based on three variables of income, education, and occupation of the family head. religiosity and spiritual scale for youth (brittany & hernandez, 2011) was used to collect data on religiosity. the composite reliability coeffic ie nt of religiosity scale is α=.95. it has 37 items scored on a four point likert scale of 0=never to 3=always. audit test for alcohol use (saunders, aasland, babor, de la fuente, & grant, 2001) was used to collect data on alcohol use among adolescents. the composite reliability coeffic ie nt of alcohol use scale is α=.89. the alcohol use scale by (saunders et al, 2011) has 10 items scored on a five point likert scale from 0=never to 4 = daily or almost daily. data were analyzed using spss software, version 20.0. the results are presented using descriptive statistics in the form of percentages and frequencies. family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 57 results table 1: respondents demographics class (n =404) n(%) gender (n=404) n(%) religious affiliation(n=404) n(%) senior one 96 (23.8) catholics 117(29.0) senior two 119 (29.5) male 183(45.3) protestants 175(43.3) senor three 64 (15.8) female 221(54.7) moslems 34(8.4) senior four 125(30.9) total 404(100.0) sda 73(18.1) total 404(100.0) others 5(1.2) age(n=404) n (%) type of school(n=404) n(%) 11 4(1.0) government 291(72.0) 12 7(1.7) private 113(28.0) 13 25(6.2) nature of school(n=404) n(%) 14 65(16.1) day and boarding 124(30.7) 15 75(18.6) boarding only 280(69.3) 16 79(19.6) school section(n=404) n(%) 17 69(17.1) boarder 350(86.6) 18 37(9.2) day scholar 54(13.4) 19 23(5.7) 20 20(5.0) mean age 15.91 standard deviation 1.93 table 2: levels of family socioeconomic status levels of ses frequency percentage poor 3 .7 lower middle 67 16.6 upper middle 178 44.1 high 126 31.2 upper high 30 7.4 total 404 100.0 athanansio bashaija & aloysius rukundo ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 58 table 3: levels of alcohol use table 4: kruskal-wallis test h ( χ2) and mann-whitney u tests for students’ demographics on the levels of alcohol use variable demographics n (404) mean rank h ( χ2) / u p decision l e v e ls o f a lc o h o l u se gender male 183 221.13 16811.500u .000 *** female 221 187.07 class of respondents senior one 96 185.33 senior two 119 212.29 9.403 .024 ** senor three 64 209.05 senior four 125 203.01 age 11 4 177.00 12 7 179.57 13 25 177.00 14 65 186.23 16.920 .050 ** 15 75 206.33 16 79 220.36 17 69 200.56 18 37 200.00 19 23 194.39 20 20 227.00 type of a school government 291 206.90 15160.000u .035 ** private 113 191.16 nature of school day and boarding 124 191.72 4.601 .032 ** boarding only 280 207.27 boarder or a day scholar boarder 350 200.65 8801.500u .158 ns day scholar 54 214.51 religious affiliation catholic 117 207.99 protestants 175 198.86 1.541 .819 ns moslem 34 201.28 sda 73 202.01 others 5 217.00 levels of alcohol use frequency percent low use 353 87.4 moderate use 47 11.6 high use 4 1.0 total 404 100.0 family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 59 table 5: levels of religiosity levels of religiosity frequency percent low religiosity 15 3.7 high religiosity 389 96.3 total 404 100.0 from findings in table 1, majority of the study participants were females (54.7%). most of the respondents were boarders (86.6%). in addition, most of the students (69.3%) were attending boarding schools while 30.7% were in day and boarding schools. 28.0% of the study participants were from private schools while 72.0% were from government schools. majority of the study participants were from senior four, (30.9%). respondents’ age shows (19.6%) sixteen years old as the majority. with regard to religious inclination, a total of 175(43.3%) were protestants as the majority. in the table 2, it was observed that few of the respondents (0.7%) belonged to poor ses and most of the respondents belonged to upper middle (44.1%), followed by (31.2%) to high ses. from the findings in table 3, most of the respondents 353(87.4%) reported low use and few respondents (1.0%) reported high use. results showing demographic differences in the levels of alcohol use are presented in tables 4. it is observable from table 4, that all values of demographics of gender, class of respondents, age of respondents, type of a school, and nature of school, are significant whereas demographics of capturing whether respondents were boarders or day scholars and their religio us affiliations show non-significant results. findings on gender differences in the levels of alcohol use shows that male students show relatively higher mean rank values (221.13) than females (187.07) implying that more males than females use alcohol. regarding differences in students’ classes, it is observed that senior two students and senior three students have relatively the highest mean rank values (212.29 and 209.05 respectively), compared to other classes. with respect to students’ age differences, it is shown that there were significant age differences in alcohol use. the results depict students aged 20 have the highest mean rank, followed by those aged 16. the results in table 4 also tend to suggest that students aged 14 s and above have higher chances of consuming alcohol than those below the age of 14. regarding the nature of a school, students in only boarding schools have highest mean rank (207.27) compared to day and boarding schools with mean rank (191.72). as regards to whether one is a boarder or a day scholar, results shows that there is no significant difference (p= .158). . . it is seen from the findings that there is no significant religious difference in alcohol use. from the findings in table 5, most of the respondents (96.3%) reported high religiosity, and only (3.7%) reported low religiosity using a sample of 404 aged 11 to 20 year athanansio bashaija & aloysius rukundo ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 60 discussion levels of family socioeconomic status of bim students the results revealed that majority of the respondents had moderate levels of socioeconomic status, followed by high levels and just a few belong to poor ses. this is in line with aggarwal, et al. (2005) who found that of all strata of the society in india, many families belonged to middle ses followed by high and a few to poor ses. however, these results contradict other findings from four sub-saharan african countries by jacob and justice (2012) which found that many of the respondents had poor levels of ses compared to those in high ses. in fact, according to jacob and justice, 12% of the participants from ghana were in the highest wealth index quintile while about 32% were in the lowest quintile. similarly, 14% of respondents in nigeria were in the highest quintile relative to about 26% in the lowest quintiles. in kenya, about 21% and 29% of respondents were in the richest and poorest wealth index quintiles, respectively. sierra leone had approximately 18% of respondents in the richest wealth quintile and about 22% in the poorest quintile. a possible explanation for these surprising results could be that many of the respondents come from western uganda where many guardians are neither poor nor very rich compared to other parts of the country. research indicates that children from low-ses households and communities develop academic skills more slowly compared to children from higher ses groups (morgan, farkas, hillemeier, & maczuga, 2009). initial academic skills are correlated with the home environment, where low literacy environments and chronic stress negatively affect a child’s pre-academic skills. the school systems in low-ses communities are often under resourced, negatively affecting students’ academic progress (aikens & barbarin, 2008). inadequate education and increased dropout rates are correlated and do perpetuate the low-ses of the community. levels of alcohol use among bim students the students had a generally low levels of alcohol use (see table 3). this could be because of high levels of religiosity the students reported in table 4 and moderate family ses. therefore, student’s religiosity may be protective of students from involving themselves in drinking alcohol. this concurs with sanchez, oliveira, and nappo’s (2008) findings that considered religiosity as a protective factor against alcohol use. sanchez and others, found that high levels of religios it y prevent individuals from using drugs even if they live in perilous environments. al-kandari, yacoub, and omu’s (2001) study also show that religiosity was identified as protective as almost all the participants in their study emphasized the role of religious beliefs and practices in protecting against risky behaviors, including alcohol abuse. this ugandan findings on low alcohol use level however, diverges from a study by cartelet al. (2007) that reported high levels of alcohol use in secondary schools [in belgium]. 75.4% of the flemish scholars (12-18 years) had drunk alcohol at least once during their lifetime. a vast majority of the respondents (63.4%) even used alcohol during the past 12 months, of which 22% drank alcohol on a regular basis, that is, more than once a week. family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 61 data from industrialized countries contradicts findings that excessive alcohol use often begins at young age (11-14). according to who (2012), 46% of the world’s adolescents aged 15– 19 years reported having ever used alcohol, and 34% had used it in the last year. in other subsaharan african countries like kenya, ever drinking prevalence of up to 15% were found among secondary school students. a study from south africa also reported an alcohol use prevalence of 39.1% among high school adolescents (madu & matla, 2003). a study by simbee (2012) revealed that a significant number of youth in dodoma tanzania use alcohol frequently, as 59.0% of them used alcohol between one and five days a week while the remainder (31.0%) used it more than 20 days a month. another survey conducted by john and guiella (2006) among 5,112 adolescents between the ages of 12-19 years in 2004 in uganda revealed that 33% of them have tried alcohol. that study indicates that about a third of those that drink alcohol reported being drunk in the past 12 months. this result diverges from the findings from our study in which many respondents reported low levels of alcohol use possibly influenced by the high levels of religiosity reported by students. it might also be because 86% of the sampled student population were in boarding schools and were thus less exposed to risky behaviors including alcohol consumption. further analysis was done to know whether differences exist in the students’ demographics on the levels of alcohol use. the study results (table 1) show that majority of the respondents were females compared to males. this agrees with the findings of marklein (2005), mather and adams (2007), & holder (2009) that there are generally more female students than males in schools [where?]. however, the results in table 4 show that significant gender differences exist in alcohol use as male students consume more alcohol than females. this observation however is illuminated by traditional gender roles in typical uganda communities. these societies raise females to be submissive and to restrain from what they consider non-feminine behaviors, including alcohol use. therefore, gender is an important factor affecting drinking behavior among adolescents, and that in almost every society, adolescent males drink more often than adolescent females (ahlström & österberg, 2004). the results also show significant class differences in alcohol use. those who are in senior two have the highest mean ranges, compared to other classes implying that senior two students consume alcohol than other classes. use of alcohol is typically a peer-influenced and experimenta l behavior, which could be at its peak during early adolescence-when students are in senior two. this finding could signify that students in senior four with relatively low level of alcohol use who are at the time of completing their uce are overwhelmed by the academic pressure of the limited time left preparing to seat for their final year exam (waeytens, hulpiau, & jan, 2002). results in table 1 further revealed that majority of the students were (boarders), a situation probably minimized exposure of the adolescents to risky behaviors like alcohol drinking. boarders experienced higher levels of discipline and supervision at school compared to day scholars whose daily commute to school is fraught with a lot of challenges. thus, day scholars have the highest mean rank compared to boarders who have the least mean rank; day scholars being users of more athanansio bashaija & aloysius rukundo ajote vol. 7. no. 2. (2018), 53-66 62 alcohol than boarders. this thus explains why the majority of the interviewed students reported low levels of alcohol use. most of the respondents were boarders. levels of religiosity among secondary school adolescents of bim most of the respondents had high religiosity, and only a few had low religiosity. this fits with the global trend, as high levels of religiosity are exhibited worldwide among adolescents (sanchez, oliveira & nappo, 2008). according to the pew research center (2015), the majority of americans (70.6%) identify themselves as more religious. in addition, religion in the european union is a serious matter with significant levels of belief in all eu member states (special eurobarometer, 2010). the largest religion in the eu is christianity, which accounts for 72% of eu population, with its largest denominations being roman catholicism, protestantism (especially in the north), and eastern orthodoxy the majority of africans are also adherents of christianity or islam; though many often combine the practice of their traditional belief with the practices of christianity and islam (mbiti, 1992; riggs, 2006). these abrahamic religions are widespread throughout africa. they have both spread and seek to replace indigenous african religions. though atibuni (2011) asserts that many students exhibit high levels of religiosity because of the hardships of life , the findings of this study do not support his argument because adolescents from both low, moderate, and high ses all reported high religiosity. generally, student reporting striking high levels of religiosity means that they are taught right from childhood the utility of religion and how it relates to other dimens io ns of life. this continues throughout their lives, even in high school (snyder & shafer, 1996). as the students’ awareness of the economic and social benefits of education increases, so does their commitment to aspects of life, such as religiosity, that promises fruitful benefits. such commit me nt probably deters them from risky behaviors like alcohol drinking. religious participation may deter risky behaviors by helping adolescents develop social networks, which provide social support and reinforce conformity to widely-accepted social norms thus limiting adolescents from using alcohol. conclusions the moderate levels of ses of most of the adolescent students in bushenyiishaka municipa lit y schools who participated in this study come from western uganda where propitious economic conditions support an increased family ses and more resources to educate their children. low levels of alcohol use is good news to parents and guardians. this therefore, should encourage parents to put their children in boarding schools so they could benefit from an educational opportunity that tends to expose adolescents to less risky behaviors like alcohol consumption. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/eu_member_state https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/christianity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/european_union https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/roman_catholicism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/protestantism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/eastern_orthodoxy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/christianity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/islam family socioeconomic status, religiosity and alcohol use among secondary school adolescents in bushenyi ishaka municipality, uganda ajote vol. 7. no. 2. 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(2007). race/ethnicity, religiosity and adolescent alcohol, cigarette and marijuana use. social work in public health. 23, 193-213 waeytens, k., hulpiau, v., & jan, e. (2002). the organization of assessment: the impact on study behavior in higher education. paper presented at the european conference on educational research university of lisbon. wichstrom l., & pederson, w. (2001). use of anabolic-androgenic steroids in adolescence: winning, looking good or being bad? journal of studies on alcohol 2001, 62:5-13. wills, t. a, gibbons, f x, gerrard m, murry vm, & brody gh. (2003). family communication and religiosity related to substance use and sexual behavior in early adolescence: a test for pathways through self-control and prototype perceptions. psychology of addictive behaviors, 17:312-323. world health organization (2012). global status report on alcohol and health. geneva. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/eurobarometer ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 1 2018 pp. 53-65. teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical and social implications dr. femi sinaola abiodun1 music department, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria abstract art music in the nigerian context is the composition of nigerians who have formal music training and have composed using western medium to express traditional nigerian music. this paper sets out to illuminate the technicalities involved in this form of musical composition and proposes a model of art music instruction for nigerian schools. the author posits that the teaching and performing of art music in nigerian schools will bring music closer to the people. he argues that whereas art music is an aberration from nigerian traditional music, yet with concerted efforts and skill, the practice of art music will help in preserving nigerian culture on paper and facilitate the promotion of its local music to the global level. the paper concludes that traditional music elements that are entrenched in art music composition can constitute a model and parameter for identifying and appreciating nigerian music. the teaching of art music therefore must be encouraged by nigerian music curricular planners. keywords: art music, nigerian school, traditional music, music composition, art musicians. 1 dr. femi abiodun is a faculty staff of the department of music, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife osun state nigeria where he teaches tonal counterpoint, conducting, african music and performance with emphasis on intercultural musicology. publications include journal articles and chapter contributions in ethnomusicology and music education. he has a research background in african music theories where he intends to develop contrastive musicology theories. an accomplished organist, he has directed and conducted choral and music theatre performances. he currently serves on the editorial board of pan-african music education arts, south africa and the editorial board of journal of association of nigerian musicologists and nigerian music education journal. he is the past national secretary of the association of nigerian musicologists femi sinaola abiodun 54 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 introduction our pride as africans is our tradition. while africa may for now not be able to contest with the western world in technology, we should handle our tradition with care in the face of modernization, acculturation, and globalization. musical art education can help us to improve our tradition and promote our culture. nigeria’s development objectives as they are contained in the 4th national development plan (section h) calls for “greater self-reliance”. this is a call for increased dependence on our own resources in seeking to achieve the various objectives we set for our societies. one of such acclaimed resources is our culture — the material expression of a people as well as the process with which the expressions are communicated (oyeneye 1984, 60). traditional music can be defined as the non-material expression of a people and the process through which such non-materials expressions are communicated. teaching all aspects of our culture, including our traditional music, is a process of communication, socialization and development. each ethnic group in nigeria has music that is peculiar to its culture and such music is produced according to local norms, mores and rites. traditional or indigenous music is a representation of all cultural vocal and symphonic expressions that make up the particular society, including the society’s skills, arts, instruments and institutions. chernoff (1979, 79) asserts that music in african traditional setting is a representation of the people’s culture, a replica of their life pattern and that the study of a people’s music can offer an especially valuable approach to her culture. art music is a composition written by people who have been influenced by european classical music tradition – involving the application of formal, structural, and theoretical considerations. omojola (1995) describes it as “music in which a great deal of attention is given to the musical, technical or artistic interest of the piece as a focus of aesthetic enjoyment” (p.6). art music is a composition committed to paper and can be performed across the globe by people who have the “magical knowledge” of music theory. whereas traditional nigerian music is oral and can be performed only effectively within the cultural area where it is passed on orally from one generation to another. this paper therefore analyses the technicalities, academic intricacies and social implications of music as represented in art music compositions. premised on structuralist/functionalist theory, the following are the research questions that are pertinent to the arguments in the paper: what conceptual framework differentiates art music from traditional music performance? how does the teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical, and social implications 55 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 difference in the medium of performance affect the mind-set of an african? are the functions and usage of music in the life of an african represented in the composition and how are these phenomena represented in the performance of art music compositions? what will the dissemination of information through art music compositions accomplish for the music teacher? how do all these affect the teaching of art music in nigerian classrooms? features and elements of nigerian traditional music traditional music is the practice of what is musical and extramusical in the culture of a people. it is constituted by the musical activities of a people, devoid of any outside influence whether in strict festive mood or in a relaxed situation. traditional nigerian music involves performers within the community disseminating via musical performances vital information related to their world. music as cultural expression is a social force that acts as a socialization agent. a traditional musical performance displays three explicit functions: a. disseminates information b. provides an avenue to relate with others within and outside the community c. servers as a socialization agent. other latent functions of traditional music include the therapeutic functions for the troubled or sorrowful mind, the soothing of psychiatric and psychosomatic disorders, its provision of ritual and spiritual healing and its creation of a medium of theosophical prayer to develop a special relationship between a soul and god. abiodun (2011) has documented how in the oyo, ife yoruba community in nigeria, sick people were healed when they sang and were exposed to singing at the shrines of the local deities. he has documented mental health or psychiatric patients recovering from their ailments when brought to the palace of adamu orisa [masquerade shrine] where they engaged in singing in the context of traditional musical performance. the utilitarian functions of traditional music include the entertainment it provides at social gatherings, its expressions of local feelings and thoughts, its keeping traditions alive, its exhibition of culture, its serving as a means of livelihood, and its promotion of artistic expression. one of the main features of nigerian traditional music is its close association with the social context. they are always related to events out of which they are born and established. a typical traditional music could only have meaning in association with the socio-cultural institutions that produces it and through which it is expressed. euba (1963) asserts that femi sinaola abiodun 56 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 one of the most important factors of keeping traditional music alive in nigeria is the continuity of the various social institutions, which serve as the basis for the performance of this music. as long as these institutions remain active, there is little fear that the practice of traditional music will seriously decline (p.475) nigeria’s traditional music structure and styles are different from europe’s. its style features flexibility in its pitch system, i.e., it is based on a relative rather than a fixed pitch system. its scales comprise majorly five notes (pentatonic) with no semitone interval (anhemitonic pentatonic). its melodic level features sharp interval rises followed by slow descents. its form is binary with the two parts built about different tones in the scale call and response pattern (antiphonal). its melody makes use of offbeat phrasing of melodic accents “with a limited range and ‘supposedly in the same [tonal] key” (agawu, 2011). nigerian languages are inflectionary, and they are a force to reckon with in determining the melodic contour and rhythmic pattern (vocal and instrument) of many african melodies. the technicality lies in the fact that in many of the melodies the tones determine the pitches. the yoruba language has three tone levels (high-me middle-re and low-doh). akpabot (1986) affirms that “an african instrumental music borrows much from vocal music which in turn is tied to speech melody and speech rhythm”. speech melody and speech rhythms are interrelated in african traditional music. the interrelatedness calls for attention because it forms the nucleus of the complexity of african music. being a technical issue, it must be well represented in the art music composition and within the traditional music framework if the music will make meaning to the african audience. traditional music is as old as the community that owns it. it is a communal practice. nzewi (1991) reiterates that “it is not an experience to be enjoyed in isolation without other human beings” (p.96). this also is the position of john blacking in his book how musical is man? it is part of their life pattern and a close study of a people’s music would reveal their socio-religious life in a given time. traditional societies of nigeria once had their music practiced within their culture before the advent of arabic and european cultures. what music meant to them was more than mere entertainment; it did more than to sustain social or celebratory functions. it was also ritualistic in nature (sowande 1967, olukoju 1987, adegbite 1988, meki 1991, vidal 2012 and abiodun 2011). of note is sowande’s assertion that music was teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical, and social implications 57 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 (1) as evocative or creative in its own right and as itself (2) the organization of the raw materials of sound into formal structural pattern that are meaningful and generally acceptable to that society in which the organization has taken place (3) that traditional music is functional at root because it enabled its creator and practitioners to bridge the gulf between the visible and invisible worlds. (1967, p.245) traditional music then also functions to evoke the spirit of the gods, entertain during moonlight plays, correct the social ills in the society and more importantly praise the king and chiefs. such music includes ritual songs, praise songs, songs of insults and recreational songs which are performed by musicians and composers in the palace, or by war musicians, cult musicians and or griots. the traditional musical instruments found in the palaces, shrine of the gods, among the music family, the griots and the hunters were used to accompany the music. with the intrusion of different foreign cultures, nigerian traditional music assumed a new outlook in its practice, production, functions and performances. its musicians changed, its instrumentation changed, its song texts changed, but the institutions that own the music did not change. however, as euba (1963) asserts, even “a discontinuation of these institutions would not necessarily mean death of the music for it is already apparent that in whatever ways, traditional music will continue to thrive on its own” (p.248). the effort of the art musicians, in this regard, would be complementary to preserving traditional music. nowadays, nigerian traditional music has also witnessed a dramatic change in the hands of the art musicians. they have successfully fused elements and styles of traditional music with those of european music. in doing so, they re-interpreted elements of traditional music and fussed them into european idioms. they now use diatonic harmonic scales; adopt and adapt folk tunes; appropriate nigerian rhythmic pattern; they join together sharply contrasting styles, use dissonant intervals, and have adapted traditional call and response musical structure, in addition to their fusing of nigerian and european instruments in their performances. while, the first set of trained art musicians worked successfully to fuse the two cultures into their musical works, they never thought of writing in nigerian traditional musical forms only. sowande (1967) who gave a lot of thought to this concluded, “we are not prepared to submit to the doctrine of ‘apartheid’ in art by which a nigerian musician is expected to work only within the limits of his traditional forms of music” (p.251). it is expedient for the nigerian composers femi sinaola abiodun 58 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 therefore to move along with the global trend that is witnessed in composing in new musical styles. one of such is the nigerian art music. the technical issues in art music composition and the implications for teacher education this study dictates technical, theoretical, social and practical implications for music educators in the areas of art music pedagogy and assessment. the social considerations are in the submission of y. s onyiuke and emmanuel c. umezinwa (2012) i. that traditional music remains a vital feature of the people’s life. ii. that music in nigerian tradition has never been mere sonic object. it has always been associated with life and functions in the lives of people as integral part of events. iii. that transmission was through the process of imitation. iv. the non-formal system of learning was apprenticeship which took a long time. v. that cross-cultural contacts affected the music of people. vi. that a relationship existed between a people and their language, dance, costume, way of life and their instruments. vii. that traditional music was never meant for purely commercial purposes. viii. that the absence of notation ensured the survival of improvisation and variations. ix. that traditional music is embedded in the texts, lessons of life, folklores, histories and epics and values of the people all wrapped into one. x. that the absence of a written system of notation and highly formalized teaching and learning structures did not affect the artistic, aesthetic and therapeutic values of traditional music one of the main challenges for nigerian art music teachers is that they be able to interpret nigerian art music within african religious, social, cultural, and philosophical contexts. this implies that, for instance, art music performance should showcase the identity functions of nigerian traditional music. realizing art music on stage becomes a challenge to music teachers in nigeria. these technical and theoretical issues fall within the sphere of definitions and structural consideration of art music in nigeria. art music refers to musical traditions with structural and theoretical considerations and a written tradition. the implication of this is that the technical-knowhow makes it different from traditional performances. teachers should teach these technical elements through accurate interpretation and analysis. philip tagg’s definition of art music as “an axiomatic triangle consisting folk, art and popular music” requires additional technical application. teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical, and social implications 59 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 this definition differentiates art music from folk/traditional and popular music in the nigerian context. many musicologists and scholars in nigeria, a first school of thought, accept this definition. another school of thought, scholars in critical musicologist movement, rejects the latent social elitism associated with the definition. scholars in music theory define art music as music which requires significantly more work by the listeners to fully appreciate the music (russell and schmidt-jones, 2005). teachers in secondary schools in nigeria must stand up to face these definitive challenges in their practical and functional practices. the hypothesis that art music is superior to other genres of music is debatable. this hypothetical statement has been tested in a comparative study of art and traditional music structures (abiodun 2011). the result generated a lot of arguments among scholars in nigeria. one position is that the traditional and the art music have all the basic elementsmelody, rhythm, form and harmony. this school of thought faces a lot of criticism from ethnomusicologists in nigeria who assert that no matter the technicality and difficulty of a music, each musical tradition has the same element of dignity and no one can claim any superiority over others. the music teacher should identify these basic elements and through analysis examine the structure of each as an entity. other related technical issues about art music are that i. it has a classical tradition which focuses on formal styles ii. it demands focused attention from listeners, music teachers need to prepare the mind of the listener to listen with rapt attention in the music appreciation class. iii. it is a written musical tradition. teachers must therefore teach the students to read music in regular workshops to sensitize the public about the new medium of performance. iv. it is a written tradition preserved in some form of notation as different from the orally transmitted or recordings like the popular music. the new trend about art music is that its identity is usually defined by notation version rather than performance of it. some art music may deviate from the classical music standard by employing new types of notation to facilitate new performance form. nigerian music teachers should explore the element of formality to interpret the content of the work. teachers need to understand these primary but concerted and conceptual challenges. as defined by abiola irele, african art music is “a conscious and elaborate form…bound to the musical language of europe” (1993, 61). by and large, its primary exponents are african femi sinaola abiodun 60 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 composers with varying degrees of training and immersion in european classical music. modern african art music provides such composers with a tool for working out their contemporary africanness, what irele calls elsewhere, their “dual experience” of tradition and modernity. such a working out entails the recontextualization of traditional african musical elements and values within the literate medium of european art music. works produced are often conceived for performers who are similarly accustomed to the norms of european art music, in venues such as theatres and concert halls where performer-audience boundaries are clearly marked. this sharp contrast from irele’s definition should not pose a problem to nigerian teachers who are also trained in european classical music. however, unlike the performance in european theatres, nigerian performance should use the dual experience acquired to bring out the africanness in such composition. the nigerian art musicians of the 20th century have done a lot in establishing nigerian art music as a form different from other forms of music in nigeria—pop, reggae, blues, jazz, high life, fuji, juju etc which are products of acculturation. the present nigerian art music is a fusion of nigerian and european idioms arrived at after several attempts by the art musicians who have had to overcome “myriads of challenges” ranging from rejection, criticism, and jettisoning of their work. such art music performed within the classroom arena, face challenges that include imposing western melodies on nigerian words. for example, in the igbo experience, a word like odunma (it is fine) would imply a different meaning when a musical note is imposed on it. (ekwueme 1983). in the yoruba example, a word like e wa (come) would sound differently as ewa (beans) vidal (2012). the effect of this was miscommunication resulting from super-imposing a european tune on nigerian texts. other relative technical challenges of teaching and learning art music in nigerian schools include: i. the inability of nigerian traditional drummers to read music. the scores produced cannot be performed by the practitioners at the local levels. the effort, to many of them interviewed is meaningless and according to them does not contribute to the development of traditional music at that level. ii. the non-availability of nigerian traditional musicians in nigerian universities, making it almost impossible to collaborate in the performance of art music in the classroom. art music composers need to carry along the traditional practitioners especially when such compositions are to be performed. the music teachers should be the link in this direction. teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical, and social implications 61 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 iii. demand for such music is low because of the musical medium which is different from the traditional practice. other challenges itemized by ekwueme (2004, p.283) include: i. the limitation in structural organization imposed by the strict call and response ii. the limitation of the traditional range of nigerian songs iii. problems of tonality and intonation iv. no audience for the music solutions to these challenges can be found in our classrooms where the knowledge of musical art education can be imparted. other problem areas to note are that western notation system is inadequate for a representation of what a nigerian music is and there has not been a generally accepted form of notation for nigerian music. for now, the professional art musicians in nigeria has adopted the staff notation system. this has enhanced the performance of nigeria music across the globe. there is equally little or no information about nigerian musical elements like rhythmic, melodic, harmonic patterns, and textural devices, etc. the few ones that are available were “arrived at” by european scholars who, according to akpabot (1998), have arrived at conclusions that are a mixture of accuracy, speculations, approximation, misinformation and dogmatism (p.2). there has not been a thorough investigation of the correlation between the practice of traditional music and the structure of the music as reproduced in art music. meki (1991) observes that “systematic african musical art studies are inchoate” (p.4). art composition has not convincingly represented nigerian culture. these hints given above about the position and technicalities of art music in nigeria would form the basis for discussing the solutions. three fundamental principles that would aid the process of its usage in nigerian schools and make it functional within the social context are recommended as a model of art music instruction for nigerian schools: structural rehabilitation by structured rehabilitation, we mean putting the music in ‘good condition’ in order to restore to original performance contexts. these can be done in the following ways: femi sinaola abiodun 62 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 i. formation of different symbols of notation that will accommodate what the present staff notation cannot contain. ii. use of nigerian melody and rhythmic idioms with little or no distortion of the melodic contour patterned after the intonation of african text. this will retain the meaning of the nigerian texts. iii. use of parallel harmony where conventional harmony will distort the flow of the music. iv. actual interpretation of what the music represents in the community and within context of performance. v. training of nigerians to play nigerian instruments from notation total activation total activation means bringing into use all the traditional music genres already ignored or made inactive by acculturation. these include: i. use of our traditional instruments in our schools ii. construction and maintenance of traditional instruments anchored by the teachers iii. preservation of the tradition in theory and practice iv. performing the music regularly at home (nigeria) and abroad v. participating in the events that are associated with the traditional music. teachers organizing visit and participation in musical and non-musical events at the local levels pragmatic propagation pragmatic propagation means spreading nigerian art music and influencing a great number of people across the globe. these include: i. publishing our musical compositions and making them available for use in our schools. ii. recording our compositions and performances on different media devices and making them available in all media houses at national and international levels, and especially on the internet. this is a task the music teachers must do. iii. commercializing our recordings for mass commercial market, a situation which will not only boost the economic power of art musicians but will make their music readily available to the mass. iv. staging regular performance of the art music that includes the traditional practitioners. even though home videos and film have almost paralyzed stage performance, performing art teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical, and social implications 63 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 compositions will close the gap between the trained musicians and the traditional practitioners. v. giving it a radio and television broadcast will also allow the nigerian populace to get familiar with what art music is – its theory and practice. conclusion this paper concludes that the academic, technical and social challenges in teaching art music in nigerian schools notwithstanding, art music has attained this so much level of fame in the art music world in the hands of none other than art musicians who had training in european music. the nigerian traditional music’s notation and analysis, in terms of melody, rhythm, scale, harmony etc. were done in relation to western music idioms. hence, omojola (1995) warns that “european elements should not be discouraged in modern african works, but [that] they should not suppress the african features used in such works” (p.64). the performance of nigerian art music should be made to activate the functions and usage of the music in the life of an african as represented in the composition. nigeria should be more independent than ever; she should be more consistent in the development of her culture. traditional music is a living art and a structured rehabilitation of its style, a total activation of its elements, and pragmatic propagation of its performance within the framework of art music would make it practical and functional rather than decorative art. references abiodun, femi (2011). melodic patterns and song forms in ekiti musical traditions. journals of the association of nigerian musicologists. no. 6 pp 40-50 adegbite, ademola (1988). “the drum and its role in yoruba religion”. journal of religion in african. pp. 17-25. aguwu, kofi (2011). “the challenge of african art music” circuit: musiques contemporaines, vol. 21, n.2 pp. 49-64 akpabot, s. e. (1986). foundation of nigerian traditional music, lbadan: spectrum books akpabot, s.e. (1998). form. function and style in african music. ibadan: macmillan nigeria publishers. biobaku, saburi (1983). “the role of culture in national development in iwara alex (ed) femi sinaola abiodun 64 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 african notes vol. ix no. 2, ibadan: heinemann books. blacking, john (1976). how musical is man? great britain: faber and faber ltd. chernoff, m. j. (1979). africa rhythm and african sensibility. chicago: the university of chicago press. ekwueme, laz (1983). african music in christian liturgy: the igbo experience. african music vol. 5 (3) pp. 1-17 ekwueme, laz. (1983). choir training and choral conducting. lagos: lenaus publishing ltd. lagos. ekwueme, laz (2004). composing contemporary african choral music: problems and prospects” essays on the theory of african music. lagos: lenaus publishing limited. pp 281-320 euba, akin (1963). “music in traditional society” in adebayo (ed) nigerian magazine no. 78, lagos: federal ministry of social development, youth and culture. irele, abiola (1993). “is african music possible” transition 61 pp. 56-71 meriam, alan. p. (1982). african music in perspective. london: garland publishers. inc. nesbitt nick (2001). african music ideology and utopia. research in african literature vol. 32 (2). downloaded from 197.253.6.248 nzewi, meki (1991). musical practice and creativity: an african traditional perspective. germany: bayreuth iwalewa-haus, university of bayreuth olukoju, e. o. (1987). “music in religious worship.” orita: ibadan journal of religious studies. vol. xix ( 2) pp. 118-1333 omojola, bode (1995). nigerian art music. ibadan: i. f. r. a. onyiuke, y. s and umezinwa, emmanuel c (2012) nigerian traditional music education in the context of global educational challenges copyright © iaarr 2012: www.afrrevjo.net89 indexed african journals online: www.ajol.info oyeneye, o. y. (1984). “indigenous cultural as basis for nigeria’s development” in falola t. (ed) odu no. 25. russell jones and schmidt-jones catherine (2005). introduction to music theory. accessed february 8, 2016. http:\\www.amazon.com sowande, fela (1967). “nigeria musicians: then and now” in adebayo (ed) nigeria magazine no. 94, lagos: cultural division, ministry of information. http://www.afrrevjo.net/ teaching art music in nigerian schools: the academic, technical, and social implications 65 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 53-65 tagg, philip (n.d.). analysing popular music: theory, method and practice. popular music 2 pp. 37-65; http://www.tagg.org. accessed february 8, 2016 vidal, tunji (2012). “the westernization of african music: a study of yoruba liturgical church music.’ essays on yoruba musicology. ile-ife: university of ife press. pp.24-36 training a new generation for careers in wildlife management in ethiopia murali pai school for field studies, usa takele k. serekebirhan arba minch university, ethiopia abstract we describe the start-up of a new interdisciplinary master’s program in wildlife management at arba minch university (amu), ethiopia. the need, salient features, review of curriculum, and stakeholders of the program are examined. the human dimensions of wildlife management have been given its due with an aim to get biodiversity stewardship on a firm footing in the country. the program, aims to link young graduates to regional stakeholders on conservation perspectives through courses such as human dimensions of wildlife management, wildlife economics and entrepreneurship and biodiversity conservation. the scope of wildlife tourism in ethiopia has been highlighted in the program. the survey results of stakeholder representatives found good prospects for the sustainability of the msc program in wildlife management provided stakeholder coordination and community participation in the program are diligently ensured. in conclusion, the master’s program in wildlife management is interdisciplinary, job-oriented and intended to prepare a new generation for placements with the government, ngos and private sector in order to contribute to wildlife management and biodiversity stewardship in ethiopia. keywords: wildlife management, masters program wildlife, biodiversity stewardship, ethiopia wildlife management introduction africa has been and will be the poster child of global biodiversity for ages. one-fourth of africa’s biodiversity is in ethiopia, and is comprised of 320 mammals, 860 birds, 240 reptiles, 71 amphibians, 150 freshwater fish, and over 1,225 arthropods and 6,600 plant species with a high rate of endemism. the endemic wildlife include the ethiopian wolf and swayne’s hartebeest, prince rasploi’s turaco and stresemann’s bush crow, bale mountains heather chameleon and the ethiopian mountains adder, and the ethiopian banana frog and bale mountains moss frog. there are diverse habitats ranging from 110 meters below sea level at 2 training a new generation for careers in wildlife management in ethiopia _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) kobar sink in the afar depression, to a peak of 4620 meters above sea level at ras dejen in the siemen mountains. the high relevance of wildlife management in ethiopian universities is therefore a given. wildlife management can be defined as art and science of managing wildlife populations and their habitats with the participation of stakeholders (pai and serekebirhan, 2014). much as wildlife science is an integral part of ethiopia’s 33 universities and some 100 other colleges, it was only 4 years ago the country’s first master’s program in wildlife management was offered at the wondo genet college of forestry and natural resources. a second program is nearing launch in march 2014 at arba minch university, also in southern ethiopia. the prerogative of managing wildlife and wild lands in the second-most populous country in the continent is vested with over 80 ethnic groups with some 200 spoken dialects, diverse cultural values and social mores with the gdp per capita estimated to be $1200 in 2012. seemingly, food security, water, health and infrastructure take precedence over biodiversity. these challenges are compounded by climate change impacts; resource degradation and subsistence hunting make wildlife management a daunting task. the protected areas of ethiopia are closely hemmed-in and utilized by the agrarian and pastoralist communities. there are 20 national parks, 3 wildlife sanctuaries, 2 wildlife reserves, 19 controlled hunting areas, and 10 open hunting areas till date. yet, only 2 national parks – the simien and awash are gazette notified. the potential for biodiversity stewardship via payments for ecosystem services schemes (pes) is yet to be realized and this could be the future of conservation. the risks of emerging diseases are stark and there is urgent need for research at the interface of wildlife, people and ecosystems, or ‘one health’. wildlife management empowers its practitioners with tools to try and tackle such critical issues. although human dimensions can overwhelm science at the roof of africa, a formidable combination of skilled biologists and committed wildlife managers can move the mountains beyond mountains. arba minch university (amu) is one of ethiopia’s leading public universities and was founded in 1986. the department of biology at amu trains 150 undergraduates for their first degrees each year, and offers 3 out of 9 postgraduate programs on offer at college of natural sciences, amu. much as wildlife science is an integral part of ethiopia’s 33 universities, it was only 4 years ago the country’s first master’s program in wildlife management was offered at the hawassa university’s wondo genet college of forestry and natural resources. a second program was recently launched, in march 2014, at amu. a study about the curricula of the regional wildlife colleges at garoua (cameroon), mweka (tanzania) and sawc (south africa) showed important differences emanating from regional needs, aspirations and commitments of the wildlife management profession (scholte, 2003). considerations and courses offered the presence of 4 national parks viz., nechisar, mago, maze and omo and a wildlife sanctuary, namely senkelle, within a distance of 150 km from arba minch is a major impetus for the wildlife management program at amu. a key focus of this program will be to work with ethnic groups in southern ethiopia including gamo, gofa, guiji, suri, nyangtom, hammer, and omo. as seen the world over, wildlife management plans can succeed only when human m. pai and t.k. serekebirhan 3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) dimensions of wildlife issues are addressed at par (saberwal and kothari, 1996). this is germane to ethiopia, as the indigenous resource management system is not conducive to conservation (ashenafi, z.t. et al. 2012). the program, therefore, aims to link conservation to regional stakeholders through courses such as wildlife damage management, wildlife habitat management, biodiversity conservation, and wildlife laws and international conventions (table 1. list of courses). table 1. list of courses offered in the msc program in wildlife management (* elective) the other face of the business of conservation is entrepreneurship involving ecotourism and wildlife safaris. the evolution of ecotourism in kenya and tanzania has moved from an idea to an industry, and not only a major source of revenue, but also vital for conserving wilderness areas (watkin, 2002). this aspect is highlighted in the course titled wildlife economics and s. no. course code course title credit hours 1 wlm 511 wildlife ecology 3 2 wlm 503 remote sensing and gis for wildlife management 3 3 wlm 519 wildlife habitats and protected areas management 3 4 wlm 515 animal behavior 2 5 wlm 520 mammalogy* 2 6 wlm 505 research methods and scientific writing 2 7 wlm 510 biodiversity conservation 2 8 wlm 512 wildlife health 3 9 wlm 507 biological data analysis 3 10 wlm 528 environmental impact assessment* 2 11 wlm 516 human dimensions of wildlife management 2 12 wlm 522 ornithology* 2 13 wlm 514 wildlife economics and entrepreneurship 3 14 wlm 524 ichthyology* 2 15 wlm 518 wildlife laws and international conventions 2 16 wlm 526 herpetology* 2 17 wlm 611 seminar 1 18 wlm 613 m.sc. thesis 6 4 training a new generation for careers in wildlife management in ethiopia _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) entrepreneurship, which also includes payments for ecosystem services (pes) as a potential harbinger of biodiversity stewardship in ethiopia. considering that economically backward communities control much of the ecologically sensitive land in developing countries, they could benefit from pes – a market-based approach that compensates land stewards for ecosystem conservation (milder et al. 2010). ethiopia potentially stands to gain from both ecotourism and pes. the rigor in wildlife management is provided by biostatistics and data analysis and this course in experimental design and sampling provides the concepts of cause-and-effect and gives the big picture about populations (white, 2001). wildlife health and population management is integral to the new conservation paradigm of ‘one health’ i.e., health and conservation at the wildlifelivestock-human interface (deem et al. 2001). the science of climate change is also covered under health as it is a major threat to biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being (pettorelli, 2012). needs assessment figure 1. survey results of need assessment respondents (n=20) representing potential stakeholders from the ethiopian wildlife conservation authority (ewca), citizens of the arba minch town, and local communities residing near the protected areas within a distance of 300 km from amu were surveyed to m. pai and t.k. serekebirhan 5 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) assess the need for the aforesaid master’s program. the responses to survey questions (figure 1) did not lead to a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and were coded for analysis using the statistical software stata 11. results most respondents opined that there was fairly good scope for the proposed master’s program in wildlife management at amu (mean = 3.5 ± 0.25). half of them believed that amu’s academics had the wherewithal to teach the program (mean = 2.5± 0.89). a vast majority of respondents viewed arba minch’s location near well-known protected areas in southern ethiopia as a big plus for the program (mean = 4.4± 0.11). amu was not viewed as savvy at community involvement in its study programs by most respondents (mean = 1.6± 0.82). on equal measure, a vast majority presumed that amu did not score well on the stakeholder coordination integral to the program (mean = 0.85± 0.95). most respondents said considerable benefits could be accrued for wildlife conservation in ethiopia from the program (mean = 3.85± 0.18) and also forecast good sustainability prospects for the msc program in wildlife management at amu (mean = 3.85± 0.18). a variance ratio test between competence of academics at amu and sustainability of the program bodes well for its possible success (mean = 3.17± 0.46, ho: ratio = 1, f = 24.14, df = 19, 19). review of curriculum after the curriculum was reviewed at the inter-collegiate level and comments and suggestions from academia at amu were duly incorporated, it was sent to 4 experts in the field of wildlife management in ethiopia for external review. at a meeting held at amu on feb 27, 2014 the experts gave their verdict on the proposed master’s program in wildlife management at amu. overall, the reviewers approved the curriculum subject to revisions in nomenclature, course contents and practical aspects of the program. conclusion the new master’s program in wildlife management is interdisciplinary, job-oriented and intended to prepare graduates for placements with the government, ngos and private sector. it is not just another program adopted by a university but the second such program in ethiopia, and could potentially influence conservation ethic in a country grappling with much loss of biodiversity. furthermore, degree holders could play a role in drafting wildlife policies and strategies for ethiopia. references ashenfai, z.t., n. leader-williams and t. coulson. (2012). consequences of human land use for an afro-alpine ecological community in ethiopia. conservation and society, 10 (3), 209-16. deem, s.l., w.b. karesh, and w. weisman. (2001). putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation. conservation biology, 15 (5), 1224-33. 6 training a new generation for careers in wildlife management in ethiopia _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) milder, j. c., s. j. scherr, and c. bracer. (2010). trends and future potential of payment for ecosystem services to alleviate rural poverty in developing countries. ecology and society, 15(2), 4. [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss2/art4/ pai. m. and serekebirhan, t. (2014). editorials for journal of biodiversity and endangered species. j biodivers endanger species, 2, e112. doi:10.4172/2332-2543.1000e112. pettorelli, n. (2012). climate change as a main driver of ecological research. journal of applied ecology 49, 542-45. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02146.x saberwal, v.k. and a. kothari. (1996). the human dimension in conservation biology curricula in developing countries. conservation biology, 10, 1328-1331. scholte, p. (2003). curriculum development at the african regional wildlife colleges, with special reference to the ecole de faune, cameroon. environmental conservation, 30 (3), 249-258. watkin, j. r. (2003) the evolution of ecotourism in east africa: from an idea to an industry. wildlife and development. series no.15. international institute for environment and development, london. white, g.c. (2001). why take calculus? rigor in wildlife management. wildlife society bulletin, 29(1), 380-86. 3 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 2 2018 pp. 17-37 language anxiety and achievement among freshman students of addis ababa university, ethiopia bekau atnafu taye kotebe metropolitan university, addis ababa, ethiopia abstract the objectives of this study are to measure levels of students’ anxiety and to see whether anxiety affects their academic performance. the participants of the study were drawn from the department of foreign languages and literature at addis ababa university (aau). the study used primary and secondary data and descriptive and inferential statistics. the inferential statistics was made in terms of one-way anova. the results of the study showed that first year students were anxious, and the level of anxiety affected their performance. it was also found that anxiety and achievement have curvilinear relationships. ameliorating strategies implied from the findings were also suggested. key words: achievement, anxiety, language theoretical basis of the study psychologists have defined anxiety as a general term referring to the feeling of nervousness, fear, apprehension and worrying. psychologists (comer, 2007; dworetzky, 1988; myers, 2007) viewed anxiety as a disorder that they classified into various types including, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic disorder, social anxiety and separation anxiety. anxiety is a complex phenomenon involving a blend of bodily and mental changes that include the following pieces: arousal, feeling, thoughts and actions, together. thus, experiencing emotion in general or anxiety in particular is a joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisals. language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 18 in the realm of language learning too, scholars such as horwitz et al., (1986) defined anxiety as the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, worries and nervousness associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system. communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation provide useful conceptual building blocks for a description of foreign language anxiety (fla) apart from perceiving fla as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning (horwitz et al., 1991). communication apprehension is a type of shyness or difficulty in speaking in public characterized by fear about communicating with people. test anxiety is a type of performance anxiety caused by fear of failure. fear of negative evaluation is apprehension about others’ evaluations; it is avoidance of evaluative situations. it is the act of trying to avoid the feared object or situation at all costs because there is an intense and excessive fear of being observed or evaluated by others. as a result, a mere dislike of interaction or class discussion might happen. for macintyre and gardner (1991) communication anxiety is related to social evaluative anxiety as each involves apprehension surrounding social perceptions and self-consciousness when speaking or participating in a social context. for horwitz et al., the essence of communication anxiety is limited to classroom situation whereas for macintyre and gardner, communication anxiety refers to a broader context. contrary to horwitz et al., (1991), macintyre and gardner (1991) suggest that test anxiety is also a general problem and not one specific to the language classroom. that is, test anxiety is prevalent in all subjects; students are anxious while taking any kind of tests. test anxiety is not a peculiar characteristic of language learning. scovel (1978) cited in young (1991) concluded that research, dealing with the relationship of anxiety to foreign language learning, provided mixed and confusing results and that anxiety is neither a simple nor will-understood psychological construct. however, since the mid-1980, most researchers have adopted a situation-specific approach to foreign language anxiety and conceptualized it as a distinct form of anxiety expressed in response to second or foreign language learning rather than a manifestation of other more general types of anxiety (cheng, 2001). due to this, anxiety is explained as the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, worry and nervousness associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system (horwitz et al., 1986) caused by situational variables. bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 19 language anxiety is not exclusive to beginners; university students with an extensive language learning background can also perceive considerable levels of language anxiety (ortega -cebreros, 2003). there are apparent reasons on the part of language students to experience anxiety. language learners have the dual task, not only of learning a second language but also performing in it (foss & reilzel, 1991); as a result, language anxiety is more likely to occur in foreign language lessons than in lessons in the other subjects of the curriculum (ortega-cebreros, 2003). this course of event seems natural since in addition to all the usual concerns about oral communication, the foreign language class requires students to communicate via a medium in which only limited facility is possessed (horwitz et al., 1991). these additional feelings of incompetence about grasping the language in the first place and about the inability to present oneself in a way consistent with one's self-image would induce anxiety (foss & feilzel, 1991). thus, the uniqueness of foreign language anxiety in comparison with other academic anxieties lies on the interactive nature of language classrooms and the continual request on learners to communicate (ortega-cebreros, 2003). furthermore, students are requested to communicate by means of an instrument with which they are not adequately familiar. for most students delivering a speech in front of others is likely to induce some degree of anxiety. a milder degree of anxiety might be functional but if the level of anxiety interferes with the person’s normal functioning, it affects the process of communication in a serious way. the language learning field also classifies anxiety as trait, situation-specific and state anxiety. trait anxiety refers to a stable predisposition to become nervous in a wide range of situations and there is always a probability of being anxious in any situation (macintyre, 1999; young, 1991). young (1999) kept saying that people with high levels of trait anxiety are generally nervous people; they lack emotional stability. in other words, trait anxiety is a feature of an individual’s personality. here, anxiety is more than an occasional experience. it is part of the individual’s psychological makeup and such people are anxious and they worry about little things. this type of anxiety is viewed at the deepest or global level because anxiety is experienced as a permanent trait as some people are predisposed to be anxious (brown, 1994). regardless of the situation people are in, there are some who often experience anxiety. anxiety in this case is the unique personality of those individuals. in general, such people are prone to experience anxiety. language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 20 at a more local or situational level, anxiety can be experienced in response to a particular situation or act (brown, 1994). anxiety caused by language learning is a specific anxiety rather than a trait anxiety. on the other hand, situation-specific anxiety which is stable over time but not necessarily consistent across situations applies to a single context or situation (macintyre, 1999). math anxiety, test anxiety, language anxiety, stage fright are examples mentioned under situation-specific anxiety. under such type, anxiety is transient and it becomes temporary; it comes and goes. state anxiety, on the other hand, refers to the moment-to-moment experience of anxiety; it is the transient emotional state of feeling nervous that can fluctuate over time and vary intensity (macintyre, 1999). macintyre further noted that applied to language learning, we can see that person with a high level of language anxiety will experience state anxiety frequently. in terms of occurrence, state anxiety is the first phase of situation-specific anxiety. that is, situation specific anxiety comes to exist after state anxiety laid its own foundation. in relation to this, macintyre (1999) indicated that if a student becomes anxious in learning grammar, comprehension and speaking in the earlier stages of language learning, or if he /she feels uncomfortable making mistakes, the state anxiety occurs. after experiencing repeated occurrence of state anxiety, the student comes to associate anxiety arousal with the second/ foreign language and when this happens, the student expects to be anxious in second language contexts (ibid). in other words, language anxiety is conceptualized by many language anxiety researchers (kondo & ying-ling, 2004) as a situation-specific personality trait. unlike generalized anxiety disorder, language anxiety is not a free-floating anxiety in which a person cannot relate the feelings of anxiety to one specific thing. comparison between state and traits anxiety revealed that it is state anxiety that influences the language learning process (ellis, 1994; feigenbaum, 2007). this specific anxiety, which has been responsible for students' uncomfortable experiences in language classes, was proposed (by horwitz, horwitz & cope, 1986) to be called foreign language anxiety (horwitz, 2001). according to horwitz, horwitz and cope (1986), this anxiety stems from the inherent inauthenticity associated with immature second/foreign language communicative ability (horwitz, 2001). anxiety is a common experience for the majority of the students. it is more of a natural reaction to a novel situation. however, anxious students are said to differ from others due to the excessive and intense fear of every classroom interaction, actions bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 21 and being worried about every classroom event. their serious emotional disturbance violates the accepted expectations of classroom interaction. to sum, from a theoretical perspective, language anxiety is a form of situation-specific anxiety (macintyre, 1999) existing in foreign language classes. it is the peculiar features of the language classes and it is different from the other forms of anxiety such as trait anxiety, audience anxiety, communication apprehension, interpersonal anxiety, novelty anxiety and math anxiety. for example, a person who experienced a considerable amount of language anxiety might not feel at all nervous about learning math. language anxiety, thus, is a situation-specific form of anxiety that does not appear to bear a strong relation to other forms of anxiety. in other words, language anxiety is caused by situational factors, implying that it is the learning environment that triggers anxiety on students. learning environment includes the teacher, students and the material to be learnt and the activities given. for finch (2001) learning environment is all personal histories, values, assumptions, beliefs, rights, duties, obligations and learning styles, fostered by a climate of cooperative social interaction that would be considered as aspects of learning environment. for finch, learning environment embodies not only the social aspect of the learning but also the psychological components since assumptions, values, and beliefs are more of psychological constructs. within the domain of language learning, many studies have investigated the effect of the learning environment. finch (2001), for example, stated that creative production is possible only in a non-threatening environment which encourages meaningful learning and the creative use of english. gebeyehu (2005) stated that a relaxed classroom atmosphere is significant in reducing anxiety. an understanding of the ways in which aspects of the environment affect learning is particularly important for language teachers and learners (williams & burden, 1997). it is obvious that a low-stress language learning environment must be an important aspect of the teaching process. conducive learning environment has enormous potential to improve the success of language acquisition. when students encounter a new learning environment, they need to cope with new interpersonal relationship. building new relationship with roommates and teachers may threaten one’s affective factors if the environment is not modified as per the needs of the students. due to this, teachers are supposed to create a non-threatening learning environment. language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 22 statement of the problem the universities in ethiopia, as elsewhere, enroll students from different backgrounds with different needs, beliefs, expectations, desires, wants, learning styles and personality types. interactions among these multiple agenda affect the teaching learning process. in the process of adjustment, students are trying to form harmonious relationship between their individual needs and the new environment in which they belong. many students enter higher education with only vague ideas about specific aspects of the experience which lies ahead (james, 2001). one-third of first year school-leavers in australia believe that they were not ready to choose a university course during their final year of school (james & hartly, 2000 cited in james, 2001). similarly, james (2001) citing yorke (1999, 2000) identified ‘wrong choice of programme’ as the first among seven key factors in undergraduate non-completion in the united kingdom. in the usa, wiese (1994) cited in james (2001) has described the cognitive dissonance that occurs for first year students of this kind when experiences contradict built-up expectations. in the ethiopian context, too, yalew’s (2003) findings portrayed that the rates of attrition were high in the first year of university education and declined considerably thereafter. the consequences of this situation are highly speculative, but it is possible that universities are missing the opportunities to ‘capture’ student engagement during the early formative weeks (james, 2001). this implied that students entering higher learning institutions have had various psychological and social problems that could limit the development of their potential. these students, first year ethiopian university students, exhibited low performance in language classes (bekalu, 2006; mekonnen, 1998; solomon, 2001). the causes for their poor performance could be multi-dimensional, though, researchers explained the reasons in terms of insufficient coverage of communicative skills in the courses (mekonnen, 1998; solomon, 2001), new education system (seleshi, 2001; seyoum, 1996). understanding these problems of the students is less of an option and more of a necessity. as a result, investigating the students’ psychological conditions is found to be important. because learning may not become a priority when there are other immediate psychological concerns. thus, this study examines one of the psychological factors-anxiety in the foreign language classes. in addition to this, it tries to determine the effects of anxiety on students’ performance. having said this, this study tries to answer the following research questions: bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 23 1. what is the level of anxiety that freshman students experience in foreign language classes? 2. is there performance difference between students who have different levels of anxiety? method participants and procedures the target population for this study was first year students in the department of foreign languages and literature (students majoring in foreign languages and literature), at addis ababa university (aau) in 2016. according to the survey made by the researcher, there were three hundred first year students majoring in foreign languages and literature at aau. in the first semester of the year, students took six courses: communicative english i, reading skills, fundamentals of literature, introduction to language and literature, logic, and civic and ethical education. from these, language courses were identified since it was assumed that language courses were those that trigger anxiety in students. these courses required students to speak and listen with a reasonable degree of fluency and accuracy, write well developed paragraphs, read various materials and make their own notes, apply different skills and strategies in their speech and writing. as it was observed from the course outline, instructors are supposed to use gapped-lecture, pair and group work, role playing, presentation, individual work and whole class discussion. these activities, which are basic features of language classes, might cause anxiety; hence, this study was conducted considering the language courses the students took. the target population was surveyed in the first semester of the year after three months classroom instruction. it was believed that students who were exposed to three months of contact can offer meaningful commentary about their language learning experience (campbell, 1999). campbell (1999), on the other hand, considering fourteen days of classroom instruction (two weeks after classes began) sufficient, conducted his survey to gather meaningful experience about the nature of students’ language learning. this study was conducted in a similar vein. a volunteer sample of aau freshman students was solicited to participate in the study. freshman students in the department of foreign languages and literature were classified into nine groups or classes. of all the classes, eight groups or classes were considered for the questionnaire survey. one group was intentionally excluded from the study because it was taught by the language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 24 researcher. those students who were willing to fill in the questionnaire were chosen. three hundred copies of the questionnaires were distributed to the students while students were in the classroom. in the process, an attempt was made to make students give their responses without consulting with their friends. in administering the quantitative tools, throughout the procedure, students were allowed to ask for clarifications on any issue they did not fully understand. students were asked to write their id numbers while they filled out the questionnaire. out of three hundred students, eighty-two students volunteered their id numbers. the cgpa of these eight two students was obtained from the office of the registrar and the analysis was made. it was only the cumulative gpa of the students in language courses which were considered during the analysis. instruments anxiety is usually measured in one of three ways: by behavioral tests, where the actions of a subject are observed; by the subject’s self-report of internal feelings and reactions, or by physiological tests that measure heart rate, blood pressure etc. the second method was the most common used in measuring anxiety-self-reports (daly, 1991; scovel, 1991). consequently, the level of language anxiety university students experience was measured by foreign language classroom anxiety scale (flcas) instrument, which measures the degree to which an individual feels anxious in language classes. this instrument has been used in many studies of anxiety in foreign language learning and found to be a highly reliable and valid measure (aida, 1994; sparks & ganschow, 1999; maclntyre & gardner, 1999; price, 1991). the instrument was used to assess the level of anxiety students experience and to determine whether the level of anxiety has an effect on their achievement. each item contains five-point likert-format choices in which, 5=strongly agree, 4=agree, 3=neutral, 2= disagree, 1=strongly disagree. of all the thirteen-three items, ten items were positively worded and the remaining items are negatively worded. all positively wo rded items were reversed before the analysis. thus, in all items high scores represent high levels of anxiety. based on the answers in the anxiety measure questionnaire, students were classified into three anxiety groups: low, medium and high. bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 25 for their academic performance, the first semester of 2016 cgpa was used. the students’ cgpa was secured from the office of the registrar. thus, each student’s numeric grade of anxiety level was evaluated against the cgpa of the first semester. the results of the study were tabulated and analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistical values. the descriptive statistics was used to classify and summarize numerical data using mean, minimum, maximum, percentage and the like. in short, the descriptive data analysis was used as a gate valve for the inferential statistics. the inferential statistics was made in terms of one-way anova. one-way anova indicated the degree of the effect that the independent variable (anxiety) has on achievement. furthermore, inferential statistics was computed to determine whether or not the results that were obtained in the sample were powerful enough to generalize to the whole population. this was made because the descriptive statistics did not allow drawing any general conclusion that would go beyond the sample. thus, to venture any generalization concerning the wider population and not just the particular sample, the researcher conducted one-way anova. for multiple comparisons among means of the levels of the independent variable (anxiety), tukey test or honestly significant difference (hsd) test was used. results of the study table i: descriptive statistics about the levels of anxiety anxiety level n min. max mean st.d. percent low 20 71 95 84.0 7.5 24.4 medium 41 96 112 103.0 4.6 50.0 high 21 113 147 123.0 10.8 25.6 the possible scores on the foreign language classroom anxiety scale range from 33 to 165. in the present study, as per the data above, scores ranged from 71 to 147. this implies that the majority of the participants seemed to be anxious. in addition to this, a point worthy of noting in this table is the degree of dispersion. the standard deviation for the third group (high anxiety score) is 10.8 which is the largest standard deviation from the group. this indicates that students’ score on anxiety is spread out. on the other hand, although half of the target population is under the language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 26 second group (medium), the scores tend to cluster, and the degree of dispersion appears to be homogeneous. the means of the levels of anxiety were 84.0, 103.0 and 123.0. to see whether there is significant variation among these means, analysis of variance was made (see table ii). table ii: analysis of variance showing performance difference of students who have various degree of anxiety source of variation ss df ms f p between groups 10.489 2 5.244 23.607 .000 within groups 17.550 79 .222 the table above shows the overall difference among the groups. this indicates that there is statistically significant difference between the comparison groups, implying that cgpa scores differ among groups over high, medium and low categories (f= 23.607, p<0.05). in addition to this, it is necessary to test each of the level of anxiety to know the relative contribution of each level to the achievement score. for this, the table below is prepared. table iii: anova table for multiple comparisons among the levels of the independent variable (anxiety) on achievement anxiety level mean difference std. error sig. 1 .68946* .12855 .000 2 .97562* .14726 .000 3 3 .28616 .12648 .067 note: 1=low anxiety score 3=high anxiety score 2= medium anxiety score from the table above, the mean difference between low and medium anxiety scores is 0.68946 and this difference was found to be statistically significant at 0.05 level. in the same manner, the mean difference between low and high anxiety scores is 0.97562 and this difference was also found to be statistically significant at 0.05 level. however, there is no statistically significant difference between medium anxiety score and high anxiety score. bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 27 discussion a significant percentage of research in learning to date has focused on the cognitive domain and its role, missing the role of the affective factors. in this regard, young (1999) stated that the emotional part of learning was virtually ignored for so long. latterly though, research in the area of affect has begun to emerge. it has become clear that affect is a key stone of teaching. teaching is not only a cognitive-based unitary faculty; rather it encompasses affective factors. owing to this, affect is becoming known and it sails researchers deep into its effects. as a result, emotion in general and anxiety in particular have emerged as a legitimate area of research. a lack of sensitivity by teachers to students’ emotional demand creates conditions for the growth of student anxiety. in the present study, it was found that freshman language students were anxious. many of the students endorsed statement like: i never feel quite sure of myself when i am speaking in my foreign language class. (45.9%) i tremble when i know that i am going to be called on in language class. (32.6%) it frightens me when i do not understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language class. (46.6%) it would bother me to take more foreign language class. (52.6%) these sample statements showed that a significant number of students were found to be anxious. in view of the above, it seems safe to say that freshman foreign language students became anxious in foreign language classes. this finding was consistent with the results of other studies done in the area (abate, 1996; gebeyehu, 2005; leki, 1999; phillips, 1999; young, 1999). the effect of anxiety is highly marked in the foreign language classes. in language classes, students have dual tasks, grasping a language item and practicing it. practicing the language item in front of the classroom invites emotional instability. the problem is more pronounced because of the inadequate language skills students have been equipped with. regarding the background of the students, researchers (bekele, 2007; berhanu, 2000; tamene, 2000) noted that students have had poor academic background when joining higher learning institutions. this poor academic background compounded by anxiety drag the performance of the students out the right direction. language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 28 while there is less basic agreement about the relationship between anxiety and achievement at a general level, the results of the present study, nonetheless, support the premise that anxiety brings effects on the academic achievement of the students. that is, students with high language anxiety obtain significantly low grades in foreign language classes. here, anxiety contributes to performance. a growing body of research indicates this fact. for example, gardner et al.,(1976) cited in macintyre (1995) found out that as the grade level increased from grade seven to grade eleven, language anxiety became a better predictor of achievement in second language course. this happens because when individuals move from childhood to adolescence or to adulthood, they start forming their own individual identity and becomes sensitive not to be mocked or ridiculed while making mistakes. contrary to this, sparks and ganschow (1999) have relegated language anxiety to the status of an unfortunate side effect and those students’ overall language skills are rather likely to affect their levels of anxiety about language learning. for them, language anxiety results from failure and does not cause it. sparks and ganschow underestimate the role of anxiety on achievement; they move a further length to argue that failure does not relate to emotional elements. this assertion seems to be far from a stock of similar findings, asserting that the role of emotion on performance is beyond debate. macintyre (1995) contradicts this claim and stated that language anxiety is a cause of problems in language learning rather than a consequence. for macintyre, when anxiety is high, cognitive performance is diminished because of the divided attention and therefore performance suffers. young (1999), on his part, noted that cognitive processing is short-circuited by emotions, which trigger a complete synchronization of the brain’s resources. that is, when a person becomes anxious, the full capacity of the individual’s mental resources could not be utilized. only leftover cognitive resources are being used. while apprehensive, self-sabotaging thoughts intrude on the minds of the learners and affect the movement of information. that is, the transformation of information from short term to long term memory and vice versa could be hampered by anxiety. considering the above, the present researcher takes a compromise position and claims that anxiety is both, a cause and a consequence. a more extensive follow-up study (bekalu, 2010) found out that anxiety is caused by poor academic background. that is, students who are poor in basic linguistic skills are likely to experience anxiety in foreign language classes. thus, in this case, anxiety becomes a consequence. in the present study, it was found out that anxiety bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 29 impairs performance, being a cause. thus, it is possible to draw conclusion that anxiety is both a cause and a consequence. furthermore, in the area of affective factors, researchers also claimed that anxiety has relationship with academic achievement (abate, 1996; campbell, 1999; gebeyehu, 2005; macintyre & gardner, 1991; young, 1991). in addition to this, anxiety increases the likelihood for disengagement. students with high language anxiety tend to avoid practicing language skills. this is because highly anxious students appear to use avoidance of tasks as one of the coping strategies; they are not willing to communicate. this strategy retards the development of language acquisition because absence of practice influences skill development. in line with this, young (1991) stated that anxiety may affect the quality of an individual’s communication or willingness to communicate. to make the discussion clear, let us see the following lucid description of the graph, showing the relationship between anxiety and achievement. the interaction between the effects of anxiety and achievement is in a form of a curvilinear relationship. fig.1 the relationship between anxiety and achievement the graph above generates two sets of findings. the first discussion rests on the positive effect of anxiety. when anxiety is less, performance goes up. here, anxiety is a motivational tool and it tends to facilitate the process of learning. a certain amount of anxiety provides the optimal language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 30 conditions for highest academic performance and it makes students appear to be more emotionally competent. better emotional understanding cultivates cognitive resources; as a result, performance increases. the second point of discussion suggested from the graph refers to the negative effect of anxiety. as observed from the graph, when the level of anxiety increases, performance decreases; in this case, anxiety adversely affects academic performance because the full extent of an individual’s capacity cannot be employed. macintyre and gardner (1991) noted that the subjects with high anxiety would perform poorly on all three tasks-oral, written and recall. the model to be suggested is that foreign language anxiety causes poor performance in the foreign language that produces elevations in state anxiety. similarly, campbell (1999) noted that all researchers in the area of anxiety agree that the nature of anxiety in question is debilitating, not facilitating; that is, it impedes rather than enhances learning. in general, the activities in the foreign language class that create an atmosphere of panic, fear, anger, and unpleasant feelings which are psychologically and physiologically associated with anxiety can impede language acquisition (koch & terrell, 1991). it was indicated that not all levels of anxiety are negative influencer of achievement. anxiety seems to have little negative effect and may actually improve performance when the given task is relatively simple. however, anxiety will begin to have a negative effect as demands exceed ability (macintyre, 1995). in view of the above, it is possible to say that anxiety casts two-dimensional effects on the performance of students. based on the findings cited above, excessive anxiety in the foreign language classroom could frequently show up. thus, reducing the amount of anxiety to the minimum level is found to be important. evidence (bekalu, 2010) demonstrates that the learning environment is a potential source in which language anxiety could develop. bekalu’s findings imply that the classroom environment highly influences students’ emotional status. that is, the degree of anxiety that students experience could be caused by the learning environment in which students are in. this implies that non-threatening learning environment in language classes is unarguably essential. abate (1996) also noted that learners learn better in a supportive and non-threatening situation. worde (2003) stressed that having a relaxed classroom environment is important in reducing anxiety. in a similar study, horwitz (2001) stated that it might be possible to keep bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 31 anxiety levels to a minimum with a supportive and constructive classroom environment. thus, anxiety decreases when instructors create a warm social environment (young, 1999). students who have supportive learning environment do not feel lonely and they seem to display low anxiety. students profit a lot from pleasant learning environment. in a pleasant learning environment, students tend to display better emotional stability. this leads students to giant steps forward in exercising proper thoughts. this happens because emotionally supportive environment is influencer of cognitive processing. this is true since the process of knowledge acquisition or skill development is embedded in the social and emotional context in which learning takes place. stating the importance of the learning contexts, the cognitive psychologist, robert sternberg (1984) cited in williams & burden (1997) argued that we cannot judge the intellectual quality of any behavioral act outside of the context in which it occurs. sharing the experience of the hungarian context, dornyei (2005) underlined that the importance of the classroom climate as a motivational tool was rank ordered second (after the teacher’s own behavior) amongst all the motivational dimensions. driscoll (2005) on his part stated that one of the important characteristics distinguishing vygotsky’s theory from the theories of other developmentalists is his premise that ‘individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social milieu in which the individual is embedded’. for vygotsky, the social factor is felt to be an important factor in educational achievement. the cognitive faculty and the psychological strength or stability of learners are determined by the specific social factor in which they belong. that is why vygotsky’s theore tical framework claims that higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes (driscoll, 2005). key among the issues involved in the learning environment is the quality of interpersonal relation skills students form with teachers. negative student-teacher interaction is one of those factors that would tend to interfere with the success of learning by eliciting anxiety. thus, teachers are expected to cultivate the psychological security and feeling of belonging by developing a stress-free environment, by helping students relax, by creating healthy teacherstudent interpersonal behavior, and by promoting self-confidence of students. language anxiety and achievement among first year students of addis ababa university (aau), ethiopia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 32 conclusion and recommendation this study attempts to see the level of language anxiety that freshman students experience. it is also the second objective of this study to look into the effects of anxiety on students’ performance. the findings of the study indicate that the independent variable (anxiety) brings effect on the performance of the students. anxiety and achievement have a form of a curvilinear relationship. optimal level of anxiety facilitates achievement. but excessive anxiety impedes the performance of students. excessive anxiety could alienate students from the teaching-learning process. as good feeling adds color to students’ classroom behavior, bad feeling makes students disinterested. that is, in addition to the effects that anxiety brings on cognition, anxiety could let students be disengaged from doing classroom tasks. in this regard, students show little investment in their academic task. teaching requires interaction and the quality of interaction inevitably embraces more or less or low and excessive anxiety. the nature of interaction should invite less anxiety that motivates students’ capacity to learn. consequently, lessening of anxiety should be a point of teachers’ agenda. students could slide easily into anxiety due to negative teacher-student interaction, methods of teaching, and the nature of the task given to students to do or due to the newness of the learning environment. thus, teachers should be more sensitive to conditions that promote feelings of secure. when students are together, they feel more secure. in a collaborative relationship, anxiety is prone to decrease. furthermore, a conducive learning environment is important for successful learning to take place. this implied that learning environment in which learners try to fit into should be non-threatening. the classroom atmosphere must be an atmosphere of acceptance and mutual respect. in view of the above points, it is imperative that language teachers develop an awareness of the effects of language anxiety. the study sums up its investigation by suggesting further studies on the area including other institutional and other causal factors which could also be responsible for creating the non-threatening learning environment bekau atnafu taye ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 17-37 33 references abate kassahun (1996). english language classroom anxiety on classroom tasks and in tests: a study of some ethiopian civil service college first year students. unpublished ma thesis, addis ababa university, addis ababa, ethiopia. aida, y. 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(2003). students' perspectives on foreign language anxiety. virginian community college system. retrieved from http://www.vccaedu.org/inquiry/inquiry-spring2003/i81worde.html. yalew endawoke (2003). causes of student attrition in bahir dar university: qualitative and quantitative analysis. the ethiopian journal of education, 13(1), 31-66. young, d. (1991). the relationship between anxiety and foreign language oral proficiency rating. in horwitz, e.k. & young, d.c. (eds.), language anxiety from theory and research to classroom implication (pp.57-64). new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. young, d. (1999). affect in foreign language and second language learning: a practical guide to creating a low anxiety classroom atmosphere. boston: mc graw-hill http://www.vccaedu.org/inquiry/inquiry-spring2003/i81-worde.html http://www.vccaedu.org/inquiry/inquiry-spring2003/i81-worde.html ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu department of science education, university of agriculture, makurdi, nigeria. abstract this study investigated the relationship between the science curiosity levels of undergraduate of mathematics education in a nigerian higher educational institution and their academic grade point averages. the study employed a correlational survey research design on a random sample of 104 mathematics education students. the science curiosity scale – comparative self report was adapted to measure the students’ distinctive appetite for consuming science-related media for personal edification. the correlational analysis of science curiosity scores and the students cgpa indicated a weak negative relationship (r = -0.049, p = 0.621), suggesting an interplay of other important factors in the relationship between academic performance and science curiosity. based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that key stakeholders of mathematics education consider curiosity as a complex ability related to several functions of the mind and that it enhances systematic commitment on the part of the learner, providing enormous foundational benefits that could be reaped in the process of educating students. keywords: science curiosity, academic performance, nigerian higher education, mathematics education introduction higher education in nigeria is that stage in the education of the child at which the child becomes a stakeholder in his/her own learning experience. it is at the entry point to colleges of education, polytechnics and universities that students truly feel free from the influence and control of parents, perceived impositions by school teachers, the daily drab of the school african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 1 2018 pp. 36-52 science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 37 uniforms and every form of corporal punishment. but with this liberty comes the responsibility and the need to blend lifestyle with learning and moderate all other factors towards a befitting academic performance. academic achievement represents performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals in instructional environments such as school, college and university (steinmayr, meibner, weidinger & wirthwein, 2015). williams (n.d.) maintains that academic performance is reflected not only in a person’s grades at school but also manifested in the individual’s intelligence, participation in extracurricular activities, initiative in leadership and sustainable skills. evidently, academic performance entails the overall well-being of an individual with respect to prescribed tasks. these views of academic performance suggest a wide range of factors, qualities and indicators, to be responsible. williams (n.d.) argues that the ability to master diverse set of skills illustrates intelligence, curiosity and persistence, qualities attractive to universities and employers. von stumm, hell and chamorro-premuzic (2011) reported that much psychological research has focused on identifying predictors of academic performance, with intelligence and effort emerging as core determinants. however, in tandem with williams (n.d.), the work of von stumm et al. (2011) clarified that typical intellectual engagement as a marker of intellectual curiosity is a direct, correlated predictor of academic performance. basically, curiosity is a passion for learning. borowske (2005) affirms that curiosity is associated with scientific discovery, idle gossip, exploration, puzzles and even mysteries. curiosity is widely valued as a desirable attribute of a fully developed person and is commonly depicted as an early feature of young children’s orientation towards the world (jirout & klahr, 2012). aside being a principal component of motivation in learning, curiosity has been connected to memory enhancement in older adults (mcgillivray, murayama & castel, 2015). despite early setbacks and disagreements in establishing a firm footing for curiosity as a psychological construct, the fact of its indispensability is undeniable. it is easy to see curiosity at play in the early life of children but as they grow older this tendency to try out tempting impulses becomes lumped together with other range of easily identifiable and measurable traits such as attitude, interest, motivation and other drives. in recent times, accumulating researches on curiosity are beginning to pay off as scholars could now sift through the existential psychological soup to single out curiosity as distinctive measure. one of these ground-breaking benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 38 efforts is attributable to kahan, landrum, carpenter, helft and jamieson (2017), who viewed science curiosity as important individual difference in cognitive style that interacts distinctively with the way people process information. considering the current era of rapid change occasioned by technological innovations, the onus is on the student, particularly at the higher education level, to drive more personalized learning. as with other areas of education, science and mathematics have suffered from rapidly-changing political expectations and reforms (the royal society, 2010). the mathematics education student, specifically, may not entirely find himself in a cordial and supportive learning environment, and may have to look inward for ways of attaining enviable academic performance. in the midst of a thousand and one reasons to derail, intrinsic motivation cultivated via sustained science curiosity may be a beacon of hope for the mathematics education student in nigeria. in a bid to redirect thought patterns from very obvious causes and effects in mathematics education at nigerian higher educational institutions, this study was designed to focus on curiosity, a latent human trait known to bridge barriers to success. how have mathematics education students in nigerian universities been able to stir and manage their general curiosity in the course of their academic programmes? more importantly, what does their academic performance say about their level of science curiosity? how significant is this relationship, if it exists? and if the relationship exists, does it vary according to gender? these concerns form the major thrust of this investigation into science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education in nigeria. perspectives of literature on curiosity the journey to understand the nature of curiosity is a long and contemplative one. this is because curiosity overlaps with other psychological constructs such as behavioural activation system, positive effect, and sensation seeking. in presenting theory and research that distinguish curiosity from related constructs, kashdan, rose and fincham (2004) defined curiosity as a positive emotional-motivational system associated with the recognition, pursuit and self-regulation of novel and challenging opportunities. most studies of curiosity consider four main theories about its nature. the first is the drive theory propounded by early curiosity scholar daniel berlyne, between 1954 and 1978. this perspective considers curiosity as biological in nature, and existing as a human drive, science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 39 much like hunger or thirst, which is satisfied by the acquisition of knowledge (rowson, young, spencer, lindley & gecius, 2012). thus, curiosity is seen as a basic instinct, an innate mechanism that enabled intelligent species to learn about and master new things in their environments, promoting survival, use of tools and ultimately technological advances (arnone, small, chauncy & mckenna, 2011). curiosity prompts proactive, intentional behaviours in response to stimuli and activity with properties such as novelty, complexity, uncertainty and conflict (kashdan et al., 2004). the second main perspective of curiosity is that provided by conglomerating the works of hebb, piaget and hunt. this view, which is more cognitive in nature, observes that curiosity is evoked by incongruity between something, an event or object, and a person’s existing world view (rowson et al., 2012). piaget, in particular, viewed curiosity as part of the process of assimilation, an outcome of cognitive disequilibrium. to piaget, children are curious from birth, with developing cognitive schemas leading to new opportunities for surprising experiences that are discrepant from what a child believes (jirout & klahr, 2012). the incongruity theory of curiosity identified the possibility of two extreme violations of existing expectations. minor violations of normality are considered too trivial to excite curiosity in the individual, while enormous violations are often difficult for the individual to process resulting in the incongruity being ignored entirely or curiosity being over powered by fear. george loewenstein’s information gap theory of curiosity tends to gain more traction than the two previous viewpoints. this third model, which consolidates on the gains of the incongruity theory, frames curiosity as the desire to close an information gap between a given reference point (some desired knowledge) and a person’s existing information set (rowson et al., 2012). loewenstein (1994) posited that curiosity increases the likelihood that the information or experience being sought will close the information gap. this perspective of curiosity provides the framework for the design of engaging instructional strategies for educational purposes. psychologically, engaged learners are intrinsically motivated by curiosity, interest and enjoyment and are likely to want to achieve their own intellectual or personal goals (jablon & wilkinson, 2006). litman (2005) observed that loewenstein’s unique emphasis on the magnitude of knowledge gaps as stimulators of curiosity provides a valuable and meaningful reconceptualization of novelty, complexity and ambiguity in terms of cognitive perceptual processes, such as stimulus identification and meta-memory. benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 40 the fourth perspective of curiosity is the most recent and novel view point available in reported literature. rowson et al. (2012) attributed tactile curiosity to the works of richard sennett, and matthew crawford. according to the theory of tactile curiosity, curiosity arise from physical engagement with things that are believed might change. the focal point of this approach to curiosity is that working with one’s hand can take a person beyond some of the ways the mind can limit their curiosity. the perceptual world is not comprised merely of objects that are passively imbedded, but of affordances that lead one to think and act in certain ways depending on what they mean to them. the idea here is that by thinking with the hands, quite complex suppositions can spring into life and go into quick execution. for the student, this may entail an effort to draft out curious conjectures with the sole aim of pursuing more enriched learning experience. curiosity, therefore, is a complex ability, related to several functions of the mind (perlovsky, bonnoit-cabanac & cabanac, 2010). curiosity dictates the deployment of scarce resources in the quest for answers. the cycle of events leading to activities mastery often starts with curiosity, irrespective of the individual’s level of education. science curiosity, being an appetite to seek out and consume information in science related media for personal pleasure has been theorized to impact numeracy, cognitive reflection, science comprehension, and like measures of reasoning proficiency (kahan et al. 2017). this effect is produced by the recruitment of conscious, effortful information processing to protect the interest that the individuals have in forming beliefs that affirm their identities in chosen fields and disciplines. these identities, particularly within mathematics education, are adjudged indispensable to building strong positive mentality and confidence among mathematics education students, leading to students feeling good, thinking hard and actively participating in their own mathematics learning (iji, abah & anyor, 2017). the connection to academic performance generally, most perspectives of curiosity hold that in order for curiosity to be present, the student must already possess some form of knowledge. identification of manageable knowledge gaps that complement the natural curiosity in a learner, combined with explicit connections to the learner’s value system, will often generate tension-to-learn in the learner, (burns & gentry as cited in borowske, 2005). as such, the engaged learner demonstrates behaviours of concentration, investment, enthusiasm and effort (jablon & wilkinson, 2006). this display of systematic commitment on the part of the learner is a source of science science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 41 curiosity, a vital ingredient of academic performance, particularly for the mathematics education student. the earliest mention of science curiosity dates back to the phenomenal works of williams james who in 1890 published the principles of psychology. borowske (2005) reported that james described a scientific curiosity in which the brain responds to an inconsistency or a gap in its knowledge, just as the musical brain responds to a discord in what it hears. science curiosity has been defined as the heterogeneous disposition to seek out and consume scientific information for personal pleasure (kahan et al., 2017). science curiosity could be aroused when individuals feels as though they are deprived of information, and wish to reduce or eliminate their ignorance, as well as when they do not feel particularly deficient of information but would nevertheless enjoy learning something new (litman, 2005). the feeling of deprivation in the learner is expected to build a persistent thirst for more information, even if for nothing but for the enjoyment derivable from such situation and activation of curiosity. for the mathematics education students in nigerian universities, who are perpetually confronted by enormous challenges, sustained curiosity must be cultivated. often instructional techniques, educational facilities and lecture schedules enforce a reasonable level of constraint on the capacity of the education system to deliver on its goals and objectives. in such learning environments, science curiosity should result in the delighted expectation of discovering something rewarding, entertaining or aesthetically pleasing with respect to academic work of mathematics education students. such intrinsic curiosity must have deposited a measure of impact on students’ academic performance. in an empirical study from hong kong higher education, hon-keung, man-shan and lai-fong (2012) observed that students with curiosity showed higher intrinsic motivation towards acquiring knowledge in certain subjects, resulting in improved performance. kaufman (2013) also reported a relationship between openness to experience and creative achievement in a study involving 146 english sixth form students. another study of 308 undergraduate college students affirms a relationship between openness and gpa which was mediated by reflective learning styles, suggesting that being intellectually curious fully enhances academic performance (komarraju, karau, schmeck & audic, 2011). these and several other studies sufficiently link curiosity to academic performance. benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 42 the present study, however, is unique in its specific identification with science curiosity. this was made possible by the most recent light shed on the construct by kahan et al. (2017). this current study also drives home the point that education in science technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) demands essentially similar thought processes which can be aided, to a great extent, by science curiosity. given the context of the unimaginable information processing power of the present technological era, this study assumes mathematics education students’ openness to explore both conventional and social media in fostering their own learning. the study seeks to ascertain the relationship between the science curiosity levels of undergraduates of mathematics education in a nigerian higher educational institution and their academic grade point averages (gpa). the study further seeks to determine how strong the relationship is, if it exists. research questions the following questions were raised to guide this study: i. what is the relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among mathematics education students? ii. how is this relationship affected by gender? research hypotheses the following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance i. there is no significant relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among mathematics education students. ii. there is no significant difference between the science curiosity levels of male and female mathematics education students. methodology the study employed a correlation survey research design. the target population is 437 mathematics education students enrolled into the three mathematics education programme options (b. sc (ed) mathematics and computer science, b. sc (ed) mathematics and statistics and b. sc (ed) statistics and computer science) of a federal university in the north central region of nigeria. simple random sampling was used to select 104 mathematics education students (84 males and 20 females). science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 43 the instrument for data collection in this study was the science curiosity scale comparative self-report (scs-csr) originally developed and validated for a study by kahan, landrum, carpenter, helft and jamieson (2017). the scs-csr has a cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.80 indicating a high level of internal consistency. the scs-csr measures a distinctive appetite for consuming science-related media for personal edification. to maximize social-desirability bias, the scs-csr camouflaged items relating to science interest by seeding them in large blocks of “personal interest” items relating to sports, finance, politics, popular entertainment and other issues (kahan et al. 2017). for this particular study, the respondents were told the instrument was for a general survey, thereby masking the true intention of the questionnaires. this deployment of the science curiosity scale was carefully handled to take care of the special needs of a nigerian respondent, as such, items such as the leisure activity of “attending a gun show” was replaced with “visiting a tech hub”. also, to reflect the interconnectivity of stem fields as represented in the nomenclature of the mathematics education degree programmes of the subjects in this study, the terms “technology” “engineering” and “mathematics” were added to every specific reference to “science” and “scientific research discoveries”. the selection of the measures of science curiosity on the scs-csr was done with respect to items relating to stem and general education. for instance, in section 2 (leisure activity), items of interest to this research include visiting a science museum, tech hub, zoo or aquarium and public library (outside school). it is also important to emphasize that the university students who were the subjects surveyed for this research have access to these extra-curricular activities that are reflected on the scs-csr instrument. although nigeria has faced some challenges in the provision of these science-based facilities/activities, they are not absent. some zoos and botanical gardens within the study area continue to function, though, they might not be as rich as those in richer countries, and science conferences, talk shows and expositions are constantly been held. global technology penetration reports also indicate high levels of smartphone adoption among nigerian students (world bank, 2016; twinpine network, 2017; nigerian communications commission, 2018). all of this supports the suitability of the social media – based sections of the instrument for a sample of nigerian undergraduates. it is important to note that while the original study by kahan et al. (2017) administered the science curiosity scale online; this deployment is a paper-based administration. scoring of benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 44 likert-style sections conforms to the original scale, but items on number of times a respondent engaged in a leisure activity and checking of book topics were scored 1 for participating (even for just once) and 0 for not participating. in summary, the scs-csr yields a total of 17 items of interest with a highest obtainable score of 44 and a lowest obtainable score of 9. the students used for this study all gave their consent to participate in the survey and freely indicated their registration (identification) number on the questionnaire strictly for the purpose of aiding efficient correlation to their grade point averages (gpa). the gpas were obtained from the most current available examination records at the department hosting the three undergraduate options. pearson product moment correlation coefficient (ppmcc) was computed to answer the research questions. firstly, students’ science curiosity scores were correlated to their grade point averages (gpas) obtained from students’ examination records for second semester of the 2014/2015 academic session to answer the fist research question. secondly, the students were grouped according to gender (male and female) and their science curiosity scores correlated to their gpas. the correlation coefficients from the two groups are then compared. the first hypothesis was tested using paired t-test of significance. the second hypothesis was tested using unpaired t-test. both hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance results and discussion the results of this study are presented with concurrence to the research questions and hypotheses. research question one: what is the relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among mathematics education students? science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 45 table 1: pearson correlation between science curiosity and academic performance variable n correlation coefficient (r) science curiosity 104 -0.049 academic performance 104 the results in table 1 indicate a pearson product moment correlation coefficient of 0.049, implying a weak negative relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among mathematics education students. research question two: how is this relationship affected by gender? table 2: pearson correlation between science curiosity and academic performance of male mathematics education students variable n correlation coefficient (r) science curiosity 84 -0.060 academic performance 84 the result in table 2 indicates a weak negative relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among male mathematics education students. table 3: pearson correlation between science curiosity and academic performance of female mathematics education students variable n correlation coefficient (r) science curiosity 20 -0.002 academic performance 20 benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 46 the result in table 3 indicates a weak negative relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among female mathematics education students. the values for the pearson product moment correlation coefficient displayed in tables 2 and 3 indicate that though there is a weak negative relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among both gender, the relationship is stronger for the male mathematics education students than for the female mathematics education students. this implies that the male gender seems to display a more appreciable connection between science curiosity and academic performance. research hypothesis one: there is no significant relationship between science curiosity and academic performance among mathematics education students. table 4: test of significance of correlation between science curiosity and academic performance variable n correlation coefficient (r) p-value science curiosity 104 -0.049 0.6210 academic performance 104 α = 0.05 the result in table 4 indicates that the p-value of 0.6210 is greater than the significance level of 0.05, implying that the correlation is not significant. glaringly, there is no sufficient evidence from relationship between science curiosity and academic performance observed among the sampled mathematics education students to reject the stated hypothesis. research hypothesis two: there is no significant difference between the science curiosity levels of male and female mathematics education students science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 47 table 5: unpaired t-test of science curiosity scores of male and female mathematics education students gender n mean standard deviation tcalculated t-critical p-value male 84 28.274 6.645 0.257 1.983 0.7976 female 20 28.700 6.729 α = 0.05 the result of the unpaired t-test shown in table 5 indicates that the means are not significantly different considering the p-value of 0.7976 which is greater than the stated level of significance (0.05). this implies that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected based on the available data in this study. all the results emanating from the data analysis in this study are surprisingly unique when viewed along existing trends of similar researches. from table 1, it was established that there is a weak negative relationship between science curiosity and academic performance of mathematics education students from nigerian higher education. this finding is particularly in sharp contrast with komarraju, karaa, schmeck and avdic (2011) who suggested that being intellectually curious fully enhances academic performance. the fact that the observed weak negative relationship was statistically not significant (as shown in table 4) points to the dynamics of the sample of mathematics education students used in this study. thus, it is possible that other important factors which are outside science curiosity could be at play with respect to the academic performance of the students. such underlying factors could be attributed to individual students’ inputs in terms of effort, ability, and personal engagement (cybinsky & forster, 2009), and which could not be differentiated by the instrument of this study. this eventuality may have highlighted the need to reconsider university students’ unique experiences, personal competencies, natural support systems and individual definitions as inherent drivers of overall progress, particularly in higher education (abah, 2017; williams, 2011). this outcome is in line with observations by kahan et al. (2017) that one would expect a science-curiosity measure, if valid, to be modestly correlated with, but definitely not equivalent to, a valid science-comprehension or achievement measure. benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 48 however, the non-significant correlation established between science curiosity and academic achievement in this study may not be so surprising if this finding is considered in the light of the mixed-method study by smith (2010) whose findings showed no significant relationship between curiosity and academic achievements of design students in a studio setting. furthermore, smith (2010) found no significant difference in curiosity levels between male and female design students. in terms of gender, male mathematics education students were found to display stronger relationship between science curiosity and academic performance (tables 2 and 3) than their female counterparts, even though this relationship is in the negative region. however, it was established in table 5 that there is no significant difference between the science curiosity levels of male and female mathematics education students. this disagrees with the cross-cultural study which reported higher levels of curiosity among male israeli college students (ben-zur & zeidner, 1988) and gutten, yaman, deringol and ozsari (2011) who found that female students’ curiosity level was statistically higher than male students. conclusion this study set out to investigate the relationship between science curiosity and academic performance of mathematics education students in nigeria. a key premise of this study is the idea that the cycle of events leading to activity mastery as measured by students’ cumulative grade point averages often start with curiosity, irrespective of the stage of education. the perspectives of literature on curiosity were considered along with reported connections to academic performance. analysis of the data obtained from the study revealed a weak negative correlation of science curiosity to academic performance for the mathematics education students used in this study. this outcome points to the possibility of other concomitant factors acting as principal drivers of academic proficiency in nigerian higher education, making it difficult to make generalization based on science curiosity alone. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are put forward: i. key stakeholders of mathematics education should always underscore the complexity of curiosity in every attempt to properly deploy scarce resources in the quest for all round development of the learner. science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 49 ii. mathematics education students should always strive to make adequate use of modern technology to drive more personalized learning. iii. mathematics education students should eagerly make use of available science facilities such as museums, science fairs, and science-based symposiums/and conferences within and outside their campuses to enrich their overall journey as students. iv. universities and colleges of education should innovate avenues for stirring up students’ science curiosity through provision of exciting science-based extracurricular activities such as science fairs, science-based quiz competitions and educative debates on the processes and products of science. suggestions for further study considering the outcome of this attempt in investigating the linear correlation between science curiosity and academic performance, future studies could expand the scope of the present work to incorporate other related variables. could the technology dependent approach to measuring science curiosity have unveiled existing dispositional inattentiveness among students? these and other prospective perspectives could form the basis of further investigations. references abah, j. a. 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(2005). curiosity and motivation-to-learn. communicacion presentada a la acrl twelfth national conference, 346-350. http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.edu.20170606.13.pdf benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 50 cybinsky, p.j. & forster, j. (2009). student preparedness, effort and academic performance in quantitative business course. in d.t. nguyen (ed.) discussion papers economics. brisbane: griffith business school. pp 1-35 gulten; d.g, y., deringol, y., & ozsari, i. (2011). investigating the relationship between curiosity level and computer self-efficacy beliefs of elementary teachers. turkish online journal of educational technology, 10 (4), 248-254. hon-keung, y., man-shan, k. & lai-fong, c.a. (2012). the impact of curiosity and external redulation on intrinsic motivation: an empirical study in hong kong education. psychology research, 2(5), 295-307. iji, c.o., abah, j.a. & anyor, j.w. (2017). impact of cloud services on students’ attitude towards mathematics education in public universities in benue state, nigeria. international journal of research in education and science (ijres), 3(1), 228-244. a publication of the international society for research in education and science (isres). retrieved on 1st february, 2018 from http://dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/ijres/article/download/5000202010/5000179858 jablon, j.r. & wilkinson, m. (2006). using engagement strategies to facilitate children’s learning and success. beyond the journal – young children on the web, march 2016, 1-5. jirout, j. & klahr, d. (2012). children’s scientific curiosity: in search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. developmental review, 32(2), 125-160. kahan, d.m., landrum, a.r., carpenter, k., helft, l. & jamieson, k.h. (2017). science curiosity and political information processing. advances in political psychology, 38(suppl. 1). doi: 10.1111/pops.12396. retrieved on 1st february, 2018 from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pops.12396/full kashdan, t.b., rose, p. & fincham, f.d. (2004). curiosity and exploration: facilitating positive subjective experiences and personal growth opportunities. journal of personality assessment, 82(3), 291-305. kaufman, s.b. (2013). opening up openness to experience: a four-factor model and relations to creative achievement in the arts and sciences. the journal of creative behaviour, 47(4), 233-235. http://dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/ijres/article/download/5000202010/5000179858 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pops.12396/full science curiosity as a correlate of academic performance in mathematics education: insights from nigerian higher education ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 51 komarraju, m., karau, s.j., schmeck, r.r. & avdic, a. (2011). the big five personality traits, learning styles, and academic achievement. personality and individual difference, 51, 472-477. litman, j.a. (2005). curiosity and the pleasures of learning: wanting and liking new information. cognition and emotion, 19(6), 793-814. loewenstein, g. (1994). the psychology of curiosity: a review and reinterpretation. psychological bulletin, 116(1), 75-98. mcgillivary, s., murayama, k. & castel, a.d. (2015). thirst for knowledge: the effects of curiosity and interest on memory in younger and older adults. psychology and aging, 30(4), 835-841. nigerian communications commission (2018). subscriber statistics. retrieved on 2nd february, 2018 from https://ncc.gov.ng/13-stakeholder-information/statistics-reports perlovsky, l., bonniot-cabanac, m.c. & cabanac, m. (2010). curiosity and pleasure. neurons and cognition, the 2010 international conference on neural networks. doi:10.1109/ijcnn.2010.5596867 rowson, j., young, j., spencer, n., lindley, e. & gecius, e. (2012). the power of curiosity: how linking inquisitiveness to innovation could help to address our energy challenges. london: rsa social brain centre. p 1-37. smith, k.h. (2010). curiosity and pedagogy: a mixed methods study of student experiences in the design studies. ed. d. dissertation submitted at the university of arkansas. pro quest dissertations publishing. pp 1-50. steinmayr, r., meibner, a., weidinger, a.f. & wirthwein, l. (2015). academic achievement. retrieved on 10th september, 2016 http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo9780199756810-0108.xml the royal society (2010). the scientific century: securing our future prosperity. london: the royal society. pp 8-72. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-9780199756810-0108.xml http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-9780199756810-0108.xml benjamin ogbole abakpa, joshua abah abah, and abel okoh agbo-egwu ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 36-52 52 twinpine network (2017). 2016 nigeria mobile trends report. retrieved on 2nd february, 2018 from http://twinpinenetwork.com/report/ von stumm, s., hell, b. & chamorro-premuzic, t. (2011). the hungry mind – intellectual curiosity is the third pillar of academic performance. perspectives on psychological science, 6(6), 574-588. williams, e. (n.d.). what is the meaning of academic performance? retrieved on 10th september, 2016 from http://work.chron.com/meaning-academic-performance17332.html williams, j.m. (2011). home, school, and community factors that contribute to the educational resilence of urban african american high school graduates from low-income, singleparent families. phd (doctor of philosophy) thesis. retrieved on 20th february, 2017 from http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1191 world bank (2016). world development report 2016: digital dividends. washington, dc: world bank. doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0671-1 http://work.chron.com/meaning-academic-performance-17332.html http://work.chron.com/meaning-academic-performance-17332.html http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1191 africa journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 6 no. 1 2017 pages 96-118 language supportive teaching and textbooks (lstt) for bilingual classrooms mathematics teaching and learning in tanzania francis william senior lecturer the university of dodoma, tanzania jesse j. ndabakurane assistant lecturer the university of dodoma, tanzania abstract the aim of this study was to assess the impact on teaching and learning using the lstt (language supportive teaching and textbooks) project’s bilingual mathematics textbook chapters among form one students in selected rural community secondary schools in tanzania. lstt project was introduced in tanzania in 2013 to enhance language supportive teaching among the disadvantaged rural groups identified as less competent in foreign languages. the study employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches in data collection and analysis. it employed a bilingual approach whereby kiswahili was used as a resource in learning mathematical concepts in english language. its major findings indicated that the students’ posttest performance in mathematics was higher in dodoma and lindi regions compared to their pretest performance. the study concluded that having been oriented through lstt textbook, the students were likely to start doing the exercises in the textbook without the facilitator’s or researcher’s support. evidently, most of the students gained confidence and interest in mathematics, having used the user friendly lstt material. keywords: lstt project, bilingual classrooms, mathematics teaching and learning francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 97 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 introduction in tanzania, english was taught in standard five following the opening of middle schools in the1950s. in 1958, it was then taught in the primary schools only from standard iii (allen, 2008). currently, english language is used for teaching in secondary schools, teacher training colleges at diploma level, and polytechnics and colleges of higher education in tanzania (moevt, 2014). while english was taught as a compulsory subject in public primary schools1 (moevt, 2014), in 1995, it became both the subject and language of instruction in english medium primary schools although the government has not been ready to admit this, thus permitting an ambiguous situation (swilla, 2009). swilla’s view is backed up by moevt’s statement that english language was used for teaching in some schools (moevt, 2014). however, the education amendment act of 1995 allowed only two government schools namely olympio and arusha, and other nine private schools to use english as a medium of instruction (rugemalira, 2005). currently, english is being taught as a compulsory subject in public primary schools whereas it is both the subject and language of instruction in all english medium primary schools2 and post-primary education. before joining the post-primary education, some students pass through the public primary schools where the medium of instruction (moi) is kiswahili although english is the only moi at the secondary school level. on the other hand, other students go through english medium primary schools where the teaching is done in english and consequently, they find it easier to cope with the secondary education since they already have exposure to english. the former group is rather forced to learn through the language in which they lack prior practical experience and are thus disadvantaged and denied the right to appropriate knowledge. using english as the sole moi connotes ‘english-only’ as a medium of instruction policy in english classes. the studies have investigated different challenges facing english teaching in secondary schools in tanzania. william (2012), qorro (2006), malekela (2006), and galabawa and senkoro (2006) have investigated different challenges facing english teaching in secondary schools in tanzania. these studies have identified lack of adequate school facilities, lack of effective teaching, and poor learning approaches as limitations to students effectively learning english. lwaitama 1 in tanzanian context, these are primary schools whose medium of instruction is kiswahili. 2these are primary schools which use english as the medium of instruction. in tanzanian context, english medium primary schools are composed of baby, middle, and pre-standard one class es; and standard one to standard seven class es. francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 98 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 and galabawa (2008) observed that both learners and teachers in community-based secondary schools face serious deficiencies in their mastery of english as the moi and subject. english language teaching in secondary schools is also hampered by the high difficulty level english textbooks (qorro, 2006; edqual, 2010; and barret, mtana, osaki and rubagumya (2014). they noted that the difficulty level of the books surpassed the students’ low entry comprehending ability. edqual (2010) recommends that language use in textbooks needs to be at the level that learners understand and demands that textbook design for learners learning through european languages to guarantee the textbooks’ accessibility notably for disadvantaged language learners. overcrowded classes is another challenge facing english learning and teaching in tanzanian schools. in most community based secondary schools, classes have up to 90 students (ndabakurane, 2012). such classes limit the application of communicative approach (ca) as required in the newly introduced 2005 secondary school syllabus. sane (2011) observes that teachers find it hard to use the approach in their extremely overcrowded classes and consequently resort to the lecturing method. according to allen (2008), the teaching of english in tanzania seems to have lost whatever ‘backbone’ it previously had, and standards have been compromised. deciding on what is the appropriate language of instruction in tanzania has been a challenge and has attracted the attention of different stakeholders, particularly professionals and politicians. currently, english teaching in tanzania operates under total immersion, the success of which has been negligible. despite this failure, the readiness to switch from english as a moi to both learners’ native language and english (bilingual teaching) in learning english as a foreign language (efl) and learning using english to improve the quality of education in tanzania is rather low. tibategeza (2010) for instance, observes that kiswahili, a language that both learners and teachers master, is not seen as a useful resource in education but as a problem to be eliminated in the educational settings at post-primary level. even though the government insists on the existence of a working bilingual education policy programme, the current system in tanzania features no more than a ‘pseudo-bilingual education’ policy at best (biswalo, 2010). krashen’s study (1997) shows that when schools provide children with quality education in their primary language, they gain two things: knowledge and literacy. he argues that the knowledge that children get through their first language makes the english they hear and read more comprehensible. the relationship between first and second language suggests that effective francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 99 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 development of the students’ literacy skills in their first language provides a conceptual foundation for long-term growth in english literacy skills (cummins, 2000). although an attempt to use a mother tongue (kiswahili) as a moi in tanzania is not popular and has been discouraged by most of the parents (rubagumya, 2003), it has been successful in the teaching and learning process in zambia (linehan, 2004) and elsewhere. educationists and other advocates in tanzania argue that strategies for quality reform in tanzania and other african countries have ignored the importance of indigenizing the moi at all levels of education (mwinsheikhe, 2003). this failure has rendered various curriculum reforms, especially those targeting secondary level of education unproductive. in assessing the effectiveness of english as a sole moi in tanzania, one needs to brainstorm on the following mini-question. should english lessons allow little use of a mother tongue if it appears to be of great help to students to whom english is an alien language? according to benson (2004), mother tongue-based bilingual education increases access to skills and raises the quality of basic education by facilitating classroom interaction, integration of prior knowledge, and experiences with new learning. moreover, bilingual educational programmes produce solid academic competency at the same time as dual language learning (research & evaluation, 2010). as the learner is educated through his/her own language and later through the global language, the practice of literacy basics is thereby transferred from the second language to the first. there is evidence for the great success of bilingual education in places such as hawaii (hawaiian and english) and in mainland united states of america (spanish and english) (research & evaluation (2010). perspectives on lstt for teaching and learning moving from being a novice to an expert is not about learning from talk but rather learning to talk (daniels, 2001). the learning process is meaningful, engaging, and more participatory when learners are allowed to use the language in which they are richly proficient. if learners are restricted from using a language in which they are proficient, their learning and conceptual learning are constrained to memorizing methods and texts. in language classrooms, the students’ first language is a valuable resource for learning a second language; particularly if they have low levels of proficiency in the language they are learning (clegg & afitska, 2011). it is important for extending vocabulary in the second language and for mastering academic registers. clegg and afitska (2011) point out that specialized pedagogies they examined have been developed within francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 100 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 well-resourced education systems for teaching language through the medium of a second language, and rely on extended specialized teacher training. however, the textbook chapters evaluated in our study were intended for poorly resourced secondary schools and students with low levels of proficiency and very restricted vocabulary in english. the premise of lstt depended on the strategic use of kiswahili to develop conceptual understanding and knowledge of english for academic purposes. a baseline study was conducted in 21 schools in morogoro, lindi, and dodoma in 2013 (barret, mtana, osaki, and rubagumya, 2014). the lstt materials were introduced and used in schools over a period of 8 weeks. written and verbal assessments were administered before and after the introduction of the material. the baseline study consisted of a survey of 420 students who were studied to determine their reading ability and knowledge of specialist mathematics vocabulary. the baseline study also collected information from teachers and students on textbooks availability, use, and preference. focus group discussions were conducted for each of the three focused subjects in eight schools. three textbooks-biology, english, and mathematicsused in form one were reviewed for language accessibility, support for language learning, representation of diverse groups, and socio-cultural relevance. the books reviewed included textbooks designed to accommodate form one needs and selected textbooks written for other country contexts. the findings from the baseline study reflect the following observations: firstly, form one students were not prepared to learn mathematics through english as a sole medium of instruction. secondly, students could not thoroughly identify the meanings of subject specialist vocabulary for mathematics in english. thirdly, the translations of keywords in the designed material appeared to guide the students in making connections between what they learned at primary and secondary schools. fourthly, most of the schools suffered an acute shortage of textbooks. for instance, less than half of schools had a class set of textbooks for mathematics. the baseline research was conducted in tanzania as part of a research project aimed at strengthening innovation and practice in the education of form one students who are transitioning from kiswahili-medium primary education to english-medium secondary education. the study was designed to generate recommendations for the design of biology, english, and mathematics textbook for form one after the textbooks currently in use were found to be difficult. the study involved data collection in 21 schools across dodoma, morogoro, and lindi region sand had three main components: a survey of 420 form one students which was done to francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 101 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 assess their reading ability; the availability of textbooks in schools and teachers’ and students’ use of the textbooks; and a review of biology, english, and mathematics textbooks used in form one. theoretical framework the study adopted bilingualism theory of common underlying proficiency model to illuminate the application of bilingual strategy in teaching and learning mathematics in the actual classroom context. the model was introduced by cummins (1980a) as quoted in (baker, 2006) in the form of two icebergs. ideally, the two icebergs represent two languages and the icebergs are separate above the surface. the two icebergs are fused so that the two languages do not function separately (cummins, 1980a as quoted in baker, 2006). figure 1 indicates the pictorial representation of bilingual proficiency model. figure 1: pictorial representation of common underlying proficiency model source: modified model adopted from cummins (2000) cummins summarizes the model in the following ways: • information processing skills and educational attainment may be developed through two languages as well as one language. the two languages should, however, be equally successfully developed. francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 102 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 • the language used by a child in the classroom needs to be sufficiently well developed to be able to process the cognitive challenges of the classroom. • speaking, listening, reading, and writing in the first or second language help the whole cognitive system to develop. nonetheless, if children are made to operate in an insufficiently developed second language (e.g. in a ‘submersion’ classroom), the system will not function at its best. if children are made to operate in the classroom in a poorly developed second language, the quality and quantity of what they learn from complex curriculum materials and produce in oral and written form may be relatively weak and impoverished. • when one or both languages are not functioning fully (eg. because of pressure to replace the home language with majority language), cognitive functioning and academic performance may be negatively affected. for a language to be used as the medium of instruction, it should be well developed to facilitate knowledge generation. that means, both teachers and learners need to be proficient in the language to interact with each other during the teaching and learning process. however, this is contrary to what transpires in the tanzanian educational system and classroom contexts. in tanzania, the teaching and learning process is done in the environment whereby the teachers and learners lack sufficient english proficiency (oluoch, 2006 and ndabakurane, 2012). a healthy cognitive system is noted for being rich in speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills. if the learners are forced to learn in the language they lack sufficient proficiency, the system will not function to its best and that if the children are made to learn in the poorly developed language, the quality and quantity of what is learnt from the curriculum will obviously be indigent. poor cognitive functioning and performance may be a result of improper functioning of the language. this is even strongly supported by sumra and katabaro (2014) who argue that majority of children entering secondary schools have very low competency in english. according to sumra and katabaro, very low competency in english affects students’ performance in secondary schools. in tanzania, teachers interpret communicative language teaching in terms of exclusive instructional use of the foreign or target language and dishearten students from using their mother tongue. many schools in tanzania introduce english campaign rule but it has not achieved the desired results because it is advocated under hostile conditions. for instance, the students are francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 103 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 given corporal punishment when discovered speaking any other language apart from english particularly in the school compounds. they are also given wooden planks with phrases such as ‘i am donkey, i am stupid’ etc. to wear around their necks when discovered speaking their ecls and kiswahili. it is also common to find phrases such as ‘no english no service’ around the school premises to suggest that if a student cannot proficiently express him/herself in english; he/she will not be assisted in any way. in tanzania, mathematics and most of the content subjects become a challenge to most learners since all the terminologies that they learned and applied in kiswahili for seven years of primary education are dropped from the first day in post-secondary education. given the students’ poor english background, the mathematics textbooks that are used in tanzanian secondary schools are very complicated for them (barret, mtana, osaki and rubagumya (2014). additionally, frederickson and cline (2002) argue that for the children being taught in their second language, it is not just the vocabulary of mathematics that causes difficulty. rather, the syntax in which mathematical ideas are expressed is often more complex than the children are accustomed to in other areas of the curriculum. while cognitive academic language proficiency (calp) is expected to be used in tackling academic challenges in the teaching and learning process as cummins (2008) argues, the case is different for tanzanian students whose language proficiency has neither reached basic interpersonal communicative skills (bics) nor cognitive academic language proficiency (calp) level. although improved calp cannot guarantee good performance, it sheds some light on the students’ academic wellbeing. to resolve the issues of language complexity and students’ limited english proficiency noted earlier, bilingualism theory is highly preferred and the present study consequently emphasizes mathematics classroom interaction using bilingual approach as a scaffolding strategy. according to reiser et al. (2003), scaffolds are instructional supports that allow students to take part in tasks that otherwise would be less accessible or productive and that the scaffold learning materials reduce complexity and highlight concepts and inquiry strategies. hakuta, ferdman, and diaz (1987) define bilingualism as a characteristic of an individual who possesses two linguistic systems. a bilingual, therefore, is a person who is able to speak two (or more) languages at some level of proficiency, but identifying what counts is not a straightforward judgment (bialystok, 2001). bialystok emphasizes that to be declared a bilingual depends on how the two languages were learned and to what purposes they are put. for this study, english (a foreign language to the majority of tanzanians) which is the medium of instruction, on the one hand, and kiswahili (a francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 104 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 mother tongue to most tanzanians particularly those living in coastal areas and those born in towns) which is a resource for both teaching in english on the other, will be emphasized as the languages for teaching and learning mathematics. creese and blackledge (2010) argue for the effectiveness of the bilingual approach in that trans-language (switching from one language to another) that the teacher and students engage in keeps the task moving and interrupts the usual “initiate, respond, feedback” (irf) discourses of classroom life. bilingual education appears to result in performance advantages as compared to submersion or monolingual education (baker, 2006). the strong need for bilingual teaching is felt when students do not understand the foreign language. the teachers are forced to rely on extensive use of translation from english into the students’ familiar language to ease comprehension. faltis (1996) reported that bilingual teaching means staying in the first language for longer stretches before switching to the other. fish and morford (2012) observe that the benefit of bilingualism is that it is the norm, not the exception, achieves language milestones on time, promotes language and literacy development and cognitive controls processes. fish and morford emphasize that bilingual education is more beneficial in that it promotes meta-linguistic awareness. with regard to benefits of bilingual education, the exposure to a first language that is fully accessible encourages the development of language skills and provides opportunities to develop critical thinking and complex reasoning skills that can be applied to literacy development in a second language such as english (fishand morford, 2012). marian, shook, and schroeder’s study (2013) also affirms that bilingual education is beneficial as it was observed earlier in the majority-language two-way immersion (twi) students and later in the minority-language twi students. marian, shook, and schroeder further explain that such results suggest that balanced-language instruction may promote academic achievement in both majority-and minoritylanguage students. despite an endless debate regarding using kiswahili as the moi at all levels, the tanzanian government has maintained english as the moi for secondary schools and at the tertiary level but learning has to continue in the context which is both beneficial and supportive to learners. this is to say that the instructional materials which are currently written in english have also to engage kiswahili alongside english to communicate mathematical information and make teaching accessible to learners. faltis (1996) argues that bilingual teaching, especially at the secondary level can help students to develop knowledge and acquire language because it requires a great deal of pedagogical subject matter knowledge as well as a good understanding of bilingual francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 105 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 methodology. he urges that the integration of language acquisition principles with content teaching become a conscious issue and task for the teachers. the mother tongue should be considered as a potent linguistic resource that needs to be used for academic excellence rather than being looked at as a problem or as a hindrance. the objective of lstt is to make textbooks and teaching accessible to foreign language learners in disadvantaged rural schools. the research questions that guided this study are: 1. how can teachers use lstt to support mathematics learning in rural community secondary schools? 2. what impact do mathematics textbook designed through lstt have on language and subject content learning? methodology design the study is both qualitative and quantitative in nature, conducted in morogoro, lindi and dodoma in 2015. the designed biology, mathematics, and english textbooks were piloted and evaluated in the sampled schools. the project focused on english, mathematics, and biology because these are amongst priority subjects within tanzanian secondary education policy. the textbooks designed within this project are intended by tanzania institute of education (tie) to be suitable for all secondary schools. however, language supportive teaching and textbooks (lstt) piloted the textbooks in disadvantaged and low performing rural community schools. most of the schools under this category were ranked the lowest performers in examinations and serve students who are most disadvantaged by the transition to english-medium. most of the disadvantaged students live in communities where english is almost not spoken outside the school. so, it is important that the textbooks and teaching support students to access what they have already learned in primary school and learn how to express their knowledge in english. in 2011, dodoma, lindi, and morogoro were ranked 21st, 12t h, and 13t h respectively out of 213 regions in their national form four examination results. the majority of learners in three regions speak other ethnic community languages (ecls) apart from kiswahili. therefore, english is a third language to most students. each region includes rural districts where girls’ participation in 3 four new regions have been created since 2011. francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 106 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 secondary education is much lower than boys and less than 1% of girls complete form four studies qualify for the next educational level. eight community rural schools from two regions namely dodoma (6 schools) and lindi (2 schools) participated in the study. the choice of the schools was based on the availability of mathematics teachers and their willingness to take part in the study. a total of nine teachers (six from dodoma region and three from lindi region) participated in the process. the teachers were selected to participate in the study based on their experience in teaching mathematics. the role of the teachers was to implement or try-out the designed material in the class and eventually to give their comments on the effectiveness of the designed material. form one students from both dodoma and lindi regions were involved in the study. the role of the students was to learn mathematics using the adapted material in the classroom context and give their comments on the improvement of the material. the role of the researchers was to ensure effective implementation of the adapted material and solicit the information on the effectiveness of the material from both teachers and students. the teachers received a two-day orientation on the implementation of the lstt pedagogy in the classroom. it was followed by the demonstration of one lesson by an expert who was also a researcher. during the classroom lesson implementation, the teachers gave students the printed material to use. the implementation of the lstt pedagogy was done in four weeks. in the first week, the teachers designed the lesson plans and implemented the lessons in the absence of the researchers. in the second week, the teachers planned the lessons and stated in advance the learning objectives. they shared the lessons planned with the researchers and then implemented the same lessons in the classroom while researchers remained non-participant observers. the teachers were trained to plan and implement the lessons while collecting data. instruments the study made use of the five data collection tools namely preand post-tests (vocabulary and reading comprehension), written tests, verbal tests, and teachers’ and students’ questionnaires. the study also used classroom observation as a data collection method. the questionnaires were administered to heads of departments to assess the availability and accessibility of the currently used textbooks, the existence of library facilities, and reading schedules for the students. the written test consisted of numbers and algebra problems presented only using mathematical symbols. the test also consisted of eleven basic operation questions and eleven word problem francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 107 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 questions that could be solved by formulating a simple algebraic expression. the verbal assessment targeted the language learning dimension and focused on the language skills used in the classroom learning for collaborative problem solving, sharing, and discussing ideas. the lesson observation involved recording information on the use of the lstt textbooks, the kind of activities undertaken, language use, and student participation. each lesson was followed by an informal interview with the teacher who was invited to comment on the lesson and sections of the textbook that were being implemented. the lesson observations were intended to give professional support to teachers and so the interviews were conducted as supportive mentoring conversations. findings and observations analysis of written assessment (pre -test and post-test) results the analysis of the post-test and pre-test results for mathematics was done via descriptive statistics as presented in table 1. table 1: performance in pre -test and post-test in two regions n minimum maximum mean std. deviation statistics statistics statistics statistics statistics post-test mathematics in lindi 74 8.0 58.0 35.4 12.5 pre-test: mathematics in lindi 74 5.0 55.0 28.1 11.1 post-test: mathematics in dodoma 111 7.0 67.0 41.5 11.8 pre-test: mathematics in dodoma 111 10.0 64.0 36.7 10.2 valid n (list wise) 55 source: lstt data (2015) the observations from table 1 show that students performed higher in post-tests in the two regions. however, post-test results of mathematics in dodoma (m = 41.5; sd = 11.8) was higher than that in lindi. the analysis was done based on the difference in the mean scores between post-test and pre-test for mathematics in dodoma and lindi. the results from the paired sample test for mathematics results in each region are presented in table 2. francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 108 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 table 2: paired sample test statistics for scores in individual region scores paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 post-test:mathematics in lindi – pre-test mathematics inlindi 7.4 14.1 1.6 4.1 10.6 4.5 73 0.000 pair 2 post-test:mathematics in dodoma – pre-test mathematics in dodoma 4.8 7.5 0.7 3.4 6.2 6.8 110 0.000 source: lstt data (2015) the observation from table 2 shows that the computed t-value is above 2.00 with p < 0.05 suggesting that there is a significant difference in the mean scores between the post-test and pretest means scores for the two regions. the analysis of the post-test and pre-test results was further done by combining the results for all students who sat for mathematics in dodoma and lindi to form another single group. table 3 presents the paired sample statistics and table 4 presents the paired sample t-test. table 3: paired samples test statistics for a combination of scores in two regions mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 combined post-test mathematics inlindi and dodoma 39.1 185 12.4 0.9 combined pre-test mathematics in lindi and dodoma 33.2 185 11.4 0.8 source: lstt data (2015) the overall observation from table 3 shows that during lstt material implementation, students did better in the pre-test (m = 33.2; sd=11.4). francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 109 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 table 4: paired samples test statistics for a combination of post-test scores and pre-test scores in two regions paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 2 combined post-test mathematics in lindi and dodoma combined pre-test mathematics in lindi and dodoma 5.8 10.7 0.8 4.3 7.4 7.4 184 .000 source: lstt data (2015) the observation from table 4 shows that there is a significant difference in the mean scores between post-test and pre-test in the group of students who studied mathematics in dodoma and lindi, t (184) = 7.4; p < 0.05). (reportfindings from the three categories of the test items) table 5: summary of written assessment based on categories of test items total score = 100% pre-g1 /42% pos-g1 /42% pre-g2 /40% pos-g2 /40% pre-g3 /18% pos-g3 /18% n valid 111 111 111 111 111 111 mean 16.0 20.2 20.2 20.2 0.5 1.0 std. deviation 6.2 7.3 5.2 5.3 1.6 2.9 skewness 0.5 0.1 -0.8 -1.3 3.7 3.2 minimum 4.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 maximum 34.0 36.0 30.0 25.0 10.0 15.0 source: lstt data (2015) key: pre = pre-test, pos = post-test;g1 = written test items consisting of numbers and algebra; g2 = written test items consisting problems presented only using mathematical symbol g3 = the written test items consisting word problem questions that could be solved by formulating a simple algebraic expression francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 110 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 the lstt intervention produces a significant improvement in the subject specialism and vocabulary and reading subject specialism text, as evidenced by the scores in the vocabulary section of the mathematics written assessments. however, the relationship between language and mathematics ability was not evident, with no significant improvement in problems that did not require reading or writing english. further analysis of data set could explore whether and how teachers implemented the sections of the textbooks that dealt with word problems and what language of learning skills students needed to have before decoding word problems. the verbal assessment sessions involved a group of 8 students performing verbal activities under the guidance of the researcher from each school in two sampled regions. the activities offered an opportunity for the students to read, talk, and write some words and sentences so as to explore their language and subject content skills and competencies acquired in the lstt project. preand post-test verbal assessments were conducted. during the pre-test assessment, the majority of the students felt shy, fearful to make mistakes, and were recognized as not knowing anything. the students had more difficulties in pronouncing most of the mathematics terms in english because they had few english words. they resorted to kiswahili or kept silent during the discussions. when the instructions were rendered in english, the teacher gave excessive translations for the students to follow the instructions given and to capture what was intended by the teacher. the findings also indicate that most of the students face great challenges in learning mathematics through english since they failed to conceptualize most of the mathematical concepts including mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication) in english. the failure to know mathematics in english was evidenced by the students’ failure in pronouncing the constructed numbers (numbers constructed using cards) in english. they also failed to give the explanations in english using the basic mathematical jargons such as “add more”. during the post-test verbal assessment sessions, the percentage of the students who were able to describe the operations in english ranked high as compared to the pre-test verbal sessions. having been encouraged by their teacher to describe the operations in english, some of the students described the operations in english although not at the required accuracy. the findings reveal that most of the students could not use english when working in group or pairs as long as the lstt textbooks offer a wide choice on the language to be used when discussing mathematical concept(s). this implies that most of the students opted for kiswahili as their most powerful tool francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 111 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 for discussing mathematical matters. more findings indicate that students in pairs arranged the number perfectly and were able to report back or say the numbers in english although it was after much struggle. the inability of some of the students to make a presentation of their group findings is evidence of difficulties the students had with english. those who made their presentations in english did so with grammatical errors having used lstt material, the students were capable of expressing their mathematical ideas both in spoken and written forms albeit their grammatical aspects were strained. when invited, they were also able to ask questions although the majority did so using kiswahili. the fact that the students were able to express their mathematical ideas (right or wrong) in spoken or written english was evident particularly after having used lstt textbooks. the comparative study between pre-and post-test phase was made by considering the following responses by the students on matchstick pattern 1 activity: probe-test phase response pre post probe response probe response to add more house, we… your matchsticks to add more house, we… add others 5 matchsticks in analyzing the two responses in question, the first response is just a mere noun phrase which cannot convey any meaning since it lacks the verb phrase. comparatively, the second response conveys meaning since it has the necessary components of the sentence. for instance, it has the word “add” that functions as the verb phrase and the phrase “others 5 matchsticks” that functions as an object of the sentence. it can be established that the lstt textbooks assisted greatly in transforming the students in various aspects. having used the lstt textbooks, most of the students handled different instructions regarding mathematical activities. having been exposed to lstt material, the swahili translations from both the facilitator and researcher were minimal. given the confidence which the learners had achieved from lstt textbooks, the learners understood both english and swahili instructions although it was difficult for them to interact with the subject matter in english as the sole means of communication. francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 112 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 knowing mathematics in english was noted to be a challenge to most students even after having been oriented through lstt textbook. however, there was a notable improvement for most students although the accuracy in english remains a great challenge. english being a challenge is not unique to students but also to most teachers who demonstrated poor english proficiency in the entire period of lstt pedagogy implementation. most of the students could not use english when working in groups or pairs as long as the lstt textbook offers a wide choice of the language to be used. this implies that most of the students opted for kiswahili as their most powerful tool for discussing mathematical matters and negotiating meaning. it could be concluded that most of the students gained confidence and interest in mathematics notably having used lstt material which proved to be user-friendly because of its shorter and unambiguous sentences and glossaries and because it gave the learners an option to use kiswahili in the teaching and learning process. the teachers’ and students’ questionnaires were used to solicit their views regarding the newly designed lstt material. the findings revealed that teachers concurred with the strategies in the lstt material because the students have been given the chance to express themselves both in english and kiswahili. interestingly, the teachers suggested that using lstt material made students love the lesson because they understood both languages. the findings by the students indicated that lstt pedagogy is effective because it has translated difficult english words and advocates teaching in both english and swahili. the following verbatim quote from one of the respondents explains the point in question. …these are beautiful books because they help us know the meaning of words which we did not know before. i would appreciate if all books would have glossaries. i would like to see teachers using swahili and english in teaching and being allowed to ask questions in swahili and later make presentations in english. the students admitted that they used and understood the material easily because they were well translated and that they would like to see other books translated. they also insisted that the material helped them understand english quite easily with the aid of kiswahili and that they would like to go on with lstt material because they were well understood. to them, the new books facilitated speaking skills and could easily be read on their own before the subject teachers started teaching. according to students, lstt materials are better because they give an opportunity for a learner to use kiswahili especially during the discussion, unlike the currently used textbooks which insist on english in the whole process of english teaching and learning. francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 113 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 discussion it is important to recognize that kiswahili is used as moi and taught as a subject in public primary schools in tanzania. conversely, english is a language of instruction in secondary schools and kiswahili is taught as a subject. prior to the introduction of lstt material, the teaching and learning process, as was recommended by the education and training policy of 2014 was done in english only. the learners found it difficult to learn mathematics in english since they had only a little command of the language. most of the students arranged the numbers perfectly but had difficulties in how to report back or say the numbers in english. it was very rare for the students to use mathematical jargons like “digits” and “place” or “place value” in english. such jargons seemed new to learners in terms of their meaning in english. it is important to recognize that form one in tanzania is a transition class from primary to secondary school. it is therefore imperative to observe such a language of instruction challenge in such a transition class. most of the mathematics concepts are difficult for most of the students, hence a major hindrance to their progress in the subject. madriñan (2014) reports on the importance of applying a code-switching strategy in order to teach some difficult concepts in any transition class. madriñan (2014) found out that there was no big difference in students understanding of the activity given in the second language and that given through code-switching. however, the teachers’ opinions were that students with a more developed first language and more concrete concepts seemed to transfer their experiences to the new language, making the second language acquisition process easier. lstt offers an appropriate and gradual transition for the learners who are absolute novices to english to learn with ease. through a variety of learning experiences, the students are given the ability to acquire the language of instruction through doing, talking, and speaking activities. this exposes students and teachers to english, leading to simplifying english as a second language that breaks the silence during learning (virginia department of education-division of instruction, 2004). it was evident that most of the students could not use english when working in groups or pairs. however, the lstt textbooks offer a choice of the language to be used when discussing mathematical concepts. such choice enables the students to opt for kiswahili as the tool for discussing and negotiating meaning. as a result, students started to build confidence and also started using english as a second language during presentations and discussions. the lstt material design and implementation draw on experiences from moschkovich (2007) who insists on the importance of mathematical instructions to be designed focusing on the francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 114 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 understanding of the relationship between first and second language to facilitate students’ learning through the second language. with encouragement from their teacher, some of the students were able to describe the operations in english although not at the required accuracy. the students in pairs managed to arrange the number perfectly and reported back or said the numbers in english although after much struggle. they were able to use mathematical jargons like “digits” and “place” or “place value” in english after using the lstt materials. they could also express their mathematical ideas in both spoken and written forms albeit their grammatical aspects were far-reaching. when invited, they were also able to ask questions although the majority did so using kiswahili. the students acquired a new ability to express their mathematical ideas (right or wrong) in spoken or written english after using the lstt textbooks. this is an indication that the lstt materials included a sequential and logical set of activities that helped to engage the students in learning. as madriñan (2014) has argued, when students are engaged with a proper schedule of learning activities that makes use of code-switching, the lesson runs in a smoother and positive way, helping in making the most of every activity, and thus enriching learning. this was also evident in the interview about the development of the first language on the second language acquisition process. the teachers agreed on the importance of developing the first language in a second language classroom giving an example that when students were learning prepositions of place, it seemed easier for them to learn the concepts up and down, below and beside in the first language and then use them in english (madriñan, 2014). the lstt materials used the strategies of giving students the chance to express themselves in both english and kiswahili. the materials ensured language supportive pedagogy (lsp) through the use of simple english in short sentences, glossaries that translated subject specialist words and difficult words into kiswahili and illustrations that convey the meaning of the text. it also included structured activities that used kiswahili as the first language for most learners to learn mathematics in english. the evidence indicates that the use of kiswahili in learning mathematical concepts which are widely presented in english has greatly helped the learners translate their mathematical concepts into english. conclusion based on the findings and observations, it could be concluded that most of the students gained confidence and interest in mathematics having used the lstt materials. the books improved francis william & jesse j. ndabakurane 115 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 96 -118 students’ vocabulary, reading, and writing in english. the schools in dodoma and lindi region saw improvements in different areas including mathematics subject specialist vocabulary. the teaching and learning objectives were new and challenging to teachers. however, they helped them develop new ways of supporting the mastery of subject 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(2014). teaching english as a ‘second language’ in kenya and the united states: convergences and divergences. global education review, 2 (2). 84-97. rugemalira, j. m (2005) theoretical and practical challenges in a tanzanian english medium primary school, africa and asia no. 5 p. 66-84. virginia department of education division of instruction (2004). mathematics: strategies for teaching limited english proficient (lep) students. acknowledgement the authors would like to acknowledge the opportunity and financial support granted by the university of bristol and the university of dodoma. the financial support enabled the authors to participate in evaluation study through data collection and analysis. the information obtained from the study helped in writing this research report. mostafa an exploration of teachers’ integration of visual literacy in the egyptian secondary language classrooms. asmaa abdel-moneim mostafa, ph.d. college of education, mansoura university, mansoura, egypt asmaamostafa@gmail.com abstract recognizing the need for students to be literate in  the more traditional areas of reading and writing, professional organizations such as the ncte, ira, and ncate as well as naqaae, the national authority for quality assurance and accreditation of education in egypt, have put in place english language standards that address other literacies, including visual literacy. yet, it has been unclear how secondary english language teachers feel about and understand what is expected of them in teaching non-print literacy, and if they indeed are teaching concepts related to comprehension and production of information in non-text format. this study attempts to discover teachers’ attitudes toward, understanding of, and use of visual literacy concepts through a survey of the secondary english language teachers in egypt. based on the information from the responses to the survey, secondary english language teachers have received no formal training in teaching visual literacy and that their informal training consists mainly of discussions with colleagues and independent study; among others. introduction & background   in this electronic age, technology has brought the ability to fuse the verbal and the visual into the homes of people throughout the world (mcluhan, 1964).  taking advantage of the possibilities of writing with text and image, people may soon incorporate imagery as a standard feature. helping students extend their understanding of the messages behind both the images and the text of documents will be the goal of the teacher of this new type of literacy. yet, because reading and writing are such complex processes, people do not generally think in alphabetic terms. in fact, felder & henriques (1995) concluded that, in order for the thinking to take place, symbolic/alphabetic text must be converted either to visual images or to auditory expression. thinking is generally only in visual or verbal modes. while some people may visualize words, phrases, or even short passages, people cannot generally hold enough alphabetic images in their minds to actually think in written language. despite the difficulty that people have with thinking alphabetically, most teachers in secondary schools expect their students to do most of their learning through alphabetic means. reading is basic to education and has been for hundreds of years. yet, reading is the least preferred way to learn (only 10% of the population) according to learning style inventories that include reading as a preferred learning style (nooriafshar & maraseni, 2005). research has revealed that, on average, 50% to 65% of the population is visual learners; 25% to 30% are auditory learners; 5% to 15% are kinesthetic; and less than 5% are alphabetic learners (those who learn best through reading and writing) (davis, nur, & ruru, 1994). yet, in the first decade of this new millennium, researchers are still trying to make sense of how visual literacy fits together with the traditional literacies taught in schools for hundreds of years.  the lack of research in visual literacy may result from the nature of vision itself.  because the act of seeing is an early-developed and natural means of understanding the world, people frequently do not look beyond the surface to understand visual images. research has indicated that human infants less than six months old can recognize the meaning of facial expressions (charlesworth & keutzer in ekman, 2006). with the innate ability that humans have to interpret visual cues, some may feel that it is unnecessary to help students “read” and present visual information. yet, the ability that humans are born with to interpret some visual cues does not necessarily reach into the more subtle types of expression that visual images can afford (braden & hortin, 1982). therefore, instructing students how visual images convey information is necessary for those students to develop the critical thinking skills called for in modern society. in addition, understanding the relationship among visual, verbal, and alphabetic language allows students to comprehend and express ideas more fully and makes them more comfortable moving from one form of communication to the other. in traditional teacher education programs, the specific courses that prospective english language teachers take are generally in linguistics and literature. since most english language teachers are still instructed almost exclusively in literature and language, not in how visual information can be incorporated with literature, they do not have the background knowledge to help their students sift through the volumes of visual images that bombard them daily. while english language teachers are familiar with traditional literacy--comprehending and creating alphabetic text--they have less practice with visual literacy--comprehending and creating visual text. as a result, the english language teacher may wish to leave instruction in visual literacy to the visual arts teacher. yet, the visual arts teacher has little background in literacy, particularly as it pertains to rhetoric—the ways in which a message is conveyed or created so that it will bring meaning to a particular audience. therefore, the visual arts teacher may feel inadequate to help students understand how images fit into the paradigm of rhetoric, audience and text because most visual arts teachers’ training has been largely in aesthetics rather than rhetoric. trying to address the problem becomes even more difficult on the secondary level than on the elementary level. although young children learn innately through visual messages, by the time students are in secondary school, they have been conditioned to rely more on verbal message, both auditory and alphabetic, rather than on visual message for information (callan, 1996).  in addition, realizing the stake both language arts and visual arts have in visual literacy instruction; an interdisciplinary approach is obviously called for. yet, the elementary teacher has the advantage of being able to incorporate and integrate visual with verbal and alphabetic literacy instruction that the secondary teachers does not have. because of the separation of disciplines above the elementary level, however, secondary teachers have fewer opportunities for the collaboration necessary to blend students’ understanding of the power of visual images to communicate (locke, 2007). furthermore, the current system of teacher education programs is not conducive to encouraging integration of visual, verbal, and alphabetic literacy instruction. merely using non-print materials in the classroom is not enough to satisfy proper development in visual literacy. students must understand the message of visual images and be able to select visual images that communicate their purpose to their selected audience in order to enhance their learning and develop the types of literacy demanded of people living in the 21st century. in order to teach visual literacy, however, teachers must first understand the meaning of the term. the visual literacy movement, according to avgerinou & ericson (1997), has captured educators’ interest in recent years because its emphasis on using visuals for communication, thinking, learning and forming creative expression fits well with the most prevalent learning mode of most student in public schools today. yet, “opposition to the visual media in situations where they form an alternative to writing… [may] be seen as a potential threat to the present dominance of verbal literacy among elite groups” (kress & van leeuwen, 1996. p. 16). especially above the elementary level, some educators see the addition of visuals to learning materials as “dumbing down” academic content. they are not yet willing to recognize the shift that is taking place in what it means to be literate. while being able to sign one’s name was once enough for a person to be considered literate, now people must be able to comprehend and create messages in multiple modes in order to function productively in modern society (vincent, 2000). with today’s technology, visual literacy has taken an even more prominent role in communication. as a result of the availability and rhetorical effectiveness of such visual images, teachers can no longer be content with teaching only traditional literacy. instructing students on the secondary level in visual literacy has become a vital part of english language instruction because of the increasing power of visual media and technology. growing out of visual literacy theorists’ use of metaphors related to verbal learning to describe visual learning, the national council of teachers of english (ncte) and the international reading association (ira) recognized in 1996 the need for english language  teachers to teach not two or four areas of literacy, but six, three receptive and three expressive. the chart below illustrates those areas of instruction in english language determined by ncte and ira (2007).   figure 1: english language areas of instruction   aural/oral alphabetic visual receptive listening reading viewing expressive speaking writing presenting visual information   like receptive alphabetic literacy (reading), receptive visual literacy (viewing) requires comprehension. receptive alphabetic literacy uses the comprehending process, by which the reader decodes the symbols used in written language to make sense of the words, phrases, sentences, and ideas by relating the information to previous knowledge and building on existing schema. similarly, understanding a visual image requires the viewer to decode the strokes, pixels, dots, and lines that make up the image to make sense of the objects in the image and their relationship to each other (messaris, 1994). in expressive alphabetic literacy (writing), the writer uses the composing process to select the proper words, sentence structure, and arrangement to convey ideas or persuade an audience. likewise, in expressive visual literacy, the one creating the image must choose the proper medium, color, line, and arrangement to convey ideas and influence the audience to the creator’s point of view (mitchell, 1994). defining literacy as being able to read and write expressive marks reveals the breadth of what teachers are expected to teach in the name of literacy. english language teachers are, of course, among the ones generally held responsible for literacy instruction. according to ncte/ira standards, english language teachers are expected to instruct their students in listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing, and using visual expression. therefore, english language arts teachers must now consider how they will use these newly defined literacies to enhance their students’ academic skills (deporter, 1992). before they can instruct their students in these other literacies, however, they must first be able to define the concepts involved and understand how they fit in with the traditional approaches used in english language classrooms. students who are not strong alphabetic learners (reading and writing) can compensate for deficiencies in those areas by increasing their abilities in their areas of strength. since an estimated 65% of the adult learners in the world are visual (davis, nur & ruru, 1994), instruction in visual literacy would address the strengths of the greatest number of people. in addition to speaking to the preferred learning mode of the greatest number of people, instruction in visual literacy also has the advantage of being strongly related to aural and alphabetic literacy. both receptive aural literacy, being able to interpret what another is saying, and receptive alphabetic literacy, being able to interpret what one reads, have similarities to receptive visual literacy. like the other two types of receptive literacy mentioned, receptive visual literacy consists of several components, including visual thinking and visual rhetoric (kostelnick & hassett, 2003; stroupe, 2000). realizing that being able to read and write alone no longer makes one literate, educational researchers in the twenty-first century are using terms such as “aural literacy,” “visual literacy,” “media literacy,” “information literacy,” and “technical literacy” to describe the types of instruction that go beyond traditional instruction (rafferty, 1999). how these literacies interact has not been studied thoroughly, but that verbal literacy and visual literacy influence each other seems clear from studies of elementary school students in which those who used both words and visuals to create narratives improved their writing skills significantly (milliard & marsh, 2001). therefore, few studies have posed the question of how visual literacy and verbal literacy interact. as a result of teachers’ failure to make connections between visual and verbal literacy, older students who are highly visual often have difficultly following traditional approaches to writing expository and persuasive essays. yet, “visualizers,” when allowed to follow nontraditional approaches to the writing process, can produce essays that are often superior to those of “verbalizers” (tucker, 1995). while current studies hold out hope that teaching concepts common to aural, alphabetic, and visual representations may improve the communication skills of students, the confusion of ever-changing technologies and the discipline-specific nature of most secondary classrooms pose problems.  much of the current research concludes that visual literacy should be an integral part of instruction, particularly in the english language classroom. as part of this interest in visual ways of knowing, learning, and communicating, the researcher believes that a thorough study of how english language teachers understand, use, and feel about the concepts of visual literacy in the classroom is vital to progress in providing students with instruction in the types of literacy necessary to function in the twenty-first century and beyond.   statement of the problem while much of what we learn about our world comes through visual means, in education people still give precedence to verbal communication. nonetheless, visual literacy is clearly literacy in the same sense as traditional literacy. yet, visual literacy has never been emphasized as strongly in formal education as traditional literacy, particularly at the secondary level. this fact can be illustrated by the textbooks used at the secondary level. rather than visual images, english language arts teachers generally use verbal means to analyze, judge, and communicate. while images in the mind are difficult to externalize, this difficulty may allow students to be more creative in their expression (tucker, 1995). english language teachers are reticent to instruct their students in the non-verbal skills in which they themselves have little or no training (childers & lowry, 2000). “a narrowly specialized training in particular academic disciplines must be regarded as, at best, a necessary but never sufficient cultural orientation for teachers working in schools …” (richards in buckingham, 1998, p. 137).  thus, the study explores attitudes toward, understanding of, and use of visual literacy concepts through a survey of the secondary english language teachers in egypt   purpose of the study      the study had the following goals: to clarify secondary english language teachers’ attitudes toward teaching visual literacy, to explore their understanding of visual literacy, to determine their use of visual media, to evaluate their training and preparation to teach visual literacy, and to look at the types of instruction in visual literacy that students receive.  a definition of visual literacy was first offered by john debes (1969), one of the most important figures in the history of the international visual literacy association. debes defined visual literacy as: …a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. the development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. when developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment. through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communication. (27)  for the purpose of this study, the author has determined that the term “visual literacy” to be “understanding and using visual images to think, learn and communicate.” while media and information literacy are related to visual literacy, both media and information literacy can involve verbal and multiple literacies as well as strictly visual literacy.  significance of the study  since professional bodies such as ncate, ncte and ira, as well as naqaae, have identified the need to teach visual literacy in the english language classroom (ncte, 1996; ksde, 2000; ksde, 2003; naqaae, 2009), this study of how secondary english language teachers view, understand, and apply visual literacy concepts in the classroom will help to determine needs in teacher training. by assessing secondary english language teachers’ knowledge and use of visual literacy concepts in the classroom, deficiencies in the curricula of teacher education institutions in egypt can be evaluated. by assessing their attitudes toward being expected to teach visual literacy, the study hopes provides a better understanding of how secondary english language teachers view their roles as those being responsible for teaching life-long skills in literacy: visual, aural, and alphabetic.  limitations of the study the relatively small population of secondary english language teachers in the sample (100) limits the generalization of the results of the research. because the study was completed exclusively in public secondary schools in dakahlia governorate, the results may not be consistent with finding for private schools or for public schools in the remainder of the country. consequently, while the study is representative of the country, the results of the study may not generalize to teachers who live in other areas of egypt.   methodology  research hypothesis the study hypothesis was that most secondary english language teachers in egypt had no training in visual literacy instruction; thus, resistant to teaching visual literacy along with more traditional literacy concepts. the research questions were designed to determine if that hypothesis was valid and if other issues related to attitudes toward, understanding of, and use of visual literacy in the english language classroom were common among secondary english language teachers in the dakahlia governorate.  research question  1.   what kind of attitudes and use of visual literacy are prevalent among secondary english language teachers in dakahlia governorate?  subquestions  1. what attitudes do secondary english language teachers have toward instructing their students in visual literacy? 2. what types of instruction in visual literacy did english language teachers receive in their teacher education programs? 3. what types of instruction in visual literacy do english language teachers provide their students? 4. how do english language teachers use visual media in their classrooms? 5. how do the students of english language teachers use visual literacy concepts in the classroom? 6. what do english language teachers expect from their students’ essays?  survey design the survey was designed to explore teachers’ attitudes toward, understanding of, and use of the concept of visual literacy instruction in their english language classes. the survey is included in appendix a. the first part of the survey asked the respondent to give personal information that the researcher used to disaggregate data analysis. the personal information on the survey was mainly concerned about the teachers’ years of experience and the types of settings in which they taught, as well as the duties they performed outside of the classroom. questions regarding age and gender were also included to identify demographic differences among groups in their attitudes toward and use of visual literacy concepts.  the second part, which made up the bulk of the questionnaire, consisted of likert-scaled questions concerning teachers’ attitudes and use of visual literacy as well as their perceptions of their students’ attitudes and use of visual literacy concepts. the third part of the survey consisted of four open-ended questions. the first three asked about the teachers’ general responses to being expected to teach visual literacy in the english language classroom and the influence of technology on both traditional and visual literacy instruction. the final question on the survey was an open-ended question that allowed the teachers to give free responses to anything addressed in the survey. the topic and number of questions on each topic in the likert-scaled section are shown as follows: table 1: survey questions   topic attitudes toward teaching visual literacy training in visual literacy instruction use of visual literacy concepts students’ competency in visual literacy concepts teachers’ competency in visual literacy concepts instruction of students in visual literacy barriers to visual literacy instruction total number of questions 61     11   1 (multiple response)   5   17   7   11   9   sample  the study included 100 egyptian english teachers from fifteen public secondary schools in dakahlia governorate.  data collection at the beginning of the second semester 2008, the researcher contacted the principals of the schools by telephone, at the numbers, asking for permission to survey the english language teachers at the school. on march 1, 2008, the researcher visited the schools identified. the researcher visited the 15 public schools. all english language instructors listed the 15 public secondary schools were met and asked to complete the survey. the researcher clarified the purpose of the study, and the instructions to complete the survey. the researcher completed the surveys by march 30, 2008. after the final submission of surveys, march 30, 2008, the researcher began analyzing the data, particularly looking for significant differences in responses among various demographic groups. surveys were disaggregated by 1) gender, 2) age, 3) level of education, and 4) years of teaching experience.  data analysis the researcher coded the responses in the survey. the questions in the likert-scaled portion were coded according to the numbers corresponding to the responses from 4 being the highest to 1 being the lowest. means and weighted means (relative importance) for each item were then determined. free responses were analyzed for their content, with the frequency of similar responses recorded. because the question on training in visual literacy instruction was relevant to an important research question for the study, care was given to analyze the question. the question on training was a multiple-response question, which meant that some of those surveyed responded to a range of statements. since those who responded to several statements could skew the data if most people surveyed only responded to one or a few statements, the researcher also looked at the responses to this question individually for each person surveyed and coded each person’s responses. in addition to calculating the responses to each statement, the researcher coded the responses to get a clearer picture of the types of training that the respondents had received in visually literacy instruction. the results, then, revealed more precise information on the training in visual literacy provided to prospective english language teachers by faculties of education in egypt. the coding determined whether individuals had received formal, informal or no training in visual literacy instruction, based on the statement with the highest rating to which each person surveyed responded positively. formal training indicated that the respondent had received training in visual literacy instruction from a post-secondary institution in a specific class or unit within a class. informal training indicated that the respondent had received limited training in visual literacy instruction from a post-secondary institution as a student or from a secondary institution as an employee in the form of a structured discussion or in-service training session. the question was coded according to the method shown in table 2.  table 2 coding for statements on training in visual literacy instruction statement type of training coding score i was required to take an undergraduate course in visual literacy. formal 6       i was required to take an undergraduate course in visual literacy. formal 6 i was required to take a graduate course in visual literacy. formal 6 a unit in visual literacy was included in my required undergraduate classes. formal 5 a unit in visual literacy was included in my required graduate classes. formal 5 visual literacy was mentioned in my required undergraduate classes. informal 4 visual literacy was mentioned in my required graduate classes. informal 4 i received training in visual literacy at an in-service or seminar. informal 3 i learned about visual literacy informally through others. informal 2 i learned about visual literacy through my own study. informal 1 i received no undergraduate training in visual literacy. none 0 i received no graduate training in visual literacy. none 0 i have no training in visual literacy, either formal or informal. none 0  findings: the teachers responding came from a variety of age groups and teaching experience, but their age groups were not necessarily reflective of their years of teaching experience. while only 7 percent of the respondents were 35 years old or younger, 49 percent reported having ten or fewer years of teaching experience. at the other end of the scale, 13 percent of respondents stated that they were 55 or older while 10 percent claimed 30 or more years of teaching experience. overall the correlation between the two variables was .85 on the pearson r scale. a closer look at the comparison of the two measures, however, indicated either that attrition from english language education may occur most heavily when teachers are between the ages of 36 and 55 or that teachers are entering the profession past the traditional 21 to 24 years of age. although 47 percent of respondents indicated that they fell in the 36 to 55 age range, only 23 percent of the respondents reported 16-30 years of teaching experience. the data in table 3 show the correlation between the respondents’ ages and their years of teaching experience.  table 3: respondents’ ages compared to their years of teaching experience age years of teaching experience 5 or less 6 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30 over 30 total 30-35 7 0 0 0 0 0 7 36-45 0 40 5 5 0 0 50 46-55 0 9 6 5 10 0 30 over 55 0 0 0 0 3 10 13 total 7 49 11 10 13 10 100       regarding gender, of those who responded, 73 percent were female. this figure may also be reflective of more females entering and remaining in english language instruction and teaching in general.  responsibility for teaching visual literacy           data in table 4 show the mean scores for each item in the section on responsibility for visual literacy instruction. table 4: mean and weighted mean scores, on a 4-point scale of questions on responsibility for teaching visual literacy w.m. mean statements no. 0.465 1.86 teachers should use visual materials in their classroom instruction. 1 0.58 2.32 teachers should instruct students how to understand visual materials. 2 0.513 2.05 teachers should instruct students how to present visual materials. 3 0.523 2.09 visual literacy should be taught as a formal class. 4 0.495 1.98 instruction in visual literacy should receive as much time as instruction in traditional literacy. 5 0.518 2.07 all curricula should teach students how to understand visual materials. 6 0.488 1.95  all curricula should teach students how to present visual materials 7 0.395 1.58 administrators should have primary responsibility for instructing students in visual literacy. 8 0.448 1.79 english language teachers should have primary responsibility for instructing students in visual literacy. 9 0.655 2.62 arts teachers should have primary responsibility for instructing students in visual literacy. 10 0.655 2.62 media specialists should have primary responsibility for instructing students in visual literacy. 11 the areas that most of those surveyed agreed on were the necessity for all teachers to use visual elements in their instruction and to teach students how to use and interpret visual elements. regarding their responsibility for teaching visual literacy, respondents were less certain. on a four-point scale, the item that asked instructors to agree or disagree with the statement, “all curricula should teach students how to understand visual materials” received a mean of 2.07 with an average rating of 0.518. a slightly weaker, but still average agreement resulted from instructors’ responses to the statement, “all curricula should teach students how to present visual materials.” that item received a mean of 1.95 with an average rating of 0.488. yet, teachers were consistent in their responses as to who should be responsible for that instruction. when english language instructors were asked about specific instructors’ responsibility for teaching visual literacy, the two discipline that received mean of 2.62 with the highest average rating of 0.655, indicated  that visual arts instructors’ and media specialists be primarily responsible for visual literacy instruction. the responses to visual arts teachers and media instructors being primarily responsible for teaching visual literacy may reflect some misunderstanding about how visual literacy differs from appreciation of visual expression in the sense usually taught in visual arts classrooms. among the groups rated lowest as needing to have primary responsibility for teaching visual literacy were administrators and english language teachers. while the english language teachers did not want the administration to be responsible for visual literacy instruction, neither did they want to be the ones primarily charged with such instruction.  a few of those surveyed strongly agreed that instruction in visual literacy should primarily be the responsibility of english language teachers. while english language teachers surveyed supported instruction in visual literacy in the abstract, they were less certain about the specifics of how instruction in visual literacy should be accomplished. moreover, they were even more ambivalent about their own discipline in taking the lead in visual literacy instruction. however, the four statements with the highest ratings were the statements which dealt with instruction in visual literacy in general terms, asking respondents about visual literacy as a more abstract concept or as the responsibility of all curricula, with little specificity. the more specific questions about visual arts teachers, and english language teachers’ received, the less enthusiastic response they get. also, as might be expected from english language arts teachers, the instructors surveyed generally disagreed that visual literacy instruction should receive as much time as instruction in traditional literacy. part of the reasons english language teachers did not see visual literacy instruction as on a par with traditional literacy instruction, likely was related to their own educational experience.  training in visual literacy instruction english language teachers may not feel that visual literacy instruction should be incorporated with traditional literacy instruction because of their own lack of training in visual literacy instruction. as part of the preparation for english language teacher, colleges of education, according to those surveyed, provided little training in how to instruct students in visual literacy. when the instructors surveyed were asked about their training in visual literacy instruction, 100 percent indicated that they were not required to take formal courses in visual literacy instruction as part of their undergraduate or graduate programs. all respondents indicated that no units in visual literacy instruction were included in courses that they took in their undergraduate or graduate programs. even when asked if visual literacy instruction was mentioned in any of their undergraduate or graduate courses, 100 percent recalled that teaching visual literacy in english language classes received no attention. while colleges of education may not have spent extensive time discussing visual literacy with the prospective english language teachers, schools provided no visual literacy instruction training through in-service training. 100 percent of the instructors indicated that they had received no training in visual literacy instruction after starting their teaching careers. the most common way for the teachers surveyed to learn about visual literacy instruction was informally through colleagues or independent self study. these two methods were identified by 5 percent of those surveyed. even though a significant percent of instructors had knowledge of visual literacy instruction, received through informal venues, 95 percent stated that they had received no training, either formal or informal, in visual literacy instruction. since respondents were asked to mark all that apply, the responses were coded according to the data in table 2. based on this coding, responses were then analyzed according to the highest coding score for each respondent. respondents were assigned the highest level from formal to none on their responses to the statements about visual literacy instruction. according to the analysis of the highest coded response for each individual, 95 respondents had no formal or informal training in visual literacy instruction. 5 respondents had informal training in visual literacy instruction generally through self-study or discussion with colleagues. the type of informal training varied according to the gender of the respondents, with males getting informal training through independent study and females through discussion with colleagues.  use of visuals table 5: mean and weighted mean scores, on a 4-point scale of questions on use of visuals w.m. mean statements no. 0.838 3.35 i have two-dimensional still visuals—posters, pictures, graphs, charts, maps—in my classroom. 13 0.675 2.7 i have three-dimensional still visuals—statues, models, globes—in my classroom. 14 0.838 3.35 i use moving visuals—movies, demonstrations, role-playing—in my classroom. 15 0.41 1.64 i have a computer in my school for my own use. 16 0.455 1.82 i use a computer in my teaching. 17 despite their lack of training, almost all teachers surveyed used visual literacy concepts in their classrooms and in their teaching. yet, their uses tended to be more traditional in nature. the majority stated that they either “always” or “usually” had two-dimensional still visuals in their classroom. displaying poster, pictures, charts, and map on classroom walls has been a longstanding tradition in all classrooms. the majority of the instructors surveyed also used moving two-dimensional visuals in their classroom. although globes and similar three-dimensional stills have traditionally been part of many classrooms, less than one third of the group surveyed stated that they had such three-dimensional visuals in their classroom. even though active, hands-on learning, which can lead to three-dimensioned visuals for display, has received a great deal of attention in public k-12 education, few of the english teachers surveyed had such spatial visuals for their students in the classroom. although three dimensional stills are readily available through student projects, most english language teachers surveyed did not display those projects in their classrooms. a stark contrast also appeared between the availability of visual literacy materials and the use of those materials in the classroom in relation to computers. most of the teachers surveyed stated that they had no computer in the school at all times for their own use. although computers were available to the teachers surveyed, only a few actually used a computer in their teaching on a regular basis.      student competency in visual literacy table 5: mean and weighted mean scores, on a 4-point scale of questions on student competency in visual literacy   w.m. mean statements no. 0.423 1.69 my students are able to use a scanner. 18 0.453 1.81 my students are able to use digital still cameras. 19 0.453 1.81 my students are able to edit still photos using a computer. 20 0.423 1.69 my students are able to use digital movie cameras. 21 0.423 1.69 my students are able to edit video clips using a computer. 22 0.943 3.77 my students are able to use a computer for word processing. 23 0.943 3.77 my students are able to use a computer to access information on the internet. 24 0.413 1.65 my students are able to distinguish fiction from reality in visuals. 25 0.41 1.64 my students are able to distinguish advertising from articles. 26 0.42 1.68 my students are able to analyze the content of visual images. 27 0.518 2.07 my students know the limitations of visual images. 28 0.41 1.64  my students use visuals effectively. 29 0.42 1.68 my students use headings in their compositions. 30 0.423 1.69 my students use bulleting and numbering in their compositions. 31 0.42 1.68 my students use charts and graphs in their compositions. 32 0.42 1.68 my students use drawings and photographs in their compositions. 33 0.41 1.64 my students use appropriate fonts in their compositions. 34 data in table 5 show how teachers rated their students’ ability with various types of technology used to capture and format alphabetic and visual expression. when asked about their students’ use of technology related to visual literacy, teachers had a high level of confidence in the ability of their students to use computers for word processing (0.943) and for accessing information on the internet (0.943), skills growing out of more traditional writing and research skills taught in english language classes. their confidence waned, however, when asked about their students’ use of other technologies less closely related to traditional activities in the english language arts class. less than 50 percent expressed confidence in their students’ ability to use technology more closely associated with visual literacy, such as scanners, still and video digital cameras, and software for manipulating visual images. even though most people would assume that younger individuals would have more experience with technology related to visual literacy, teachers generally rated their students lower than they rated themselves in their ability to use modern technology for capturing and manipulating visual images. this counter-intuitive finding did not necessarily reflect students’ actual ability but only their teachers’ perceptions. if english language teachers did not have their students using technology related to visual literacy, they would not be able to accurately evaluate those students’ ability to use those technologies. the variance in ratings of students’ ability may relate to if and how much the various instructors had their students use technology in the classroom. teachers’ confidence in their students’ ability to use technologies such as scanners, digital still and movie camera, as well as editing software was low (. their confidence in their students’ ability to distinguish fiction from reality and advertising from article in visuals was also low. again, a traditional approach to teaching english language is more likely to focus on comprehension based exercises rather than distinguishing fact from fiction. even though the teachers surveyed generally felt that their students were able to distinguish fact from fiction in both text and visuals, they had less confidence in their students’ ability to analyze and interpret visual images and to recognize the limitations of visual images which can now be easily manipulated and altered. the advances in technology were quickly picked up and mastered by most high school students, but their ability to think critically about what they saw was not as advanced, according to their teachers. because interpreting images is often more difficult now than creating those images using the available technologies, teachers may face difficulty in getting students to look more closely at visual images in order to properly interpret the intent and message of the images. this finding has implications for teaching critical thinking as well as visual literacy across the curriculum. students’ being able to analyze writing, speaking, and various symbols used in mathematics, science, and music is generally ranked as being high in importance but low in achievement by teachers at all levels. how teachers surveyed responded to statements on the survey verified that the importance but low achievement in analysis also applies to visuals. since the teachers’ attitudes toward the ability of visual images to communicate information effectively could influence the way they responded to the question, further probes into teachers’ beliefs concerning the limitations of visual images may be warranted. when the mean responses as a percent of a possible “4” were compared to the percent who strongly or moderately agreed with the statements on students’ ability to interpret visual images, one statement produced a statistically significant difference between the two measures. that statement asked about teachers’ opinion on their students’ awareness of the limitations of visual images. therefore, while most respondents did not strongly or moderately agree that their students were competent in this area, overall they saw students as adequate in their awareness of the limitations of visuals. although virtually all students, according to their teachers, could use computers for word processing and accessing information, using the computer for effective visual formatting was less evident in compositions created by their students, according to respondents. using formatting conventions commonly used in business, technical, and other types of writing, such as bulleting, numbering also receives little attention in english language classes, according to the responses on the survey. students’ lack of attention to formatting in their compositions may be more the result of instructors not being fully aware of the formatting possibilities with current software or their failure to instruct students on the options they have for formatting than on students’ lack of knowledge or ability in formatting documents. just as teachers indicated that their students used few formatting conventions, those teachers were also not convinced that students had the necessary ability to incorporate visual images with text, including charts, graphs, drawing, and photographs. while it is possible that students do not have the necessary computer skills to incorporate visuals with text in their compositions, it seems more likely that teachers simply do not encourage students to use visual elements in their compositions in english language  classes. on the other hand, students’ use of headings and appropriate fonts were areas in which teachers generally felt their students were not competent. some respondents indicated that they did directly instruct their students to use certain fonts and headings, indicating that direct instruction of students in appropriate use of visual elements in their compositions can be effective. based on teachers’ responses to the questions on their students’ use of visual elements in their compositions, the respondents’ trust in their students’ ability to use formatting conventions was mixed, as was their confidence in their students’ ability to use visuals effectively and appropriately. the wide disparity in the percent strongly or moderately agreeing with statements compared to mean responses as a percent of a possible “4” on statements involving bulleting and numbering, use of charts and graphs, and inclusion of drawing and photographs suggested an ambivalence or lack of strong commitment one way or the other to the use of visual elements in students’ compositions.  teacher competency in visual literacy table 6: mean and weighted mean scores, on a 4-point scale of questions on teacher competency in visual literacy w.m. mean statements no. 0.378 1.51 i am able to use a scanner. 35 0.665 2.66 i am able to use digital still cameras. 36 0.41 1.64  i am able to edit still photos using a computer. 37 0.455 1.82 i am able to use digital movie cameras. 38 0.378 1.51  i am able to edit video clips using a computer. 39 0.728 2.91  i am able to use a computer for word processing. 40 0.688 2.75  i am able to use a computer to access information on the internet. 41 teachers’ rating of their use of visuals in the classroom paralleled their rating of their ability to use technology related to visual literacy. ratings were the highest in areas that used technology to perform operations previously done without such technology. all respondents gave themselves the highest available rating for being able to use word processing effectively (0.728) and for being able to access information on the internet (0.688). these operations are similar to activities that most english language teachers did in more traditional ways in the past with typewriters and library research with print texts. respondents also expressed moderate confidence in their ability to use digital still cameras. however, their confidence in their ability to use scanners, digital movie cameras, and editing software for still and video camera images was less strong. their weakest area, according to their self-assessment, was in their ability to use equipment to shoot and edit videos. given that teaching students to reform words and images into new expressions is part of what english language teachers are expected to do, the low level of confidence in using the necessary equipment to transform images into new expressions may be problematic as english language arts teachers take on the role of instructors in all literacies, including visual literacy. the uncertainty regarding their skills in using equipment to create and edit moving visual images may also reflect a general lack of confidence in their ability to keep up with emerging technology in the area of visual literacy. while those surveyed felt more confident in modern iterations of old technology such as word processing, which has replaced the typewriter, and internet site and web-based databases, which have replaced, or at least supplemented, traditional library research than in their ability to use more modern technology such as scanners, digital cameras, and similar devices, they still had more confidence in their own ability than in their students’ ability to use the modern technology related to capturing and manipulating visual images. while the list of technologies about which teachers were questioned did not include the most up-to-date technologies, it did inquire about technologies that are readily available to most school systems and individuals. instruction in visual literacy table 7: mean and weighted mean scores, on a 4-point scale of questions on instruction in visual literacy   w.m mean statements no. 0.37 1.48 i teach students how to “read” visual images. 42 0.363 1.45 i teach students how to locate or create visuals that enhance the message of their written text. 43 0.323 1.29 i teach students about elements of document design. 44 0.323 1.29 i teach students about visual literacy through spontaneous discussion. 45 0.688 2.75 i teach students about visual literacy using media. 46 0.64 2.56 i teach students about visual literacy using computers and the internet. 47 0.64 2.56 i teach students to use visuals—graphic organizers, charts, graphs—in their work. 48 0.688 2.75 i have a computer in my school for students to use. 49 0.363 1.45 i expect my students to use a computer when writing papers. 50 0.363 1.45 i encourage students to use visuals in their written assignments. 51 0.353 1.41 i allow students to present their ideas in ways other than formal essays—powerpoint presentations, websites, visuals with explanation, or other similar media. 52 while some “always” or “usually” have computers available for student use (2.75) and do not always expect their students to word process their papers (1.45), instruction in visual literacy does not necessarily follow. one of the most encouraging pieces of data was the response to the statement about the use of visuals to aid students’ thinking and organization. most instructors who responded said that they “always” or “usually” asked their students to use graphic organizers, charts, graphs, and similar visuals to help understanding of material. an apparent discrepancy appeared in the fact that even though many individuals related that they used media in their instruction in an earlier part of the survey, only a slight percent stated that they “always” or “usually” used media in visual literacy instruction. while instruction in visual literacy on the receptive side—viewing—was low, instruction in visual literacy on the productive side—creating visual expression—was equally as low in most areas. on statements about their expectations of students’ compositions, while some teachers had computers available for their students and expected those students to word process their compositions, few encouraged students to use visuals in their compositions or allowed students to present ideas for compositions in alternative visual formats such as powerpoint or websites. the comparison of the two measures indicates consistency in responses to three of the four questions. however, the difference between the two measures on the statement about encouraging students to use visuals in their compositions is statistically significant. the discrepancy indicates that, even though many may encourage such use of expressive visual literacy, they do not do so on a regular basis. this finding goes along with other findings that point out that visual literacy is seen as subordinate to traditional literacy, not as an integral part of the multi-faceted literacy required in contemporary civilization. many responded in other parts of the survey that they saw teaching visual literacy as additional work that they could not fit into their already tight schedule. therefore, helping teachers with integrating visual literacy with traditional, alphabetic literacy may help teachers to instruct their students in multiple literacies without compromising attention to either.  limitations on teaching visual literacy table 8: mean and weighted mean scores, on a 4-point scale of questions on instruction in visual literacy   w.m. mean statements no. 0.845 3.38 i would spend more time teaching visual literacy concepts if i had the necessary materials and equipment. 53 0.853 3.41 i would spend more time teaching visual literacy concepts if i had enough time. 54 0.943 3.77 i would spend more time teaching visual literacy concepts if i had the training. 55 0.815 3.26 i would spend more time teaching visual literacy concepts if it were appropriate to the subject i teach. 56 0.853 3.41 most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy concepts because of lack of time. 57 0.853 3.41 most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy concepts because of lack of materials and equipment. 58 0.948 3.79  most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy concepts because of lack of proper training. 59 0.353 1.41 most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy concepts because of objections from administration. 60 0.353 1.41 most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy because of objections from parents. 61      teachers surveyed indicated that they did not provide significant instruction to their students in visual literacy nor did those responding use visual literacy elements extensively in their english language instruction. based on these responses and the mandates by various governmental and professional entities to provide visual literacy instruction in secondary english language classes, the question arises, “why do not english language teachers provide instruction in visual literacy?” in response to questions about what kept them from teaching visual literacy, most of them indicated lack of materials and equipment, time, training, and appropriateness to subject. when discussing what limited their own teaching of visual literacy, over 90 percent indicated that not having enough time was the most significant factor. when asked about why other teacher did not provide visual literacy instruction, however, teachers surveyed responded differently from when they were asked about their own reasons. their responses to statements about why others did not teach visual literacy were generally not as strong as their responses to statements about their own reasons for not teaching visual literacy. teachers surveyed predictably reported the lack of training, rather than a lack of time, as being the major obstacle to visual literacy instruction for others. the highest percent of respondents (0.948) strongly or moderately agreed that most teachers do not instruct their students in visual literacy because of a lack of training on the teachers’ part. when asked about their own reasons for not teaching visual literacy, respondents cited training as more important than time and materials and equipment. yet, the percent who strongly or moderately agreed that their own lack of training was a major factor in their not teaching visual literacy was higher than the percent citing training as a factor for other teachers. the areas that those surveyed did not see as hindering teaching visual literacy were the attitudes of administrators and parents. only 1.41 percent strongly or moderately agreed that objections by administrators kept them from teaching visual literacy. an even equal percent (1.41) strongly or moderately agreed that parents’ objecting to visual literacy instruction was a major factor. if teachers do not feel pressure from stakeholders to emphasize traditional literacy instruction to the exclusion of visual literacy instruction, the questions still remains, “why do not english language teachers provide instruction in visual literacy?” paralleling their assessment of who should be primarily responsible for teaching visual literacy, the english language teachers surveyed indicated that they could not squeeze out any more hours from the day in order to teach visual literacy as well as traditional literacy. while respondents did not see any pressures from stakeholders not to teach visual literacy, they also did not feel any outside pressures to spend extensive time in such instruction. this lack of pressure from outside sources and the increasing demands on their time result in most instructors putting instruction in visual literacy “on the back burner,” simmering until the need for such instruction boils over and draws unpleasant attention to itself. open responses the survey asked teachers to respond to three open-ended questions plus gave them a chance to make any additional comments at the end of the survey. their open responses further illustrated their uncertainty about instructing their students in visual literacy. the questions asked were as follows: 1. how do you respond to naqaae english language standards that require instruction in non-print text? 2. how has technology influenced the teaching of traditional literacy? 3. how has technology influenced the teaching of visual literacy? those who responded interpreted the first question in one of two ways. some discussed the relevance of visual literacy instruction in the english language classroom and if such instruction should be included; others addressed how they used elements related to visual literacy instruction in the classroom as they saw such instruction meeting naqaae standards for secondary english language. of the 100 instructors taking the survey, 33 replied to the first open-ended question. of those 33 who responded, 21 of their answers were coded to indicate their reaction to being expected to teach non-print text in the english language classroom; 26 answers were coded to indicate the ways in which the respondents used visual literacy concepts in their classroom, including using charts and graphs, directly instructing students on visual literacy, or having students make presentations that included visual images. of those responses which addressed the relevance of being expected to teach visual literacy concepts in the english language classroom, nearly 43 percent were unaware of the standards, had a lack of experience with the standard, or were unclear as to what was expected of them in relation to visual literacy instruction. this lack of clarity makes it apparent that training by colleges and universities preparing english language teachers have not done a good job of helping english language teachers see the importance of visual literacy instruction nor providing training on how to integrate visual literacy instruction with traditional literacy taught in english language classrooms. slightly less than 30 percent of the respondents felt that visual literacy instruction was unimportant, took away from instruction in traditional literacy, or consumed too much additional time. their unwillingness to give up time on traditional literacy instruction for visual literacy instruction reflected not only their educational experience but the emphasis in society on the basics of reading and writing. in addition, this attitude reflected the failure of teachers to see that visual literacy instruction is not an add-on but an integral part of literacy instruction in more general terms. also, slightly more than 14 percent believed that visual literacy was too difficult to test or that they would only teach visual literacy if it were required for their students to pass local and national assessment tests. the pressures from general secondary certificate made those surveyed reticent to explore areas that were not being tested, fearing that their students would score lower on required tests. the pressures of national assessments tests have clearly made instruction in visual literacy seem less important to english language teachers surveyed because of the high-stakes nature of those tests. of the responses coded, only 14.3 percent indicated that visual literacy was an important part of the english language curriculum. when asked how technology has influenced the teaching of traditional literacy instruction, teachers gave responses which were categorized into sixteen areas, eight of which were positive, six of which were negative, and two of which could be either negative or positive. of the 35 teachers who responded to the questions of technology’s influence on teaching traditional literacies taught in english language classes, 69 different types of responses were classified by the researcher. of the 69 responses that were classified, 46 were in positive categories; 14 were in negative categories; and nine were in categories that could be either negative or positive, depending on the circumstances and the students. consistent with responses in other areas of the survey, most of the negative comments had to do with visual literacy instruction interfering with teaching literacy in traditional ways. even though less than 26 percent of the responses were negative, the data may not include the most negative responses that english language teacher have toward technology since those with the most negative attitudes were not likely to have completed an electronic survey. data in table 4.3 record the types, number, and percentage of responses. table 9: types and number of open-ended responses to questions on the influence of technology on english language instruction response category number percent enhance (positive) 14 20.3% modernize (positive) 2 2.9% multiple sensory (positive) 8 11.6% individualize (positive) 5 7.3% provide helps (positive) 3 4.4% research (positive) 7 7.3% powerpoint (positive) 4 5.8% word processing (positive) 5 7.3% information overload (negative) 2 2.9% interfere with traditional literacy (negative) 4 5.8% makes students lazy (negative) 4 5.8% cut and paste/plagiarism (negative) 2 2.9% hinders students ability to assimilate (negative) 1 1.5% misinformation (negative) 1 1.5% internet (either positive or negative) 3 4.4% spell check/grammar check (either positive or negative) 2 2.9% teachers generally acknowledged the importance of multi-sensory instruction and that technology has enhanced teachers’ ability to provide instruction through different modes on a more individualized basis to their students. the positive influence that technology has had on the ease with which students can do research was also frequently noted. many also pointed out that students being able to word process their papers both inside and outside of class has helped students’ writing and also teachers’ ability to read and grade written assignments more easily. negative comments generally focused on students’ substituting technology for true learning. despite the overwhelming positive comments about the influence of technology on the teaching of english language, teachers are still uncertain how technology is affecting their students’ abilities in traditional literacy. yet, instructors are generally more uncertain about the influence of technology on the teaching of visual literacy. when asked about the effects of technology on the teaching of visual literacy, many did not differentiate between technologies’ influence on instruction in traditional literacy and on instruction in visual literacy. although 70 individuals did not respond to the questions, 41 responses were classified from the remaining 30 individuals who did choose to remark about visual literacy and technology. of those who responded, 7.3 percent indicated that they did not differentiate between the influence of technology on traditional literacy instruction and visual literacy instruction, and 4.9 percent felt that technology had a negative influence on students’ ability to look below the surface of visual images or dulled students’ senses because of endless “boring power points”. ambivalence was apparent in 7.3 percent of the teachers’ responses with some expressing a feeling of being overwhelmed with the possibilities of technology in visual literacy instruction or inadequacy as an instructor because students already came knowing more about the available technologies related to visual literacy than the teacher. however, over 80 percent of the responses indicated that technology had a positive impact on visual literacy instruction. specific technologies such as computers, the internet, digital camera, video camera, and scanners were mentioned in 31.7 percent of the responses. another area mentioned frequently was the ability to reach more students (22%). those responses included references to students having greater access to information and images, learning through hands-on activities, being able to use multiple intelligences, and working independently, as well as teachers being able to display information to large numbers of students at one time. of the 26.8 percent who believed that technology enhanced their ability to teach visual literacy, one mentioned that teachers gained more credibility with students by using technology to provide instruction since students are often used to getting more of their information through various twenty-first century technologies. others appreciated the ease with which technology allowed them to access visual material to enhance their instruction. being able to access visual material easily and almost instantaneously was recognized as a clear benefit in teaching students how to find meaning in visuals. even though information overload was mentioned as a negative influence on teaching traditional literacy, teachers did not identify such a problem with teaching visual literacy. this discrepancy may be due to teachers’ failing to identify or have their students identify visual materials. on the other hand, the discrepancy may also be due to the amount of visual materials available through technology not appearing as massive as the amount of textual materials available through technology. by far the majority of those surveyed looked at technology as a major enhancement to their instruction of students in both traditional and visual literacy. yet, a significant minority (12.2%) indicated that they felt that the advances in technology were either overwhelming or negative in their effects on english language instructors, ability to teach their students in multiple literacies. the negative responses were particularly associated with students’ relying on technology too heavily, rather than their own learning. although those taking the survey were also given the opportunity to make any other comments about visual literacy instruction in the english language classroom, only 43 of the 100 individuals surveyed (43%) responded. of those who did respond, many (47.1%) indicated a need for more training, time, and resources in order to teach both traditional and visual literacy effectively. the greatest benefit mentioned was the ability to address students with varying needs and learning styles (35.4%) through the use of individualized instruction made possible with technology. a few felt that instruction in visual literacy and the use of technology for instruction were not priorities and were only tools in teaching students in more traditional english language  areas, particularly literature and writing. even those who identified visual literacy instruction and technology as tools to teaching traditional literacy did not discuss how they incorporate instruction in multiple literacies within their classrooms. summary the major issues that emerged from the survey were the differences in training that english language teachers have had in visual literacy, the variation in use of visual literacy concepts in the english language  classroom, the range of perceptions in both students’ and teachers’ skill in using technology related to visual literacy, the lack of consensus as to who should be responsible for visual literacy instruction, the failure to identify limitations on teachers’ addressing visual literacy in the english language  classroom, and teachers’ lack of awareness of standards related to teaching visual literacy in the english language classroom. with these issues in mind, the researcher analyzed the information as it related to research questions posed earlier. conclusions and recommendation in some cases seem clear while in others the appropriate course is less certain.  questions #1 and #2: attitude and training  as indicated, only slightly more than 14 percent of respondents had a positive attitude toward teaching visual literacy. while most indicated that they were unwilling to take time away from traditional literacy in order to teach visual literacy, many also indicated that they simply did not have an adequate knowledge of either the standards or how to teach visual literacy. respondents of all ages do not feel that administration or parents limit english language teachers’ ability to instruct their students in visual literacy. all generally strongly disagreed with the statements, “most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy concepts because of objections from administration”, (1.41 with 4.0 being strongest agreement with statement) and “most teachers do not spend time teaching visual literacy concepts because of objections from parents” (mean of 1.41 with 4.0 being strongest agreement with statement). yet, despite the fact that they do not perceive strong extrinsic forces from the profession or community keeping them from teaching visual literacy, as a whole, they agree that they might teach visual literacy if it were more appropriate to the subject they teach. the failure to see instruction in visual literacy as germane to the subject of english language instruction may also be a training issue that colleges and schools systems need to address. even if they did not see visual literacy instruction as part of the english language curriculum, all respondents generally conceded that materials and equipment, time, and training are issues limiting their own and their colleagues’ ability to instruct their students in visual literacy. most agreed that other teachers would be more likely to teach visual literacy if they had more time and resources than they, themselves, would. less significant, but still worth noting, is the difference between the means of time providing more incentive for self and time providing incentive for others, on the 4point scale. training was the only area of the three—time, resources, and training—that respondents rated as more likely to encourage them to teach visual literacy as compared to training for their colleagues. the responses may indicate that teachers are slightly more open to training in visual literacy instruction than they perceive their fellow english language teachers to be. the concerns of english language teachers that they do not have sufficient materials and equipment, time, or training to adequately instruct their student in visual literacy are issues that teacher education institutions that train teachers and public school systems that hire them will need to address if society wants secondary students to be more savvy about the influence of visual media and how to get information through multiple types of presentation of information.  although the researcher did not expect english language teachers to have as much knowledge of visual literacy as they have of traditional literacy, the lack of training was one of the most striking, but expected, findings. statistically significant differences also exist among various demographic groups in their training in visual literacy. those who recalled discussions of visual literacy in their course work were generally younger, had less experience teaching, and taught in larger schools than those who had no formal training in visual literacy. those with master degrees or above and those who had been teaching more than twenty years tended to indicate no training, either formal or informal, in visual literacy. one clear gender difference in training appeared in questions regarding informal training in visual literacy. women were more likely than men to have learned about visual literacy informally through other teachers or to have studied about visual literacy on their own.   question #3: instruction of students in visual literacy no matter how much training teachers have, how much they use visuals in their instruction, or how competent they think their students and they themselves are in use of visual technology, the heart of the question is if they instruct their students in visual literacy concepts. although the responses to questions on visual literacy instruction reveal some mixed results, most teachers admit to providing little instruction to their students in visual literacy. no statistically significant difference among groups is apparent, with all aggregated responses in the section on visual literacy instruction scoring below 3 for all groups. while the aggregate numbers give little insight into how teachers instruct their students in visual literacy, responses on individual questions may be telling. based on their responses to the individual questions, most teachers expect their students to use word processing for their essays. even though using word processing enhances readability, students apparently are not encouraged to use other features of the computer that could improve their communication.  when asked if they encourage students to use visuals in compositions, most teachers indicate that they rarely suggest such inclusions despite the ease with which visuals can now be included with text. responses to other questions about visual literacy instruction also produce responses that indicate that teachers only sometimes or never instruct their students in visual literacy. from other responses, it seems apparent that training is not solely the issue. several open responses and responses on the limitations on visual literacy instruction reveal why english language teachers do not instruct their students in visual literacy. some respondents stated that they were unaware that teaching students to interpret and present visual information is part of both the professional and national standards for english language classrooms. others expressed a sense of being overburdened and unable to cope with additional expectations on their instruction. of those who responded to a question about their reaction to being required to teach students how to comprehend and interpret non-print text, over 70 percent signified that they were either unaware of standards or felt the standards were unreasonable. only 14 percent of respondents had a positive view toward instructing students in visual literacy in the english language classroom. if they had time, training, and resources, some suggested that they might instruct their students in visual as well as traditional literacy. realizing that more students are coming to secondary education with a preference for visual learning and that a majority of egyptian adults receive their information on current events through visual media, visual literacy instruction is becoming less of an option and more of a necessity. yet, english language teachers do not feel prepared to add instruction in visual literacy to their already full platter. being required by the ministry of education to make sure that all their students are proficient in reading and writing absorbs most of teachers’ time and energy in english language classrooms. national standards that are not directly addressed in national testing are not priorities among english language teachers, and, therefore, often are ignored or touched on in the most cursory way.  question #4: use of visual literacy elements in the classroom  on an even more elementary level than teaching students in visual literacy is using visual elements in the classroom. therefore, of even more concern than the lack of training in visual literacy is the disconnect between training and use of visual literacy concepts.  an exception to the disconnect between training and use involves gender. just as males report more formal training in visual literacy instruction than do females, males also use visual literacy approaches in their classroom to a greater extent than do females. again this difference may support research on the relative strength in visual learning of males over females.  questions #5 and #6: student use and document design although all teachers rate their own competency in using visual technology higher than their students’, those with just a bachelor degree, who have been teaching six years or less rate themselves closer to their own students. the only other group who rates their students’ competency nearly equivalent to their own is those who have been teaching over 30 years or are over 55 years old. it is not apparent if older, more experienced individuals have not kept up with technology or if they merely perceive their students to be more proficient in their use of visual technology because those students have grown up with such technology. these responses may be based on the myth that young people are better able to negotiate technology than those who grew up in a low-tech world. other responses that may be based on and support other myths about technology relate to gender. while males and females report approximately the same level of competence for their students in use of visual technology, males rate themselves considerably higher than females do. while english language teachers do not have a great deal of influence over how competent their students are at using technology related to visual literacy, they do have more control over whether their students use visual literacy concepts, including document design. again, most english language arts teachers apparently encourage their students to rely more on traditional concepts associated with the english language curriculum. for example, the mean score for the responses to “my students use charts and graphs in their compositions” was 1.68, indicating that such use is rare. however, in most areas outside of english language, charts and graphs are a vital part of expressing information in a visual manner. also, the mean score for the responses to “my students use drawing and photographs in their compositions” was 1.68, even though both virtually all published materials now included such elements. most respondents appeared to encourage the use of styles of expression converted from old technologies than methods commonly used in current technology. the scores on two questions related to document design were consistent. the mean score for “my students use headings in their compositions” was 1.68. “my students use bulleting and numbering in their compositions” received a mean score of 1.68, even though bulleting and number are now easily included and have become common elements in most business and professional writing. as indicated earlier, those english language teachers who responded seem to use word processor more as electronic typewriters than as a means to allow their students to explore the possibilities of literacy provided by modern technology.  conclusions from the respondents surveyed, the researcher concluded that, while teacher preparatory institutions are doing a better job of training prospective teachers in how to instruct their students so that the students will develop visual literacy, the majority of english language teachers still do not have a clear understanding of how to integrate visual literacy instruction with the more traditional literacies taught in english language classrooms in the past. moreover, schools have done little to train teachers already in the profession to incorporate visual literacy instruction with traditional literacy instruction. in fact, because most teachers have gained knowledge in how to instruct their students in visual literacy through self-study or discussion with colleagues, the english language teachers’ knowledge of methods for visual literacy instruction varies widely. this lack of systematic training in visual literacy instruction has led to teachers’ not being clear on what is expected of them as they work with their students to meet the standards for visual literacy set by naqaae. because many of those surveyed pointed to the ministry not testing visual literacy as a reason for their not addressing the issue, the ministry is also at fault in the failure of most secondary english language  teachers in egypt to incorporate visual literacy instruction in their classes. if teachers are more concerned with teaching what is tested, the ministry of education must incorporate assessments of all standards, including those related to visual literacy, if it expects teachers to help students meet all of those standards. in addition, the failure of teacher education institutions, the ministry, and professional organizations to make english language teachers aware of their responsibility in visual literacy instruction is, however, no worse than the apparent failure of english language teachers to recognize the abilities and needs of their students. even though many of the teachers surveyed rated their students’ ability with various technologies lower than their own, the teachers’ failure to encourage students to use those technologies to develop all types of literacy related to english language —listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing, and presenting visual material—cannot be excused by the teachers’ own lack of training in various areas of literacy. while their students are learning naturally through all sensory modes—auditory, tactile and visual—secondary english language teachers are not using all those modes to their greatest advantage in instruction to improve their students’ literacy. as evidenced by responses on the survey, training alone, however, is not enough to insure that teachers use visual materials and instruct their students in visual literacy. both teacher education institutions and the ministry of education must help english language teachers realize they will need to modify their teaching styles to integrate visual literacy concepts into the classroom in order to optimize student learning. along with training, schools will need to make sure that teachers and students have access to visual materials in the same way that they guarantee that teachers and students have access to textbooks now. while it is important that teachers have the training, materials, and equipment necessary to use visuals in their instruction, the impact will only be significant when instructors use their knowledge to make sure that their students are literate, alphabetically, technologically, and visually. holding teachers accountable for students becoming visually literate will necessitate having a means of assessing visual literacy. finding ways to assess visual literacy without relying on traditional literacy skills, will allow students to show their ability in other literacies. assessing visual literacy using traditional paper and pencil testing makes little sense. while testing students’ ability to interpret visuals may be difficult, english language teachers can easily encourage and assess their students’ ability in using visual elements in communication. expanding options for relaying information through less traditional means such as presentations, videos, magazines, poster displays and other venues that are popular both in other disciplines and at other level in english language  could expand students’ readiness to enter a world requiring both traditional and visual literacy.  recommendations for research this study provides incentive to other researchers to explore the differences that may exist in visual literacy instruction between homogeneous and heterogeneous populations and between rural and urban schools. resistance to and misunderstanding of visual literacy apparent in the population studied indicates that a study of another geographic area in egypt may be necessary to determine if the resistance and misunderstanding is localized to dakahlia. teacher education institutions should also study how to instruct teacher candidates in methods that will address the demands of a society that relies on multiple literacies for information. because teacher education institutions will only be able to address the needs of future secondary english language teachers, how the public schools can provide training for existing staff will need to be studied. what equipment best serves teachers in instruction that addresses multiple literacies will be an issue for investigation. ministry of education should not throw money for equipment and materials at a concern until the best approaches are clearly understood. if research indicates the importance of instruction in visual literacy and that instruction in visual literacy can complement instruction in traditional literacy, then more stringent standards for teaching visual literacy in the complete the sentence  for instructors for the english language instructor, materials and equipment, time, and training in visual literacy instruction are major concerns. these needs, however, are predicated on maintaining english language standards that include instruction in interpretation of information presented visually and in presentation of visual information. a first step would be to incorporate units on instructing students in visual literacy in methods courses for those training to become secondary english language teachers. while teacher-training preparation often stretches beyond the traditional four years of post-secondary education now, restructuring units in methods courses would not have to add semesters or years to the english language teacher preparation curriculum as full courses on the subject might. even though such a step would supply new teachers with training in instruction in how to teach visual literacy, public school systems would have to be responsible for supplying training to teachers who are already in the classroom. the ministry of education could encourage such training by supplying in-service presentations to school systems at no cost to the schools. in-service training sessions would raise awareness of the importance of visual literacy instruction in the english language 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(1993). what's so different about visuals? technical communication, 40: 666-69. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 53-68 prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. kuyokwa john1 chiziwa symon2 & semphere nertha3 malawi. abstract the purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of use of psychoactive substances among undergraduate students at chirunga college in malawi. the study was guided by ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour. mixed research methodologies were used, in which both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies were employed in data generation and analysis. spssv20 and excel were used in quantitative data analysis and qualitative data was analyzed thematically. the study involved 147 participants and the findings revealed that (34%) of students used psychoactive substances. it recommends that undergraduate students who use psychoactive substances like any other user of these substances, require help. accordingly, as an institution of higher learning, chirunga college has to take the necessary steps to address this problem; including introducing counselling and psychotherapy services at the institution. keywords: psychoactive substance abuse, use, depression, undergraduate students, chirunga college, malawi. background of study the study sought to explore the prevalence of the anti-social behaviours of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students of diverse ethnic backgrounds at chirunga 1 malawi college of health sciences. email: johnkuyokwa@gmail.com 2 university of malawi. email: schiziwa9@gmail.com 3 university of malawi. email: nsemphere@cc.ac.mw kuyokwa john, chiziwa symon & semphere nertha ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 54 college in malawi. studies conducted in different countries have shown that undergraduate university students abuse psychoactive substances (esposito-smythers & spirito, 2004; garlow et al., 2007). most of these undergraduate students are either adolescents or young adults. hence for the purposes of this study, undergraduate students will operationally comprise these categories. adolescence is a period of human development when young people start to develop the adult's physiological, psychological, sociological, and emotional functions (ellis, 2004). agreeing with ellis (2004), the adolescence age is a period from 12 to 20 years and young adulthood a period from 21 to 25 years. this study concentrated on adolescents aged between 15 to 20 years and young adults aged between 21 to 25 years. college years can be a challenging time, and some college students experience depression as a result of academic pressure, relationships, family expectations, financial pressure, and identity development (eisenberg, gollust, golberstein & hefner, 2007). due to different challenges that students face when in college, some develop age inappropriate behaviours which are contrary to prevailing norms for social conduct. this is referred to as anti-social behaviours (dsm-4). the anti-social behaviours include psychoactive substance use, social dysfunction (suicidal attempts, aggressiveness) and racism (esposito-smythers & spirito, 2004). this study focused on anti-social behaviours. it was concerned with the abuse of alcohol, cannabis, coffee/caffeine, valium, un-prescribed drugs and tobacco; a too common situation when some students start feeling stressed and depressed (garlow, 2002). effects of substance abuse include increased suicide risk in adolescents and young adults (espositosmythers and spirito, 2004; fowler et al., 1986; &garlow, 2002). lo, monge, howell, and cheng (2013) looked at the association between use of psychoactive substances and mental health problems among american college students and found alcohol abuse/dependence and the nonmedical use of prescription drugs to be associated with relatively serious mental illness and with lack of health care. statement of the problem the government of malawi recognizes that no health system is complete without due consideration of the mental health needs of the population (mhp, 2000). in order to address mental health issues like substance abuse, the government of malawi formulated the first national mental health policy in the year 2000 (mhp, 2000). however, little is in the policy on the need to screen students for substance use and on how to help those identified to need help. prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 55 extant research has also concentrated on looking at substance abuse among adult population in general; though some observations in malawi have associated substance abuse with adolescent and young adult depression (garlow et al., 2007). nonetheless, little research has been done to investigate the prevalence of anti-social behaviours among undergraduate students in malawi’s institutions of high learning. university students have to adapt to various psychosocial changes in coping with academic and social demands during training for their professional careers. some reports have suggested that substance abuse among malawian undergraduate students is a problem that needs to be further investigated (yuriy zverev, 2014). it is clear that students’ performance in universities is negatively affected by use of psychoactive substances and that it impairs their academic achievement (mazur, tabak, dzielska, wąż & oblacińska, 2016). hence, the present study seeks to fill this gap by exploring the prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at an institution of higher learning in malawi, the chirunga college. main research question what is the prevalence of anti-social behaviours (psychoactive substance use) among undergraduate students in malawi, using chirunga college as a case study? subsidiary research questions were: i. what is the relationship between psychoactive substance use and depression among undergraduate students? ii. does peer pressure have an impact on psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students? iii. why do undergraduate students use psychoactive substances? review of literature the prevalence of psychoactive substance ab/use among adolescents and young adult students jennings’ us study (2000) revealed a prevalence of anti-social behaviours among us students many reasons are suggested as to why adolescents pickup anti-social behaviours like taking un-prescribed drugs, smoking cannabis and using alcohol. some studies indicate family and peer influence to be the strongest motivators of drug and alcohol use in teens and kuyokwa john, chiziwa symon & semphere nertha ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 56 they have further reported that despite a general reduction in alcohol use among adolescents and young adults over the past decade, heavy alcohol use remains a big problem, particularly in college populations where heavy episodic or binge drinking is especially prevalent (kandel, 1999; johnston, o’malley, bachman, & schulenberg, 2013) and chirunga undergraduate students have shown a similar pattern. research has suggested that alcohol and marijuana ab/use in the university tend to be adopted as a mechanism to cope with stress of work (thomas et al., 2006; o'malley, & johnston, 2002). a report in united states of america, 2007 by national center on addiction and substance abuse (casa) at columbia university, showed high alcohol abuse level of nearly 50% (3.8 million) of all full-time college students who have had binge drinking (defined as five or more drinks on one occasion in the previous 30 days) or had abused drugs during each month of that year. the rate of drinking among us college students noticeably climbed up between 1993 and 2005 and the rate of riskier drinking also increased substantially (casa, 2007). the number of us college students who reported binge drinking three or more times increased by 16% from 1993 to 2001 (casa, 2007). recent studies have also revealed high 51.3%, prevalence of frequent binge drinking among college students in france (tavolacci et al, 2016). also, narly one quarter of us college students were three times more likely to meet the diagnostic criteria for substance abuse or dependence than the general population (casa, 2007). two years later a similar study on prevalence of substance use disorders and aspects of the help-seeking process among university students reported that public university students in the us have substance use disorders and have poor self-help seeking behaviours (caldeira et al, 2009). because little or no studies of similar nature is known for malawi the current study wants to examine whether a similar trend occurs and collate data on it. the consequences of this high rate of alcohol abuse among college students are profound, including the prevalence of alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape and unprotected sex (hingson, heeren, zakocs, kopstein, & wechsler, 2002). theoretical framework icek ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour provides a framework for studying the prevalence of use of psychoactive substances among undergraduate students. ajzen proposed that the occurrence of a specific behaviour is determined by intentions, attitudes, and subjective norms. ajzen’s theory further proposes that there are three beliefs that are predictive of an individual's behaviour or behavioural outcomes. these are the individual's https://scholar.google.co.za/citations?user=xcvoa-gaaaaj&hl=en&oi=sra https://scholar.google.co.za/citations?user=gw4y5hyaaaaj&hl=en&oi=sra prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 57 attitude towards the behaviour, the subjective norm of the behavior and the individual's perceived control of the behavior. this theory of planned behavior has been used by different scholars to explain the behaviors of college students in marketing, and in health and to assess college students' beliefs (parikh & servaty-seib, 2013).this theory is relevant for this study because it explains causes of unhealthy behaviours among college students. the theory explains that social processes must also be taken into account in evaluating human behaviour. a weakness of the theory is that it is not specific to targeted behaviours or groups hence it is difficult to generalize to other specific behaviours. in the context of this study, the theory allows the researcher to consider the college environment as playing an important role in shaping the behavior of students. college students with depressive symptoms at chirunga college, malawi can have their condition alleviated if proper support systems are put in place. theoretical application behaviour in this case is the undergraduate student's feelings of depression or use of psychoactive substances, while intention are thoughts about when to use psychoactive substances which could be secondary to the feelings of depression. attitudes are a student's overall evaluation of the behaviour. applying the theory of planned behaviour to this study would imply that the undergraduate student’s experience of substance abuse constitutes the behaviour in questions; while thoughts about when to use psychoactive substances, which could be secondary to the feelings of depression, constitutes the intention. finally, the students’ evaluation of the behaviour of using psychoactive substance, that is, his or her beliefs about the need to use it, is based on the benefit of using it, which might be to reduce depressive symptoms based on the students’ beliefs, would constitutes attitudes. the next section attempts to highlight an application of the theory to our research. subjective norms; ajzen (1991) defines subjective norms as one’s own estimate of the social pressure to perform or not perform the target behaviour. in his theory, he assumed that subjective norms has two components that work in interaction, these are: the person’s beliefs about how other people who may be in some way important to them, would like them to behave and how the person's view of himself/herself affects his/her perceptions. in this case student’s peer expectations of use of psychoactive substances and student’s perceptions of use of psychoactive substances affect the act of using psychoactive substances. for example, kuyokwa john, chiziwa symon & semphere nertha ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 58 a friend who suggests going out to drink or taking psychoactive substance can make the subject student use it without him/her having made a considered decision. a student’s feeling of depression can also make him/her perceive that the best way of managing depression is to use psychoactive substances. perceived behavioural control is the extent to which a person feels able to enact the behaviour (ajzen, 1991). a person’s belief of perceived behavioural control has an impact on how s/he responds to a certain behavior. ajzens’ theory assumes two aspects to perceived behavioural control, one being how much power a person has control over the behaviour and the other, how confident a person feels about being able to perform or not perform the behavior. the first would be the extent to which a student has control over anti-social behaviours when peers or friends urge him or her to be involved in psychoactive substance abuse. the second is the student's ability to make a decision whether or not to involve him/herself in the behaviour. it is determined by the students’ powers to say no to friends who want him/her to be involved in anti-social behaviour. therefore, a student’s beliefs of perceived behavioural control plays an important role in decision making process in order to be involved in anti-social behaviours or resist peer influence. research design and methodology the study used mixed methods research design. both quantitative and qualitative research designs were employed in data collection and analysis. the research design was selected because the research questions of the study required different data collection strategies, hence different research methods. the use of mixed methodology also allowed triangulation and converging of findings. it also helped to clarify the results, discovering the contradiction, as well as extending the breadth of the inquiry (creswell, 2003). we have adopted a triangulation design with both qualitative and quantitative data collected almost simultaneously to take advantage of strengths of either method and at the same time offset the weaknesses of the other (macmillan, 2004). all our study participants were deemed to be rich with information. during data analysis, quantitative and qualitative methods were used sequentially, taking into account the advantages of the triangulation design ensuring that issues identified through the quantitative data analysis were triangulated using the qualitative data analysis. a hundred and forty-six (146) participants were enrolled in the study, represented as follows; 96 (64.6%) males, 51(34.7%) females, & 1(0.7%) other sexual orientation (other prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 59 sexual orientation represents sexual minority groups) respectively. the bar graph below shows the details. figure 1: demographic statistics the graph shows that they were more male students than female students for study. study population the selection of our study population was based on the chirunga college records (2016). these records indicate that 2507 students were aged between 15 to 25 years. out of the total; 1135 were aged 15 to 20 (45.3%) and 1371 were aged 21 to 25 (54.7%). figure: 2: general adolescents and young adult student population at the college. this bar graph shows that majority of the study participants were aged between 21 to 25 years than those who were aged between 15 to 20 years at the college campus. kuyokwa john, chiziwa symon & semphere nertha ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 60 demographics of targeted study participants the age range of the targeted study participants was from 15 to 25 years and the sub-ranges were as follows; 15 to 20 years were 96(65.3%), and 21 to 25years were 51(34.7%). figure 3: demographic statistics this bar graph shows that the majority of the study participants were aged between 15 to 20 years. academic year, marital status, and mode of scholarship the majority of the research participants were first year students 52 (35.4%), followed by second year students 50 (34.0%), then fourth year students 28 (19.0%) and finally third year students, 17 (11.6%). most of the study participants were single 141 (95.9%), while those who were separated were 3 (2.0%), and married 3 (2.0%), respectively. most of the study participants were government sponsored students 84 (57.1%), while private students were 63 (42.9%). data collection and instrumentation the participants involved in this study were the 2015 / 2016 cohort of undergraduate students attending chirunga college. data was collected using an adapted patient health questionnaire (phq-9), a who validated questionnaire used to diagnose depression in humans in a community—also validated for malawi. since phq-9 is commonly used in local communities and not in clinics, the researchers adopted it so that they could use it to assess prevalence of and diagnose depression among undergraduate students community. phq-9 would enable us associate the feelings of depression and use of psychoactive substances among students. prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 61 the structured questionnaire was designed to include demographic details, phq-9 depression scale, names of psychoactive substances that are commonly abused and respondents were asked to tick against appropriate response. in addition, respondents were provided with space where they could describe the reasons why they decided to use psychoactive substances and how the psychoactive substance use affected their academic performance. researchers and three enumerators distributed the study questionnaires randomly to the participants, which were then self-administered by the students. the responses that were obtained were coded for data analysis. some thematic responses were appropriately quoted. data processing and analysis quantitative data analysis was done using spss and excel while qualitative data analysis had been done thematically. while these two analyses were done independently of each other, the interpretation was not. in this study, quantitative analysis informed the qualitative analysis and conversely, the quantitative analysis elaborated on the qualitative analysis. this approach provided further insights and points for triangulation and helped to provide a clear meaning to the study findings (cresswell, 2009; mcmillan, 2004; rus-eft &preskill, 2001). descriptive summaries of quantitative data were based on the statistical means and were presented graphically and as relevant data tabulations. discussion of findings the question that guided this study was: what is the prevalence of use of psychoactive substances among the undergraduate students? the prevalence of anti-social behaviours (use of psychoactive substances) figure 4: prevalence of psychoactive substance use among participants use of psychoactive substances frequency percent yes 50 34.0 no 97 66.0 total 147 100.0 kuyokwa john, chiziwa symon & semphere nertha ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 62 figure 4 indicates that 34% of participants were using psychoactive substances while 66% were not. while a high percentage of participants were not using psychoactive substances, the percentage involved was still high enough to cause concern amongst college administrators and education stakeholders. although slightly lower, this is somewhat similar to the 45% rate that hingson, et al., (2002) found in their study of use of psychoactive substances among undergraduate students in different universities in the u.s. psychoactive substance ab/use and depression the study shows that 35 participants (24%) who engaged in substance abuse had depression while 15 participants (10%) who also engaged in substance abuse did not have depression. (see figure 5). these results show that not everyone engaging in psychoactive substance abuse had depression. on the other hand, 59 participants (40%) who did not engage in substance abuse had depression while 38 participants (26%) who did not engage in substance abuse did not have depression. from these results, it is clear that the presence of depression is not dependent on use or non-use of drugs. students are prone to depression because of the academic pressure they undergo in higher education and not necessarily because they used psychoactive substances or not. figure 5: use of psychoactive substances versus depression use of psychoactive substances with depression use of psychoactive substances without depression no use of psychoactive substances with depression no use of psychoactive substances and no depression 35 (24%) 15(10%) 59(40%) 38(26%) this means that participants had other means of coping with depression apart from resorting to substance abuse. ajzen (1991) argues that a person’s attitudes towards something has an impact on the outcome of behaviour. as mentioned earlier on, he also considered attitude to have two components which work together: beliefs about consequences of the behavior and the corresponding positive or negative judgements about the features of the behavior. in this case prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 63 students’ cultural belief about engaging in use of psychoactive substances could have an influence on the type of psychoactive substance to use and not necessarily as a result of students’ feelings of depression and the student’s evaluation of use of psychoactive substances as a way of managing depressive feelings has an influence of what type of psychoactive substances to use. regarding friends using psychoactive substances. the study reveals that 100 (68%) participants had friends who were using psychoactive substances while 47(31.97%) of participants did not have friends who were using psychoactive substances. 100(68%) 47(31.97%) partcipant's friend using psychoactive substances figure 6: participant’s friends using psychoactive substances. figure 6 shows that 100 participants had friends who were using psychoactive substances while 47 participants had friends who were not using psychoactive substances. thus, the study participants had more friends who were using psychoactive substances. the data from our research study has revealed that there is a possibility that some of the study’s participants came under the influence of peers to use psychoactive substances. this shows that there is to some extent the possibility that students’ use of psychoactive substances is influenced by peers. kuyokwa john, chiziwa symon & semphere nertha ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 64 4.5.3 reason for using psychoactive substances this study reveals that there are different reasons why college undergraduate students use psychoactive substances. figure 7: participant’s reasons for using psychoactive substances the following are reasons which participants provided for using psychoactive substances. the study revealed that majority, 66% of participants (97) provided no reason for using psychoactive substance. 12.9% participants (19) used them to feel active and study well, 11.6% (17) to manage stress and anxiety, 6.8% (10) participants to socialize with friends, and 1.4% (2) both to spend time with friends and study actively. one participant (0.7%) used psychoactive substances as a cultural tradition, and 1 participant (0.7%) was not sure why s/he used it. one of the touching written responses include the following: participant “i use coffee in order to stay awake and study so that i get a very good grade. however, drinking coffee doesn't have any effect with my interactions with other people that is as far as i can notice”. these responses demonstrate the theory of planned behaviour’s component of the person's view of himself/herself affects his/her perceptions. this agrees with this participants’ thinking as the participant is perceiving that using psychoactive substance like coffee will make him prevalence of psychoactive substance use among undergraduate students at chirunga college, malawi. ajote vol. 8 (2009), pp. 53 68 65 stay awake and study hard and hence get a good grade. therefore, from the above participant’s response, ajzen (1991) theory of planned behavior clearly demonstrates student’s reasons for using psychoactive substances. study implications the study has revealed that undergraduate students at chirunga college suffer from depression and use of psychoactive substance problems. therefore, counseling services should be provided to undergraduate learners with the problems of depression and use of psychoactive substances at the college. however, it is important to note that use of psychoactive substances is not the only symptom of depression. as the study revealed, even those who are not actively using psychoactive substances are at the risk of being depressed due to other challenges including pressure of work at the college. recommendations the study recommends the formulation of a policy to include counseling services in higher education institutions and an appropriate student counseling service referral system in malawi. the university of malawi should establish a counseling clinic at the college where students with depression and those use of psychoactive substances problems can access counseling services. lecturers should be trained to identify symptoms of depression among students so that they can identify them early and refer them appropriately. students should be encouraged to go for expert routine screening for depression, when they have feelings of depression so that they could receive timely help. references american psychiatric association. 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(2014). problem drinking among university students in malawi. article in collegium antropologicum · april 2008. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=tavolacci%20mp%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26905284 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=boerg%20e%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26905284 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=richard%20l%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26905284 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=meyrignac%20g%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26905284 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=dechelotte%20p%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26905284 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=ladner%20j%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26905284 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=26905284 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania (elct) thomas walsh jr. ames community schools, usa abstract this report summarizes the staff development provided to secondary teachers at four dioceses schools in the north and south pare of tanzania in 2014. included is information supporting the need for a seminar on english conversation and teaching strategies, overview of the elct schools educational system, the seminar curriculum including past training experiences, the dioceses project proposal submission, and the staff development interest survey. the report also discusses project goals, scheduling and attendance by participants in the seminar at the schools, information about the teachers’ subject content areas of instruction, and reported years of teaching experience. discussion of classroom visitations and observations and the use of technology are presented. a post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey discussing potential use of the strategies with students is also presented. a teacher evaluation of the seminar and a proposal with further recommendations are provided. this is the fourth on-site seminar provided to the schools since 2006, 2008 and 2011 by the author. keywords: tanzania english education, english instruction, teaching strategies, secondary teachers, instructional technology, tanzania education introduction the paper discusses a seminar experience provided at four dioceses schools located in the north and south pare region of tanzania, africa. this was the fourth on-site training in teaching strategies and conversational english, since beginning the program in 2006. the report presents a rationale for providing the seminar training to the secondary teachers, program goals and curriculum, writing the project proposal, scheduling arrangements, and participant demographics with content teaching subjects identified. additional information is given on the use of technology, classroom observations of teachers in their content subject areas, and a proposal recommendation for the dioceses schools based on changes in student enrollment. seminar evaluation survey findings are reported based on data gathered on a staff development interest survey, post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey, and a staff development 2 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) course post-evaluation. considerations for future training experiences are provided in the report. rationale for the seminar an ongoing problem facing many teachers and the schools in tanzania is supporting teachers in their english teaching skills for delivery of instruction. english instruction is provided to students in the schools starting in form 1 after seven years of primary school in tanzania (see figure 1). while english delivery of instruction is required in form 1 iv, teachers may not have the proficiency or confidence to teach their subject entirely in the english language. this is also compounded by the fact these teachers speak the national language of swahili, taught in all content areas in standard i – vii, along with their local language (e.g., pare) and possibly an additional family tribal language. given the language circumstances support for offering an english seminar to these teachers is necessary. ______________________________________________________________________________  preparation (kindergarten) – one year  standard i – vii (primary) –seven years with exam after standard 7  form i – iv (secondary) – four years with exams after form 2 and 4  form v – vi (high school) – two years with exam after form 6  college and university – three to five years with diploma (teaching diploma in three years) *national exams are given over a period of one week (standard 7) to two weeks in length (form 2, 4 and 6). **if you attend another university outside of tanzania (e.g., u.s. or europe) a national exam must be completed to enter industry or government positions (foreign credits, inc. 2011). figure 1. the tanzania educational system and exam protocol other issues, particularly affecting the dioceses schools, are a teacher shortage in the country created with the opening of government public “community” secondary schools and a required national testing scheme. the government schools can attract teachers for providing higher salaries and/or less “extra” teacher assignment of responsibilities (e.g., remaining on campus for the weekend to oversee students in the dormitories). the teacher shortage has resulted in higher staff turnover and the recruitment of teachers to the dioceses schools with limited post-secondary education (i.e., form 6 graduation certificate) and formal teacher preparation or training as provided with a university teaching diploma. this turnover has been perpetuated by lower student achievement test scores, given in form 4, which are posted online for parent viewing along with each school’s ranking. the scores influence enrollment at the schools since parents move their students to higher performing schools. the shift away from the dioceses schools has reduced the amount of tuition money revenue and stifled the ability to pay teachers on a timely basis. these issues have resulted in a high number of younger teaching staff at the dioceses schools with limited curriculum resources and books. teacher preparation students (i.e., student teachers) have also been recruited to support the staff shortage at the schools. however, it has been recently reported during the seminar-training period that test scores appear to be rebounding according to the headmasters at manka and dindimo secondary schools and substantiated by the secretary of education at the dioceses. thomas walsh jr. 3 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the dioceses teachers have reported that instruction focusing on use of “chalk-talk” presentation methods or involving students copying notes off the chalkboard written by the teacher from the textbook is common. sometimes teachers are only provided with a single textbook copy of course content for instruction. while dioceses libraries and use of multiple copies are becoming more prevalent in the classrooms, teachers need instructional support in teaching methodologies given these limited teaching resources. given these circumstances at the dioceses schools, the need for a return seminar site visit was proposed to the secretary of education at the dioceses. the focus of the seminar is similar to the past training programs to develop teachers’ english skills and include instructional methodologies and techniques for delivering information in a problem-solving format, which engages students thinking skills. the seminar would provide support for the “chalk-talk” teaching strategy integrating various teaching methodologies, encourage use of cooperative learning with multiple text resources when available, and support teachers in the use of technology. when electricity was available, teacher training was provided in the use of computers donated through funding and ongoing technology support from the evangelical lutheran church of mecklenburg, germany. the training curriculum and past seminars the seminar is the fourth site visit at the dioceses school since the training experience was provided in 2006, 2008 and 2011. information about the previous seminars and curriculum can be found in the article “providing staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church of tanzania,” a refereed journal publication in the african journal of teacher education (ajote). the journal may be electronically viewed in html or pdf format by selecting the link in the ajote table of contents after entering the listed url: african journal of teacher education vol. 2, no 2 (2012): ajote: educational studies in status, language, gender, culture and society http://gir.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/issue/view/138 the seminar text, discussed in the ajote publication, provided to teachers strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa (2014) and guided the staff development training experience for secondary dioceses teachers in the northern and southern pare schools. the staff development was similar to the previous training seminars with each attendee provided the instructional book strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa and access to the computer labs at the school when available. a survey needs assessments was conducted at the beginning of the seminar to assess areas of instruction to emphasize models of teaching in note taking, cooperative learning strategies, computer training and english conversational discussion activities. added training options provided for the seminar in 2014 included teaching question-writing strategies and using the linux computer system reference guide. seminar topics on teaching strategies included finding information using a people bingo activity, studying of question learning strategies, using graphic organizers for presenting information to students, practicing the models of teaching (i.e., inductive and concept attainment), and integrating cooperative learning techniques with instruction. reading an article on the maasai provided information for question writing and teaching an inductive lesson. a survey about 4 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) tanzania was administered for practice of the four corners cooperative learning strategy. a questionnaire on opinions and attitudes was given to learn a graffiti cooperative learning strategy. most discussion activities (e.g., the risk taker test) were not completed due to the limited amount of seminar meeting time. participants were required to write a lesson plan using one or more strategies in their teaching content area and to share with the group on the last seminar meeting day. proposal for the project the diocese secretary of education was sent a proposal by e-mail identifying goals and interest in returning to pare to give a staff seminar to teachers at the school sites. the proposal was to provide the seminar to mruma and shighatini in north pare and manka and dindimo secondary schools in the south pare. arrangements were made for an internship teacher from usangi college to provide the seminar to teachers at usangi secondary school. she attended the seminar in shighatini to support her training to deliver the curriculum, but was unable to provide the training at usangi due to unforeseen circumstances. the proposal included teacher enrollment numbers or participation in the previous seminars to provide an idea of the number of copies of the text, strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa, were needed to deliver the staff training along with handouts (e.g. survey evaluations). the url link and copy of the ajote publication was provided along with a suggested teaching assignment schedule (see figure 2). ______________________________________________________________________________ february 1: depart iowa to tanzania february 2 – 3: arrive to kia on february 2 with two nights (one full day) at elephant hotel in same. february 3 visit dioceses to confirm arrangements and pay transportation. february 4 – 8: depart from same to mruma for five nights and four days teaching. note: usangi college intern will attend the seminar and provide instruction to usangi staff at their school. february 9 – 14: depart from mruma to shighatini for six nights and four days teaching. february 15 – 16: depart shighatini for same for two nights (one full day). february 17 – 21: depart from same to manka for five nights and four days teaching. february 22 – 26: depart from manka to dindimo for five nights and four days teaching. february 27 – 28: depart dindimo to same for two nights (one full day). march 1: depart from same to kia figure 2. proposed and implemented teaching assignment schedule a proposed budget was included in the report. the total expenses estimated in the report were $3260 usd. the actual expenditures increased due to airline, travel insurance and ground transportation costs (see figure 3). the lodging costs in same were adjusted to include stay at the nzoroko hotel and amani hostel, the latter owned by the elct dioceses. food costs were also added for the time spent in same upon arrival, between north and south pare assignments, and prior to departure for kilimanjaro (kia) airport. thomas walsh jr. 5 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) i. teacher’s trainer costs  airline ticket and airport transport to/from u.s. $2200  travel insurance 200  visa 100  teaching materials – training book student copies and supplies 150  lodging in same $35/night @ 5 nights including food 175 total trainer costs $2825 ii. ground transportation costs for pare dioceses suv transportation costs to kia, same and pare: 1. arrival/departure kia  kia to same 145 km  same to kia 145 km 2. north pare  same to mruma 65 km  shighatini to same 80 km 3. south pare  same to manka 70 km  dindimo to same 140 km total transportation costs @ $1.00/km $ 645 iii. transportation, lodging, and food costs to the schools 1.transportation costs within pare: transport between schools in the north and south pare provided by the school:  mruma: taxi transport to shighatini $1.00/km x 30 km = $30  manka: truck transport to dindimo $1.00/km x 20 km = $20 transport costs $50 2. room and board (food) at the school site at $30/day  mruma $30 x 5 nights = $150  shighatini $30 x 6 nights = $180  manka $30 x 5 nights = $150  dindimo $30 x 5 nights = $150 room and board costs $630 total room board and transportation and board $ 680 proposed grand total $4150 figure 3. budget and expenses for the staff development the staff development interest survey the staff development interest survey (see figure 4) was given to participants at the beginning of the seminar. participants generally showed high interest in learning about the listed course topics. there was a tendency for higher interest in learning cooperative strategies, drawing graphic organizers, and studying the models of teaching. a “somewhat” interest rating was recorded by participants in team teaching or planning a lesson, and learning a program in the 6 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) computer lab. the survey did show that most participants (n=21) had not previously taken the seminar. eight teachers responded attending the seminar as follows:  2006 (n=2)  2008 (n=2)  2011 (n=4) two participants reported attending the seminar in 2006 and 2008, but not in 2011. two teachers responded attending all three previously offered seminars. those having attended the seminar previously informally reported the relearning of material was helpful since there were numerous strategies presented in a short amount of time. open-ended questions requesting reasons for participating in the seminar were typically written about needing to develop teaching skills, including methodologies and strategies to improve instruction for students (n= 14). other responses reported interest in improving english language speaking and writing skills (n= 4) and creating student independence through cooperative learning (n=4). one participant recorded the reason for taking the staff development training as follows:  to develop [my idea] and ability on transforming my knowledge to students survey responses regarding interest in team-teaching resulted in a few questions written about preferences for times to team-teach or inquiry into when to schedule time in the classroom. other specific general questions and statements given were:  why are you conducting this training seminar?  what forces made you plan the seminar for teachers?  how [can we] practice these learning strategies in classes with more than 100 students?  why don’t you pay us for the seminar?  how will it be possible to teach without facilitators?  it will be better if you come again in may or april. these questions were discussed at some schools as they were brought up orally during the seminar class. the idea of using strategies with larger class sizes included facilitator sharing of methods of assigning small sub-groups of students at one time to participate, while others record notes or answers to questions at their desk. for example, if a teacher was using the cooperative strategy of four-corners, requiring students to move to a corner of the room after given a closed form question, they could assign a segment of the class to stand up and move to the correct answer (e.g., multiple-choice a, b, c, or d) corner of the room. it is also noted that some of these similar survey responses were also recorded on the seminar post evaluation. many participants (n=14) expressed interest in learning and using technology, and included responses given for survey item number eight as follows:  powerpoint (n=4)  word processing (msword or office) (n=3)  internet and website use (n=2)  open office or microsoft (n=2)  computer operating systems (n=1) thomas walsh jr. 7 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015)  simulation program (n=1)  graphics (adobe photoshop) (n=1) these technology activities were found to be the topics of interest when teachers were provided technology instruction in the school lab. the interest survey was found to be helpful in planning the staff training, especially since time was limited prohibiting completing of all activities. it was also insightful in learning about concerns and issues expressed by participants at the beginning of the seminar experience. staff development interest survey name __________________________________________ (given, abbreviated, nick or alias name) school: ________________________________ teaching subject content area: __________________________ part i. have you taken this seminar before? yes no (circle one) if so, when? 2006 2008 2011 (circle) part ii. rank from 1 to 5 (low to high) or u (undecided) your interest in learning the following topics: low somewhat high undecided 1 2 3 4 5 u 1. practice in learning conversational english using discussion activities (e.g., opinion surveys). mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=27) 3.89 4.57 4.20 4.33 4.22 2. learning cooperative learning strategies for classroom teaching. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=29) 4.00 4.14 4.00 4.33 4.10 3. learning question-writing strategies using different techniques to develop student problemsolving skills. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=28) 4.27 4.57 4.75 4.83 4.54 4. drawing different graphic organizers (e.g., venn diagrams) to share information on the board. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=27) 4.18 4.17 3.25 4.67 4.15 5. learning about the model of teaching for creating concept attainment (i.e., developing tcharts) and inductive strategies (i.e., grouping facts of information) for teaching. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=28) 3.91 4.14 5.00 4.17 4.18 6. writing and planning a lesson for use in your classroom. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=28) 4.00 4.29 5.00 4.50 4.32 7. having your instructor teach a strategy with your students and team plan a lesson. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=26) 3.50 4.14 3.75 3.80 3.77 8 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) 8. learning and using a program in the computer lab. if interested, which program? mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=27) 4.00 3.57 5.00 3.67 3.96 9. rate you ability to speak and write in the english language. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=28) 4.20 4.00 4.60 4.17 4.21 part iii. open-ended questions: 1. why did you decide to take the staff development-training seminar? 2. do you have any questions for the instructor or interest in team teaching a lesson? if interested in team-teaching, when? thank-you! this will be helpful in planning the seminar activities. responses are kept confidential. figure 4. the staff development interest survey project goals and scheduling the primary goal of the project was to provide an 8-hour or longer seminar on teaching strategies and conversational english to secondary teachers at four elct school sites in the pare mountains of northern tanzania during the scheduled time of visit. the seminars were typically scheduled during the monday to friday teaching period in which the teachers were present and the schools were in session with students. the headmaster and teachers at all schools preferred to have the seminar meet after class instruction was completed, usually between 14:00 and 17:00 in the afternoon. sessions would typically meet daily for two to three hours. at mruma the teachers requested an additional seminar period meeting on a saturday. during the academic periods, the computer lab was made available for teachers to drop-in on a voluntary free time basis for instruction on the linux system. since electricity was more readily available at mruma and sometimes at dindimo, teachers were able to volunteer for computer instruction. at shighatini electricity was very limited and therefore affected the ability to provide computer training to staff. only about a half-hour of training was provided during the seminar meeting time at shighatini. manka had limited computer access due to the technology instructor providing computer instruction to students during school hours. if no electricity was available during the day, classrooms visits to observe teaching in different content areas were conducted. arrangements were also made when staff members requested a visitation to observe use of various strategies or teaching methodologies in the classroom. figure 5 shows when seminar sessions were scheduled with participant attendance information. thirty-seven teachers participated in the seminar with two teachers attending only one session. attendance was high with most participants (n = 21) available for the entire session meeting time period. ______________________________________________________________________________ school meeting days approx. time total hrs. no. in seminar ave. attend hrs. mruma tues. – thur., sat. 2:30 3:30 8 10 + 1* 80% + 21** thomas walsh jr. 9 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) 10:00 12:00 (sat.) shighatini mon. – thurs. 3:00 – 5:00 8 8 + 1* 75% + 0** manka mon. – fri. 2:00 – 4:00 10 9 + 0* 89% + 0** dindimo mon. – wed. 2:00 – 4:or5:00 8 8 + 0* 87% + 5** total = 35 + 2* *participated in only one seminar session **additional hours teachers volunteered for computer instruction figure 5. scheduled seminar sessions and attendance information teaching subjects and staff participation figure 6 shows a majority of teachers (n=18/26), reporting on the attendance roster, had less than four years of teaching experience. at mruma, five participants attending the seminar were enrolled in the teacher preparation program (i.e., student teaching) at mwenge university in moshi located in the kilimanjaro region. they reported having less than one year of teaching experience and are included in the data set since they were actively involved in teaching students.  1 year or < – (n=11) mean = 7.0 years  2 years (n=5) mode = < 1 year  3 years – (n=2) range = < 1 year – 40 years  5 8 years – (n=3)  20 – 25 years – (n=3)  30 – 40 years – (n=2) total number with < 4 years teaching = 18/26 = 69% figure 6. teachers reported number of years teaching (n=26) the content subject area teachers reported (n=34) teaching at the schools are shown in figure 7. due to the school’s enrollment many teachers are providing instruction in more than one content area. headmasters attended the seminar if they were available or part time due to administrative responsibilities. one identified himself as headmaster on the class roster. language arts & history math & science  english (n=4)  biology (n=2)  english, geography & history (n=1)  biology & physics (n=2)  english (literature) & civics (n=2)  chemistry & math (n=2)  geography (n=1)  chemistry, physics & computer (n=1)  history (n=1)  chemistry & physics (n=1)  geography & history (n=3)  computer technology (n=1)  kiswahili (n=1)  math & physics (n=1)  kiswahili, civics & history (n=1) other  kiswahili & geography (n=1)  commerce & bookkeeping (n=1)  kiswahili & history (n=2)  headmaster (n=1)  teacher preparation (n=5) figure 7. teachers’ subject content area for teaching (n=34) 10 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) time to support teachers in the classroom was also arranged through observations of teaching strategies. the morning and early afternoon classroom observations were conducted on a dropin basis or by teacher invitation. figure 8 shows the subject and content topic for the teacher’s classroom visitation. following the visitation teachers were provided verbal feedback recognizing use of different teaching strategies along with ideas to consider in supporting implementation of other instructional methodologies. mruma shighatini  biology – food digestion  biology – reproduction of angiosperms  geography – intro to research  chemistry – pollution of carbon dioxide  kiswahili – composing letters  civics – effects of globalization manka  english – story on football (soccer)  chemistry – organic formulas  geography – the transsahara trade &  english – book analysis unanswered cries slavery  *technology (form i-iv)  history – the berlin conference and colonization  government – federal and state comparison dindimo  *technology (form i, iii & iv) keyboarding * provided assisted instruction and teaching word processing, html web design, data bases and spreadsheets figure 8. classroom visitations at the schools and topics of instruction use of technology when electricity was available; students and seminar teachers received computer instruction (see figure 9). at manka, technology-learning using team instruction (i.e., support by ______) in teaching technology skills to students was provided. teaching support was given at dindimo with keyboarding instruction provided to students. teachers were encouraged to visit the computer lab to receive technology training with support on a program or tool of their choice. computer usage of programs selected by teachers volunteering for computer instruction is shown in figure 9. 1. openofficewriter (word processing) – (n=10) 2. openofficecalc (spreadsheet) – (n=7) 3. application programs (e.g., kgeography and tuxpaint drawing tools) – (n=6) 4. e-book reading – (n=3) 5. accessories (i.e., calculator and dictionary) – (n=2) 6. openofficeimpress (powerpoint) – (n=1) 7. computer skills (i.e., copying files) – (n=1) figure 9. computer program usage by teachers volunteers: computer instruction mruma and dindimo thomas walsh jr. 11 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) instruction was provided in seminar class using technology on word processing (i.e., open office writer) and teacher e-book reading in their content area at shighatini for 0.5 hour and one hour at manka and dindimo. at mruma there was not adequate electricity during seminar meeting times. teachers preferred to select word processing and reading e-books when given a choice for selecting technology learning during seminar, and these items were most frequently selected when volunteering for computer instruction in the computer lab. post implementation survey findings a post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey was given to participants at the end of the seminar (see figure 10 and 11). the survey was completed by teachers (n=32) at the four schools with the number of no responses (nr) on question items ranging from 0 to 3. the rating scale items on the implementation surveys was evaluated using a descriptive statistical procedure (arsham, 2015) to gain insight into potential use of the teaching strategies by teachers in the classroom following seminar instruction. this information is helpful in understanding teachers’ interest in implementing and using strategies in their subject areas. review of the rating scale items in figure 10 show generally “sometimes” to “usually” score values for planned or anticipated use of the teaching strategies. highest mean ratings of 4.0 or greater values are given for use of “learning together” cooperative learning, inductive teaching and question anticipation guides. this may be due to the fact these strategies are being used at some level by teachers, based on classroom observations conducted during the seminar. other cooperative group instructional learning was rated lower (mean values of 3.61 3.94). perhaps due to being newly acquired strategies, teachers will need to evaluate how they could be used effectively with students. teaching techniques teachers anticipated using “sometimes” to “usually” included question writing, graphic organizers, and concept attainment strategies. these too will require support for teachers to assist in providing ideas on how to integrate and use these teaching techniques with their curriculum. when teachers were provided time for large group sharing of lesson plans it was evident that the higher ratings for potential use of some strategies were more likely identified in their teaching plans. the post-evaluation survey included some open-ended response items for participants to complete. for item 16 most teachers reported use of word processing and e-books for student instruction. it was also reported that books about computers and teaching (computer off-site reference materials) are provided. other uses of computer technology or teaching tools are shown in figure 11. some schools are providing computer technology to students, particular at manka where instruction is given in word processing, spreadsheet, multimedia and web design. other school sites (e.g., dindimo) instruction in word processing and keyboarding was encouraged and provided by the seminar facilitator. however, technology use is limited in most of the schools due to the reasons identified by teachers and observed at the campus sites. unpredictable availability of electricity and teacher training or knowledge is limiting computer technology use. when teachers were asked to identify what is needed the most to support and improve your classroom teaching responses included teaching and learning materials or resources (e.g., aids); greater computer technology access or need for new computer lab (e.g., laptops); textbooks and 12 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) e-learning references; and using technology methodologies and strategies creatively. these ideas suggest a need to support the schools financially in providing more books and teaching aides along with updated computer technology. addition of these resources will require needed staff development or seminar training to support effective implementation and use of technology with students. post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey directions: please circle the number on the rating scale, which best describes your planned or anticipated use of these teaching strategies provided in the staff development english conversation seminar. never rarely sometimes usually always undecided 1 2 3 4 5 u 1. students will work in cooperative groups learning together and discussing ideas. mean = 4.19 median = 4.5 range = 4 standard deviation = 0.998 variance = 0.996 nr=0 2. students will share in cooperative groups using think pair share and say and switch strategies. mean = 3.94 median = 4.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 1.076 variance = 1.157 nr=0 3. round table or round robin cooperative strategies will be used with students. mean = 3.61 median = 4.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 0.989 variance = 0.978 nr=1 4. corners cooperative strategies or evaluation (i.e., opinion questions) will be practiced in my classroom. mean = 3.61 median = 3.0 range = 3 standard deviation = 0.955 variance = 0.912 nr=1 5. jigsaw and graffiti cooperative strategies will be used in the classroom. mean = 3.81 median = 4.0 range = 3 standard deviation = 0.873 variance = 0.761 nr=1 6. “think-alouds” and anticipation guides will be written for questioning students’ comprehension about reading information. mean = 4.00 median = 4.0 range = 3 standard deviation = 0.894 variance = 0.80 nr=1 7. questioning strategies (e.g., true-false supply type and rank order matching) will be given to students to evaluate understanding of content information. mean = 3.97 median = 4.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 0.967 variance = 0.934 nr=0 8. students will be taught questioning strategies and assigned to write their own questions. mean = 3.57 median = 3.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 1.001 variance = 1.013 nr=2 9. graphic organizers (e.g., time lines, sequence maps, and cycles) will be drawn to show information on the board. mean = 3.74 median = 4.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 1.237 variance = 1.531 nr=1 thomas walsh jr. 13 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) 10. semantic, concept maps, or hierarchical arrays (e.g., venn diagrams showing lines and to circles) will be drawn to show information on the board. mean = 3.72 median = 4.0 range = 3 standard deviation = 0.923 variance = 0.850 nr=3 11. semantic feature analysis matrices (i.e., information charts) will be drawn to show and present information on the board. mean = 3.87 median = 4.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 1.176 variance = 1.383 nr=1 12. concept attainment strategies (i.e., two column notes) will be written and shown with my students for teaching. mean = 3.68 median = 4.0 range = 3 standard deviation = 0.772 variance = 0.597 nr=2 13. inductive teaching strategies (i.e., categorizing notes on the board) will be used with my students for teaching. mean = 4.13 median = 4.0 range = 3 standard deviation = 0.937 variance = 0.878 nr=2 14. i will use and teach these strategies (rated above for items 1 to 13) with the materials and resources available in my classroom. mean = 4.23 median = 5.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 1.023 variance = 1.047 nr=1 15. lecture and student note-taking will be the primary method used for teaching students course content information. mean = 3.53 median = 3.5 range = 4 standard deviation = 1.295 variance = 1.676 nr=0 16. computer technology will be used with students when i teach. mean = 3.17 median = 3.0 range = 4 standard deviation = 0.986 variance = 0.971 nr=2 figure 10. staff development course post-evaluation implementation survey rating scale item findings (n=32) while the post implementation survey provides a snapshot in time about teachers’ perceptions regarding potential use of strategies, actual utilization to more fully implement these teaching techniques will require further instructor assistance. support will be needed in guiding teachers in developing lessons plans on how to efficiently and effectively select and implement appropriate teaching techniques. in addition, observation in the classroom will be needed to provide feedback on teacher use of the strategies with students. instructor modeling with the teacher’s students would also support the implementation and use of the strategies. modeling and demonstration of strategies may not be an option in tanzania unless the education ministry grants permission for seminar instructor teaching of content subject matter in the schools. while it would be important for the strategies to be observed being used with students with instructional coaching feedback provided to teachers in the classroom, it would require more time to be allocated at the school sites for a future training program. 14 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey 16. computer technology will be used with students when i teach. if so, which program or tool?  text editor or word (msword or msoffice) – n=10  books about computers and teaching – n=6  e-library or e-books (4allfolder) or wikipedia – n=5  powerpoint – n=5  excel spreadsheet – n=4  mobile phone (for internet) n=3  open office – n=2  website or internet tools and program search – n=2  publisher – n=1  simulation programs – n=1 if not, why not?  lack of teacher knowledge (materials) and learning (use) – n=5  lack of infrastructure or electricity power problems – n=3  students lack computer knowledge – n=2  projectors – n=1 17. what is needed the most to support and improve your classroom teaching?  teaching and learning materials or resources (aids) – n=8  lack of computer technology or need for new computer lab or laptops – n=5  books (textbooks) and e-learning – n=5  using technology methodologies and strategies creatively – n=3  internet access – n=1  computer for every teacher – n=1  computer knowledge – n=1  attention of students – n=1 figure 11. staff development course post-evaluation implementation survey open item response item findings approximately one standard deviation range of variation or dispersion of scores from the expected mean value (sd = 0.772 – 1.295) was found on the survey question items. this degree of variability suggests differences in teachers’ perceptions regarding use and implementation of the strategies with their students in the classroom. the individual differences in the use of the teaching strategies support the concerns-based adoption model (cbam) and related literature suggesting that teachers show developmental and subgroup variation in learning, attitudes, and implementation of in-service experiences (glassberg, 1981, donlan, 1983, & winner, 1983). the concerns-based adoption model (cbam) was a result of a four-year study by the procedures for adopting educational innovations (paei) program at the research and development center for teacher education at the university of texas, austin. hall, wallace, and dosset (1973) studied ways individuals react to and perceive new programs and addressed the concerns of individual teachers as they become familiar with and involved with new programs, processes, and/or educational practices in their schools. cbam is based on fuller’s thomas walsh jr. 15 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) (1969) research of the concerns of student teachers and identified three phases of concern: preteaching phase (non-concern), an early teaching phase (concern with self), and a late teaching phase (concern with pupils). fuller later identified these concerns as “self, “ “task,” and “impact.” hall, wallace, dossett, george, and others (hall & hord, 1987) identified seven states of concern teachers experience when learning new practices and an innovation moving from awareness, informational, personal, management, consequence, and collaboration to refocusing. it is evident from the survey responses that teachers at the schools are at different stages of concern and readiness for implementation of the various strategies. given the differences in teachers’ planned or anticipated use of the strategies suggest differentiation in seminar experiences support for teachers will need to be provided at the schools in the future. teacher seminar evaluation a post-survey was administered on the final day of the seminar to evaluate overall program effectiveness. figure 12 shows the staff development course post-evaluation score averages on the rating scale for each school and a total average score for the item. overall the seminar was rated highly for satisfaction reported by participants who attended and completed the evaluation. staff development course post-evaluation name __________________________________________ (given, abbreviated, nick or alias name) school: ________________________________ teaching subject content area: __________________________ please circle the number which best describes the effectiveness of staff development in promoting english conversation using the scale below. never rarely sometimes usually always undecided 1 2 3 4 5 u 1. instruction and presentation of the strategies were clearly introduced. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=32) 4.78 4.88 4.13 5.00 4.69 2. adequate opportunity was provided to practice the strategies. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=32) 4.56 4.88 3.50 4.57 4.38 3. cooperative learning strategies are useful to promote english conversation in the classroom. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=32) 5.00 4.63 4.63 4.57 4.72 4. the discussion topic ideas are useful for classroom use. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=32) 4.78 4.5 3.88 4.57 4.44 5. the lesson examples are helpful and provide useful models to promote english conversation. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=31) 5.00 4.38 4.57 4.57 4.74 16 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) 6. the teacher templates are useful for teacher use (e.g., question writing, problem-solution graphic and lesson plan templates). mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=32) 4.22 4.63 4.38 4.29 4.38 7. the instructor was helpful and provided the staff development environment in an open “easygoing” manner. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=31) 4.56 4.75 4.38 4.67 4.58 8. rate the quality and value of the staff development-training seminar in helping to improve my teaching. mruma shighatini manka dindimo overall average (n=29) 4.75 4.63 4.86 4.67 4.72 figure 12. staff development course post-evaluation ratings this was also expressed in narrative form via comments written by the teachers. somewhat lower scores were noted for use of teacher templates and discussion topics. this may be due to the fact that the least amount of time was provided in seminar for instruction on these topics. the lower average scores for adequate time to practice the strategies were also substantiated in the narrative responses given on the survey question item for seminar recommendations. participants’ responded (n=11) the instructor should be given enough time to effectively conduct the seminar and the days of the seminar should be increased. further review of the survey narrative comments revealed support for learning different teaching strategies and learning cooperative learning techniques. general ideas and comments expressed varied by individual teachers and are shown in figure 13. item 9. identify favorite and least favorite activities about the seminar. favorite: • learning different teaching strategies or methodologies (e.g., anticipation guide and think-alouds) and improve my teaching style – (n=9) • cooperative learning strategies (e.g., corners, jigsaw and graffiti) – (n=9) • teaching was good and useful to benefit students and my subject area – (n=3) • helped to prepare the lesson plan – (n=3) • sharing ideas and system of sharing activities in different ways (e.g., computer) – (n=2) • exchanging ideas, knowledge and knowing each other – (n=2) • unity and cooperation from the instructor was good – (n=2) • way the instructor presents his seminar make us to be attractive – (n=1) • seminar was very good and well planned – (n=1) • question writing template – (n=1) • the things we learned were very important – (n=1) • oral reading (n=1) least favorite: • surveys – (n=2) • graphic organizers – (n=1) • lesson plan – (n=1) • the afternoon time is tiresome (n=1) thomas walsh jr. 17 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) item 10. recommendations or suggestions for changes and improvement of the seminar. • instructor should be given enough time to conduct the seminar well and the days of the seminar should be increased – (n=11) • very good and went well or no changes – (n=6) • program should be given several times in our schools or repeated to keep us up to date and to understand more (e.g., continued next year) – (n=4) • those who attend the seminar should be paid or given motivators – (n=4) • time provided to practice the strategies in the classroom under supervision – (n=2) • time management and break periods during the seminar should be considered – (n=1) • use more simple english – (n=1) • provide more practice to develop the skill and knowledge of teaching methodology – (n=1) • more time to learn about the computer – (n=1) • give equal chance for all to participate during the seminar times – (n=1) • provide the seminar in the morning session – (n=1) • provide laptops for teachers in order to keep more documents and materials for teaching – (n=1) • provide more examples on specific subjects in order for teachers to become content masters (n=1) item 11. general comments and thoughts: • the lessons were good and nice improving my profession and developing my teaching process – (n=8) • helped us in various teaching strategies in leading activities and helpful for teachers – (n=5) • the seminar has been very educational and informative – (n=2) • thank you for increasing and putting more teaching strategies – (n=1) • regular seminars like this one will enrich both teachers and students – (n=1) • the seminar was well conducted – (n=1) • the program is good and should be insisted nationalized (n=1) • the seminar was conducted in a conducive environment and we succeed to get certificates from the seminar. – (n=1) figure 13. staff development course post-evaluation narrative comments proposal for the dioceses schools as discussed earlier the dioceses secondary schools need support to boost their student enrollment (see figure 14), which will provide more revenue for teachers and instructional resources. the opening of government public “community” secondary schools and required national testing scheme has negatively impacted the dioceses schools in creating a teacher shortage and movement of students to the free public schools. the loss of students at the dioceses schools means less tuition revenue resulting in lower or delayed salaries for the teachers. the loss of revenue exacerbates the existing teacher shortage resulting in the hiring of many younger less-trained and experienced staff members with limited post-secondary education, and increased use of teacher preparation students from the university. 18 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) school form enrollment 2011 enrollment 2014 mruma i-iv 324 47 shighatini i-iv 277 202 manka i-iv 450 107 dindimo i-vi 280 56 total 1,331 412 figure 14. student enrollment comparisons in the dioceses schools the less experienced staff needs greater support in order to deliver the curriculum most effectively to students in order to perform well on the national exams. the form iv exam results are posted online for parents to review, along with the schools’ ranking, and create an environment where parents shift their students to higher performing schools. while more recently the scores appear to be rebounding, the dioceses schools will need to not only focus on raising student test scores and performance on the national exams, but also become more attractive and competitive by providing services not offered by the government schools. given these circumstances a proposal was written during the service time spent in tanzania, with some ideas shared with the headmasters and staff. the proposal was given to the dioceses secretary of education for review and discussion before departing tanzania. the proposal ideas are summarized in figure 15. • sponsorship – seek project money revenue from rotary and student university projects to “adopt a school.” • sister congregation support – request for sister congregation support (e.g., iowa se synod) and europe (e.g., germany) to sponsor educational development funding projects for infrastructure (e.g., buy bricks), curriculum books, payment of student tuition or fees, and scholarships. • after school program – provide a study and meeting program with teachers, staff, and volunteers to raise academic and testing achievement of students. • it teacher – assign one teacher as a full-time technology instructor to keep the computer lab updated and to provide computer skills to faculty and students (i.e., replicate manka’s technology program). • solar roof panels – install over the computer labs to provide consistent electricity for learning, including computer technology. • dioceses community library – dedicate an unused classroom space for a community library overseen by a parent volunteer. acquire books from sponsors with one computer from the lab dedicated for reviewing e-books. provide free on-site use by teachers, community members and students. assess a library card fee for off-site home book checkout to support the maintenance and further development of the library (e.g., purchase additional books). • dining hall and teacher housing rent – solicit community members and visitors to the schools to rent space in the dining hall for meetings and teacher housing, when thomas walsh jr. 19 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) available. • school duka – use the existing school supply store to sell for profit items to community members (e.g., flashlights, soap, local crafts, beverages and snack food items). • school promotional brochure – continue use of brochures for student distribution to homes highlighting features of a dioceses education including: 1. high performance ranking on national exams 2. 21 st century technology instruction provided to students on keyboarding skills, file management, word processing, spreadsheets and media design (i.e., web development and multimedia production) 3. practice and study of religion with development of student values for appropriate behavior 4. opportunity for development of student social-emotional skills and study habits with after school programs 5. a motivating learning environment engaging students in receiving instruction by teachers using a variety of teaching methodologies. • school campus maintenance headmaster and teacher-directed student with parent volunteers to develop and support the school campus infrastructure (e.g., building maintenance, grounds, and lawn upkeep). figure15. proposal report ideas shared with the dioceses secretary of education the implementation of technology to effectively use the computer labs provided by the german group will require consistent access to electricity suggesting use of solar roof panels in the proposal. discussion with the education secretary has included staff development provided to other teachers at the schools by the technology teacher at manka, who has an effective program at this school site. at the time of this writing a correspondence with a german technician responsible for maintaining computers in the schools reported another site visit is scheduled in the spring with plans to redesign the computer cabinets to reduce the amount of electricity usage and stabilize the operating system. the technician reported the challenges in using solar electricity with the computers and provided options for adding internet access through a mobile net system (i.e., an adequate bandwidth for e-mail and basic internet use). the german technology team has scheduled complete hardware replacements in the fall, unless travel plans change. it is the hope and intent that some or all of these proposal ideas will be shared and implemented at the schools. teachers will also need to use their training in teaching strategies and content expertise to raise students’ scores to improve enrollment and revenue for the schools. if not, admissions will continue to decline with a greater number of lower achieving students accepted to support enrollment. future study and seminar recommendations while teachers reported support for the seminar training, feedback suggested a longer staff development experience would be needed. more training time at the schools is consistent with the recommendations provided by teachers in the implementation and course evaluation surveys given at the end of the seminar. it will be important for the strategies being used with 20 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) instructional coaching feedback provided to teachers in the classroom. use of teacher assigned peer coaching and observation of classroom use of strategies would also be effective in supporting teachers in facilitating use of the strategies. additional time in tanzania would open scheduling for a seminar on site at usangi secondary school. the sixth seminar offering would support implementation and use of the anticipated upgrade of computer technology hardware in the labs. for teachers participating in the seminar in 2014 a return visit would support use of the staff development interest survey to evaluate training activities requiring repeated instruction and practice in the classroom. participants could be provided instruction on strategies they feel require re-teaching while new staff members would receive a full seminar training experience. seminar trainer and or teacher peer coaching would support teacher development of lesson plans, to implement with students, utilizing the most effective strategies in a teacher’s content area of instruction. administration of the post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey after additional support is provided to teachers in learning with instructional coaching of strategies in their classroom should be conducted in the future seminar. evaluation of the implementation survey given to participants following observation and coaching of strategies in their classroom should be studied. study and observation of teachers’ use and concerns regarding implementation of the strategies would be evaluated. this information would be helpful to understand teachers’ stages of concern regarding the probability for continued use and implementation of strategies with their students. hopefully, use of instructional coaches and facilitators will support teacher implementation and ongoing use of the strategies. a recommended future schedule would be a proposal suggesting a two-month teaching seminar schedule including usangi secondary school. a longer school site visit would permit not only more time for seminar instruction and teaching coaching classroom support, but provide greater opportunity for staff computer instruction and completion of discussion activities using english communication skills. greater time at the schools will support the continued strengthening of friendships through developing cultural understanding and exchanging information with teachers, staff and community. conclusion the seminar accomplished its goal in providing at least eight hours of training to secondary teachers using strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa at four dioceses schools located in the north and south pare regions. the need for providing the seminar training to less experienced secondary teachers at the schools was discussed including a description of the program goals and curriculum. details of the project proposal for planning the seminar were presented along with scheduling arrangements supporting after school meeting times. variation in the use of technology at the schools was discussed due to personnel qualifications and availability of electricity. included in the report was a proposal recommending ideas for the dioceses schools to increase student enrollment numbers and revenue due to competition by government schools and testing policies. based on the seminar post evaluation and feedback from participants, more time was suggested for seminar instructional time, and practice using the strategies with facilitators. seminar attendees also thomas walsh jr. 21 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) requested greater opportunity for developing lesson plans with coaching and facilitation provided in their classroom to support implementation and adoption of the various instructional strategies. the overall experience in facilitating the instruction of teaching strategies at the schools was rewarding and culturally enlightening. working and supporting the teachers and staff as colleagues was very enjoyable. my only regrets with the 2014 seminar experience was the limited scheduling time at the schools and learning that usangi teachers were unable to receive the staff development training. i hope to return to offer another seminar training at the dioceses schools in the near future, and look forward to experiencing the gracious hospitality and friendship of the pare tanzania people. acknowledgements appreciation is recognized to pare diocese bishop, charles mjema; general secretary of the pare diocese, tumaini chambua; pare diocese director of education, godson l. mshana; assistant to the bishop, pastor timothy msangi and the dioceses staff in their support of the seminar project. additional recognition is given to the school headmasters, teachers, and staff who have provided the needed insight and feedback for improving the training experience. references arsham, h. (2015). descriptive sampling statistics. eof. april 2, 2014 @ http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/business-stat/otherapplets/descriptive.htm. donlan, d. (1983). the effects of two models of staff development on self-awareness and attitudes of teachers with internal vs.external locus of control. journal of experimental education, 51(3), 109-113. foreign credits, inc. (2011). ministry of education and vocational training (moevt), may 7, 2012 @ http://www.classbase.com/countries/tanzania/educatinal-system. fuller, f. f. (1969). concerns of teachers: a development conceptualization. american educational research journal, 6, 207-226. glassberg, s. (1981). a developmental model for enhancing teachers’ personal and professional growth. journal of research and development in education, 14(2), 59-69. hall, g. e., and hord, s. m. (1987). change in schools: facilitating the process. albany: state university of new york. hall, g. e., wallace, r. c., jr., and dossett, w. a. (1973). a developmental conceptualization of the adoption process within educational institutions. austin: research and development center for teacher education, the university of texas. walsh, t. e. (2012). strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania african journal of teacher education ajote, 2:2. march 21, 2014 @ 22 returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) http://gir.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/issue/view/138 winner, a. (1983). technology implementation: a case study. paper presented at the annual conference of the new england educational research organization, rockport, maine. sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support joyce nemes senior lecturer the university of dodoma, tanzania abstract this study investigated the sustainability of school-based food drive after the phasing out of the world food programme (wfp) aid initiative in bahi district of dodoma region, tanzania. the study found that none of the 72 public primary schools in bahi district had managed to provide school lunch during the post-wfp period by october 2017. only 10 schools managed to provide porridge rather than full lunch to the pupils during the review period. the public primary schools under review were unable to sustain the school food programme due to poor level of parental contributions, drought and widespread poverty. the study also found that parents complained about the school food programme lacking support within the national policy framework. the study recommends the application of the resource dependency theory to sustain the sfp and government’s intervention to boost agricultural production and empower the people to support their wards and the sfp at their wards’ school. key word: world food programme, school food programme, sustainability, mechanisms and primary school. introduction in africa, many programmes and projects are financed through partnership between the government and donors. however, foreign aid has done little in the recent decade to change the conditions of many african states, most of which currently experience low growth rates (andrews, 2009). foreign aid is arguably important; however, it is not necessarily a panacea to african economic development (aknor, 2007). indeed, a better solution is suggested in the adage, ‘do not give a fish to people but teach them african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 3 2018 pages 1-21 sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 2 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 how to get fish’ so as to stimulate trade and development and reduce over-dependence on foreign aid (rena, 2013). the school feeding programme (sfp) is one of the initiatives financed as a partnership between the world food programme (wfp) and the tanzania government. launched in 2000, this project was implemented only on mainland tanzania in the regions of shinyanga, dodoma, arusha, singida and manyara. at the regional level, the sfp in tanzania covered only some of the districts considered prone to hunger occasioned by the long dry seasons. farmers in those districts suffer poor harvests as a result of a combination of factors such as the long dry seasons, poor agricultural technology and poor application of modern agricultural methods (urt, 2011 cited in oganga, 2013: 15). according to oganga (2013), fifteen districts and 1,116 schools and 572, 881 students were covered by the sfp in tanzania in both the northern and central zones as indicated in table1: table 1: number of schools and students covered by sfp in northern and central zones of tanzania zone district under the programme number of schools in programme no of students receiving food aid male female northern zone longido 32 9,930 7,991 monduli 54 15,091 14,004 karatu 96 23,196 23, 241 simanjiro 71 17,284 14,584 ngorongoro 60 17,051 12,884 total 313 8255 72,704 155,256 central zone bahi 70 18,722 18,844 kiteto 84 18,226 17,851 joyce nemes 3 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. chamwino 110 24,605 25,883 kondoa 107 26,796 26, 788 iramba 107 24,457 24,016 mpwapwa 115 26, 709 28,518 manyoni 96 27,989 27,593 kishapu 20 4,484 4,598 meatu 20 6,487 6,561 shinyanga rural 20 4,598 5,00 singida rural 104 23,708 25,162 total 206,781 210,844 417,625 15 1,116 572, 881 source: prime minister’s office, dodoma, cited in oganga (2013: 16) table 1 indicates that the central zone had a lion’s share of the number of schools that benefited from the wfp support compared to the northern zone. the persistence of drought in the central zone accounts for the preferential treatment accorded the zone. the advantages of providing school lunch to pupils include improving the health, enrolment, attendance, retention, and performance of school-age children in addition to increasing community participation, especially when programmes depend on the community to prepare and serve meals in schools (wfp, 2012; olubayo, aluvi, & namusonge, 20013; khatete, pendo, & oyabi, 2013; badri, 2014; dey, 2014; melaku, 2015; sagenge, 2015; yunisa, gumel, adegbus, & adegbus, 2015; holo, 2015). in tanzania, the goals for improving nutrition were included in the food and nutrition policy of 1992. it was also included in the national development plans and strategies, notably in the national strategy for growth and reduction of poverty, commonly known by its kiswahili acronym of mkukuta (leach & kilama, 2009; urt, 1992). the government is also committed to the millennium development goals (mdgs) number one, aimed to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (zaipuna, yonah & cons, 2005; afrodad, 2005., uneca & afdb, 2011) as well as the sustainable sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 4 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 development goals (sdgs) number one, which targets eliminating poverty for all in the country (magoti, 2016; twaweza & sid, 2016). according to the national vision of 2025, tanzania projects a high quality of life for her population by 2025 (magoti, 2016 & mallya, 2000). despite these commitments, the wfp phased out its sfp operation in 2015. this was anticipated given its scheduled implementation timeframe and attempts were made under the project to put in place various mechanisms to ensure its sustainability after wfp’s withdrawal. the current tanzania initiative of providing free primary education runs into the problems as government is unable to meet the costs of providing food for the children at school. many poor families have come to believe that free public education should also come with free food. a study conducted in bahi by rulenguka (2011) appraised the sustainability of the food for education programme in the district among primary schools. it established that the sustainability of the ‘food for education’ initiative was not guaranteed as community members in the in the project area were not fully involved in the planning and implementation of the programme. there are contradictory views in the literature on offering children breakfast either at home or at school. on the one hand, the literature indicates that many children do not take breakfast at home before going to school due to shortage of food at home (urt, 1992; kalinjuma, mfuru, nyoni, & modaha, 2013; otieno, 2014; taylor & ogbogu, 2016). on the other hand, the children with food in their homes fail to take breakfast due to lack of time before rushing to school or they simply lacked appetite in the morning (melaku, 2015; kalinjuma, mfuru, nyoni, & modaha, 2013). besides, most pupils were not in schools that had special lunch arrangements (urt, 1992). in consequence, there was evidence of a hungry child that does not grow, that cannot learn properly and that faces many future health risks (giliard, 2017). studies show that poor school achievement, repetition of grades, and dropping out of school may result from poor nutrition status (leach & kilama, 2009 & otieno, 2014). it is against this background that this study investigated the sustainability of the sfp in the post-wfp support period. objectives of the study this study aimed to collect pupils’ and school management team’s views on the sustainability of sfp in bahi district in the post-wfp support phase. it sought to: i. examine the implementation of the school food programme in bahi during wfp support. joyce nemes 5 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. ii. assess the mechanisms put in place to ensure the sustainability of school food programme in the post-wfp support period. iii. determine the factors that hindered public primary schools from implementing the mechanisms put in place to provide school food in the post-wfp support period. theoretical framework this study was guided by the resource dependency theory (rdt) developed by jeffrey pfeffer and gerald salancik in 1978. the theory is premised on the prospects of communities’ dependence on the environment for their survival (pfeffer & salancik, 2003). the rtd perspective holds that for organisations to survive they need to acquire and maintain resources through interacting with external actors (johnson, 1995, pfeffer & salancik, 2003 cited in althoz, 2010: 40; nienhuser, 2008; gomes, 2007; sozen & yeloglu, 2009; delke, 2015). the theory identifies financial and physical resources as well as information obtained from the environment as types of resources that organisations derive from the external environment for survival (shehada, 2010). under this theory, the interdependence between organisations and external actors are minimal.in environments where resources are abundant. conversely, in environments where resources are scarce, organisations tend to face challenges due to their strong dependence on external actors (gawish, 2016). however, this theory cautions that overdependency creates uncertainty which leaves an organisation vulnerable to external control. generally, the rtd has three core ideas: (i) social context matters; (2) organisations’ strategies for enhancing their autonomy and pursuit of their interests; and (3) power, which is important in understanding the internal and external actions of organisations (davis & cobb, 2010). a number of studies that have applied the rdt include by werner (2008) who used the rdt to explain the behaviour of organizations; delke (2015) who assessed and evaluated the contribution of the rdt to supply management in practice; and peters (2014) who combined the rdt and the transaction cost theory to explain the enterprise rent a car company acquiring the vanguard’s national and alamo brands in united state (us). my region of study, dodoma, tanzania, is mostly semi-arid land with little annual rainfall and great susceptibility to drought and food shortage. a study recently conducted in bahi district revealed that only 20.8 percent of the households sampled could afford the normal three meals a day. the study also confirmed that transitory household food insecurity is real in bahi district (myeya & kamangu, 2016). the study suggested that there was a large number of pupils who are affected by food insecurity sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 6 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 in the area, a situation that can severely undermine their learning as hungry pupils can suffer from lack of concentration. creating conducive environment for pupils to learn including the provision of school food in school, especially in drought-prone and poverty stricken areas such as bahi was critical. this would ensure better health, better cognitive development, and higher concentration in class. the study by myeya and kamangu (2016) implies that public primary schools in bahi were not working in isolation from the external environments. in congruence with the rdt, they depend on the external environments for the sustainability of sfp, especially once the wfp support to the programme had run its course. indeed, schools have to depend on educational stakeholders such as parents and donors to acquire resources, both financial and physical resources, including firewood, maize, sugar, and water. however, dependency on external support for sfp to survive creates some uncertainty. methodology sample size and sampling technique the study employed three sampling techniques: purposive, stratified purposive and simple random sampling. stratified purposive sampling was used to select eight public primary schools (ppss) whereas simple random sampling was used to select 109 standard six pupils. this was done after obtaining a list of standard six pupils from class teachers who have been in the same school since the pupils enrolled in standard one. the target was to select 120 pupils in the study from all public primary schools visited. only 109 (90.8%) pupils were eventually involved in the study because when the researcher visited two of the nine public primary schools under review barely a dozen pupils were present instead of 15 pupils expected. the target was to involve 120 pupils in the study from the public schools visited. unfortunately, only 109 (90.8%) pupils were subsequently involved in the study primarily because two of the public primary schools under review visited had less than 15 pupils in attendance. all pupils available meeting the set criteria were co-opted for participation in the study. purposive sampling was also used to select one district education officer (deo), one district education statistic and logistic officer (delo), one acting district school health co-ordinator (adshc), six head teachers (hts) two acting head teachers (ahts), five school committee chairpersons (sccs). these respondents were selected purposively because they had relevant information pertaining to the study. in all, 125 respondents were involved in the study. of the eight ppss involved in the study three (37.5%) only provided porridge, that is without lunch despite the pupils staying in school beyond lunch hours whereas five (62.5%) pps did not provide joyce nemes 7 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. any food after the phasing out of the wfp support. of those five ppss which did not provide food, one (20%) school was at an advanced stage of mobilising local resources to continue with the ‘food for education’ drive. the selection of these eight ppss was based on the information obtained from the district education statistics and logistic officer who acted as the district education officer during the first day of the visit. the target was to include at least five schools which managed to provide food after the phasing out of wfp support to sfp. but none of the schools in bahi had managed to do so sustainably by october 2017. according to the district education statistics and logistic officer, of the 72 primary schools in bahi, the number of schools that managed to provide only porridge did not exceed 10. these few schools included uhelela, ngombolala, mnkola, mundemu and lamaiti. during fieldwork only three of those schools mentioned were providing porridge. in other words, the study included only three primary schools that provide porridge. methods of data collection interviews, focus group discussions (fgds), document review and observation were employed to collect data. interviews were held with the district education officer, head teachers, school committee chairpersons and school health teachers who were key informants. semi-structured interviews enabled the researcher to get in-depth information from the respondents pertaining to the study (mcnamara, 1999). all the respondents were interviewed in their offices for about 45 minutes each. focus group discussions, on the other hand, were held with standard six pupils. during the study, the researcher also reviewed official documents such as school committees’ minutes on the sfp and the records of parental contributions towards the food drive. moreover, the researcher carried out observations of the kitchen, utensils, availability of water, general economic status, grains collected, pupils taking their share of porridge during break-time and students turning up after lunch hour in primary schools visited during the study. before field visits, ethical requirements such as getting permission from the university of dodoma, the regional office and district education officers were adhered to. in addition, participation of all the respondents was voluntary and the researcher prepared a consent form and all the standard six pupils who participated in the study had their parents sign on their behalf. data analysis overall, the process of qualitative data analysis in this study went through three stages of describing the phenomenon, classifying it and seeing how the concepts interconnected. based on the emerging sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 8 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 patterns and themes in line with the objectives of the study, the researcher was able to develop a comprehensive description of the subject of the study on the sfp in the post-wfp support period. then, the researcher classified the data by interpreting and explaining in accordance with the research objectives as outline above. finally, following data classification, the researcher established logical connections between the resultant categories (dey, 2005). presentation and discussion of findings public primary schools during the implementation of wfp-supported sfp findings from interviews revealed that all the eight primary schools involved in the study were beneficiaries of the wfp-supported sfp. this programme started in earnest in 2010 before being phased out in 2015. information obtained from fgd with 109 pupils revealed that sfp was implemented in their schools from the time they were in pre-primary level in 2011 to the time they had reached standard four in 2015. detailed information obtained from the deslo during an interview also revealed that the wfp initially started implementing the sfp on pilot basis in eight ppss of chipanga ward in 2008 before scaling it up and by 2010 it was fully functional in all the 72 ppss of bahi district: wfp started in 2008 in eight selected pilot primary schools of chipanga ward. some of primary schools which were in the piloted programme includes chipanga a, chipanga b, chikola, chilingula… then the programme was scaled up and fully implemented in 2008 in all the 72 public primary school of bahi district (interview with bahi deslo 17/10/2017). during the life-span of wfp-supported sfp all the eight (100%) ppss received foodstuffs like maize, rice, beans and peas as well as cooking oil. the amount of food disbursed was determined by the number of pupils registered in the respective schools. schools also received token contributions from parents or guardians which ranged from tas500-1000. the funds obtained was used for grinding grains, purchasing salt and soap for washing utensils, and partly for paying wages of cooks and security guard. pupils were also each levied a 5-litre container filled with water every morning in addition to firewood whenever necessary. it was also established that salary payment of security guards and cooks varied from one school to another. for security guard the salary ranged from tas 25, 000 to tas 40,000 whereas for cooks it joyce nemes 9 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. ranged from tas 30,000 to tas 50,000, all varying from school to school. porridge was provided to the pupils during break time at 10.20 am. during the lunch hour from 12.20 pm, pupils ate ugali (maize flour meal) with peas or beans, rice with beans or peas and sometimes cooked blend of maize and beans commonly known in kiswahili as “makande” depending on the school timetable. thus as the study by rulenguka (2011) established, porridge, ugali and beans were the foods mostly provided to primary school children during the wfp-supported sfp in bahi district. however, makande with vegetables was a rare commodity on the menu as parental contributions to the wfp-supported sfp rulenguka, (2011).: table 2: parents’ contributions during the wfp-supported sfp in bahi district name of school ward parents’ contributions and utilisation during wfp uhelela bahi parents contributed tas 500 per month. the sum obtained was used for grinding grains, purchasing salt and salary payment. security guard was paid tas 30,000 and two cooks employed were paid tas 30,000 each per month. bahi misheni bahi parents contributed tas 500 per month. the sum obtained was used for payment of salary for of three chefs @tas 50,000 each per month. the amount was also used for grinding grains and purchasing salts. ngombolola ibihwa parents contributed tas 1,000 per month. the sum was used for salary payment of two cooks @ tas 50,000 each per month and of a security guard @ 50,000 per month, and for the purchase of salts and soap for washing utensils. mnkola ibihwa parents contributed tas 5,000 per term, with the sum used for payment of two cooks @tas 40,000 each and one security guard tas 25,000. the money obtained was also spent on grinding grains and buying salt and soap. sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 10 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 sanduli bahi parents contributed tas 5,000 per term; used for salary payment of a security guard @ tas40,000 and two cooks @ tas50,000 each per month, and for grinding grains and purchasing salts. bahi sokoni bahi parents contributed tas1,000 per month. the sums obtained were used for salary payment of two cooks @ tas 40,000 each and one security guard tas 40,000. mundeme mundeme parents contributed tas 500 for three mouths. that sum was used for paying salary of two cooks @tas 30,000 each, one security guard tas 30,000 per month, grinding grains and purchasing salt. lamaiti lamaiti parents contributed tas 750 per term. that sum was used for the payment of two cooks @ tas 40,000 each and one security guard tas 30,000. source: field data (2017) data presented in table 2 suggests that there were variations among the schools in terms of the amount of money parents or guardians contributed to the wfp school food initiative. there were also variation in the amount of salary paid to the cooks and security guards from one school to another. the funds collected from parents/guardians’ was one of the determinants of how much the cooks and security guards would be paid under the sfp. as the head of one school explained: only few parents managed to contribute to the supporting costs during the wfp-funded sfp. the situation was so worse off that the teachers used their pocket money to grind the grains and purchase salt (interview with the female acting head teacher 27/10/2017). sustainability mechanisms for the sfp in the post-wfp support period three types of plans that have been put in place to save pupils from hunger after the phasing out of wfp in bahi district. first, the district executive director, together with the deo, directed the heads of school to inform parents of their need to each contribute 10kgs of grains for lunch in schools per year. none of the eight primary schools had managed to provide school lunch, though six head teachers and two acting head teachers of primary schools reported that they had implemented the directives from the district education officer office to hold meetings with parents in collaboration joyce nemes 11 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. with village chairperson, ward education co-ordinators and school committee members to sensitise and raise awareness on the importance of contributions to enable schools continue the sfp. the most some of the schools accomplished was to provide some porridge after the wfp support had been phased out; and only three (37.5%) schools were able to provide porridge at 10.20 am based on parents/ guardians’ contributions. one (12.5%) of the remaining schools was finalising the resource mobilisation process, while four (50%) primary schools with no contribution having come from parents or guardians failed to provide any food to the pupils. table 3: current school lunch situation and mechanisms put in place to ensure sustainability of sfp name of school current situation regarding provision of school lunch after phase out of wfp mechanisms put in place to insure sustainability of wpp uhelela providing porridge since august, 2017 parents contribute sorghum 1kg of grain and tas 100 per month. bahi misheni did not provide any food they planned to conduct parents’ meeting in december 2017 to inform them about the matter for the second time. sanduli did not provide any food they conducted one parents’ meeting to inform them about the matter; none of parent/guardians’ volunteered for effecting the agreed upon contribution. ngombolola providing porridge since september 2017 each parent contributes 5kgs of sorghum per term. mnokola in advanced stage of mobilising resources for sfp managed to mobilise 7 bags of sorghum. the agreement was for each parent to contribute 5kg of grains and ½ kg of sugar per term. sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 12 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 sokoni not providing any kind of food they conducted three different parents’ meeting to inform them about the matter. so far only one parent managed to volunteer and the school management decided to refund that parent’s contribution. they planned to cultivate five hectares of sorghum in the coming rain season starting end of november 2017. mundemu pupils coming from far distances (3km to 5km) carrying food from home and stored in a school store for lunch the school planned to cultivate five hectares of sorghum in the coming season of rain which start end of november 2017. lamaiti providing porridge since wfp phase out up to june 2016. they planned by august 2017 to start again to provide porridge parents contributed 4kg of sorghum per month and tas1500 per term for grinding grains and salary payment of one chef @ tas 40,000. the school planned to cultivate five hectares of sorghum in the coming season of rain which start end of november 2017. source: field data (2017) the second plan put in place was the directive from the district education officer requiring all the heads of schools in bahi district to cultivate at least 5 hectares of sorghum in each school in the coming season of rain, which started at end of november 2017. according to the district education statistics and logistic officer, the directive arose after realising that most of the pupils in the schools under review went to school hungry because parents were unable to contribute grains for preparing even school porridge for their children. this five-acre sorghum plan was projected to capacitate these schools to provide some porridge and lunch to ease the burden of often reluctant parents to continue making contributions to the food upkeep of their children while in school. joyce nemes 13 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. a third plan was at mundemu primary school, where the school committee had introduced a school by-law that allowed pupils who come to school from some distance, about 5km, to bring packed lunch from home. usually, the lunch boxes are stored in a school store monitored by a school heath teacher and the teacher on duty to be collected at 12.20 pm mid-afternoon lunch break. yet, not all the pupils were able to bring packed lunches due to a severe shortage of food in their homesteads. during the study the researcher also observed packed food in a school storage. according to the acting female head teacher: we have 15 pupils who come with packed lunch. they trek over 5km from here. we put their food in our store. it is safe. during lunch hours they took their food and eat (interview with the female head teacher 27/10/2017). …pupils coming from matitu street which is located 5km from our schools are allowed to bring packed lunch. others fail to come with food because at home there is nothing. … one day a pupil collapsed; i picked her up and drove her on my motorcycle back home. as we reached her home she said i need water and porridge. thereafter she became normal (interview with the school committee chairperson 27/10/2017). this incident attests to how the provision of school food can save pupils coming from poor family backgrounds and those trekking over long distances from school premises. the school food programme can attract them to attend schools on regular basis and improve their concentration in the classroom and eventually can enhance their academic performance. hindrances to the primary schools sustaining sfp the study revealed that none of the schools had managed to continue providing school lunch after the wfp support had been phased out from the sfp. second, not all schools managed to provide porridge by july 2017 as directed by the ded via the district education office. third, in the three primary schools that managed to provide porridge, not all the parents contributed grains and money as per agreement during the pta meeting. also, the rate of parents’ contributions varied from one school to another. in other words, the mechanisms in place to collect contributions of grains and money from parents and guardians were largely ineffective. the following are the factors affecting sustainability school food provision in the post-wfp support phase: sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 14 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 slow parents’ contributions of grains and money as were agreed upon during the parentsteachers association (pta) meetings: for instance, at uhelela primary school, which provided porridge, they had agreed during the parents-teachers meeting to start providing porridge by july 2017 but due to the slow pace of contributions from parents, this did not begin until august 2017. of the school’s 358 pupils, actual parents’ contribution by august 2017 was only 100 (27.9%), 128 (35. %) by september 2017 and 148 (41.3%) by october 2017. as a result, the school only allowed those pupils whose parents had made contribution to partake in the porridge. the result was that pupils who did not contribute but live near school premises decided to head back home for lunch whereas other pupils who came afar remained in the school compound without food. those of the latter who had money bought snacks from the school compound or from near the school. it remains to examine whether those pupils go home return to school in time for the resumption of classes and if they do, what the nature of their concentration was in the classroom during afternoon lessons, and whether the food they at ate home was nourishing enough. gilliard (2017) found that the absence of a school food programme forced many village pupils to return home and cook for themselves as their parents were either working in the farms or in town centres trading. as a result, such pupils end up performing poorly because of tiredness or hunger (if they skipped the lunch) or worse still some develop unacceptable social behaviours such stealing money from their parents to buy snacks at school. lamaiti primary school with 729 pupils which had targeted collecting 50 bags of sorghum and tas 1,093,500 was only able to collect 33 bags (66%) and raised only tas 663,870 (60.7%) cash. parental contributions at lamaiti primary school were far more impressive than in other schools and all pupils in this school were allowed to share in the morning porridge. moreover, the school arranged a follow-up process with the village government to ensure those who did not yet contribute do so as required by their agreement. at mnokola, the school was in the process of mobilising resources. it had seven bags of sorghum saved in the school store. according to the head teacher, the school’s enrolment was 559 pupils but only 91 pupils had managed to contribute 5kgs of sorghum, half kg of sugar and tas 2,500 to buy sugar and pay for other operational services by 19th october 2017. despite such a slow pace of contributions, plans were underway to start providing porridge to the pupils. it was not clearly established whether all the pupils, including those who did not make the required contributions would be allowed to have the porridge when the school commences its provision. other schools joyce nemes 15 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. visited—bahi misheni, bahi sokoni, sanduli and mundemu—have set in place a plan similar to those of lamaiti and mnokola to sustain the sfp, but nothing had been collected by october 2017 when the researcher visited those schools. these findings generally raised concern on the pace of parents’ participation in making contributions for the first term which lasted up to december 2017 even though contribution started in july 2017 during the harvest season. the second academic term would start in january 2018 and end june 2018 when the next harvest would begin. there still seems to be little prospect for the successful take off of the sfp. head teachers interviewed indicated that officials at the district level have to visit their respective schools to assist them with sensitisation and awareness raising campaign of the parents on making contributions of resources for the school food initiative. the study findings contradict those obtained by oganga (2013) in chamwino district where parents were judged willing to contribute definite amount of food but not cash at the beginning of every school calendar. drought was another factor mentioned that hindered the primary schools visited from implementing the plans put in place. during the 2016 season, there was famine in the area due to drought, hence making it difficult for parents to contribute grains. this confirms declaration by the national adaptation programme of action (napa, 2007: 38 cited in njau, farrelly and masumbuko, 2014: 375) that dodoma is one of three regions ranked top on the list of drought-stricken areas of the country. other studies conducted in the study area show that more than 60 percent of the households experienced difficulties in feeding their members. the situation became aggravated in february when the percentage of distressed households increased to between 81.1 to 94.8 % (mayaya, opata, kipkorir, 2015). according to matunga (2008) december to february are the months of food shortage in dodoma. these months are also the pre-harvesting period and it is in that period that the majority of families have no stock of food in their granaries. generally, the amount of food which was stored could not last until the following harvesting season. under such circumstances, the findings of the current study indicate that there is an urgent need for public primary schools in the study area to get support from external environments to have impactful and sustainable sfp (nienhuser, 2008; shehada, 2010; gawish, 2016). some parents argued that what was given to the pupils was too inadequate to banish their hunger. while the researcher observed pupils getting a share of half a litre of porridge at ngombollola sustainability of school-based food aid in bahi district of tanzania’s dodoma region after the end of world food programme support 16 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1 – 21 and lamaiti primary schools, it served more as an excuse than a justification for parents’ refusal to participate actively in the school food programme. some parents who live close to the school insisted that they saw no need for such programme that made them incur additional costs unnecessarily. some head teachers, acting head teachers school committee chairpersons interviewed said that they faced difficulties in mobilising grains and money from parents due to the prevailing educationis-free mentality, which made some parents desist from making any contribution. this confirms that parents still depend on government hand-outs or donor support. these findings are in line with those in chamwino district where some of the parents were reluctant to contribute money and they were demanding that those who constructed the school toilets were also responsible for providing funding for the water and hygiene facilities to maintain the toilets (nemes, 2014). some parents complained that the programme was not a countrywide food initiative, hence limiting its effectiveness by depending on parents and guardians’ contributions. finally, the study found that the parents’ income in the study area was too low to allow them to contribute grains and money to the school for sfp as required. even at mundeme, it was noted that parents were unable to prepare packed lunch for their children despite their homes being located more than 5kms away from the school. according to the acting head teacher, some of the parents hardly had any food at home to allow their children to take some to school. these findings are also in line with those of holo (2015) who found that of 60 percent of parents in kiteto district were unable to contribute for their school meals simply because of poverty; they could not afford even to have three meals per day. conclusion and way forward this study makes three observations on sfp in bahi district of dodoma region in the post-wfp support period. first, during the life-span of the wfp-supported sfp, parents and guardians were contributing money for the payment of cooks and security guards in addition to their children supplying to their school five litre containers of water every morning and some firewood where necessary. second, after the 2015 phase out of wfp support in bahi district, the ded office via the district education officer directed all head teachers to convince parents to contribute grains for the school food programme. however, none of the primary school managed to provide school lunch by october 2017, and the number of schools providing porridge did not exceed 10. thirdly, the ded office via district education officer office have come up with another alternative of directing all head teachers in bahi joyce nemes 17 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 1– 21. district to ensure that in the next season of rain which started in november 2017 they cultivate at least five hectares of sorghum to reduce the burden on parents and allow pupils to have porridge and lunch at school as required. however, public primary schools involved in this study are not self-sufficient to sustain sfp. thus, as the dependency theory requires, these schools need support from parents and other educational stakeholders in terms of contributions to sustain the sfp, particularly in the postwfp support period. their inability to meet targets demands that they look for alternative external support to sustain the sfp. the study, therefore, recommends the government should devise strategies to boost agricultural production in the study area, including establishing irrigation schemes instead of leaving the task squarely in the hands of head teachers and village governments. in addition, community should use good land conserving agriculture methods, mixed cropping, gentle slope cultivation and drought resistant plants (ephrahim & fadhili, 2014). finally, parents and other education stakeholders should shoulder their responsibility of contributing to the wellbeing of their children at school and ensure they are fed rather than depend on the state for everything. references abed, m. g. 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(2005). ict as too for poverty reduction. proceeding of the discourse on engineering contribution in poverty reduction march 18th – 19th. in aed 2018 pp. 41-61. role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi (phd) (jeremiaireri@gmail.com | begi.nyakwara@ku.ac.ke) department of early childhood & special needs education. kenyatta university, kenya abstract the provision of adequate resources should be supported with strong and transparent accountability systems to enhance effective use of resources in schools to boost children’s development and education. this is because learners exposed to adequate resources are more motivated and have smooth transitions. this study was designed to explore the influence of parents’ involvement in decision making and school management accountability to parents on resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu count in kenya. the study was guided by systems theory of management which emphasizes on stakeholders’ involvement and accountability. the dependent variable was adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools, while the independent variables were involvement of parents in decision making process and accountability of school management to parents. results from data analysis revealed that resources available in most of the pre-primary schools were inadequate due to limited parental involvement in decision making and lack of school accountability on utilization of resources. keywords: school management; parental involvement; decision making; accountability to parents; adequacy of resources; pre-primary schools; embu county; kenya. 1. introduction african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 344-360 role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 345 availability of resources in schools motivates teachers and children to learn. steele, vignoles and jenkins (2007) assert that adequate resources in pre-primary schools provides a positive school climate for children to learn and develop. likewise, parental involvement in pre-primary school education leads to increased achievement and low dropout rates. anderson and minke (2007) point out that parental involvement in children’s learning and development leads to better outcomes. spady (1973) demonstrates that the interaction between physical, human, financial and socioemotional and cultural resources within a preschool institution creates a positive school climate to support learners’ education and development. children who lack quality school environment are likely to lag behind in academic tasks and are more likely to drop out of school (raffin, 2012). hence, there is a need to explore the influence of school management, focusing on parental involvement in decision-making, on adequacy of resources to enhance children’s learning and development. globally, the influence of school management on adequacy of resources is evident in the literature. in the uk, the department for education spends approximately 5% of its annual gross domestic product (gdp) on primary, secondary, and post-secondary education (steele, vignoles & jenkins, 2007). it is noteworthy also that the republic of ireland, finland, and australia also allocate significant funding to their education department and their learners perform well in international pupil assessment tests. this implies that provision of adequate resources supported by strong accountability systems leads to better pupil performance. raffin (2012) observes that in canadian primary and secondary schools, learners who were exposed to adequate resources were more motivated and scored high in mathematics, reading test, writing and creative subjects. accountability to parents is very important because effective school management has been associated with adequacy of resources. in the u.s., china, and israel school management have been able to complete unfinished projects as a result of parental involvement in decision making. when school the management provided reports on how resources were received and used, there was increased positive school climate and improved pupils’ performance (schwartz, 2000). it was therefore important to find out the role of parents in school management in embu county with a focus on decision making and availability of adequate resources. in africa, studies conducted in cameroon, niger, south africa and malawi indicate that learners’ performance is poor due to the problem of limited resources in schools (lloyd & blanc, 1996). this lack exposes children to low learning opportunities compared to developed nations ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 346 (chiu, & khoo, 2005). chiu and khoo argue that debt in most african countries limits the provision of resources in schools like teachers, construction of classrooms and play facilities thus robbing leaners the necessary resources for physical, social, emotional and cognitive development. in kenya, kipkorir and njenga, (2013) point out that establishment of quality assurance sections within the ministry of education has largely helped to refocus the utilization of resources in pre-primary schools. education policy documents in kenya also emphasize the need for school management to involve parents in decision making and to be more accountable and transparent (republic of kenya, 2013). the policies also affirm that parents are key stakeholders in the provision of pre-primary school education in kenya and require school management to involve them in decision making. the early childhood development (ecd) service standard guidelines 2006 require schools to provide adequate teaching-learning resources and one of the strategies school managers should use to secure the commitment of parents is by involving them in decision making and by being accountable. the school management should also create environment which encourages communication and sharing of information with parents (republic of kenya, 2006). kibandi (2014) in a study conducted in embu county, kenya, found that many schools miss out on the benefits that parental participation in school management could confer on them. there is thus a need to explore the impact of parental involvement in decision-making and of accountability of school management on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools in embu county. this study seeks to fill this gap. 2. statement of the problem the literature referenced has shown that provision of adequate resources should be supported with strong and transparent accountability systems to enhance effective use of resources in schools to boost children’s development and education. studies done globally have revealed that parents play a vital role in the management of schools because they are key stakeholders. studies done in kenya have shown that the role of parents in management of pre-primary schools has not received attention due to it despite the fact that government policy documents emphasize the necessity of parents’ involvement in decision making and accountability of school management to parents. this is because most of the studies appeared to have focused on school environment, availability of resources, and pupils’ academic achievement at the higher levels of education. this study thus seeks to fill the gap that exists in our knowledge of the role of parents in school management with a focus on decision making and accountability in the utilization of resources in public pre-primary schools in embu county in kenya. role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 347 3. objectives of the study the objectives were: a. to find out the impact of parental involvement in decision making on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. b. to determine the impact on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools of school management being accountable to parents. 4. theoretical framework the study was guided by the systems theory of management of ludwig von bertalanffy. the theory explains that management takes place in either closed or open systems. according to the theory, a school context is an open system where different stakeholders come together to give necessary input (berttalanffy, 1968). bertalanffy suggested that due to the existence of different structures of school management, there is need for managers to observe three key structural principles to enhance control of resources, viz., following structured processes; following lines of authority; and of communication. in the first principle, according to the theory, school have established hierarchies of positions to be observed by teachers. thus, where teachers are supposed to use school resources, they should follow provided structured processes to ensure accountability of resource utilization and promote effective school climate for learning and development. second, the theory proposes the establishment of lines of authority. this means that school head teachers should seek permission to use and be accountable to parents on the availability and usage of resources. teachers and learners must also learn their limit of using resources, hence promoting accountability and adequacy of resources. the third principle is communication to enhance control of resources. bertalanffy (1968) proposed that effective channels of communication should be used to inform parents and other stakeholders in the school on how resources were utilized. the principle helps parents to monitor and control the use of resources and hence helps with ensuring availability of adequate resources in schools. this theory is relevant in this study because it explains the important factors which influence the availability and adequacy of resources in schools. the theory also helps to explain how parents’ involvement in decision making by school board of management and the accountability to parents influence the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 348 5. research methodology 5.1 research design this study adopted a descriptive survey research design. this design was appropriate for this study because the researchers wanted to establish the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools as well as explore the influence of parents’ involvement in decision making. it also seeks to investigate the effect of accountability of school management to parents on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. the independent variables were: parents’ involvement in decision making and accountability of school management to parents on utilization of resources. the dependent variable was adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. 5.2 location of the study this study was carried out in manyatta sub-county in embu county. the county is in the eastern part of kenya. the location of the study was selected because existing studies show that there was a shortage of resources in pre-primary schools in the sub-county. the study was also conducted in the county because a similar study has not been conducted there. 5.3 target population the target population of this study was teachers and head teachers in 62 public pre-primary schools in the sub-county. 5.4 sample size and sampling techniques purposive sampling was used to select the sub-county, while simple random sampling technique was used to select schools, head teachers, and teachers to participate in the study. the sample of the study consisted of head teachers and teachers in 12 public pre-primary schools (20%) which were randomly selected. 5.5 research instruments the instruments used to collect data were a questionnaire for teachers and an interview schedule for head teachers. the results from the interview schedule for head teachers were used to corroborate findings from teachers concerning adequacy of resources and parents’ involvement in decision making and school management’s accountability to parents. the instruments consisted of open and closed ended questions or items. the structured items enabled the researcher to obtain structured responses to enhance validity and reliability of the results, while unstructured items were used to get in-depth information on the variables. the instruments were piloted in two preprimary schools and content validity and test retest methods were used to ensure the instruments were valid and reliable. role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 349 5.6 data collection and analysis the researchers collected data in two stages: the first stage saw the questionnaire administered to teachers, while the second stage involved interviewing two head teachers. the instruments were administered to the respondents in their respective schools and data was analysed using qualitative and quantitative methods. the quantitative methods were frequencies and percentages. the qualitative data was analysed by generating themes by first scanning through the responses to identify common themes and the number of times a response appeared was determined and results presented using tables and text. 5.7 logistical and ethical considerations before proceeding to data collection, permission to collect data was obtained from several sources including kenya’s national council for science, technology and innovation (nacosti) and embu county director for early childhood education and management of schools. consent of the respondents to participate in the study was obtained. the researchers assured the respondents that the information they provide was to be kept confidential and to maintain the anonymity respondents were not required to write their names. 6.0 results and discussions 6.1 parental involvement in decision making and adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools the study was designed to determine the influence of parental involvement in decision making process on adequacy of resources in public pre-primary schools in embu county. the objective to be attained was stated as follows: objective 1: to find out the influence of parental involvement in decision-making process on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. to achieve this objective, parents’ involvement in decision making process was determined with the help of teachers’ questionnaire and by interviewing head teachers. teachers were required to indicate whether parents of children in their schools were involved in decision making by school management. table 1 presents the results. table 1: involvement of parents in decision making number of schools percentage ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 350 yes 5 41.7 no 7 58.3 total 12 100 as displayed in table 1 the majority indicated that parents were not involved in decision making process. the results imply that parental involvement in decision making by school management was minimal. the teachers who reported that parents were involved in decision making process were also asked to state the different ways parents were involved. the results are presented in table 2. table 2: ways of parental involvement in decision making ways f % planning and organising for a fund-raising 3 42.9 mobilizing resources 6 50 construction of school infrastructure 4 33.3 acquisition of instructional materials 4 33.3 raising funds for school activities. 6 50 seeking approval before spending money of parents 2 16.7 the results in table 2 show that there were many ways school management involved parents in decision making. some of the common ways include in mobilizing resources, construction of school infrastructure, fundraising, and acquisition of instructional materials. the others were in planning and in budgeting. after determining the different ways parents were involved in decision making from teachers and head teachers in public pre-primary schools in embu county, the influence of parental involvement in decision making by school management was determined. this was achieved by comparing the resources available in schools where parents were involved in decision making against parental involvement and the results have been presented in table 3. table 3: parental involvement in decision making and availability of adequate resources in pre-primary schools school involve parents in decision making available resources role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 351 a yes adequate b no inadequate c no inadequate d no inadequate e no inadequate f yes adequate g no inadequate h no inadequate i yes adequate j no inadequate k no inadequate l yes adequate as seen in table 3 pre-primary schools which involved parents in decision-making had adequate resources compared to schools which did not. this was because the schools had put in place systems of managing the use of resources which included proper recording, storage and accountability to parents. it can also be observed that majority of the pre-primary schools did not have adequate resources. the results imply that parental involvement in decision making influenced the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. this is because the schools which reported to involve parents in decision process tended to have more adequate resources compared to those which did not. the results from questionnaires were also supported by results from interview with head teachers which revealed that pre-primary schools which did not have adequate instructional resources did not involve parents in decision making. one head teacher from a school with inadequate resources had this to say: we do not have adequate classrooms and toilets which make children to scramble for the limited resources. teacher child-ratio is very high which is against the ecd service standard guidelines. there is also lack of enough toilets which make children to wait too long for their turns and hence affecting them psychologically. another head teacher had expressed that: ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 352 lack of adequate classrooms, toilets and furniture is a pig problem in this school. there is need for county government and parents to provide more funds for constructing physical facilities. the current study findings seem to concur with those reported by lubuva (2013) who conducted a study to investigate parental involvement in management of school activities in temeke municipal in tanzania. his findings revealed that parents were involved in various activities such as planning, mobilizing funds, building classrooms, buying instructional materials, furniture and fundraising. the findings are also in agreement with those reported by kibandi (2014) who investigated the influence of parents’ participation in school management on academic performance in public secondary schools in siakago division in embu county. the study investigated the influence of parents’ participation in decision making, school financing and maintenance of physical facilities on students’ academic achievement. results showed that the benefits of parental participation in school management have not been realized in many schools. results from the two studies are in agreement with the findings of this study which revealed that majority of parents were not involved in decision making and had a negative influence on the adequacy of resources in public pre-primary schools in the county. this study revealed that some schools involved parents in mobilizing financial resources through fundraising. the study findings were similar with those reported by maloi (2016) who did a study in kajiado county to determine the influence of parental involvement in administrative matters on pupils’ performance in public primary schools in isinya sub-county in kajiado county in kenya. the study also sought to determine the extent to which involvement of parents in financial support influenced pupils’ performance in kenya certificate of primary education (kcpe) examinations. the study found that financial support from parents improved pupils’ performance in kcpe. in zimbabwe, a study conducted in primary schools found that involvement of parents in school governance created a positive climate in schools (chikoko, 2008). the research further revealed that parents who were involved in both internal and external accountability of the school resources promoted school effectiveness through increasing avenues for the school to avail adequate resources for pupils. these results are similar to the findings of this study which indicated that schools which accounted to parents on how resources were used had more resources compared to those which did not. role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 353 the current study findings were also in agreement with those reported by mege (2014) who did a study to determine the influence of school factors on the teaching and learning process in public primary schools in lower nyokal division in homabay district in kenya. the adequacy of physical and instructional materials was assessed. results had revealed that physical facilities and instructional materials in schools were insufficient; results which are similar to the findings of the study which revealed that majority of the public pre-primary schools in the county did not have adequate resources. this study revealed that pre-primary schools in embu county did not have adequate classrooms, toilets, and instructional materials. the findings of this study are consistent with those from a study conducted by parnwell (2015) to explore the influence of school infrastructure on academic performance in public primary schools in ruiru location in meru county in kenya. the study had found that schools suffered from inadequate study materials; classrooms were crowded, not painted, not plastered and floors were not cemented which affected the academic performance of pupils, results which are similar to the findings of this study. the findings of this study are also in agreement with those reported by okong’o, ngao, rop, and nyongesa (2015) who investigated the effect of availability of teaching-learning resources on the implementation of inclusive education in pre-school centres in nyamira north sub-county in kenya. findings revealed that there were inadequate teaching-learning resources in pre-school centres results which are similar to the findings of this study that instructional materials in the schools were not adequate. the findings of this study indicate that classrooms, toilets and instructional materials were not adequate. the findings are supported by those reported by mwaniki (2015) who did a study to investigate the influence of instructional resources on pre-primary school children’s performance in number work in kairuri zone, in embu county in kenya. the study revealed that pre-primary schools had different types of instructional resources and most of them were not adequate. a study conducted by elibariki (2014) on factors influencing shortage of teaching-learning resources in tanzania primary schools in kinondoni municipality revealed that in all schools surveyed there was shortage of teaching-learning materials. the study findings also correspond to those from a study by muthima, udoto and anditi (2016) to explore primary school teachers’ perceptions of academy and quality of physical facilities in public primary schools under free primary education in ndaragwa county in kenya. the study revealed that the overall quality of ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 354 physical facilities was poor. in addition, the quality of teachers and pupils’ sanitary facilities were found to be inadequate. the results from the two studies agree with the findings of this study which show that classrooms, toilets, playground and instructional resources in public pre-primary schools in embu county are inadequate. 6.2 accountability of school management to parents and adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools in the second objective the researchers sought to find out the influence of accountability of school management to parents on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. this is because the principle of accountability requires school management to be accountable to parents. the objective to be achieved was thus stated as: objective 2: to determine the influence of accountability of school management to parents on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. to achieve the objective accountability of school management to parents was determined with the help of teachers’ questionnaire and by interviewing head teachers. teachers were required to indicate whether school management accounted to parents. the results have been presented in table 4. table 4: accounting of school management to parents number of schools percentage yes 4 33.3 no 8 66.7 total 12 100 as shown in table 4 the majority of schools were not being accountable to parents on how resources were received and utilized. the teachers were also required to indicate the different ways school management accounted to parents. the results are presented in table 5. table 5: forms of accounting by school management to parents forms of accountability f % role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 355 presenting reports to parents on daily-running of school programs during parent meetings 4 33.3 presenting audit reports to parents showing how school funds were utilized 5 41.7 accounting to parents on resources received and how they were used 3 25 presenting budget to parents for consideration and approval before spending the money 4 33.3 the results in table 5 show that there were many ways school management accounted to parents. some of the common ways include: presenting reports to parents on daily-running of school programmes; presenting audit reports to parents showing how school funds were utilized; providing accounting reports showing resources received and how they were used; and seeking budget approval from parents before spending the money. the results from interview with head teachers also confirmed that some schools accounted to parents on how resources were utilized while others did not. for example, one of the head teachers interviewed said, we account to parents on how resources were utilised by presenting to them reports on daily-running of school programmes during parent meetings and presenting audit reports to parents showing how school funds were utilized. another head teacher remarked that during parent meetings we present reports to parents showing how resources were received and used and also presents budgets to parents for consideration and approval before spending the money. another head teacher had added that we ensure that resources are recorded before being issued, seek approval before we spend money and that there is proper accounting to parents on how resources were used. table 6: accountability of school management to parents and adequacy of resources ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 356 school accountability to parents available resources a yes adequate b no inadequate c no inadequate d no inadequate e no inadequate f yes adequate g no inadequate h no inadequate i yes adequate j no inadequate k no inadequate l yes adequate as seen in table 6, majority of the pre-primary school management were not accounting to parents on how resources were utilized. it is also clear that schools which accounted to parents on how resources were received and utilized had more resources compared to those which did not. the results imply that accountability of school management to parents on utilization of resources influenced the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. this is because it ensures proper use of resources. the current study revealed that accountability of school management to parents on utilization of resources influenced the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools in the county. the findings of the study are similar to those found by josephine (1999) who did a pilot study on school efficiency and policy resources planning in in new delhi. the study was to explore the contribution of various resources on improvement of the quality of education and methods of resource planning and utilization. the findings revealed that responsibility and accountability of private institutions is taken seriously by parents who want to get maximum benefits from schools. it also revealed that poor performance by government schools was due to lack of basic infrastructure facilities and lack of proper investment on human resources. the findings of the study also agree with those reported by danilla, abigael, and truman (2011) which investigated the relationship between an expanded set of top-down and bottom-up role of parents in school management: a focus on decision making and accountability in resource provision in pre-primary schools in embu county, kenya ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 357 accountability system in albanian primary schools. findings revealed that there was limited parental involvement and lack of adequate resources results which are similar to the findings of this study where majority of the pre-primary schools have not been accountable to parents on how resources received were utilized. the lack of accountability of school management to parents on utilization of resources negatively influenced the adequacy of resources in public pre-primary schools in embu county. 7. conclusion the first objective of the study looked at the influence of parental involvement in decision making on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. the majority of pre-primary school teachers reported that parents were not involved in decision making process. it was also clear that parental involvement in decision making influenced the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools because schools which reported to involve parents in decision making process tended to have more resources compared to those which did not. the second objective was to determine the influence of accountability of school management to parents on adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. results show that schools that accounted to parents on how resources were utilized had more resources compared to those which did not. it is therefore apparent that accountability of school management to parents on utilization of resources influenced the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools. 8. recommendation to improve the adequacy of resources in pre-primary schools in the county, the following are the recommendations for different key stakeholders. 8.1 board of management i) mobilize enough resources from many stakeholders for construction of more classrooms and toilets. this is because majority of the schools did not have adequate classrooms and toilets. ii) involve parents in decision making process. this is because some teachers had reported that parents were not involved in decision making process. iii) account to parents on how resources were utilized to promote positive school climate for learning and development of children. this is because some teachers had reported that parents were not involved in decision making process. 8.2 county government ireri jeremiah wanjau and nyakwara begi ajote vol. 9 (2019), 344-360 358 i) provide adequate funds for construction of more classrooms and toilets. this is because none of the pre-primary schools had adequate physical facilities like classrooms and toilets. ii) provide more funds for buying instructional materials. results had revealed that schools did not have adequate instructional resources like classrooms, furniture and toilets. 9. references alexander, n. 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(2007). the effect of school resources on pupil attainment: a multilevel simultaneous equation modelling approach. journal of the royal statistical society. series a (statistics in society), 170(3), 801-824. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4623201 republic of kenya (2006). early childhood development service standard guidelines for kenya. nairobi kenya. republic of kenya (2013). basic education act. http://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/electronic/94495/117651/f-1505056566/ken94495.pdf http://www.jstor.org/stable/4623201 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4623201 http://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/electronic/94495/117651/f-1505056566/ken94495.pdf http://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/electronic/94495/117651/f-1505056566/ken94495.pdf ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. xx -xx african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 1 2018 pp. 1-18 all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom allyson jule1 trinity western university, langley, british columbia, canada abstract using conversational analysis (jefferson, 2004) and ardener’s (2005) muted group theory, this paper explores student contributions in an african classroom through the specific sociolinguistic lens of gendered linguistic space. the focus here is on one small primary classroom in the city of bamenda, north west province, cameroon, and the embodiment of learning displayed by both boys and girls through the use of choral responses. reflecting on an african classroom opens up understanding of what can occurs in classroom lessons other than in the west and, as such, allows teacher educators in particular to consider ever-new ways of understanding classroom talk and the learning environment.2 introduction all students all over the world have a complex combination of countless contributing variables influencing spoken participation in classroom lessons, variables such as geographic location, culture, age, social class, personality, ethnic identity, religion and gender, all of which have impact on their educational experiences. sociolinguists, discourse analysts, and educational researchers alike seek deeper and deeper understandings of classroom language in the quest for deeper understandings of spoken discourse and the relevance of language use to the learning experience. using conversational 1 allyson jule, phd, is professor and dean of education at trinity western university in langley, bc, canada. she is an associate at the international gender studies centre at the university of oxford (lady margaret hall). 2 my heartfelt gratitude to dr. lilian lem atanga at the university of bamenda, cameroon, for her insightful comments and her enthusiasm and support for this project. allyson jule 2 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 analysis (jefferson 2014), muted group theory (ardener, 2005) as well as the notion of linguistic space (jule, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010) in the west, this research explores african classroom data. looking specifically at teacher/student discourse in a cameroonian classroom brings to the fore in teacher education in africa and elsewhere consideration of the traditional yet effective teaching method of choral responses. often seen in the african context, choral responses have limited use in the west. in the classroom explored here, choral responses are used effectively to engage students -embracing the embodiment of knowledge and learning through synchronized experiences. cameroon is a developing country; it is located in central africa, bordering the bight of biafra, between equatorial guinea and nigeria, and along the atlantic coast. a relatively stable and peaceful country until recently, its neighbours have experienced wars and much violence. recently, schools in the extreme north region of cameroon have been impacted by the boko haram insurgency, which has spilled into border areas from neighboring nigeria. in january 2015, many schools in the far north did not re-open after the christmas vacation following the december 2014 cameroon clashes (umar, 2015). in december of 2016, the anglophone provinces (south west and north west) erupted into ongoing protests concerning the marginalization of anglophones in the predominately francophone county. these protests have meant the closing of most schools in the area while the tensions have yet to be resolved. in contrast, my country, canada, is an advanced and peaceful democratic country in the west. it enjoys a strong educational system. in fact, education is the highest priority for canadians, second only to healthcare, in the governing provincial budgets. all canadians graduating from canadian schools receive the same credential: a provincial high school diploma; it is a very inclusive system and special efforts are made to keep it that way. girls and boys are equally encouraged to excel. its universities are open and accessible to those who meet the grade level requirements. canadian education is well-funded, open and accessible to most citizens, even those in remote areas. the educational philosophy/method is child-centred and mainstreamed; meaning all students of all levels of abilities are included in the regular school system, and individualized educational plans are available for each student in the system. class discussions and partner work are common. resources and technology abound. class size is capped at 25 – 28 students across the country. critical thinking and independence of thought are of prime importance. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/far_north_region_(cameroon) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/boko_haram https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nigeria https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/december_2014_cameroon_clashes all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 3 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 cameroon’s education system, in contrast, is spotty at best. primary education is ‘universal’, even ‘compulsory’, but it is by no means accessible to all children, and even less so for girls. most of the schools in the country were established by missionaries over the past two hundred years, principally the roman catholics in the french-speaking areas and baptist and presbyterian in the two anglophone provinces. recent changes have attempted improvements in the state school system, but investment in education is only 3% of the national budget. education is grossly underfunded. importantly, cameroon is not a knowledge-based economy; most of its population live at subsistence levels, while multinational companies like delmonte, nescafe, and exxon oil extract wealth out of the country with corruption at every level of governance often taking the rest. education is a low priority in the county; this is evident in the overcrowding of schools, the lack and level of teacher education; lack of basic supplies or learning resources, and little to no maintenance of crumbling and over-crowded school buildings. cameroonian cultural values and survival are based on kinship, with family loyalties trumping individual social advancement. not all families can afford the costs of uniforms and school and/or examination fees, though the advantages to receiving an education are highly valued among the population. canada and cameroon are very different indeed. this research focuses on the cameroonian context through the lens of a canadian researcher, attempting to locate and understand the pedagogy seen in cameroonian classroom data in order to better understand classroom talk and how it influences learning and/or performing learning to students in various settings. too little educational research pays attention to the cameroonian context or to the african context in general. over the years, i have spent time in a host of cameroonian schools and have come to appreciate the strengths of the african system. understanding the context is vitally important. the two countries cannot be compared. they can, however, speak to each other in fascinating ways when it comes to the search for teacher excellence valued all over the world. education in cameroon according to data available for 2011, only approximately 50% of all girls and 57% percent of all boys attend primary school in cameroon. the low school enrolment rate is attributed to cost, with girls’ participation further reduced by early marriage, sexual harassment, unwanted pregnancies, domestic responsibilities, and certain socio-cultural biases (u.s. department of state, 2012). a 2006 government study found there is also a large gap between the capacity of the schools and the number of potential allyson jule 4 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 students in cameroon’s north west province, where this study takes place. that government research showed that primary schools only had enough seats for less than 2 million students although more than 3 million attend schools (u.s. department of state, 2007). embezzlement of education funds is considered the main problem in primary education; half of the state primary schools in the transparency international (2011) sample reported problems with their buildings: only 20% of schools have working toilets, 30% have access to a water tap, and barely 30% have enough tables and benches for students; in addition, there is high absenteeism of teachers and poor implementation and enforcement of rules and regulations that do exist. the village schools in particular lack electricity, windows, lockable doors, running water, latrines, books, paper, pencils, scribblers, worksheets. there are no photocopiers, no coffee breaks for teachers, no lunch hours for students, no established or maintained school yards, and no access to technology. weather can also affect classes: torrential rains during rainy season and high winds and dirt in dry season can interrupt lessons as well as affect attendance of both teacher and students. the classrooms are often bare, with only chalk, chalkboards and the desks as the resources available. traditional education in the north west province meant little more than that girls and women were ‘fetching of wood and drawing of water. family depended entirely on the soil. in harvest, men helped but, other times, the work was left entirely in the hands of women’ (elango, 1993, p. 1). as such, the trajectory of education in cameroon has been quite different to that experienced in canada. cameroon’s educational method, for example, is traditional teacher-centred and authoritative. the students are taught for the examinations; there are 3 examinations each cameroonian child would need to succeed through the system: a primary level leavers certificate, an o-level examination; and an alevel examination. in addition, most cameroonian teachers are not professionally educated. martha egbe’s (2009) work on mathematics classrooms in cameroon explores the teaching methods used in schools. ‘in the cameroon classroom, the teacher possesses absolute power while the students are passive, fearing to give the wrong answers. in appreciating students’ responses, teachers make utterances as “ok, very good, alright”, “let’s begin solving”, “don’t do that,” “don’t talk, be quiet” (p. 5). in cameroon, the traditional pedagogy is ‘where teachers talk to all the children at the same time, demonstrating processes of solving problems on the chalkboard, while the students sit behind the desks listening and copying notes’ (p. 14). egbe explains that student learning in african classrooms in general ‘is dominated by the teacher talking and writing on the board most of the time, all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 5 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 with little room for the students’, a reality on which her own research on the teaching of mathematics was chiefly focused (p. 18). the major activity in the classroom involves teacher questions and the marking of homework irrespective of the subject. in her study, activities were made of closed questioning that did not facilitate the development of higher order thinking skills. as a result, not all students necessarily understood any given concept before the class would move on to the next lesson. this pedagogical style could not be more different from canadian classrooms where other teaching methods are regularly used, including informal lectures, inquiry-based learning, illustrations, demonstrations, games, expositions, discussions, group teaching and independent research often happen with some variety across any school day – or even lesson. as such, comparing classrooms in canada and cameroon is not easily done. there is too little in common. if education were a zero-sum game, canada would ‘win’ and cameroon would surely ‘lose’. i, however, challenge this way of looking at success. for one, education and real learning have always been difficult to judge, especially when one considers the whole plethora of possible influences that go into the learning context. i am also of the opinion that the west has much to learn from central/west african education if it would pay attention. despite the lack of most daily comforts found in many parts of sub-saharan africa, there are important gifts for the world that only african classrooms can offer. the use of choral responses in teacher-led lessons is an example of a method that has long been discarded in the west and yet may offer much in regards to student engagement in many respects – and in particular with girls contributions to their educational contexts. gendered linguistic space much of my research to date has been concerned with teacher methods and gendered use of linguistic space. my research over the years has explored how deeply subconscious teacher attitudes toward gender are and are revealed in speech patterns. counting the words spoken by teachers and students has appeared to me as a meaningful way of understanding the classroom participants and possible meanings within class time. in primary classrooms, i have found evidence of different patterns and expectations of linguistic space in regards to teacher responses to girls and boys. in the early 2000s, i looked at one classroom in canada in particular that revealed a clear and consistent pattern. during teacher-led lessons, the teacher would ask students questions as part of a usual irf teaching/learning method used the world over. that is, i for initiate; r for response; f for feedback. over 100 hours of classroom transcripts from a second grade class (seven year olds) revealed that the teacher used at least allyson jule 6 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 80% of words used during lessons of this nature; boys and girls used up the remaining 20% of words spoken (jule 2004). of their 20% of linguistic space, boys used 10 times more words in a given lesson. why would this situation be? the answers are surely complicated, but the evidence showed a distinct gendered pattern on the part of the teacher in privileging boys by speaking more words directly to them, such as: teacher initiates (i) with a question (to boy or girl). if a girl puts up her hand and responds (r), the teacher follow-ups (f) with fewer words. for example: teacher: what is the capital city of canada? girl: ottawa. teacher: yes. that’s right. but with a boy: teacher: what is the capital city of canada? boy: ottawa. teacher: yes, that’s right. ottawa is the capital city of canada. people think it’s toronto, but it’s not. when considered through a lens of linguistic space, the boy receives 17 words in feedback of the teacher in this instance; the girl receives only 3 words, approximately 6 times more for the boys over the girls. other classrooms show similar patterns, revealing a likely subconscious sexism regarding the worth or significance of a student response regarding expectations of some kind of the teacher and the students themselves. this discrepancy may be worth paying attention to, particularly for teachers, teacher educators and sociolinguists who study discourse patterns in the quest to more deeply understand the human condition and societal expectations of gender performances. exploring classroom talk schools and classrooms are pervasive language environments, and this in and of itself is a fundamental reason for studying classroom talk. african scholar elango (1993) says that the cameroonian system “has not realized the english language as the main tool to learning and that students should be given ample opportunity to explore their field of studies with the language spoken locally” (p. 6). classroom conversations are the central educational process or constitute major portions of it for most children anywhere (adelman, 1981; vandrick, 1999a, 1999b; aries, 1997). one can consider the tremendous all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 7 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 amount of talk that all children encounter on a daily basis, thousands upon thousands of words, and the ways in which talk may be encouraging of or antagonistic toward their participation and, as a result, their learning. linguistic patterns that are systematically found to be largely used by one sociolinguistic group over another offer insights into education more widely understood. specific and gendered language patterns used in classrooms are of particular interest in the larger gender and language debate. one of the themes running through much feminist pedagogical work is that classrooms can be sites of struggle—struggle to belong, struggle to matter, struggle to learn, struggle to speak aloud, and struggle to participate – and often passive struggles on the part of many girls. such struggles may be because of the particular power relations within classrooms and that these struggles may be partly witnessed in a lack of speech or patterns of speech (that is, powerless participants say less than the more powerful participants). that girls may be ‘nice quiet girls’ who get their work done and do well with classroom behaviors is likely linked to cultural demands of gendered performances; hence, a different culture would surely present different results. the possibility of silence belonging to the more powerless is one accepted in much feminist pedagogical work, although the context explored here suggest some further interpretations may be necessary. in documenting and understanding the speech patterns of the students in this study, i use the concept of linguistic space because i have found it useful. researching british classrooms in the 1980s, mahony (1985) found that it was ‘normal’ for a teacher to ignore girls for long periods of time, for boys to call out, and for boys to dominate classroom talk in addition to their dominating the classroom space in british classrooms. many such classroom interactions resulted in boys taking more attention through a domination or use of space, either physical or verbal space. this use of space served as an encroachment on the girls’ space, both physical and verbal, in favor of the boys’ space. however, lessons in most african classrooms have teachers using a ‘transmission approach’ where the children remain passive; the lessons are “teacher centred with teachers asking questions and learners answering in chorus or, sometimes, individually and copying what is put on the chalkboard” (ackers et al, 2001). responding in chorus may present problems in searching for gendered speech tendencies, since all students participate together without gender as a standout feature. or it may offer an enriching method of student engagement that is gender-neutral. this possibility matters greatly to feminist pedagogy. allyson jule 8 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 thornborrow’s (2002) research also highlights the ways that many teachers control classroom participation through their ‘teacher talk’. she sees teachers’ speech as creating and maintaining asymmetrical power relationships by their talking more than their students. teacher-led teacher-talk is often organized around initiation/response/follow-up (i-r-f) exchanges, in which the teacher controls the group by controlling the dynamics of classroom discourse: it is the teacher who ‘takes turns at will, allocates turns to others, determines topics, interrupts and reallocates turns judged to be irrelevant to these topics, and provides a running commentary on what is being said and meant’ (p. 176). it is also argued by both stanworth (1981) and mahony (1985) that the implicit message to the students was that the extra attention given to male students in such exchanges suggested that boys were more interesting to the teacher. when applying this possibility to the i-r-f structure of many language lessons, the teacher initiates (i), but who is being prompted? who responds (r)? and then how does the teacher follow-up (f)? these questions have propelled my ideas thus far. that said, the cameroonian classroom presents important challenges to this. i did not find this gendered pattern in the classrooms i was part of in bamenda. in fact, the teacher, mrs. abwa3, uses a traditional pattern of teaching found in many developing countries; that is, the teacher speaks and the students respond in chorus. the study the context collecting data from inside this cameroonian school is no small matter. there are numerous cultural realities to consider. how do you go into a classroom, like the one i had access to in bamenda, in cameroon’s north west province, with a video camera without causing a terrible distraction? western researchers as well as western tourists have long been chastised by the cameroonians – and rightly so -for exploiting them by such efforts to ‘understand them’. many have come to places like cameroon out of a curiosity that helps the westerner (whether it be for research, to offer humanitarian aid, or as a tourist adventure), with little in it for the cameroonians themselves. what do they gain by being researched? and yet not engaging with african communities seems equally problematic – to not notice, nor care, nor find interesting the human experience around the world. in this way, relationships and trust are key to such research. 3 all names have been changed to protect confidentiality of all participants. all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 9 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 the seminal work done by edwin and shirley ardener (ardener e., 1960, 1996; ardener, s. 1981, 1984, 2005) on the north west province of cameroon is central in understanding the social history of the area. their work records demographics, cartography, social customs, ways of life, diet, wages, divorce rates and more dating from their first arrival in cameroon in 1955, described best in plantation and village in the cameroons in 1960, to over more than fifty years of publications based on their early work. their contributions cannot be underestimated when it comes to locating the history, issues and realities of the north west province, where this study is located. in addition, their ideas, especially shirley ardener’s work on women in cameroonian society, their visibility and/or being ‘muted’ have propelled other researchers to explore communities elsewhere, including those focused on gender and education. it was the ardeners’ early belief that compiling adequate population records is an ‘essential basis’ from which other work has emerged. this study is located in the city of bamenda, and was facilitated through cooperation with the cameroon baptist convention (the cbc) that runs the primary school. for research purposes, i refer to the primary school as joseph merrick primary school – or jm for short. i was able to connect with jm’s headmistress, mrs. jaff, to discuss the aims and hopes of the study and its potential importance to cameroonian teacher education. to secure consent of the parents and the students, mrs. jaff called a school meeting for all teachers, parents and students to explain the research and its intensions. consent was given orally, since the literacy rates of the parents was, in many cases, too low to read and sign the consent from themselves. joseph merrick primary school is one of several schools run by the cameroonian baptist mission. it sits in a residential area in bamenda. there are six grades, with approximately 175 students. there are six classrooms, one small headmistress office/resource room. there is a small sandy area on the edge of the school which the children use as their playground. there is no electricity nor running water. the surroundings look much like the other schools in the area. the headmistress, mrs. jaff, is a wife and mother of 3 who followed her husband to the united states while he completed his theology education to become a pastor in the area. she was well acquainted with western education and had great ambitions for her students and valued the role education plays in the development of a community and of all the individuals involved – the teachers, the students, the families, the neighbours, etc. she was more than willing to give me access to her school classrooms; her pride in her school was clear, allyson jule 10 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 and i too shared her view that the school was a good one considering the context. her support of the research was crucial. the local authorities also fully supported the project. i videotaped 30 hours of classroom lessons at jm in june of 2015. to help make my presence less problematic, a very small video recorder was used, almost the size of a mobile phone. while taping, i avoided looking through the camera while filming; instead, i placed the camera on a table top and sat away from it, watching the teacher and the students throughout the lessons rather than the camera. collecting video data was most necessary, since transcribing of classroom discourse requires knowing who the speaker is (which an audio recording cannot discern). video recording offered a rich audio track that helped with the transcriptions of classroom talk taken over the course of a few days. methodology conversational analysis was used to both transcribe and to understand the data. conversation analysis (ca) demands that the researcher engage in a close relationship with texts or transcripts. according to jefferson (2003), conversations are understood to emerge from seemingly ‘mundane’ conversations of everyday social encounters. however, a burgeoning field of research within ca looks not at conversation per se, but in the interactions that occur within specific contexts such as the classroom (hellermann, 2003, 2007; markee, 2000). through an examination of not just what is said but how something is said and how someone else orients to that which is said, it is possible to gain a deeper understanding of an interaction. sunderland (2004) reminds educational scholars, particularly those concerned with language learning, that if we gain insight into how talk shapes our positioning, we might become better educators. in conversational analysis, speech choices can index particular institutional stances, ideologies and identities that are enacted in talk (hertiage & clayman, 2010, p. 18). thus, in language classrooms, particular ways teachers and students talk is one aspect of how the institution of the classroom is realized or reproduced, and ‘talking in these ways is a part of being a teacher or a student, so that it is through speaking that these roles are constituted. the data: mrs. abwa’s mathematics lesson mrs. abwa’s second grade classroom is the setting for the 15 minutes of classroom data discussed here. as the video clip opens, we see the mrs. abwa at the front of the room. she appears to be in her late twenties, early thirties. she has an easy smile, though she doesn’t smile too much while she teaches. all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 11 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 she is attentive to her class and uses a clear, well-projected voice. she is wearing a black, jersey dress; a gold watch, gold earrings; and jeweled flip-flop sandals. such dress is the norm here in schools, which are semi-formal at all times. female teachers wear dresses with lovely footwear; male teachers were suits and ties. mrs. abwa is carrying a blue plastic whip in her hands, as well as chalk. the floors are dirt floors, worn down with much use and damage often caused by rain; the walls are cement with faded paint. the classroom has no electricity at all, and the room is in disrepair. the entrance lacks a proper door and the windows are sealed only by worn-out wooden shutters. there is a worn poster of african animals on one wall and a yellowed poster of the alphabet on another, both attached with one screw each into the cement wall. the blackboard is made up of a portion of the worn cement wall painted over directly with black board paint and trimmed with a small wooden frame. the classroom is square, which is also typical for schools in the area – usually a collection of square rooms with no hallways per se; all the doors lead outside. there are about 25 students in the room: 2 or 3 to a desk, 4 desks to a row; 3 rows and roughly 50% girls and 50% boys, though this was difficult to discern. the students wear school uniforms, which are green for baptist schools in the country. the lesson takes place on a monday morning. it is a mathematics review class at primary 2 level – seven year olds. the class takes place toward the end of the year, so it is important to understand the lesson as a review one in that the lesson is not so much about learning new concepts but reviewing ones already studied. analysis at first glance, the classroom looks too impoverished for much learning to take place, but that impression would be false. the data reveals a teacher with an endearing teaching matter and rapport with the students, even if she is somewhat authoritative in a very african way. mrs. abwa keeps the energy high. she seems at ease with her students, uses their names at times and her own gentle assembling of students to stay in their desks when necessary. she carries her blue whip but only uses it once and only to tap a student to sit forward and pay attention. she uses the phrase “if i catch you talking” several times, usually with little effect, and the sentence never completes. what she might do if she catches them talking is not made clear. of course, the students remain very chatty. sometimes she finds it disruptive but not always. she seems to have control of her room, and the students seem at ease with her. i wonder too if her way of speaking is one recognized from their own homes. at two points in the lesson, she uses pidgin, a language used in the area in most homes. allyson jule 12 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 the lesson itself is quite scattered in that the lesson moves from ‘sets’ to addition to subtraction to geography to fractions all in the space of 16 minutes. it could be that the class is a ‘review’ class, since the footage is taken at the end of may, a time when schools begin to wind down for the summer break. in fact, this is likely a review class since she seems to expect her students to know definitions and concepts. but it is hard not to notice the lack of resources in the room. the pencils that are present were gifts from canada. one boy in particular seems quite content to keep using it throughout much of the lesson. at one point, mrs. abwa asks him to stop writing, which he promptly does and returns to it in time. the word ‘madam’ is used frequently. it is interesting to note that the lesson is in english and takes place in an english part of cameroon, yet this french term is heavily used. it appears unremarkable to the teacher who, at one point, says “don’t madam me yet”. again, this might be a word that is part of pidgin. in any case, it is a sign of respect, even if it is overly used. the students appear comfortable speaking in chorus. most lessons in most african classrooms have teachers using a ‘transmission approach’ where the children – both boys and girls remain passive; the lessons are teacher centred with teachers asking questions and the students answering in chorus, sometimes, individually, and then copying what is put on the chalkboard (ackers et al, 2001 in egbe, 2009). we weren’t in the cameroonian school very long before we realized that responding in chorus may present problems in searching for gendered speech tendencies, since all students participate together without gender as a standout feature -students speaking in chorus lessens gendered interactions with the teacher. this possibility is not something well considered in current pedagogy, even feminist pedagogy that searches for ways to make classrooms gender friendly and affirming to all learners. the notion of synchrony is perhaps much more helpful: that is the connection of what is said to what the body is doing, like singing or clapping. research in psychology has found that the connection of shared singing can increase social bonding (kreutz, 2014). the recent work of pearce, launday and dunbar (2015) was published in the royal society open science, “the icebreaker effect: singing medicates fast social bonding”. their research offers fresh ways of understanding the effectiveness of choral responses and singing and clapping that are seen in african classrooms regarding feelings of belonging to each other as social groups. all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 13 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 i did not find the gendered pattern i was looking for in the classroom. mrs. abwa uses the traditional pattern of teaching: the teacher speaks and the students respond in chorus, she uses singing and there’s much choral clapping as well to affirm student success for each other, example, “well done: clap, clap, clap.” regarding the linguistic space breakdown, there were 2200 words spoken in this 16 minute transcription piece. of this, the teacher spoke 1971 words (90% of all the words spoken); the students used the remaining 10% (224 words). of their 224 words, 175 of them were spoken in chorus (all together) so that 78% of all student contributions were spoken like this. interactions that generated responses from individual girls prompted the girls to speak 20% of the student words; single boys spoke only 9 words (4%) of the 45 student words spoken by a single student (boy or girl). i believe the girls were speaking more freely in this cameroonian classroom because of the use of choral responses – a method that offers more safety in less attention to individual contributions; the students are less conspicuous. the teacher’s linguistic space matches other studies i have done studies in the west where the teacher often uses more than 80% of the words spoken during classroom lessons (jule, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010); but here, where students respond in chorus, using a measurement of linguistic space fails to investigate gendered patterns of contributing to lessons because girls do not appear silenced in the same way. in the canadian context, it was boys that spoke 10 times more than girls but the investigation here suggests it is the other way around: the girls spoke more. in fact, both boys and girls spoke more frequently in unison than alone. this observation does present the west with a challenge to its more individualized student responses. however, this raises the issue of individual level of engagement and progress of the pupils. i admit that, even with a consideration of choral language as an important pedagogic method too often overlooked by the west, choral responses can mask other realities including the issue of gifted children and a possible loss of voice and creativity. it is important, therefore, to see a variety of teaching methods as always necessary for various goals of teaching and learning. there are fewer resources in mrs. abwa’s classroom than would be found in most classrooms in the west, but she displays incredible energy and a strong sense of belonging to the room. i thought i would find linguistic space a helpful linguistic tool to help understand gender and voice in this classroom as i have found in various classrooms in the west, but i did not see this. in all likelihood, allyson jule 14 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 the minimal contributions by some girls in classrooms around the world has more to do with teaching methods. who has been ‘muted’? whose contributions have been silenced or prompted? boys? girls? this seems tricky to discern and more explorations are needed, but the search for ‘voice’ in classrooms gets more interesting and dynamic when choral and embodied learning are displayed by an entire group of mixed-sex classroom contexts. conclusion i conclude with three possible lessons from the research: 1. a view that sub-saharan african teachers have little skill in engaging students is simply not fair nor correct. the class i witnessed displayed engaged learners and a skilled and caring teacher who offered a lot of herself. resources may be lacking, but a good teacher is a good teacher is a good teacher and they can be found anywhere, regardless of the level of support or resources. 2. conversational analysis is a helpful tool in gaining understanding of what is going on in this classroom. in this case, ca allows us to see and hear teacher-student dialogues and a consistent use of choral responses in particular – as well as to see how these reflect the way the language identifies the roles (teacher-student) and how it orients the players in relation to the other. the teacher speaks in certain ways that prompt a ‘student response’. 3. linguistic space was not very helpful in understanding this cameroonian classroom because of the teaching-learning use of choral responses, including singing and clapping. these strategies mask gendered patterns. sexism is surely present in the culture at large (seen in the few opportunities for girls and women to advance, for example), but this classroom seems more gender-neutral than many classrooms i have observed in the west. this is a rather interesting claim to make – that what is considered ‘old-fashioned’ and ineffective for learning in the west may well be a useful teaching strategy to enhance learning in africa and elsewhere. for one, choral responses need no added resources in areas where there are none to be found. the skills of a good teacher in pacing the lesson and tuning in to her or his students, making meaningful prompts to lead the learning and using engaging techniques to connect them to themselves and each other as a group of learners seems more central. all together now: choral responses, gender and linguistic space in a cameroonian primary classroom 15 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1-18 i see clear differences here regarding teaching style and method. cameroonian classrooms and canadian classrooms are very different indeed. but, in being different, there are lessons to be learned regarding effective teaching, how not to ‘gender’ the class and how seeing students only as individual learners can come at the cost of social bonding and group learning. a choral response is certainly less threatening, less obvious. i have found the lens of linguistic space to be a powerful tool to use in understanding how classrooms are sites of gender rehearsals and performances of power and exclusion. however, i do believe that this research can point to its limited use in other locations where other teaching strategies are more effective and more practical. in this way, the search for universal excellence in teaching must always be attuned to local context and cultural understandings with an ever open mind to find good methods everywhere they can be found. references abongdia, j.-f., & 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(2014). learner orientation through professional development? empirical resutls from cascade training in anglophone cameroon. compare: a journal of comparative and interntaional education, vol. 44 (5), 848 848. miles, l.k, nid, l.k., macrae, c.n. (2009). the rhythm of rapport: interpersonal synchrony and social perception. journal of experimental social psychology (45). 585 589. momsen, j. (2010). gender and development. abingdon, oxon: routledge. nana, g. (2013). this is no french school: language and education in primary schooling in cameroon: a comparative perspective. research in comparative and international education, vol. 8 (4), 468 509. nasamenan, b. b. (1994). socialization of nso children in the bamenda grassfields of northwestern cameroon. cross-cultural roots of minority children. overseas development administration. (1986). educational priorities and aid responses in subsaharan africa. london, uk: institute of education, university of london. pakula, l., pawelczyk, j., & sunderland, j. (2015). gender and sexuality in english language education: focus on poland. elt research papers, 15 (03). pavlenko, a. & i. piller (2007) language education and gender. in may, s. (ed) encyclopedia of language and education. volume 1. springer, pp. 57-69. pearce, e., launay, j. & dunbar, i.m. (2015) the icebreaker effect: singing mediates fast social bonding. royal society: open science (2). sunderland, j. (2004). gendered discourses. basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. sullivan, p., rickers, k. (2012). the effect of behavioral synchrony in groups of teammates and strangers. international journal of sport exercise (11). 286 291. tchouaffe, o. (2014). between the sublime and the subliminal: economic modernity, desire and political fictions in cameroon. in t. falola and abidgun, j (eds), education, creativity, and economic empowerment in africa (pp. 143 165). basingstoke, uk: palgrave macmillan. allyson jule 18 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 1 -18 transparency international (2011). lessons learned: primary education in cameroon and south africa. http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/lessons_learned_primary_education_in_cameroon umar, a. (2015). nigeria: boko haram cameroon military vows to protect border schools. leadership (allafrica.com) january 8. u.s. department of state (2007). country reports on human rights practices for 2006. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78723.htm. u.s. department of state (2012). country reports on human rights practices for 2011. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186173 wiltermuth, s.s., heath, c. (2009). synchrony and cooperation. psychology science (20) 1 – 5. http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/lessons_learned_primary_education_in_cameroon_and_south_africa http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186173 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education policy alisha m. b. brown michigan state university, united states abstract to assess whether the policy window opened by white paper six (wp6) has closed, this article traces the historical path of the policy and reviews pertinent policy documents and research to date on inclusive education in south africa. two research questions are explored: 1. what is the present state of inclusive education for students with disabilities in south africa? 2. what factors facilitate or inhibit the understanding and implementation of wp6? results reveal a negative state of inclusion in present day south africa based on teacher, student, and parent attitudes towards the policy and disability. furthermore, many barriers and few facilitators of inclusion were found. the analysis concludes by making policy recommendations and posing alternatives. keywords: educational policy; inclusive education; disability; south africa introduction in the policy process, when critical elements come together, a “policy window” opens and the opportunity for social change is borne (kingdon, 2010). in the case of inclusive education in south africa, global and local conditions were ripe over ten years ago for the creation of a national policy to facilitate the inclusion of students with disabilities. turning to the present day, this policy analysis aims to determine the extent to which this policy window remains open by tracing the historical path of the policy and evaluating research to date on inclusive education in south africa. to further introduce the policy under analysis, this paper will identify the policy problem, describe the policy, examine its global and local origins, and then specify the policy analysis objectives and research questions. the theoretical framework and methods employed in the policy analysis will then be presented, followed by results for each research question. finally, these findings will be discussed in terms of implications, recommended policy alternatives, and limitations. policy problem studies in south africa have found that if students with disabilities attend school at all, it is most 2 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) common for them to go to separate special schools historically segregated by disability and race (jafthas, 2008; naicker, 2005; soudien & baxen, 2006). this is especially true for students with severe disabilities, because school attendance for them depends on the availability of special schools (muthukrishna, 1996). special schools are separate schools that exist outside of mainstream education and are designed to cater to the unique learning needs of students with disabilities. herein lays the continued challenge of service provision, because special schools do not exist in every community. in fact, not all students with disabilities attend school in south africa. although statistics are sparse, insight on the proportion of out-of-school children with disabilities can be gained from the 2008 south african department of basic education (dbe) education for all (efa) country report. in this report data was presented on how many students were currently being served, which amounted to 88,000 students in 400 special schools in 2008. this number of students represents a mere 0.64% of the total student population, ranging from 0.28% in limpopo and mpumalanga to 1.65% in gauteng provinces (dbe, 2008a). using world health organization benchmarks, dbe (2001) estimated that there were between 293,000 and 346,000 children with disabilities in the country, representing 2.2% to 2.6% of the overall population. this means that as many as 258,000 children with disabilities, or 1.96% of the entire population, were excluded from the education system. further evidence illustrating the lack of access to education for students with disabilities is provided by muthukrishna (2002), who states that 70% of children with disabilities in south africa are out of school. additionally, statistics south africa (2005) found that 30% of those with a disability had no education, while only 13% of those without a disability had no education. this means that individuals with disabilities have been more than twice as likely never to attend school. although there are inconsistencies in percentage estimates, it is clear that students with disabilities are not universally enrolled in school. in addition to low school enrolment and attendance, research has shown that students with disabilities do not stay in school as long as peers without disabilities. for example, loeb et al. (2008) showed that the mean level of education is significantly lower among those with disabilities in the eastern and western cape regions (3.5 and 2.9 years, respectively) compared to their non-disabled counterparts (4.5 years in both the eastern cape and western cape). on the whole, the general message gained from existing data is that children with disabilities in south africa are not being provided with a free and compulsory primary education, so change is needed. this general situation, which still continues today, gave rise to the policy known as white paper 6: special needs education (wp6). wp6 was first introduced in 2001, and it still has yet to be realized; the policy has been mostly symbolic in nature, and the powerful mechanisms that are impeding its progress need to be uncovered and confronted. the following section describes the policy in detail. policy description wp6, released by the dbe in july of 2001, stands as the most recent key policy document that has made special education and inclusion the subject of state attention in south africa. this national policy document commits south africa to an inclusive education and training system, with the primary goal of expanding access and provision across the nation for students with disabilities. wp6 defines inclusive education and training as: alisha m. b. brown 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015)  acknowledging that all children and youth can learn and that all children and youth need support.  enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs of all learners.  acknowledging and respecting differences in learners, whether due to age, gender, ethnicity, language, class, disability, hiv or other infectious diseases.  broader than formal schooling and acknowledging that learning also occurs in the home and community, and within formal and informal settings and structures.  changing attitudes, behaviour, teaching methods, curricula and environment to meet the needs of all learners.  maximizing the participation of all learners in the culture and curriculum of educational institutions and uncovering and minimizing barriers to learning. (dbe, 2001, p. 6-7) to fulfil this vision of inclusion, wp6 outlines key strategies focused on restructuring the education system for learners identified as having special educational needs. it is important to note that the institutional restructuring in wp6 does not include abolishing special schools. instead, the vision is that special schools will serve students who require “high-intensive educational support,” and will take on the new role of functioning as “resource centres” in the district support system. further, learners who require “low-intensive support” will attend “ordinary” schools, and those who require “moderate support” will attend “full-service” schools. wp6 envisions full-service schools as providing for the full range of learning needs of all students, and serving as models of inclusion for other schools to replicate. initially, the policy stipulates that 500 of the 20,000 primary schools in south africa should be converted to fullservice schools, and 30 school districts should establish “district-based support teams” (dbsts) to provide coordinated professional support to teachers. for more details, see figure 1 for a visual representation of the theory-in-action of south africa’s inclusive education policy. based on my interpretation of the policy document, this theory represents how the dbe envisions the process of wp6 implementation (i.e., how the policy is expected to work). a 20-year implementation strategy is outlined in wp6, consisting of immediate to short-term steps (to take place in 2001-2003), medium-term steps (2004-2008), and long-term steps (2009-2021), to meet the overall goal of establishing an inclusive education and training system. short-term steps include a national advocacy program and an outreach program to mobilize out-of-school children with disabilities, as well as an audit of special schools. additionally, in 30 school districts, short-term steps involve the conversion of 30 special schools to resource centres and 30 primary schools to full-service schools, plus the creation of dbsts to orient management and professional staff to the inclusion model and to establish early identification procedures in primary schools’ foundation phase (grades reception to three). medium-term steps include transforming higher education institutions to accommodate students with disabilities, expanding community outreach programs, and expanding the number of resource centres, full-service schools, and dbsts. long-term steps include further expansion to 380 resource centres, 500 full-service schools, and colleges and dbsts. wp6 also outlines a 20-year funding strategy to support implementation. this funding strategy takes a three-pronged approach, relying on conditional grants from the national government, a 4 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) reformulation of provincial education department budgets, and the mobilization of international and national donor funding. modified identification and assessment practices for students with disabilities, as well as recognition of the consequences of the curriculum and the impact of the hiv/aids pandemic, are also mentioned in wp6. figure 1. theory-in-action of wp6. adapted from resnick et al. (2007). further explanation regarding how wp6 is expected to work is provided by supplementary policy documents that have been released by south africa’s dbe subsequent to their 2001 wp6 publication. such documents, in chronological order, include the guidelines to ensure quality education and support in special schools and special school resource centres (dbe, 2007), national strategy on screening, identification, assessment and support (dbe, 2008b), guidelines for inclusive teaching and learning (dbe, 2010a), and guidelines for fullservice/inclusive schools (dbe, 2010b). the goal of these policy documents is to provide more concrete details regarding how wp6 can be implemented effectively. together, this list of supplementary policy documents illustrates that there appears to be an ample amount of policy discourse around inclusive education in south africa, but whether these documents effectively alter the educational practices for students with disabilities is another matter. global and local policy origins from a global perspective, the development of wp6 was a response to international imperatives for universal access to education set forth by the efa movement. this movement began in alisha m. b. brown 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) jomtien, thailand, in1990, when the world declaration on education for all was first adopted by representatives from 155 countries and 150 organizations at the world conference on education for all (unesco, 2011). participants pledged to provide basic education for all children, youth, and adults by the year 2000, taking a rights-based approach to education supported by the universal declaration of human rights and the convention on the rights of the child. then, on april 26-28, 2000, in dakar, senegal, the participants of the world education forum reaffirmed their commitment to the achievement of efa goals and adopted the dakar framework for action, education for all: meeting our collective commitments. another relevant international event that influenced the development of wp6 occurred in 1994 at the unesco world conference on special needs education, held in salamanca, spain. in the spirit of efa, and in considering the future international direction of special education, the conference focused on access and quality to ensure the rights of children with disabilities to receive a basic education. this impetus was spelled out in the salamanca statement and framework for action for special needs education. surrounded by these global forces working to increase awareness and intervention efforts targeting access to education for all students, including those with disabilities, south africa was faced with the challenge of providing free and compulsory primary education to its children with disabilities. locally, wp6 was created within a social and political context that was full of change and transition. in april 1994, the african national congress (anc) political party won the first democratic nationwide election in south africa’s history, and nelson mandela was inaugurated as president in may 1994 (nuttall et al., 1998). there was a wave of reform when mandela took office to reverse the oppressive apartheid policies of the previous national party government and to create a new south africa a rainbow nation at peace. this wave of change spanned all spheres of society, from industry to healthcare, housing, water, public works, taxes, trade, land reform, education, and so on. within this policy climate promoting equity for all south africans, wp6 was born. during apartheid post-1994, the south african education department was divided into 18 racially separated education departments, each of which had their own special education policies. in this fragmented system, extreme disparities between different race groups existed in the provision for learners with special needs, with black children with disabilities having virtually no provision (engelbrecht et al., 1999). this history of marginalization and exclusion of learners with disabilities was investigated and addressed in october, 1996, when south africa’s ministry of education appointed a national commission on special needs in education and training and the national committee on education support services. wp6 was then released by the dbe in july, 2001; it built on a joint report produced by these two bodies in 1997, as well as on a consultative paper released by the ministry in 1999, based on the report’s recommendations. policy analysis objectives and research questions through reviewing available empirical literature and policy documents, the primary objective of this policy analysis was to evaluate whether the policy window that was initially opened by wp6 over a decade ago remains open today. in other words, the aim of the analysis was to determine whether the policy’s potential to create social change in regards to the education of students with disabilities in south africa has been realized. in order to more fully understand wp6 6 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) implementation progress, this article also explores which factors seem to impede and facilitate access to education and service provision for students with disabilities in south africa. multiple factors were considered in this analysis of facilitators and barriers to wp6 implementation, such as budget allocation, teacher training, professional development, and the nation’s curriculum and exam structure. doing so uncovered the true capacity of teachers and schools to carry out the extensive aims of wp6, as well as identified some areas for policy makers to address as they move forward with inclusion efforts. consequently, this article addresses the following research questions: 1. what is the present state of inclusive education for students with disabilities in south africa? 2. what factors facilitate or inhibit the understanding and implementation of wp6? the primary motivation for exploring these questions was to identify possible alternatives that policy makers can pursue to increase the responsiveness of policy to the needs of this marginalized group. theoretical framework this policy analysis draws on theories of globalization, governance, and institutions for its theoretical framework. first, the forces of globalization are important to recognize in the policy analysis of south africa’s wp6, because international forces are no doubt at play in the nation’s policy arena. in our global world, there exists an environment of policy borrowing regarding educational policy and practice (tatto, 2007). previous work has established that the inclusive education movement is no exception to this policy borrowing environment (e.g., graham & jahnukainen, 2011; le fanu, 2013; lynch et al., 2011), especially with international multilateral organizations like the united nations advocating for inclusive education reform globally. thus, couching the policy analysis of wp6 within a globalization frame is important, given the international pressures and influences to shape and inform inclusive educational policy and practice. second, acknowledging the role of local governance is also important in this policy analysis, because within the greater international context nation states play a critical role in mediating global influences. when considering international relations and comparative politics, the regulatory role of the state is undeniable in the promotion of economic and social development (kjaer, 2004). nation states and their educational systems respond to global pressures by making critical decisions concerning whether to adopt, borrow, or modify international policies. applying this framework to my wp6 south african policy analysis, it is important to consider how the global mandate promoting inclusive education was first adopted by the national dbe, and then how it has filtered down to the provincial and local levels. at each level of government, different formal and informal rules, behavioural codes, and norms (i.e., governance, as defined by kjaer) exist. the ways in which such governance impacts the implementation of wp6 is explored in the current policy analysis. third, it is important to use institutional theory because the state has as its counterpart local educational institutions such as the dbe, provincial departments of education, and local districts that must implement the policy. the definition of institutions provided by cummings (1999) will be used: “institutions are comprised of complex norms and procedures oriented towards realizing a particular goal or ideal, and they motivate behaviour towards these goals or ideals” (p. 413). applying this definition to the present policy analysis, the particular goal or idea is increased access to primary education for students with disabilities, as specified by wp6. in alisha m. b. brown 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) order to implement this policy effectively, the educational institutions of south africa must establish norms and procedures to make wp6 a reality. cummings noted that one of the core principles of institutions of education is that new thinking may emerge in times of rapid ideological, political, or economic change, and this can lead to educational reform. the process of changing educational institutions is a lengthy one, because institutions have mechanisms to buffer themselves from external influence. as a result, the important role of institutions of education as mediators of policy cannot be overlooked. in sum, applying this multi-dimensional theoretical framework permits a greater understanding of how global, governmental, and social institutions govern special education policy in the contemporary south african context. the release of wp6 has institutionalised inclusion in south africa, thereby opening a policy window and creating an opportunity for greater equity for students with disabilities. applying the above theoretical framework will enable an evaluation as to whether the opportunity originally provided by the policy is being realized. method to answer the research questions, a combination of government reports on wp6 implementation and of empirical journal articles on inclusive education for students with disabilities in south africa were reviewed. the data sources and analytical approach are explained below. data sources government reports. the two south african dbe evaluations of the implementation of wp6 include the report on implementing inclusive education in south africa, which was presented to the dbe in 2008, and the report on the inclusive education field test, which was presented to the heads of education committee in 2009. to the best of author’s knowledge, these are the only reports evaluating wp6 implementation that have been published by the dbe to date. journal articles. to identify relevant journal articles on the topic of inclusive education for students with disabilities in south africa, a systematic search in the eric firstsearch database was conducted using the keyword “south africa” and the subject headings “inclusion” or “inclusive schools” and “disabilities” or “special education.” the search was limited to include only peer-reviewed research articles as the publication type. this initial search produced a total of 36 articles. nineteen studies were dropped from the analysis because after further review it was determined that they were not empirical studies, and/or the inclusive education of students with disabilities in south africa was not a central topic. this brought the final sample to 17 peer-reviewed articles. a detailed list of the relevant studies that were reviewed in this policy analysis can be found in table 1 in the appendix, which provides descriptive information on their research objectives, sample, data collection methods, and findings. analytical approach when analysing the government reports and journal articles, the two research questions and theoretical framework were used as a guide to extract and interpret pertinent information from the data sources. as such, any text from the data sources that discussed wp6 implementation or barriers and facilitators of inclusive education in the south african context (i.e., research question relevant content) was highlighted and then subsequently coded to identify key themes and findings. applying the theoretical framework, the extracted key themes and findings were 8 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) then interpreted and critiqued with an eye towards the potential roles of globalization, governance, and institutions. finally, as part of the analysis for rq1 articles were coded as having largely positive, negative, or mixed findings or implications in relation to wp6 implementation. results results are presented for each of the two research questions below. rq 1: evaluating wp6 implementation efforts the findings of the government reports revealed that wp6 implementation has not been as smooth or as fast as originally anticipated (dbe, 2008c, 2009). some specific observations and recommendations to highlight from the reports include: collaboration at the national level was not effectively mirrored at the provincial level, monitoring and evaluation systems need to be developed, planning needs to be more systematic, provincial financial resources need to be coordinated to upgrade school infrastructure and materials, and teacher capacity needs to be improved in order to scale up implementation. it was more difficult to determine what the present state of inclusive education for students with disabilities in south africa is from the articles reviewed, because only two of the studies (dreyer, 2013; kalenga & fourie, 2012) empirically evaluated wp6 implementation 1 . instead, the vast majority of the articles examined perceptions of inclusive education and attitudes towards students with disabilities in south africa. of these, most articles examined the perceptions of teachers (bornman & donohue, 2013; engelbrecht et al., 2003; forlin, 1997; greyling, 2009; helldin et al., 2011; magare et al., 2010; malinen et al., 2013; mdikana et al., 2007; ntombela, 2011; oswald & swart, 2011; savolainen et al., 2012), one looked at the perceptions of parents (yssel et al., 2007), and two examined the perceptions of students with disabilities themselves (francis & muthukrishina, 2004; ntshangase et al., 2008). when interpreting the results of these studies as a whole, there appears to be a majority of negative and mixed findings. figure 2 shows the proportion of positive/negative ratings across all articles (see last column in the appendix for positive/negative ratings of each article). only 3 articles presented generally positive findings, 8 had a combination of positive and negative, and 6 had negative, suggesting that the state of inclusive education in south africa is relatively poor overall. 1 dreyer (2013) examined the experiences of learning support teachers as they adapt to their new roles in inclusive schools and kalenga and fourie (2012) evaluated how mainstream schools are managing the inclusion of students with disabilities. alisha m. b. brown 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) figure 2. proportion of articles whose findings have positive, mixed, and negative implications for wp6 implementation to highlight some of the negative findings, research showed that south african teachers perceived many stressors and concerns with an inclusive classroom (engelbrecht et al., 2003; oswald & swart, 2011; savolainen et al., 2012), have a limited understanding of what inclusive education is (ntombela, 2011), and do not believe that inclusion can work or recognize its value (greyling, 2009; helldin et al., 2011). there was also evidence of a perceived lack of support for general education teachers to include students with disabilities in their classrooms (greyling, 2009). furthermore, it is important to point out that both articles that empirically evaluated wp6 implementation fall into the negative category, with kalenga and fourie (2012) finding that school management in mainstream schools lack direction and scope, and dreyer (2013) showing that despite the ilst structure, learning support teachers experience many challenges as they try to implement inclusive education such as limited cooperation from general education teachers. on the other hand, the handful of articles with generally positive findings suggest that south african teachers can have positive attitudes towards inclusive education (mdikana et al., 2007) and have competencies that enable them to support learners with disabilities (magare et al., 2010). however, it is important to note that although mdikana et al. found that the majority of pre-service teachers (60%) had positive attitudes towards inclusive education, 35% expressed negative attitudes, and while 35% is technically the minority, it is still a relatively large proportion and is problematic. it was most common for articles to present a combination of positive and negative findings, such as francis and muthukrishna (2004) who found that students generally felt positive about their inclusion but also reported negative consequences like bullying and discrimination. similarly, parents positively reported that inclusion had increased their involvement in their child’s education, but they still experienced many frustrations, such as alienation, empty promises, and concerns for their child’s social rejection (yssel et al., 2007). so while the government reports and articles with negative findings paint a relatively bleak picture of inclusive education in south africa, the articles with mixed or positive findings offer some light. however, it should be reiterated that the bulk of these findings rely on perceptions of 10 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) inclusion, and more experimental work testing the effectiveness of inclusive education and the progress of wp6 implementation in south africa is clearly needed in order to fully assess the present state of inclusion. rq2: identifying factors that facilitate and inhibit wp6 implementation many barriers to inclusive education in south africa are expressed by the government reports and articles reviewed. the five most common barriers identified in the literature reviewed are summarized in table 2. table 2. common barriers to inclusive education in south africa barrier number of data sources barrier was identified data sources lack of teacher capability and confidence in the classroom 8 engelbrecht et al. (2003), dbe (2008c, 2009), greyling (2009), helldin et al. (2011), kalenga & fourie (2012), malinen et al. (2013), ntombela (2011) lack of teacher training 5 bornman & donohue (2013), forlin (1997), greyling (2009), ntobela (2011), yssel et al. (2007) lack of financial and material resources 4 engelbrecht et al. (2003), dbe (2008c, 2009), greyling (2009) lack of direction and scope in school management 4 dbe (2008c, 2009), dreyer (2013), kalenga & fourie (2012) negative beliefs/attitudes of teachers, fellow students, and society at large 4 bornman & donohue (2013), muthukrishna (2004), greyling (2009), yssel et al. (2007) table 2 shows that the barriers identified in the reviewed articles and government reports span across multiple levels of the educational system from students to teachers to school management and even beyond to the society at large in terms of their negative beliefs about disability and attitudes towards the inclusion of learners with disabilities in mainstream classrooms. the barriers also span multiple levels of local and national government, as evidenced by a lack of direction and scope of school management regarding inclusion at local levels and a lack of financial resources and materials, where national government plays a role in educational finance distribution decisions. finally, systemic barriers in teacher preparation were also commonly discussed in the literature in terms of a lack of teacher training in inclusive pedagogy and a lack of teacher capability and confidence in inclusive classrooms. overall, the literature shows that numerous cultural, social, economic, and political barriers impede the successful implementation of inclusive education in south africa. alisha m. b. brown 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) unfortunately, due to the emphasis in the literature on barriers, very few articles offer a better understanding of what might facilitate wp6 implementation. that being said, there is a couple of notable exceptions whose lessons learned from successful cases of inclusion will be briefly summarized. one such article is magare et al. (2010), which reported that educators who are effectively carrying out inclusion have skills and competencies like acceptance, adaptability, and flexibility, and they were able to collaborate well with teachers and parents. additionally, the study by pather (2011) provides a positive case of inclusive education, focusing on how staff, peers, parents, and neighbouring schools addressed barriers to inclusion, such as creating a lift club to address transportation challenges. it is important to point out that this case was inclusion by default, meaning that the school was not actually designated as a full-service school by wp6 standards. so, while pather’s study illustrates that inclusion can be possible in a south african school, in so doing it illuminates flaws in wp6 because the ways in which inclusion was achieved did not follow the policy’s theory in action. future work studying why successful cases of inclusive education are a success, like the two reviewed here, will be vital to inform continued policy implementation. discussion and implications moving forward, the literature reviewed implies that numerous institutional barriers need to be addressed in order to bring about the desired policy effects of wp6. one important area to target within the larger education system is teacher training institutions. teacher training programs should be strengthened to address the lack of preparation and the low confidence that teachers have to teach students with disabilities. regarding the specifics of such programs, there are some inconsistencies in the south african literature. for example, the findings of forlin (1997) suggest that an elective special education course unit is more desirable than a compulsory unit on special education in terms of producing lower levels of discomfort that teachers have with people with disabilities, yet the findings of oswald and swart (2011) suggest that gains can be made with compulsory courses. further research is needed to determine what an effective teacher training program should look like in south africa to inform decisions about how to address the teacher training gap in the area of inclusive education. an additional structural barrier to address is the lack of financial and material resources. depending on the particular needs of the child, students with disabilities may require additional learning resources, such as audio/visual equipment, furniture, or books. a related concern regards the severe inequalities in the south african context. although the articles reviewed did not focus on this, in the south african context it is clear that some schools are more resourced than others, and this is usually closely related to race. taking into account this context of severe inequality, particular attention should be paid to resourcing schools that serve disadvantaged students in south africa’s educational funding plans. a final major barrier to address is the negative beliefs/attitudes of teachers, general education students, and the greater community. while this was commonly cited as a barrier to policy implementation and the articles noted that cultural attitudes need to be changed, they did not describe how this could be done, or suggest viable policy alternatives incorporating an attitude changing component. although social attitudes towards disability are likely the most difficult thing to change, sensitivity training is one viable option. due to the widespread nature of negative beliefs/attitudes, sensitivity training could take place in teacher training programs, in in12 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) service programs, in the community, and in the classroom for peers. when attempts are made in this area, caution should be taken to respect and honour traditional cultural beliefs as much as possible. for example, beliefs surrounding witchcraft surfaced in a couple of the articles (francis & muthukrishna, 2004; greyling, 2009), with teachers and students believing that those with a disability are bewitched or ukuthathwa. as an alternative to directly challenging these beliefs, a more culturally sensitive approach would be to use another cultural idiom. ubuntu is a south african philosophy guiding individual moral action drawing on the adage, “a person is a person through other people” (ashforth, 2005, p. 85). the idea that personhood is constituted through community with others promotes harmonious community relations, which could reduce oppression and promote social acceptance of disability. applying this concept of african humanism to disability could be useful as an entry point to get individuals to see that every person in the community is important and should be valued. when using such an approach, however, it is important to stress that using superstitious beliefs as a shield to discriminate against those with disabilities is not acceptable. recommended policy alternatives the evidence presented in this article suggests that wp6, in its current form, is not very effective, so i recommend two policy alternatives. the first relates closely with research question 1, which aimed to evaluate the state of inclusive education in south africa. perhaps one of the reasons that a limited number of studies have thoroughly addressed this question is that the desired policy outcomes are not clearly defined. returning to the theory-in-action represented in figure 1, the outcomes section is quite vague. redefining and establishing concrete, clear, measurable policy objectives would be useful in moving wp6 implementation forward so that progress can be more easily evaluated. further, incorporating formative and summative evaluation procedures and appointing institutional bodies to carry out such evaluation of the wp6 implementation plan will add an important accountability component that is currently missing from the policy. the government wp6 implementation evaluation reports also recommended that monitoring and evaluation systems need to be developed (dbe, 2008c, 2009), and the value in doing so cannot be understated. a final, more drastic policy alternative is to overhaul the entire inclusive education policy and start anew, this time creating better alignment with local needs and values. a resounding message from the literature reviewed is that many negative attitudes towards disability and inclusive education exist in south african society. wp6 is controversial in nature because of the social and cultural context, and there appears to be resistance to change, by teachers especially. if these negative attitudes are shaping the institutional norms and practices in local schools, it is unlikely that the inclusive education policy initiative will ever move forward. perhaps the global pressures promoting inclusive education resulted in the policy getting off on the wrong foot. research has established that so called “policy borrowing” eventually undermines any effort for reform because the impetus comes from the outside (tatto, 2011). when policy is created in this way (i.e., from the outside in) it is in effect a surface level commitment on the part of the national government to show that south africa is on the global wave of inclusion policy, but it does not impact the population in need. for this reason, i recommend policy inquiry locally. for inclusive education to infiltrate all levels of government and all educational institutions, the system requires drastic change. i believe that the best way to do this is to start at the local level to ensure sustainable change that has a true impact on the lives of students with disabilities in alisha m. b. brown 13 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) south africa. limitations a primary limitation of the present study is the limited amount of peer-reviewed articles that the findings were drawn from. a call for more research on inclusive education in south africa, especially regarding the status of the implementation of the policy, is warranted. due to this lack of research, conclusions regarding research question 1 were limited because they were primarily based upon studies examining perceptions. while perception research is important, it should be coupled with studies aiming to quantify south africa’s progress towards inclusive education. accordingly, it is important for future research evaluating wp6 implementation to incorporate a variety of outcome measures that explicitly quantify the production process outlined in the policy. for example, research should collect and report statistics on how many special schools have been converted to full-service schools, how many special schools have been converted to resource centres, how many districts have fully functioning district-based support teams, how many schools have established institutional-level support teams. a second limitation is the rigor of some of the peer-reviewed studies used in this policy analysis. a surprising proportion of the journal articles reviewed did not adequately explain their sampling procedures or their sample characteristics, thereby calling into question the representativeness of their samples and validity of their findings. for example, yssel et al. (2007) described their sample as 32 south african parents of students with disabilities from urban school districts in the western cape and gauteng provinces; however, demographic information such as socioeconomic status and racial composition of the parents or the schools their children attended was not provided. providing this level of detail is contextually important given the racially and economically stratified post-apartheid south african society. a related detail to consider in light of south africa’s unique history is the type of school due to the educational inequalities left behind by apartheid. for instance, former model c schools, where only white children were previously permitted to attend, are much different in terms of material and teaching resources, class sizes, and school climate compared to schools formerly reserved for coloured or black students. other scholars, such as deacon et al. (2010), have also acknowledged issues of generalizability when reviewing educational research in south africa. deacon stated that education research in south africa was “in the main, diffuse, individualistic and on a small scale, with a dearth of large-scale research projects that could consolidate knowledge about issues of national and global importance” (p. 96). the findings of the present literature review fall in line with deacon’s sentiment – that more large-scale, generalizable research projects are warranted. future research should take special care to ensure that sampling procedures and characteristics are sufficiently explained so that generalizability can be adequately assessed. conclusion this policy analysis was based on a critical assessment of peer reviewed scholarship on inclusive education in south africa, and it contributes to documenting the need for rigorous studies on policy development and implementation in this important policy area. two research questions were explored: 1. what is the present state of inclusive education for students with disabilities in south africa? 2. what factors facilitate or inhibit the understanding and implementation of 14 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) wp6? results revealed that few of the 17 peer-reviewed articles empirically evaluated the effectiveness or implementation of wp6 directly. instead, the majority of articles documented the perceptions and attitudes that teachers, students, and parents have towards the policy and disability more generally, to paint a generally negative picture of the state of inclusion. given the resources allocated and the real need for inclusive education in south africa, it is irresponsible not to know what impact the policy is having on a large scale; consequently, more rigorous research is needed in this area. results for the second research question revealed that many barriers and few facilitators of inclusion are reported by the studies, once again adding to the bleak picture of inclusive education in south africa. given this negative state of inclusive education in south africa, it appears that the policy window originally opened in 2001 when wp6 was released has begun to close. this lack of progress must be denounced and a call for action made, because inclusion in education is a matter of social justice (polat, 2011). attempts to overcome structural barriers that create educational inequality for students with disabilities are essential to create and defend a socially just and caring education for all students. recommendations were made to address not only the identified barriers in systematic, culturally sensitive ways, but also to focus future research on the reasons behind cases of successful implementation, in order to move forward in a positive direction. finally, policy alternatives were suggested to redefine wp6 outcomes in clear, measurable ways, as well as to promote future policy inquiry locally into the process of policy implementation. doing so could enable better monitoring of progress and increased accountability, plus increase the likelihood that students with disabilities are being served by the south african education system in a sustainable, socially supported way. inclusive education is an important educational policy objective for south africa to continue to work towards to ensure that all children have access to education. to reopen this policy window, strengthening the policy itself as well as its implementation will help guarantee that children with disabilities are afforded their right to education. acknowledgements the author gratefully acknowledges the guidance and support of dr. maria teresa tatto during the preparation of this paper. references ashforth, a. 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(2006). convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. retrieved from http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization. (2008). education for all. retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/ yssel, n., engelbrecht, p., oswald, m., eloff, i., & swart, e. (2007). views of inclusion: a comparative study of parents' perceptions in south africa and the united states. remedial and special education, 28(6), 356-365. appendix table 1. features of empirical studies reviewed study objective sample description data source primary findings + or bornman & donohue (2013) compared teachers’ attitudes towards including a learner with attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder (adhd) to a learner with little or no functional speech (lnfs) 118 teachers from 12 randomly selected government primary schools (3 rural schools, 3 urban schools, and 6 schools bordering the urban and informal settlement area) in the kimberley area in the remote northern cape province modified teacher attitude scale questionnaire that measures teachers’ attitudes about inclusion after given two vignettes (one depicting a learner with adhd and one with lnfs) although teachers reported that the learner with adhd would be more disruptive in class and have more of a negative effect on the classroom climate, they overwhelmingly favoured including a learner with adhd over lnfs. however, teachers felt that they could benefit from inclusive education training if either learner was in their class and additional training in inclusive education was positively related to teachers’ attitudes about their ability to teach both learners in the vignettes +/ http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) dreyer (2013) explores the experiences of learning support teachers as they adapt to their new role providing collaborative provision of learner support in conjunction with the ilst and general education teachers 41 learning support teachers serving 63 schools in the west coast district in the western cape education department (wced) completed questionnaires and 6 learning support teachers participated in a focus group interview questionnaire with closed and openended questions to elicit quantitative and qualitative data on teacher views about the implementation and functioning of the learning support model in the school, as well as focus group interview to explore teachers’ opinions on inclusive education and the learning support model support for mainstream teachers is fragmented; while 44% of learning support teachers reported often providing support to mainstream general education teachers, 17% gave no support. although the ilst provides a structure for collaborative provision of support, learning support teachers experienced very little cooperation from general education teachers and felt that serving more than one school impedes collaboration engelbrec ht et al. (2003) investigated the stressors on teachers when including a learner with an intellectual disability in south african mainstream classrooms 55 teachers from gauteng and western cape provinces who included a learner with a mild to moderate intellectual disability in their mainstream classroom completed survey and 10 of these teachers were interviewed (5 from each of the two provinces) quantitative questionnaire on stress and coping, and qualitative structured interviews on teacher perceptions of stressors within an inclusive classroom five areas were identified as most stressful: administrative issues (responsibility for educational outcomes of student with a disability, adapting curriculum and unit plans to meet student’s needs), support (financial constraints, difficulty locating appropriate resources), behaviour of learners (short attention span, poor communication, inappropriate social behaviour), self-perceived confidence (lack of training, difficult to sustain active learning environment for student with a disability while teaching students without disabilities), and parents of learners with intellectual disabilities (limited contact, lack of involvement) forlin (1997) investigated preservice teachers’ acceptance of and social interaction with people with disabilities 2,800 pre-service teachers from 6 teacher training universities in queensland, australia and the western cape, south africa 20-item interactions with disabled person scale and 12 accompanying items about demographic characteristics the levels of discomfort for those who had completed a compulsory unit on special education were higher than those who did not, while those who had taken an elective special education unit had lower discomfort than those who did not +/ francis & muthukri shna (2004) explored the subjective reality of students with disabilities attending an ordinary school 10 students with physical disabilities enrolled in a rural secondary school in the province of kwazulu-natal narrative methodology; collected personal stories of students to examine their life experiences and self-identity students felt positive about their inclusion, found most teachers and students supportive, and felt the school was trying to address their needs. however, students reported that bullying did occur regularly, some social relationships initiated by +/ 20 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) using unstructured interviews able students were for financial gain because they collect a disability grant, students and community members perceive them as not normal and bewitched, the curriculum is exclusionary, and a major barrier to access was transportation to and from school greyling (2009) explored factors educators who teach learners with special education needs perceived as problematic to them providing quality education for all, especially in lower socioeconomic areas convenience sample of teachers at 12 mainstream and special primary schools in the nelson mandela bay (port elizabeth and surrounding areas) and the mtala district of the eastern cape province qualitative questionnaires, interviews, and observations of teachers on attitudes and beliefs about inclusion practices, rendering support to special education learners, confidence regarding implementation, and availability of support systems and personal commitment educators had limited knowledge regarding inclusion, little or no training in special education, felt inservice workshop training was insufficient, experienced a lack of support, and did not believe inclusion could work or recognize its value helldin et al. (2011) compared attitudes between south african and swedish teachers regarding inclusive education purposive sample of 442 swedish and south african teachers. south africa sample: 65 teachers randomly selected from four schools in gauteng province selected to represent urban/rural and mainstream/special schools, and 100 teachers in the province of kwazulu-natal attending a teacher’s conference in port shepstone, with 100% response rate. also sent 251 questionnaires to all finalyear students in advanced certificate in education: inclusive education at the university of south africa, with 84% response rate. sweden sample: 275 teachers within the educational organization in the rural region of delarna, with 47% response rate. translated and adapted versions of a questionnaire on attitudes on inclusive education swedish teachers were more proinclusion and more hesitant to accommodate learners with barriers in special schools. teachers from both countries were hesitant towards the feasibility of implementing inclusive education practically kalenga & fourie explored the extent schools purposive sample of 40 senior management team qualitative interviews, field mainstream schools lacked direction and scope in managing the inclusion ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) (2012) are able to manage inclusive education implementation in mainstream classes and what eco-systemic management strategies should be employed (smt) members, 40 educators, and 40 parents in the vaal triangle (district 8 of gauteng province) notes, and observations of learners with academic and behavioural challenges. ecosystemic management strategies were recommended for the doe, smts, educators, and parents. magare et al. (2010) explored the experiences of educators in ordinary schools regarding the challenges experienced in inclusive learning contexts and identified the competencies they use to deal with these challenges purposive sample of 7 educators at a secondary school serving predominantly black and coloured people in northwest province qualitative case study of written assignments, indepth interviews, and focus group discussion educators had competencies that enabled them to support the learners (unconditional acceptance, focused observations, adaptability, and flexibility) and formed collaborative relationships with parents and colleagues in an inclusive setting + malinen et al. (2013) tested a model for explaining teachers’ perceived selfefficacy for teaching in inclusive classrooms 1911 in-service teachers from china, finland, and south africa. convenience sampling was used in south africa, with one group of teachers (n=322) from the vaal triangle area in the gauteng and free state provinces and a second group of teachers (n=283) from across all south african provinces teacher selfefficacy for inclusive practices questionnaire, which measures perceived teacher efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms experience in teaching students with disabilities was the strongest predictor of self-efficacy in all countries. in the south african model, experience teaching students with disabilities as well as previous interactions with persons with disabilities significantly explained self-efficacy, while teaching experience and the amount of training related to inclusive education did not +/ mdikana et al. (2007) investigated preservice educators’ attitudes towards inclusive education 22 pre-service educators in their final year of study at the university of witwatersrand in johannesburg adapted questionnaire on attitudes towards inclusive education and learners with special education needs, and requirements for competency and successful inclusion participants were found to have positive attitudes toward inclusive education (60% positive, 35% negative, 5% undecided) and learners with special needs (77% positive, 27% negative, 16% undecided). the majority of participants (72%) felt there is a need for special skills and special resources, while 28% did not and 2% were undecided + ntombela (2011) investigated teachers’ experiences and understandings of the wp6 policy statement 42 teachers and 2 principals at 3 primary schools (1 rural, 1 urban, 1 semi-urban) in 2 districts in the province of kwazulu-natal, 60% response rate for teachers qualitative, multiple case study using questionnaires and focus group interviews with teachers had limited experiences and understandings of inclusive education and felt inadequately prepared to implement it 22 has the policy window closed? a critical analysis of south africa’s inclusive education ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) teachers and individual interviews with principals ntshanga se et al. (2008) explored adolescent perceptions of their abilities, attributes, and feelings of selfworth while attending an inclusive school 29 adolescent boys (14 without a learning disability who have always attended a mainstream school and 15 with a learning disability who had previously attended a special school) attending an inclusive private school in an affluent johannesburg suburb culture free selfesteem inventory third edition (cfsei-3) survey found no significant difference in self-esteem subscales or global selfesteem between included and mainstream boys, showing the benefit of inclusion to self-esteem + oswald & swart (2011) explored preservice teachers’ attitudes and concerns regarding inclusive education and their degree of comfort interacting with people with disabilities after completing compulsory inclusive education courses 180 pre-service teachers from a south african higher education institution sentiments, attitudes and concerns about inclusive education (sacie) scale after the intervention, pre-service teachers’ mean scores on the sentiments and attitudes scales increased, while mean scores on the concerns scale decreased. regarding concerns, teachers were more worried about resources to support inclusive education, large class sizes, their workload, and the majority reported not having considerable interactions with a person with a disability. +/ pather (2011) explored the inclusion, support provision, perceptions, and barriers of students with disabilities at a local secondary school 9 students with physical disabilities at a black rural secondary school, their teachers, and nondisabled peers qualitative interviews with students with physical disabilities, observations over 6 months, and interviews with staff and nondisabled students despite not being designated as a full-service school, learners with disabilities were successfully being included within the mainstream school by default with a range of teacher, peer and community support +/ savolaine n et al. (2012) compared preservice teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy in implementing inclusive education in south africa and finland convenience sample of 319 south african primary and secondary education teachers from the vaal triangle area and 822 finnish primary and secondary education teachers from 6 small to mediumsized municipalities in eastern finland and 1 big municipality in south-west finland sentiments, attitudes and concerns about inclusive education (sacie) scale sentiments were positive in both countries, but teachers had concerns about including students with disabilities. self-efficacy in managing behaviour was the most positive aspect of self-efficacy for south african teachers, but the weakest for finnish teachers. selfefficacy, particularly efficacy in collaboration, was positively related to attitudes +/ yssel et al (2007) compared the perceptions of 32 parents of children with disabilities in urban school focus group discussions parent perceptions, experiences, and barriers to effective family-school +/ ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) parents regarding inclusion across south africa and the u.s. districts in the western cape and gauteng provinces of south africa and 10 parents in 2 districts (1 urban and 1 urban/rural) in a u.s. midwestern state regarding inclusive education (6 held in south africa and 2 in the u.s.) partnerships and parent advocacy were remarkably similar in both countries. major themes included: parents’ rights (alienation and empty promises), parental advocacy (actively involved), social aspects (concern for child’s social acceptance), general education teachers (lack training and experience), general education students’ acceptance (attitudinal barriers, concern of child’s rejection), and having a child with a disability (diagnosis and labelling frustrations, public’s ignorance of disabilities) african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 361-379 effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria christy m. jirgba, (ph.d.) department of science education, federal university of agriculture, makurdi email-mbayagh@gmail.com and joy iember bur department of geography, benue state university, makurdi abstract this study examined the effects of self-regulated learning instructional strategy on students’ achievement in basic science among upper basic 2 in makurdi local government area of benue state. the study employed non-equivalent group pre-test-post-test quasi experimental design. the population of the study was 638 upper basic school levels. the sample for this study was 128 students from six co-educational schools within makurdi local government area of benue state. two research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. the instrument used for data collection was basic science achievement test (bsat) and was trial tested using kuderrichardson (k-r, 20) formula to determine the reliability coefficient of bsat which was found to be 0.99. descriptive statistics of means and standard deviation were used to answer all the research questions and inferential statistics of analysis of covariance (ancova) was used to test all the hypotheses at 0.05 significant level. the results of the study showed that demonstration method enhanced students’ achievement in basic science better than selfregulated strategy. there is no significant difference between the mean achievement score of students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy and those taught using demonstration method. there was no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught basic science using self-regulate learning strategy. basic science teachers should not only use demonstration method to teach but also allow the student to actively participate in the learning. this can foster confidence in the students and enhance better achievement in basic science. christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 362 key words: self-regulated learning; basic science achievement; demonstration method; teaching science. introduction nations all over the world, nigeria inclusive, are striving to develop technologically and scientifically (adejoh, amali & omaga, 2013). this is only possible with good teaching and learning of science at the secondary school level. ali (2004) observed that nations that are deemed to be developed and largely considered as civilized have achieved the status through purposeful and strategic scientific education of their citizen. relatively, science educators have received national emphasis on the country’s bid to achieve indigenous technological and industrial development through improved methodology, national policy of education (frn, 2004). as a result, national, state and private workshops and seminars have given rise to the development of science curriculum projects, such as the nigerian primary science project (npsp), the nigerian integrated science project (nisp) and the nigerian secondary school science project (nsssp). though, these projects were developed more than two decades ago, they seem to have made appreciable impact on the teaching of science subjects in nigeria. these have not only created a new awareness of science but have also indicated the need for a radical departure from or modification of such conventional methods of teaching sciences such as inquiry methods modified to guided inquiry method. basic science educators are also in this quest, since there is dire need of more effective methods of teaching and learning of science. in view of the importance of science to the national development, science education curriculum is developed at various levels of education in nigeria. the science education course at the basic education level include basic science and technology at lower and middle basic education(primary1-6), basic science at upper basic education(junior secondary school(upper basic1-3). at the senior secondary school level, the subjects include biology, chemistry and physics, while at the tertiary education level, the following courses are available; biology education, physic education chemistry education and integrated science among others, nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc, 2007). basic science and technology recently introduced is new in nigerian schools, though the curriculum is a further enhancement of that of integrated science. basic science stresses to beginners the general principles which run through the entire world of science. in effect, teachers who are trained to teach basic science must move away from discriminatory attitude towards any effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 363 of the sciences. this means that basic science teachers must be competent in the subject matter so as to eliminate the boundaries and repetition from various sciences such as (biology, chemistry, and physics). the objectives of basic science curriculum include developing students interest in science and technology; enabling students acquire basic knowledge and skills in science and technology; enabling students to apply the scientific and technological knowledge and skills to meet societal needs; enabling students to take advantage of the numerous career opportunities offered by science and technology; and enabling learners become prepared for further studies in science and technology, nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc,2007). basic science is the foundation of all sciences and those who pass it with a credit pass at basic education certificate examination/ junior school certificate examination (bece or jsce) are qualified to read sciences at the senior secondary school level. this prepares them to advance to other higher and specific courses in science and technology at the tertiary institutions in nigeria or abroad. realizing the importance of basic science in the life of a nation and her citizenry, nigeria has made repeated efforts to reform its secondary school science education policy. this has culminated in the changes from integrated science at lower school level to the current basic science with a view to developing a curriculum that will satisfactorily meet the needs of nigerians. the result has been the encouragement of the use of methods and strategy of instruction that are activity based to improve students’ achievement in basic science. despite the relevance of basic science as a foundation course for the sciences and national development, research report by okebukola (2005), ajagun(2006) and adejoh (2012) working separately have lamented the poor performance of science students in nigeria. according to achor and kalu (2014), the achievement of students in sciences in nigeria has remained consistently poor. in-fact, a survey of the achievement in upper basic school (ubs) basic science and technology in nigeria over the years reveals a discernible decline. this phenomenon has remained a source of concern to science educators and specifically basic science experts (okeke, 2007). anekwe (2008) attributed the problem to inappropriate teaching strategies and nonavailability of necessary facilities for the teaching of sciences among other things, in addition to students’ socio-economic background and intelligence. as a result, many students have failed to advance in science at the senior secondary school due to their poor performance in the basic christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 364 science subject at the basic education certificate examination (bece) or junior school certificate examination (jsce). those who scale through into the senior secondary science class perform poorly at their senior school certificate examination (ssce) examinations due to their poor foundation at the basic school level. this may occur as a result of inappropriate use of strategies by science teachers (anekwe, 2008). the implementation of the national policy on education (frn,2013) ought to have helped reduce this failure trend. several factors such as curricular, implementation, lack of provision of instructional materials and lack of man power account for the decline in performance. unfortunately, the trend appears to have continued as indicated by the reports from benue state examination board (bseb) makurdi from 2008-2014. the rate at which students pass basic science and mathematics is low compared to other subjects like arts and social studies, creative art, phe. the result of bece has shown that, students’ achievement has persistently remained below 50 percent with the implication that less than half of all students who sat for bece/jsce in basic science from 2008 to 2014 failed to obtain the prerequisite grades to pursue scienceoriented career at the higher educational level. this issue of students’ underachievement in basic science has been persistently associated with the kind of instructional methods employed by the teachers and may also be due to the difficulty of some science concepts like the human systems and difficulty of some aspects of physics related content in basic science. on the other hand, nwosu, (2007), okeke, (2008) and azuka (2009), have put the blame for the poor performance in basic science in schools on the classroom teacher: teacher’s professional training in school and the method of teaching employed. by and large, evidence of their research findings and day-to-day events appear to lay weight to the foregoing claims that teachers are responsible for the under-achievement in science education. here reference is often made to the teaching methodology used. nwosu (2007) pointed out that using the conventional teaching method such as demonstration, lecture, and discussion methods, the teacher talks most of the time while the students listen passively and watch as the teacher demonstrates and reads about the content. this makes the classroom teaching environment teacher dominated, textbook bound, and examination oriented; an environment that lacks the recognition of the need for the development of science process skills in the students. science teaching must be done through appropriate strategy which fosters understanding for applicability. good quality teaching gives rise to functional learning (jirgba, 2008). effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 365 studies by zimmerman (2005), o’donnell (2006), poellhuber, chiominne and karsenti (2008) and samuelson (2010) reveal that learners’ understanding of science concepts is often inadequate or erroneous due to poor teaching methodology. the result is that students lack a grasp of the concepts, and they compartmentalize scientific ideas in a process as an outcome of rote learning. this, the researchers noted as a contributory factor in the poor achievement of students in science examination. achor, imoko and uloko (2009) have asserted that methods of science instruction including the activity-based strategies seem to be ineffective in terms of students’ achievements and require some modifications. in agreement with these assertions, adejoh, (2009) and samba and eriba (2012) have researched into method combination and modifications that can bring about effective teaching and learning of basic science which is the foundation of all sciences at the higher levels. the researchers observed and from literature that self-learning and as pedagogical strategy are usually not introduced to students of basic science at the upper basic school classes as the actual teaching method in makurdi and benue state at large. self-regulatory strategy of cognitive behaviour is considered an important aspect of students learning and academic performance in the classroom context. it includes students’ metacognitive strategies for planning, monitoring, modifying their cognitive ability, students’ management and control of their efforts on academic tasks, even when there is distraction such as noise making, they still maintain their focus which enables them to perform better (barak, 2009). the self-regulated learning strategy is one of two intervention strategies applied in this study because it enhances cognitive engagement in learning, and this may result in higher level of achievement in basic science. this study will utilize behavioural theory perspective on self-regulated learning which is derived largely from the work of skinner (mace, 2005). researcher working within the framework of his operant conditioning theory apply operant principles in diverse settings for example, clinical academic with adults and children with the aim of reducing dysfunctional behaviours and replacing them with more adaptive behaviour (zimmerman, 2010). students selfregulate their behaviour by initially deciding which behaviours they will adopt. they can establish discriminative stimuli for their occurrence, provide self-instruction as needed, and monitor their achievement to determine whether the desired behaviour occurs. the second intervention strategy applied in this study is the demonstration method; a “how-to-do-it” way of acquiring skills in science. in demonstration methods, teachers identify christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 366 and indicate when materials to be used in teaching are dangerous or when the materials for teaching are in adequate. during demonstration the students listen, observe and watch keenly and participate less. in this method, the teaching of basic science appears to be reduced to a descriptive exercise through the use of conventional demonstration with minimal activities. however, this study posits the view that making students aware of their role in self-regulating their learning (cognitive behaviours) could facilitate effect learning while a teacher acts as a mediator or a facilitator. samuelson (2010) observed that most teachers emphasized demonstration method of teaching science rather than activity-based strategies such as peer collaboration, constructivism and self-regulated aspect of teaching science subjects. gender is another relevant issue in the learning of science and technology, since the social expectations that prescribe how students think, act, and feel differ across gender. in nigeria, as in many other countries, science and technology are usually viewed as male dominant subjects (ogunkunle, 2009). girls opt for careers in humanities and social science related fields. gender differences in science achievement has been a major concern in science education and science educators seek to provide avenues for achieving gender equity for sustainable development. performance in the science at both upper basic and senior secondary school levels of education in nigeria varies across gender. female students are reported to be more scared of science subjects and as a result, fewer girls than boys who take the science subjects at the senior school (ss) level performed poorer at the ssce than their male counter-parts (okeke, 2008). aigbomian’s (2006) study comparing performance of boys and girls in nigeria in basic science shows that boys perform better than girls in science and technology. ogunkunle (2009) observed that boys perform better than girls in science, technology and mathematics in which basic science is inclusive in measures of problem-solving skills at the complex cognitive level. the author attributed the low achievement of girls to spatial ability and other cognitive disadvantages. on the other hand, hydea and mertzb (2009) in their large-scale study in the us observed that girls performed better than their male counter-parts in science subjects. the existing gap that needs to be filled by the researcher, which this study aims to achieve is the fact that the record of use of srl in the study area is scarce and that in basic science and technology, strategies that are more activity oriented have not been given attention. thus, the study examined the effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in makurdi local government area of benue state nigeria. effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 367 purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of self-regulated learning strategy in facilitating achievement in basic science among junior secondary school students. the specific objectives of the study subsumed under this purpose include to; i. determine the effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government area ii. determine the effect of self-regulated learning strategy on the achievement scores of male and female students in basic science in makurdi local government area research questions the following are the research questions that guided the study. i. what is the mean achievement scores of students taught basic science using selfregulated learning strategy compared to those taught using demonstration method? ii. what is the difference in the mean achievement scores between male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy? hypotheses the following hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy and those taught using the demonstration method. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean achievement of male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy. research method the study employs the quasi –experimental design. the two learning conditions are selfregulated learning verses(vs) control (demonstration method (dm)) x 2 (time: pre-test vs post-test) mixed factorial design was used. the choice of this design was based on the reality that this study would be working with intact classes and that it was not feasible to adopt true experimental design where the randomization of subjects to experimental and control groups would necessarily distort the academic programmes of the schools involved. the total population of this study consisted of 7,034 upper basic two students in 52 government grant-aided secondary schools in makurdi local government area of benue state. christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 368 the sample for this study consisted of 128 students from six co-educational secondary school taken from the population of 638 students of grant aided schools, using stratified sampling techniques to select only co-educational schools and then simple random sampling to select six schools by hat and draw method. only co-educational schools were used, since gender is a moderator variable. the instrument used in this study to collect relevant data was basic science achievement test (bsat). the researchers developed two forms of bsat, pre-test, post-test basic science achievement test (bsat) for upper basic 2 (ub2). the instrument is made up of two parts; section a is the demographic information while section b consists of multiple-choice test made up of initial 45 items and later reduced to 40 items after validation with four options (ad) for the students to answer all. the bsat was administered twice, before (pre) and after (post) the experiment. the prebsat was used to ascertain the level of basic science academic achievement levels that the students were at before the treatment. the post-bsat was used to determine the extent of students basic science achievement after the treatment. descriptive statistics of means and standard deviation were used to answer all research questions and inferential statistics of analysis of co-variance (ancova) was used to test all the hypothesis at 0.05 significance level. the difference between the two forms of bsat was in the arrangement of item options and reshuffled serial numbering only. the topics chosen were from basic science book 2 syllabuses/ curriculum. a. metabolism of food in human body (digestive system) b. drug and drug abuse c. elements, compounds, and mixtures d. disease vectors the items of bsat are based on the upper basic science curriculum, and most of the questions were obtained from the past jsce/bece question papers. consideration was given to the behavioural objectives of the content taught in the lesson plan as they serve as a guide on determining the number of topics for each of the units studied. development of basic science achievement test (bsat): the bsat consisted of 40 multiple choice objective questions with options (a-d), the items were selected to cover lower and higher order cognitive levels of blooms’ taxonomy of educational objectives. a table of specification was used to determine the number of items in different effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 369 cognitive ability levels and topics. in the table of specification for basic science achievement test (bsat), the reflection of questions were seen more at the lower order cognitive level than higher order cognitive level because the study is based on upper basic level(upper basic 2 ) in basic science achievement test (bsat). this is in line with piagets’ theory of cognitive development. the learners’ level of cognitive ability at this stage is lower compared to what is expected of the senior secondary students (of age 13 years and above) as categorised by piaget. in scoring the students on the bsat, each correct answer was rewarded a score of one point, while every wrong answer was scored zero. the range of score for each respondent was zero and maximum of forty (40) points. two sets of lesson plans were developed by the researcher and used in teaching both the experimental and the control groups. all the students in the experimental group received training on self-regulated learning strategy. after pre-test, they received training for two periods (of 40 minutes each) before taking part in the treatment, except the control group. the process involved think-aloud protocols. the teacher guided the learners to effectively deploy think-aloud practices; reflecting, questioning response, jot down points for review later and seeking for better alternative. firstly, for self-regulated learning strategy (srls) after pre-test, text materials were presented to the students, followed by instructions on how to go about the learning task. this was followed by guidelines for self-regulated learning: i. planning (about what learning materials to learn) ii. goal settings (how to achieve the learning task) iii. strategy implementation (sq4r– survey) students first survey text materials by reading the chapters, headings, and sub-headings, after which they develop questions in their minds. by this and through think-aloud, their doubts, query and confusion are expressed for attention. after reading, students try to recall what they have read, then they review the text materials and reflect on them. iv. summarizing (salient points) v. self-monitoring (monitoring one’s progress) vi. self-evaluation (passing judgment) vii. teacher acts as a guide. (note that, learning without a teacher in a classroom context/situation is regarded as ineffective). there must be a teacher to guide, direct and instruct what the students must do. the application of learner centred nonchristy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 370 conventional methods does not mean that the students will learn without the teacher guiding them. secondly, conventional demonstration method is used in basic science teaching; a method which involves carrying out activities to illustrate concepts or ideas. demonstration can be carried out by teacher alone, teacher with a student/pupil, and or an invited guest. for the purpose of this research, demonstration method was used with the control group (cg) to compare with the non-conventional methods like the srls. demonstration translates an abstract concept to real life subject. it develops student’s skills of observation, recording, measuring, and creates a high degree of attention, concentration and interest in students. however, students’ participation in the lesson is less, the method is partly a teacher centred approach, and the students only watch, observe keenly and jot down points. a research assistant, who was trained to teach basic science using demonstration method as a control followed the lesson prepared for the group by the researchers. validation and reliability of instrument both face and content validations were done in this study. the basic science achievement test (bsat) and the lesson plans for the two strategies were validated by three experts in science education (two of them are professors in science education and the third a senior lecturer in science education). for bsat the experts’ pieces of advice were sought in terms of scope of coverage, content, relevance, ambiguity and vagueness of expression. the experts also checked, whether the bsat answers were correct or not. the correction and suggestions made by these experts were used to review the bsat items to obtain the degree of accuracy to measure what it’s supposed to measure. reliability is the consistency with which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure (emaikwu, 2013). to ensure the reliability of this study, a pilot study was conducted using 30 upper basic 2 (ub2) students from ecwa secondary school, north bank, makurdi. the school was not part of the schools selected for the main study. two research assistants were trained to handle the experimental groups for six weeks based on the lesson plans. the aim of conducting the pilot study was to determine the reliability coefficient of the research instrument, to determine the appropriate length of time of the test, and to determine the effectiveness of the research procedure. the bsat was administered to two groups; before the treatment to ascertain their entry behaviour and after exposure to srl while the control group was taught using conventional demonstrational methods for six weeks respectively. the students were effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 371 assessed using bsat after treatment. the pre-test and post-test items were the same in content but different in organisation and were scored out of 40 points. the scores obtained were used to calculate the reliability coefficient of the instrument using kuder-richardson 20 formula (kr-20) to obtain 0.99.the kr-20 was used to establish the reliability of bsat because of the correct or wrong answers scoring nature of the multiplechoice test instrument used. this shows that the instrument can measure the objectives of the study (emaikwu, 2013). the result was further subjected to psychometric analysis. this was an attempt to determine the quality of a test in terms of how difficult the test items may be and how discriminating the distracters are. these were calculated by computing the difficulty, discrimination and distracter indices of 45 test items administered to the students. results data analysis and interpretation based on research questions and hypotheses. research question 1 what is the effect of self-regulated learning strategy and demonstration method on students’ achievement in basic science in upper basic 2 in makurdi local government? table 1: mean and standard deviation of students scores in self-regulated learning and demonstration strategy classes group pre-bsat post-bsat mean gain self-regulated learning strategy (srls) mean 18.54 21.76 3.22 n 41 41 std. deviation 4.42 5.04 demonstration method (dm) mean 12.37 16.88 4.51 n 41 41 std. deviation 3.94 4.66 mean difference 6.17 4.88 1.29 table 1 reveals a mean gain of 3.22 in self-regulated strategy class while those in demonstration class had 4.51 with a mean difference of 1.29 in favour of the demonstration method class. this means that demonstration class received instruction and gained more christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 372 compared to those in self-regulated class. by implication, demonstration method facilitated achievement in basic science compared to self-regulated strategy that was used as experimental class. therefore, demonstration method enhanced students’ achievement in basic science better than self-regulated strategy. research question 2 what is the difference in the mean achievement scores between male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated strategy? table2: mean and standard deviation of male and female students’ score in self-regulated learning class gender pre-bsat srls post-bsat srls mean gain male mean 18.37 21.74 3.37 n 27 27 std. deviation 3.75 4.35 female mean 18.85 21.79 2.94 n 14 14 std. deviation 5.63 6.36 mean difference 0.48 0.05 0.43 table 2 reveals a mean gain of 3.37 for the male students in self-regulated strategy class while the females in the same class had 2.94 with a mean difference of 0.43 in favour of the male students. this means that the male students received instruction and gained more in selfregulated class compared with the female students in the same class. therefore, self-regulated strategy facilitated achievement more among the male students in basic science compared with the female students in the same class. therefore, self-regulated strategy enhanced male students’ achievement in basic science better than for the female students. hypotheses testing ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy and those taught using conventional demonstration method. . effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 373 table 3: ancova test of effects of self-regulated learning strategy and demonstration method on students’ achievement in basic science source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 1651.740a 4 412.935 44.038 .000 intercept 148.751 1 148.751 15.864 .000 prebsat 1146.522 1 1146.522 122.272 .000 group 8.229 1 8.229 .878 .352 error 722.016 77 9.377 total 32972.000 82 corrected total 2373.756 81 a. r squared = .696 (adjusted r squared = .680) table 3; reveals that with f1, 81= 0.88, p = 0.35> 0.05, there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy and those taught using demonstration method. this means that the difference in mean between students in self-regulated strategy class and those in demonstration method class in basic science was not statistically significant. thus, the null hypothesis is not rejected, and it is therefore concluded that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students taught basic science using self-regulated leaning strategy and those taught using demonstration method. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy. table 4: ancova test of effect of self-regulated learning strategy(srls) on male and female students’ achievement in basic science source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 707.988a 2 353.994 43.453 .000 intercept 33.986 1 33.986 4.172 .048 christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 374 prebsat srls 707.969 1 707.969 86.903 .000 gender 1.617 1 1.617 .198 .658 error 309.573 38 8.147 total 20424.000 41 corrected total 1017.561 40 a. r squared = .696 (adjusted r squared = .680) it can be seen from table 4 that with f1, 40= 0.20, p = 0.66> 0.05, there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy. this means that the difference in mean between male and female students in self-regulated strategy class in basic science was not statistically significant. therefore, the null hypothesis is not rejected, and it is thus concluded that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy. discussion of findings demonstration method enhanced students’ achievement in basic science better than selfregulated learning strategy. however, there was no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy and those taught using demonstration method. the finding of this study disagrees with that of cromley and azevedo (2011) who examined the effectiveness of self-regulated learning (srl) training in facilitating college students’ learning with hypermedia in the us in a study titled “does training on self-regulated learning facilitate students learning with hypermedia? the results of the study revealed that students in the srl training condition gained a deeper understanding than the control group students when using a hypermedia environment to learn about complex science topics. the researchers concluded that students can be trained to regulate their learning with hypermedia by engaging in several key processes and mechanisms related to srl, such as planning, monitoring and enactment of effective strategies. the use of srl along with hypermedia could have created a better and more effective leaning context for cromley and azevedo, compared to the sample population in this study that did not seem to have the use of any hypermedia slr has different validity contexts which include technology and perhaps even the country. whereas, demonstration method conduces better in countries with poor use of effect of self-regulated learning strategy on students’ achievement in basic science in makurdi local government, benue state, nigeria. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 375 educational technologies and where the technology facilitation of srl with hypermedia might be lacking, demonstration method achieved better results. the researchers’ extensive use of think-aloud practices involving the learners indicate that not only did the learners in the srl training condition gain a deeper conceptual understanding, but they also more frequently deployed the srl processes taught them to effectively regulate their learning, and that the use of these processes led generally to increases in students’ understanding of the science topic but specifically this did not give them a significant edge over the control group except that it gave the male students a slight but again not significant edge over the female. they (students) regulated their learning by planning, (prior knowledge activation planning), meta-cognitively monitoring their cognitive system (judging their learning, feeling of knowing) and their progress toward goals, deploying effective strategies such as drawing, summarizing, taking notes, reading notes, elaborating knowledge there is surprise in the present study. it was expected that students would regulate their learning by planning, (prior knowledge activation planning), meta-cognitively monitoring their cognitive system (judging their learning, feeling of knowing) and regulate their progress toward goals, deploying effective strategies such as drawing, summarizing, taking notes, reading notes and elaborating knowledge. these were seen in the present study happening practically in the classroom. the active involvement of learners in the classroom must have accounted for the difference. this is contrary to what cromley and azevedo (2011) found. however, demonstration method appears to be an effective strategy especially as it is found to be students centred and thus it was intentionally used for the control group to enable us find out strategies that clearly stand out. by implication, self-regulated learning strategy does not stand when compared with demonstration method though from research questions and comparing pre-test with post-test, students gained substantially in srl class. another finding of this study is that self-regulated learning strategy enhanced male students’ achievement in basic science better than for the female students in the same class. however, there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught basic science using self-regulated learning strategy. this was possible because the learners in the srl training condition gained a deeper conceptual understanding and could have also frequently deployed the srl processes taught them to effectively regulate their learning, and that the use of these processes could have led to significant increase in students’ understanding of the basic science topic among both male and female students. this result agrees with afolabi and akinyemi (2009) who found that gender has no significant effect on the christy m. jirgba and joy iember bur ajote vol. 8 (2019), 361-379 376 performance of physics students when taught using problem based learning technique. also, oludipe (2012) found that there was no statistically significant difference in the pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test academic achievement means scores of male and female students. though the present study used the normal upper basic science curriculum which appears to be balanced in content presentation to both males and females and hence there is no significant difference result, the results from afolabi and akinyemi’s study though in physics is similar because the learners were equally actively engaged and involved in thinking and doing. basic science teachers should always employ teaching strategies that allow both male and female students to be actively engaged with the learning materials for meaningful learning to occur. conclusion the findings of this study haveestablished that demonstration method enhanced students’ achievement in basic science better than self-regulated strategy though not statistically significant. however, the study area which is poor in application of technology in teaching and learning and background of the teachers may have accounted for this conclusion as the finding is contrary to previous studies. further study would be necessary to give the present study a backing. secondly, srl strategy proved to be non-discriminatory to both gender and therefore enhanced achievement of both male and female students at near equal level. references achor, e. e, imoko, b. i & uloko, e.s. 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(2008). investigating self-regulation and motivation: historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. american educational research journal, 45(1), 166-183. professionalism, urban settings, and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective nora bakabbey kulbo, bernard gumah, & prince clement addo school of management and economics university of electronic science and technology of china qingshuihe campus abstract in achieving the goals of education, it is imperative for teachers to have high self-efficacy which has a direct positive effect on their delivery and for the overall benefit of their pupils. this study was in threefold. first was to access the influence of teachers’ demographics on their self-efficacy. second, how work environment influences teachers’ self-efficacy and finally, how their self-efficacy impact students’ performances in the bolgatanga municipality of ghana. the efficacy dimensions studied are classroom management practices, classroom instructional practices and student engagement. it was noted that whiles gender has no significant impact on teachers’ self-efficacy, older, more educated and highly experienced teachers had higher self-efficacy. also, teachers in the urban area tend to have higher self-efficacy than those in the rural areas. not overlooking other factors, students’ poor performance in some rural areas can largely be attributed to the lower self-efficacy of their teachers as compared to their urban counterparts. governments should intensify their extrinsic motivation packages to make life more comfortable for teachers working in rural areas and by bridging the rural-urban developmental gap. it is also imperative to intensify self-efficacy in teacher trainees to increase their self-confidence where ever they find themselves. key words: self-efficacy; classroom management; instructional strategies; student engagement, urban, rural, bolgatanga, ghana. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 194-217 professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 195 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 introduction a teacher’s efficacy is defined as a teacher’s “judgment of his or her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated” (bandura, 1999, p. 169). self-efficacy is considered as one’s belief in the likelihood of goal completion and can be motivating in itself (van der bijl & shortridge-baggett, 2002). ‘selfefficacy also refers to people's judgements about their capability to perform particular tasks. taskrelated self-efficacy increases the effort and persistence towards challenging tasks; therefore, increasing the likelihood that they will be completed’ (barling & beattie, 2003 p.41). self-efficacy beliefs are an essential aspect of human motivation and behaviour as well as influence the actions that can affect one's life. self-efficacy has an influence on people's ability to learn, their motivation and their performance. this is because people will often endeavour to learn and accomplish only those task in which they consider that they will be effective (lunenburg, 2011). more specifically relevant to this study is the view that teacher efficacy can be said to be “teachers’ confidence in their ability to promote students’ learning” (hoy, 2000). with self-efficacy, it is more likely that individuals will participate in events for which they have high self-efficacy and unlikely to engage in those they do not. several studies attribute the falling standards of students’ academic performance in northern ghana to factors such as poverty, lack of access roads, water and electricity. lack of school infrastructure and educational resources, conflict among others have also been identified (schoon & boone, 1998; action aid ghana, 2002; akyeampong, 2004; and akyeampong, djangmah, oduro, & seidu, 2007). these factors are directly related to the level of development of a locality (level of urbanisation). teachers’ self-efficacy has been identified in various studies in different parts of the world as a contributor to students’ performance. many of these studies attribute teachers’ level of efficacy to their experience, level of education, job stress, gender and leadership style of heads of schools (klassen, & chiu, 2010). however, urbanisation and location have not been investigated as single contributors to teacher self-efficacy. a few studies that link location to teachers’ self-efficacy have produced contradicting findings. durowoju & onuka, (2015) postulate that teachers’ self-efficacy and location of schools as stand-alone factors have their individual effects on students’ achievement in economics but collectively have no significant effect on students’ performance. gowrie, & ramdass bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 196 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 (2014), noted that there was a moderate to strong correlation between the demographic (including teaching experience) and school-level teacher efficacy factors, however, there were no significant differences in the three dimensions of teacher efficacy according to school type, gender, location, size of school and years of teaching experience. in ghana and many other developing countries, there is a sharp contrast between the living conditions in urban and rural areas preventing qualified teachers from accepting posting to rural areas. teachers working in low socioeconomic environments (rural areas) are likely to be ranked with low self-efficacy. a comprehensive study, especially from a developing country, therefore, will solidify the influence of factors like location of school, experience and professional training on teachers’ selfefficacy. there is the need to take a second look at how the self-efficacy of teachers in deprived (rural areas) schools affect the performance of their students. lack of qualified teachers in these areas is a challenge to meeting the country’s educational goals and the millennium development goal (mdgs) two (liimatainen, 2013). this study, therefore, focused on how urbanisation (teachers’ place of work) and (their) professional training affect teacher’s self-efficacy and its impact on student performance. the efficacy dimensions studied are classroom management practices, classroom instructional practices and student engagement strategies in line with the teachers’ sense of efficacy questionnaire, known as the ohio state teacher efficacy scale (ostes),(tschannen-moran & woolfolk hoy, 2001). self-efficacy theory self-efficacy beliefs are an essential aspect of human motivation and behaviour as well as influence the actions that can affect one's life. bandura (1995) explains that self-efficacy "refers to beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations" (p. 2). basically, self-efficacy is what a person believes he can do using his abilities under certain conditions (snyder & lopez, 2007). self-efficacy has been understood to be a task-specific form of self-esteem (lunenburg, 2011). the basic principle behind the self-efficacy theory is that people will prefer to engage in programs for which they have high self-efficacy and not likely to engage in activities they do not have high efficacy (van der bijl & shortridge-baggett, 2002). accordingly, people behave in the ways that portray their fundamental beliefs; in this sense, self-efficacy acts as a self-gratifying prophecy (gecas, 2004). for example, employee a has high capability and years of experience in the creation of graphs but is not confident that he can create a highquality graph for an professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 197 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 important conference. employee b has an average ability and only a small amount of experience in creating graphs yet has great confidence that she can work hard to create a high-quality graph for the same conference. because of employee a's low self-efficacy for graph creation, he lacks the motivation to create one for the conference and tells his supervisor he cannot complete the task. employee b, due to her high self-efficacy, is highly motivated, works overtime to learn how to create a high-quality graph, presents it during the conference, and earns a promotion. self-efficacy has an influence on the individual’s motivation, ability to learn, and performance, as people will frequently endeavour to learn and perform only those task for which they believe they will be successful. in this regard, we agree with existing literature that emphasizes that efficacy is task specific and other environmental and organizational factors (tschannen-moran, hoy, & hoy, 1998). judgments of selfefficacy are generally measured along three basic scales: magnitude, strength, and generality (lunenburg, 2011). mahatma gandhi succinctly captures the theory in the following quotation: man often becomes what he believes himself to be. if i keep on saying to myself that i cannot do a certain thing, it is possible that i may end by really becoming incapable of doing it. on the contrary, if i have the belief that i can do it, i shall surely acquire the capacity to do it even if i may not have it at the beginning’.-mahatma gandhi. (gandhi, 2012). there are four sources of information that people use to evaluate their efficacy: vicarious experiences, performance outcomes (performance accomplishments) , physiological feedback (emotional arousal) and verbal persuasion (bandura, 1977). these constituents assist individuals in determining if they believe in their capability to achieve precise tasks. williams and williams (2010) are of the view that “individuals with high levels of self-efficacy approach difficult tasks as challenges to master rather than as threats to be avoided” (p. 455). the relationship between self-efficacy and performance self-efficacy theory states that the combination of the four sources of developing self-efficacy (vicarious experiences, mastery experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological feedback) and the three assessment processes used to interpret self-efficacy (the analysis of task requirements, attributional analysis of experience, and assessment of personal and situational resources/constraints (gist & mitchell, 1992) are essential. this will determine ones’ level of self-efficacy which directly bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 198 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 affects his or her performance outcomes. this is referred to as an individual's determination of what it takes to perform a task (gist & mitchell, 1992). method study area this study was carried out in bolgatanga, the district capital of the bolgatanga municipality, and regional capital of the upper east. the location of the upper east region is in the northeastern corner of ghana and borders burkina faso to the north and togo to the east. the pattern of settlement in the area is dominated by rural dwellers who are estimated at 95% (rondini & krugu, 2009). the 2010 population and housing census reports that 64.6% of the population aged 11 and above are literates. the illiteracy rate is higher among females (42.6%) than among males (27.2%). the data further suggest that among the population who attended school, three out of five (59.8%) had only a primary education with more females (63.0%) than males (57.0%). the data shows that the same fraction of males and females reported having completed secondary/vocational/technical or post-secondary education. more of whom were males (14.1%) compared to females (8.5%) attained up to tertiary level of education. out of the regional average of children aged 6 years and over who have never attended school (71.8%), bolgatanga has recorded the lowest rate of 61.2% (gss, 2014). the human development report of 2011, shows that at all levels of the educational system, teachers who were not trained constituted a considerable percentage of the total number of teachers, particularly the kindergarten, in the 2007/2008 academic year. the ratio of untrained to trained teachers in the kindergarten slightly improved from 3.4 in 2005/2006 to 2.1 in 2007/2008; while the number of trained teachers per untrained teachers declined at the primary and junior high school (jhs) levels from 2.2 in 2005/2006 to 1.8 in 2007/2008 at the primary level, and from 4.6 in 2005/2006 to 2.6 in 2007/2008 at the jhs level. enrolment at the kindergarten level improved by 4.6% between 2005/2006 and 2007 and 2008, while the primary and jhs enrolments increased 5% and 2.4% respectively (undp, ghana 2011). participants data collection method professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 199 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 data was collected and analysed from 198 teachers from basic public schools in the bolgatanga municipality. the questionnaire, largely adopted from the ostes questionnaire which uses a likert scale to measure the self-efficacy of teachers in instructional strategies, classroom management and student engagement activities, was administered (tschannen-moran et, al., 1998). respondents measured their abilities using strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). a total of 198 teachers from public basic schools responded to the questionnaires out of the 260 sampled. this represents 76% response rate. it is noted from table 1 that females dominated the staff population in the basic schools in the bolgatanga municipality and this is reflected in the random sampling with more than half (53.5%) of the responding teachers being females. the staff is more youthful with about two-thirds (62.215) younger than 45 years. only 6.06% are more than 55 years old. this is a development that has a toll on the staff retention in the bolgatanga municipality as more of the younger staff seek further education and greener pastures. staff turn-over is therefore on the ascendency in the region. a few years ago the ghana education service engaged a substantial number of untrained-high school hands, especially for the rural areas. this trend seems to be declining. with random sampling, there were only 4.04% respondents with sssce/wassce certificates (equivalent to high school certificate). 26.26% cert ‘a’, 38.38% with diplomas. eighteen percent have bachelor degrees whilst 8.58% hold master degrees. even though the ghana education service (ges) is determined to retain only trained teachers in the classroom, about a quarter (25.73%) of the respondents were not professionally trained teachers. the respondents were with varied teaching experiences with over two-thirds falling between 5 to 15 years range of teaching experience. more of these respondents teach in the rural settlements of the bolgatanga municipality. variables categories frequency (n) percentage (%) age below 25 19 9.59 25 – 34 68 34.34 35 – 44 36 18.18 45 – 54 53 26.76 55 and above 12 6.06 gender male 92 46.46 female 106 53.53 educational qualification sssce/wassce 8 4.04 bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 200 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 teacher's cert a 52 26.26 diploma 76 38.38 bachelor 36 18.18 masters 17 8.58 others 9 4.54 professionally trained yes 127 64.14 no 71 35.85 teaching experience less than 5yrs 26 13.13 5-10yrs 72 36.36 11-15yrs 58 29.29 16-20yrs 28 14.14 more than 20 11 5.55 location of work urban/peri-urban 93 46.69 table 1: demographic characteristics of respondents procedure the sample size obtained for the study was 260 basic school teachers, sampled from a total of 812 teachers in the municipality (2015 ges headcount). the sample size was determined using yerman’s formula for calculating sample size taking into consideration a confidence level of 95% and a 5% margin of error. the participating schools were selected using a simple random sampling technique of which the circuit supervisors with the permission of the municipal director of education balloted with a simple “yes or no”. only the circuits with yes were selected for the study. all teachers in the circuits selected took part in completing the questionnaire. instrumentation there are a number of efficacy measurement tools existing in research. the work by the rand organization rooted in rotter’s social learning theory is one of the earliest known tools. they included internal and external factors as motivated by a work done by rotter (1966). it indicated that the external environment affects teacher's ability to have an impact on a student's learning. it also considered students home environment as a major factor. professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 201 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 gibson and dembo (1984) developed a 30-item measure of teacher efficacy. they came out with what they termed as personal teaching efficacy (pte) and general teaching efficacy (gte). tschannen-moran, hoy, & hoy, (1998) later proposed an integrated model. they built on the conceptual view and the propositions from bandura and gibson and dembo. they went on and proposed new areas based on the four sources of information about efficacy described by bandura (1997): mastery experience, physiological arousal, vicarious experience, and verbal persuasion. in a more recent work, teacher efficacy and its measurement according to tschannen-moran, hoy, & hoy, (1998) as a valid measure of teacher efficacy must include the assessment of personal efficiency, and a clear understanding and analysis of the task at hand. since efficacy is task specific, it is appropriate to consider available resources and constraints that exist in particular teaching contexts. in our case, we considered the task requirement as a constant since ges has the same requirements for all its schools. since work environment and professionalism are our main independent variables, it was deemed not fit to control these variables. this work adopted the efficacy measurement proposed by tschannen-moran, woolfolk-hoy, & hoy (1998) based on their cyclical nature of teacher efficacy model. the instruments focus more on the internal factors including teachers’ efficacy for student engagement, instructional practices and classroom management. analytical tools in analysing the data, spearman’s correlation matrix was used to establish the relationship between the demographic variables and all the three categories of efficacy dimensions. an independent-samples t-test was used to test how some of the efficacy dimensions differ in terms of the teachers training (professional and non-professional), gender and location of schools (urban or rural). finally, multiple regression was used in predicting some of the important variables on teachers’ background data. results presented in table 2 is the independent sample t-test with chi-square to determine whether the efficacy of classroom instructional practices is related to the gender of the teachers. the results indicate that apart from the ability of the teachers to respond to difficult questions from pupils (73% for the male and 53% for the female), the difference in all other variables are not statistically significant. bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 202 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 instructional practices group percentage (%) χ2 sig 1 2 3 4 5 adjust your lessons to the proper level for individual pupils male 2.0 17.6 27.5 35.3 17.6 6.485 .166 female 1.7 7.6 23.5 40.8 26.5 respond implement alternative strategies in your classroom male 2.0 16.0 24.0 40.0 18.0 5.22 .265 female 0.8 7.6 21.2 43.6 26.7 provide appropriate challenges for every capable pupil male 2.0 13.7 23.5 35.3 25.5 1.64 .801 female 0.4 13.9 21.4 36.1 28.2 provide alternative explanation when pupils are confused male 2.0 9.8 19.6 49.0 19.6 8.37 .079 female 0.8 8.8 22.3 31.1 37.0 respond to difficult questions from your pupils male 2.1 8.5 16.5 38.1 34.7 12.30 .015 female 0.0 15.7 31.4 19.6 33.3 use a variety of assessment strategies male 2.0 12.0 24.0 40.0 20.0 7.03 .218 female 1.7 10.2 26.0 32.3 29.8 gauge pupils' comprehension of what you have taught male 4.0 8.0 26.0 38.0 24.0 6.13 .190 female 0.4 10.5 22.7 36.1 30.3 craft good questions for your pupils? male 2.0 3.9 15.7 47.1 31.4 3.21 .668 female 1.7 9.7 14.7 39.1 33.2 1 = nothing, 2 = very little, 3 = little, 4 = quite a bit, 5 = a great deal table 2 efficacy for classroom instructional practices table 3 shows the correlation analysis of classroom instructional practices and teacher demographic variables. from table 3, it could be noted that age correlated positively with all the variables indicating that, as the teachers grow older, they become more capable of classroom instructional practices. for example, they are able to adjust lessons to the proper level for individual pupils, (r= 0.595; p< 0.01); respond better to challenging questions from pupils (r=0.122; p<0.05) among others. the location of the school is noted to have an influence on teachers’ self-efficacy. in this study, location correlated positively with all the variables under instructional activities. more significantly, teacher’s in the urban areas tend to have higher efficacy for providing alternative explanations and examples when pupils are confused (r=0.447) and use a variety of assessment professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 203 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 strategies (0.504) both at p<0.01 and for implementing alternative strategies in their classroom (r=0.422; p<0.05). additionally, it was clear from table 3 that the higher educational level of the teacher, the better they are in implementing classroom instructional activities. very notable among these activities are implementing alternative strategies in the classroom (r=0.321, p< 0.01), provide alternative explanation for example when pupils are confused (r= 0.306, p< 0.01), respond to difficult questions from pupils (r= 0.322, p< 0.01) and craft good questions for pupils (r= 0.302, p< 0.01). this suggests that as respondents attain a high level of education and advance in age, there is a significant upward increase and improvement in respondent’s ability to adjust lessons to suit students’ level of understanding. this includes the teachers’ ability to implement alternative strategies in the classroom, provide an appropriate challenge for pupils, provide an alternative explanation for confused pupils, and also to respond to difficult questions from pupils, using a variety of assessment strategies, assess the comprehension of lesson delivered and the ability to craft good questions for pupils. variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 age 1 2 location .224 1 3 highest education .142b .421 1 4 professionally trained .226a .122 .195a 1 5 adjust your lessons to the proper level for individual pupils .255a .143a .320a .251a 1 6 implement alternative strategies in your classroom .256a .422b .321a .232a .595a 1 7 provide appropriate challenges for every capable pupil .213a .536 .168a .158a .397a .520a 1 8 provide alternative explanation when pupils are confused .078 .447a .306a .137b .494a .533a .448a 1 bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 204 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 9 respond to difficult questions from your pupils .122b .451 .322a .157a .553a .545a .488a .562a 1 9 use a variety of assessment strategies .202a .504a .258a .135b .420a .524a .398a .473a .419a 1 11 gauge pupils' comprehension of what you have taught .172a .342 .261a .109 .480a .469a .495a .512a .508a .480a 1 12 craft good questions for your pupils .134b .125b .302a .134b .413a .463a .443a .543a .481a .493a .555a 1 n =198 b. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). a. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). table 3: correlation of teachers’ instructional activities and their demographic in table 4, spearman’s correlation matrix is used to analyze the association that exists between classroom management practices and teachers’ demographics. the results indicated that older teachers tend to be more efficient in classroom engagement practices. increasing age of teachers showed to be better able to establish classroom management systems (r=0.188, p< 0.01) and to calm disruptive pupils (r= 0.140, p< 0.01). the educational qualification of the teacher also showed a significant positive association with how they control disruptive behaviours in class (r= 0.154, p< 0.01), getting pupils to follow classroom rules (r= 0.188, p< 0.01), and the teachers’ ability to effectively handle defiant pupils (r= 0.244, p<0.01). those with professional training were equally better at implementing adequate measures to keep activities running (r= -0.128, p<0.05) and making clear expectations about pupils behaviour (r= -0.118; p<0.05) though the correlation was a weak one. with regards to location and teachers’ self-efficacy, teachers in the urban areas tend to have higher efficacy in establishing classroom management systems, and make clear the expectations of their students both at p<0.01. variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 12 1 age 1 2 location .423 1 3 highest education .142b .602b 1 4 professionally trained .226a .625a .195a 1 professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 205 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 5 disruptive behaviour control .141b .352 .154a .077 1 6 follow classroom rules .147b .211 .247a .204a .579a 1 7 calming disruptive pupil .140b .075 .188a .048 .655a .636a 1 8 establish classroom management system .168a .577a .219a .097 .436a .498a .532a 1 9 preventing pupil from disruption .107 .523 .235a .001 .361a .386a .394a .415a 1 10 handling defiant pupils .089 .256 .244a .069 .461a .350a .464a .445a .492a 1 11 control measures .092 .425 .217a .128b 469a .496a .525a .463a .499a .516a 1 12 expectations about pupils behaviour .039 .488a .162a .181b .491a .442a .499a .451a .337a .490a .566a 1 n =198, b. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level, a. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2tailed). table 4: correlation of teachers’ classroom management practices and their demographic table 5 indicates the association between the demographic data of respondents and their efficacy for student’ engagement. the teachers’ efficacy for students’ engagement was measured on a six-point scale. the establishment of association using spearman’s correlation coefficient showed a very weak positive association between the variables and the demographic data of the teachers. the age of the teachers was significant at 0.01 and 0.05 probability with most of the efficacy variables. the association was, however, a weak positive one. the ability to help my pupils to value learning (0.181), ability to motivate pupils who show low interest in schoolwork (0.163) were significant at p<0.01. the teachers’ level of education has equally produced a weak positive association with the variables measuring the efficacy for students’ engagement. the teachers believe that they can do much to get pupils to believe that they can do well in schoolwork also show a positive association of 0.243 with the level of education of the teachers. i can take adequate measures to improve the understanding of a pupil who is failing (0.177; p< 0.01). on the whole, age and the educational levels of the teachers have a positive association with the teachers’ efficacy for student engagement. this indicates that an increase in age and educational level to some extent cause an equal increase in the teachers’ efficacy for student engagement. it must, however, be noted that despite the effect of age and education on teachers’ bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 206 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 classroom management, the effect is less significant in bringing an obvious change in students’ progress. variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1. age 1 2. location 213a 1 3. highest education .142b .022 1 4. professionally trained .226a .016 -.195a 1 5. get pupils to believe that they can do well in schoolwork .107 .041 .243a .085 1 6. help my pupils to value learning .176a 135b .275a .046 .664a 1 7. motivate pupils who show low interest in schoolwork .159a .086 .235a .081 .615a .665a 1 8. assist families in helping their children to do well in school .227a .003 .170a .114 .445a .518a .550a 1 9. improve the understanding of a pupil who is failing .002 .061 .177a .080 .604a .501a .591a .489a 1 10. do much to help my pupils think critically .067 .022 .223a .066 .480a .522a .487a .461a .459a 1 11. foster pupils’ creativity in my classroom .119b .041 .165a .078 .546a .557a .558a .449a .554a .618a 1 12. help pupils with lower abilities to understand my lessons -.091 .006 .235a .024 .503a .456a .504a .385a .486a .492a .514a 1 n =198b. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level; a. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2tailed). table 5: correlation of teachers’ efficacy for student engagement and demographic table 6 presents the independent sample t-test of classroom instruction practices by location of work. from the results, even though there were differences in the mean rating of the items by location, only the ability of the teachers to adjust lessons to the proper level for individual pupils (m: rural= 3.49; urban= 4.83) and the ability to implement alternative strategies (m: rural=3.56; urban= 4.88) were statistically significant at p<0.05. this suggests that, urban teachers were better off in professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 207 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 adjusting their lessons to the proper levels of pupils and implementing alternative strategies in the classroom than their rural colleagues. classroom instructional practices items location mean t-value sig. (.05) adjusting lessons to the proper level for individual pupils rural 3.49 2.236 .026 urban 4.83 implement alternative strategies rural 3.56 2.163 .031 urban 4.88 provide appropriate challenges for every capable pupil rural 3.69 .573 .567 urban 4.78 provide alternative explanation or example when pupils are confused rural 3.75 1.296 .196 urban 4.95 respond to difficult questions from pupils rural 3.71 -.449 .152 urban 4.95 use a variety of assessment strategies rural 3.70 .512 .609 urban 4.78 gauge pupils' comprehension of what you have taught rural 3.70 .986 .325 urban 4.85 craft good questions for pupils rural 3.02 .285 .776 urban 4.97 table 6: t-test analyses of classroom instruction practices and location the t-test analysis in table 7 establishes how the teachers’ efficiency in classroom management practices differ between rural and urban areas. the results indicate that, despite the higher mean ratings recorded by urban teachers over the rural teachers, these differences are not statistically significant at 95% confidence interval but for only their ability to get pupils to follow classroom rules (m: rural =3.37; urban =5.51 p<009). classroom management practices items location mean t-value sig. (.05) control disruptive behaviour in classroom rural 3.08 1.542 .124 bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 208 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 urban 4.37 get pupils to follow classroom rules rural 3.37 .830 .009 urban 4.51 calm a pupil who is disruptive or noisy rural 3.22 1.188 .236 urban 4.44 establish classroom management system rural 2.29 .570 .570 urban 4.38 keep problem pupils from disrupting an entire lesson rural 2.16 .534 .594 urban 4.26 handle effectively defiant pupils rural 2.37 .377 .706 urban 4.30 measures that are necessary to keep activities running rural 3.43 .388 .698 urban 4.51 make expectation about pupils’ behaviour clear rural 2.49 .057 .955 urban 4.48 table 7: t-test analyses of classroom management practices and location the t-test analysis in table 8 establishes the extent to which teachers’ efficiency in student engagement differ between rural and urban areas. statistically, only their ability to help pupils value learning recorded mean ratings for rural= 3.22 and urban= 4.60 and significant at p<0.05 in favour of urban teachers. a t-test was used to establish the significance in the mean ratings of instructional strategies as applied to professionally and non-professionally trained teachers. student management efficiency items location mean t-value sig. (2 tailed) get pupils to believe that they can do well in schoolwork rural 2.49 -.372 .710 urban 4.56 help my pupils to value learning rural 3.22 -2.331 .022 urban 4.60 professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 209 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 motivate pupils who show low interest in schoolwork rural 3.47 -1.183 .240 urban 4.66 assist families in helping their children to do well in school rural 4.37 .132 .895 urban 4.35 measures to improve the understanding of a pupil failing rural 3.57 1.331 .187 urban 4.35 help my pupils think critically rural 2.24 -.463 .644 urban 4.32 foster pupils’ creativity in my classroom rural 4.03 -.854 .394 urban 4.50 help pupils with lower abilities to understand my lessons rural 3.59 .281 .779 urban 4.54 table 8: t-test analyses of student management efficiency and location evidence form table 9 shows that teachers who are professionally trained to teach, employ right instructional strategies than their non-professionally trained counterparts. statistically, professionally trained teachers adjust lessons to proper levels of individual pupils than the nonprofessionally trained ones (t=4.288, p<0.001) and in implementing alternative strategies in the classroom (t=4.144, p<0.001). at p<0.05, professionally trained teachers proved to be better at providing appropriate challenges for every capable pupil, providing an alternative explanation and example to pupils who are confused, and being able to use a variation of assessment strategies. variables professionally trained mean t-value sig (2-tailed) 1 adjust your lessons to the proper level for individual pupils? yes 4.07 4.288 .000 no 3.58 2 implement alternative strategies in your classroom? yes 4.10 4.144 .000 no 3.66 3 yes 3.95 2.552 .011 bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 210 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 provide appropriate challenges for every capable pupil? no 3.64 4 provide alternative explanation or example when pupils are confused? yes 4.07 2.047 .042 no 3.82 5 respond to difficult questions from your pupils? yes 4.07 2.349 .020 no 3.78 6 use a variety of assessment strategies? yes 3.95 2.213 .028 no 3.68 7 gauge pupils' comprehension of what you have taught? yes 3.94 1.667 .097 no 3.74 8 craft good questions for your pupils? yes 4.11 1.776 .077 no 3.89 n=198, p<0.05 table 9: t-test of teachers efficacy for instructional strategies on mode of training in table 10, the results of the independent t-test of teachers’ efficacy for classroom management as against their mode of training (professional or non-professional) is established. though there were some differences in the mean ratings on accounts of the teachers’ ability to control disruptive behaviour in the classroom, calming a pupil who is disruptive or noisy, establishing classroom management system with each group of pupils, keeping a few problem pupils from disrupting an entire lesson and being able to handle effectively deviant pupils were not statistically significant. however professionally trained teachers are more likely to do much to get pupils to follow classroom rules (t= 3.416, p<0.001), taking adequate measures that are necessary to keep activities running (t = 2.031, p<0.043) and the ability to always make expectation about pupils’ behaviour clear to pupils (t= 1.996, p<0.047) were attributes that favours teachers who are professionally trained. variables professionally trained mean t-value sig (2tailed) 1 control disruptive behaviour in the classroom yes 4.42 1.099 .273 no 4.25 professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 211 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 2 get pupils to follow classroom rules yes 4.80 3.416 .001 no 4.31 3 calm a pupil who is disruptive or noisy yes 4.43 .496 .620 no 4.36 4 establish classroom management system with each group of pupils yes 4.50 1.491 .137 no 4.29 5 keep a few problem pupils from disrupting an entire lesson yes 4.19 -.374 .709 no 4.26 6 handle effectively deviant pupils yes 4.42 1.141 .255 no 4.26 7 take adequate measures that are necessary to keep activities running yes 4.69 2.031 .043 no 4.38 8 always make my expectation about pupils’ behaviour clear to my pupils yes 4.67 1.996 .047 no 4.37 n=198, p<0.05 table 10: t-test of teachers efficacy for classroom management on mode of training teachers’ ability to efficiently engage students as indicated in the independent t-test analysis presented in table 11 shows that there is no statistical difference in the ratings of students’ engagement as with professionally and non-professionally trained teachers. the results, therefore, indicates that, the differences as seen in the mean score are best explained as occurrences underscored by chance. regression analysis was performed to assess the relative contribution of teachers’ demographic characteristics (predictor variables) to their efficacy. we decided to adapt the most correlated and significant variables under each efficacy dimension for the regression analysis. variables professionally trained mean t-value sig (2tailed) 1 i believe i can do much to get pupils to believe that they can do well in schoolwork yes 4.66 1.190 .235 no 4.48 bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 212 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 2 i am able to help my pupils to value learning yes 4.60 .761 .447 no 4.49 3 i am able to motivate pupils who show low interest in schoolwork yes 4.74 1.425 .155 no 4.53 4 i am able to assist families in helping their children to do well in school yes 4.50 1.681 .094 no 4.25 5 i can take adequate measures to improve the understanding of a pupil who is failing yes 4.50 1.193 .234 no 4.32 6 i am able to do much to help my pupils think critically yes 4.40 1.009 .314 no 4.25 7 i believe i can do much to foster pupils’ creativity in my classroom yes 4.58 1.200 .231 no 4.40 8 i am able to help pupils with lower abilities to understand my lessons yes 4.49 -.520 .603 no 4.56 n=198, p<0.05 table 11: t-test of teachers efficacy for student engagement on professional training presented in table 12 is the model predicting the teachers’ ability to adjust classroom lessons to the proper level of individual pupils. the demographics of the teachers collectively explains about 70% (adjusted r2 = 0. 704) of the variance in the ability of teachers to adjust classroom lessons to the proper level of individual students. this implies that the present regression model is a good predictor of how best teachers adjust lessons to the proper level of their pupils. it follows that, professional training (β=.426, t=5.836, p< .001) and location (β=.318, t=4.959, p< .003) of work explain the bulk of the variance in adjusting lessons. teachers level of experience however, has a negative relations (β -2.50, t=-2.278). this indicates that, while the increase in age, educational qualification, professional training and location (urban) cause an increase in the model, an increase in experience rather explains a decrease in this variance but not statistically significant (p< .202). professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 213 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 variables b β r r2 t sig.(.05) constant 33.60 16.431 .001 age .225 .072 1.107 .001 what is your highest educational qualification? 2.10 .123 3.047 .001 are you a professionally trained teacher? 4.64 .426 5.836 .001 location of school 3.75 .318 4.959 .003 teaching experience -2.50 -.083 -2.278 .202 .852 .704 n=198 table 12: regression analysis of how teachers adjust lessons to proper level for individual pupils on teachers demographic data in terms of getting pupils to follow classroom rules as indicated in table 13, the background data of the teachers together contributed to only about 79% (adjusted r2 = 0.791) of the variance. professional training (β = .395; t = 3.411; p<0.01) and location (β = 3.42; t = 3.027; p< 0.001) turn to be better predictors of how teachers get pupils to follow classroom rules. variables b β r r2 t sig.(t) constant 45.94 8.756 .000 age 1.71 .096 2.056 .020 what is your highest educational qualification? 1.87 .104 2.348 .001 are you a professionally trained teacher? 4.83 .395 3.411 .003 location of school 3.42 .319 3.027 .021 teaching experience -.67 -.089 -.994 .321 .843 .791 n=198 table 13: regression of getting pupils to follow classroom rules on teachers’ demographic data based on the regression model testing how best teachers help students to value learning, it came clear that the demographic characteristics of the teachers collectively explains about 80% (r2 = .802) bernard gumah, nora bakabbey kulbo, & prince clement addo 214 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 in the variance. the older the teacher (β = .301, t =3.825, p< 0.005), the more likely he or she is in helping pupils to value education. similarly, more educated teachers tend to predict this model better (β = .326, t = 4.651, p< 0.001). notwithstanding the contributions of professional training and location, their impacts are not statistically significant predictors of this model. variables b β r r2 t sig.(t) constant 31.70 6.139 .000 age 3.02 .301 3.825 .005 what is your highest educational qualification? 2.98 .326 4.651 .000 are you a professionally trained teacher? 4.01 .216 3.259 .796 location of school 1.33 .075 2.810 .419 teaching experience -0.82 -.087 -1.244 .215 .927 .882 n=198 table 14: regression of helping students value learning on teachers’ demographic data conclusion over the years, research has shown that the self-efficacy of teachers has an impact on their delivery. whiles efficacy is more directed towards intrinsic motivation; there are some environmental factors (extrinsic) that influence teachers’ efficacy. the findings pointed out that, the geographical location (rural/urban) of schools alone can make or unmake teachers’ level of performance. it is important to note that, gender and experience were not so important in how efficient teachers were. the most important of these factors were level of education, location and professional training. since age, level of education and location has a role to play; it is assumed that rural education will continue to suffer unless there are policies that increase teachers’ motivation to teach in rural areas. it is also imperative to inculcate self-efficacy into the curriculum of teacher trainees to increase their self-confidence wherever they find themselves. for as long as better educated teachers seek postings to urban centers, and experienced teachers seek releases to urban centers, the disparity in development (urban and rural) continue to post a challenge. professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 215 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 references action aid ghana. 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(1998). teacher efficacy: its meaning and measure. review of educational research, 68(2), 202-248. article (crossref link) https://doi.org/10.2307/258770 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjesbs/2014/10406 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.183.4309&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2763686/ https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019237 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_12 http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n14p80 http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n14p80 https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajrh/article/download/55726/44192 https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976 https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-237x(199809)82:5%3c553::aid-sce2%3e3.0.co;2-8 https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=t3aw7gwmgpqc&oi=fnd&pg=pr1&dq=snyder,+c.+r.,+%26+lopez,+s.+j.+(2007).+positive+psychology:+the+scientific+and+practical+explorations+of+human+strengths.+thousand+oaks,+ca,+us:+sage+publications&ots=m6lbrcunoh&sig=dwd_uzeqplmo_octjouqtzhorqe#v=onepage&q=snyder%2c%20c.%20r.%2c%20%26%20lopez%2c%20s.%20j.%20(2007).%20positive%20psychology%3a%20the%20scientific%20and%20practical%20explorations%20of%20human%20strengths.%20thousand%20oaks%2c%20ca%2c%20us%3a%20sage%20publications&f=false https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543068002202 professionalism, urban settings and teachers’ self-efficacy in developing countries: a ghanaian perspective 217 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 194-217 tschannen-moran, m., & hoy, a. w. (2001). teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct. teaching and teacher education, 17(7), 783-805. article (crossref link) undp, (2011) bolgatanga municipality human development report. artbanc accra article (crossref link) van der bijl, j. j., & shortridge-baggett, l. m. (2002). the theory and measurement of the selfefficacy construct.in e. a. lentz, & l. m. shortridge-baggett, self-efficacy in nursing: research and measurement perspectives (pp. 9-28). new york: springer. article (crossref link) williams, t., & williams, k. (2010). self-efficacy and performance in mathematics: reciprocal determinism in 33 nations. journal of educational psychology, 102 (2), 453 article (crossref link) https://doi.org/10.1016/s0742-051x(01)00036-1 http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/doc/inclgro/undp_gh_incgro_dhdr2011_bolgatanga-municipality.pdf?download http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/doc/inclgro/undp_gh_incgro_dhdr2011_bolgatanga-municipality.pdf?download http://www.sdhprc.gmu.ac.ir/images/home/download/self_efficacy_in_nursing.pdf http://www.sdhprc.gmu.ac.ir/images/home/download/self_efficacy_in_nursing.pdf https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017271 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017271 the role of communication skills course in improving students’ academic communication skills in tanzanian universities the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the case of two universities in tanzania sotco claudius komba sokoine university of agriculture, tanzania abstract this article is based on a study which was conducted to examine the perceived importance of communication skills course among tanzanian university students. a total of 134 undergraduate students, randomly selected from two tanzanian universities, were involved in this study. the study adopted a case study design in order have an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. both a questionnaire and interview schedule were used to collect data from the respondents. the collected data were analysed using thematic content analysis. it was revealed that the communication skills course was perceived by the majority of the respondents as an important course for the acquisition of communication skills needed in academic settings. it is recommended that universities should improve the delivery of the course by ensuring that both human and material resources are adequately available for the realization of the anticipated course outcomes. keywords: tanzania tertiary education, communications, communications higher education introduction the development of any country depends on how efforts are made to invest more and wisely in education. education serves as a means by which people acquire knowledge and skills that can be implied in relevant curricula, particularly on how to exploit and utilize resources available for micro and macro-development (galabawa, 2005). the knowledge and skills include those which are concerned with problem-solving, information and communication technology, administration and management, science and technology, research, and languages (komba, 2012). such knowledge and skills can be acquired in schools, institutes, colleges, and universities through a given medium of instruction which facilitates communication among the involved parties. after independence in 1961, tanzania adopted a form of education in which kiswahili was made the medium of instruction in the school career alongside english (tibategeza, 2009; neke, 2003). in 1967, kiswahili was declared a national language and a language of instruction in primary schools while english was declared a co-official language and it was supposed to be taught as a 2 the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) compulsory subject in all primary schools (mlama & materu, 1978). in addition, english was also declared a language of instruction at post primary school levels, including the university. however, studies undertaken on language-in-education (tibategeza, 2009; swila, 2009; rugemalira, 2005; rubagumya, 1991; mlama & materu, 1978) have advocated a switch to kiswahili as a language of instruction at all levels of education in tanzania, insisting that the current system of education has negatively affected the provision of education. for example, a study by mlama and materu (1978) found that students could not express themselves in english and most of them were unable to participate in lessons conducted in english. in order to minimize communication problems related to english language in academic settings, all tanzanian universities offer communication skills courses to all undergraduate students (komba, 2012). in the context of tanzanian universities, communication skills course was introduced for the first time at the university of dar es salaam in 1978 (mlacha & rea, 1985). the course was purposely introduced in order to improve students’ ability to learn efficiently and effectively through the medium of english (mlacha & rea, 1985; udsm, 1983). since then, the course has been one of the compulsory courses in all other universities in the country. some studies had been conducted on the teaching and learning of communication skills in tanzania (komba, 2008; mwalimu, 1998; & mbowe, 1994; mlacha & rea, 1985). for example, while komba’s study had sought to investigate the impact of communication skills on students’ development of communicative abilities, mwalimu’s study was on the influence of students’ attitudes and motivation in the learning of the communication skills course. there were hardly any studies which had been conducted to investigate the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students, which was the focus of this study. this study was thus designed to examine the perceived importance of communication skills course among tanzanian university students. the main research question was, “what is the perceived importance of communication skills course among tanzanian university students?” theoretical reviews the term 'communication ' has been derived from the latin word 'communis' that means 'common' (foulger, 2004). thus 'to communicate' means 'to make common' or 'to make known'. communication is essentially a process that involves sharing of information (komba, 2008). it can be perceived better as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually accepted goal or direction. all forms of communication require a sender, a message, a channel, and a receiver (sen, 2005). while mbowe (1994) defines communication as a process involving writing correct language, precise reporting, correspondence and mastering the mechanics of writing and speaking, anderson (1972) views communication as a dynamic process in which a person consciously or unconsciously affects the cognition of another person through materials or agencies used in symbolic ways. in the same vein, ndoloi (1998) contends that communication is the transactional process concerned with the creation, transmission, interpretation and use of information. generally, effective communication involves the choice of the best communication channel for a specific purpose, the technical knowledge to use the channel appropriately, the presentation of information in an appropriate manner for the target audience, and the ability to understand messages and responses received from others. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/process_(science) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thought http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/feeling http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/idea s.c. komba 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) it is difficult to discuss the process of communication without highlighting the communication models. this is supported by foulger (2004) who argues that models are not only a fundamental building block of theory but also a fundamental tool of instruction. there are several models which explain the process of communication in relation to different contexts. in this study, two models namely the information theory model, and the ecological model of the communication process have been reviewed. the information theory model, by shannon (1948), is one of the first designs of information theory. shannon sought to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum error. the model includes an information source, the message, a transmitter, a signal, a channel, noise, a receiver, and a destination. the shannon’s model of communication is considered as a common ground of such diverse disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences. according to foulger (2004), part of its success is due to its structuralist reduction of communication to a set of basic constituents that not only explain how communication happens, but why communication sometimes fails. the model has considered distractors which may distort the communication process, such as noise which may occur somewhere between the transmitter and the receiver. for example, in the teaching and learning situation, learners are better placed to grasp the intended content if the environment is conducive, and they are able to understand the language involved. as pointed out earlier, the medium of instruction at post primary institutions in tanzania is english language which is a foreign language. for successful interactions to take place during learning, both students and instructors must be conversant with the language used. literature indicates that most university students lack communication skills in english language which is the medium of instructions at such level of education (mohamed, 2006; malekela, 2003; mwansoko, 1996; widdowson, 1979). therefore, interactions between instructors and students become limited as students opt to keep silent because of their inability to express themselves in english (puja, 2003). this is likely to result in ineffective learning. like all other models, shannon’s model of communication has been criticized for some weaknesses. one of the main weaknesses is that communication is presented as a linear, one way process. in view of this, the model is criticized for suggesting a definite start and finish to the communication process which in fact is often endless. for example, for communication to be effective in an academic setting, the process has to be a two-way process. learning involves interaction which essentially involves communication. when the communication process is unidirectional as suggested by shannon, feedback, which is an important component in the learning process, will be missing. consequently, lack of feedback may result into ineffective learning. however, a credit is given to this model as it represents a useful abstraction that identifies the most important components of communication and their general relationship to one another. on the other hand, the ecological model of the communication process was developed by foulger (2004). the main assumption of this model is that communication occurs in the intersection of four fundamental constructs: communication between people (creators and consumers) is mediated by messages which are created using language within media; consumed 4 the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) from media and interpreted using language. it is a detailed elaboration of lasswell's (1948) model of communication. lasswell was of the view that a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions: who? says what? in which channel? to whom? with what effect? (laswell, 1948). in the ecological model, the "who" are the creators of messages, the "says what" are the messages, the "in which channel" is elaborated into languages (which are the content of channels) and media (which channels are a component of), the "to whom" are the consumers of messages, and the effects are found in various relationships between the primitives, including relationships, perspectives, attributions, interpretations, and the continuing evolution of languages and media (foulger, 2004). in this model, communication process is viewed as the product of a set of complex interactions between its primary constituents: messages, people (acting as creators of messages, consumers of messages, and in other roles), languages, and media. this is unlike shannon’s model which views communication as a unidirectional process which begins by sending a message and finishes with receiving the sent message. the ecological model has many implications in the teaching and learning situations. for example, both lecturers and students at university level are creators and consumers of messages. lecturers create and send messages as they teach and their students do the same when responding to their lecturers. the messages can be created and sent orally such as during lectures, seminars, and class or group discussions. the same can also be done in a written form as for the case of take home assignments, term papers, tests, and examinations. as the model suggests that messages are created and consumed using language, this cannot be overlooked in the teaching and learning process. it implies that proficiency in language skills, for this case the language of instruction, is a prerequisite for the effective creation, sending, and consumption of messages, hence effective learning. for example, currently there are ongoing debates in tanzania on switching the medium of instruction from english to kiswahili language throughout the education levels. those who advocate for the changes argue that effective learning (involving creation, sending, and consumption of messages) cannot take place if those who are involved in the process are not proficient in the language used. therefore, effective learning is highly dependent upon the abilities of those who are involved in the process to communicate, either verbally or in a written form. furthermore, the model brings in the issue of relationship building which is also important for effective teaching and learning to take place. it is commonly accepted that learning is most effective if the environment in which communication is taking place is conducive. the conducive environment is one which is characterized by positive interpersonal relationships among all participants whether teachers or learners, by interactions which are comfortable and orderly, and is such that learners feel appreciated and personally acknowledged where possible (kafanabo, 2006). the communication process is the interrelationship between several interdependent components. it involves a whole series of related actions and reactions which together can result in the sharing of meaning. sen (2005) points out that communication is the ‘process’ because it is an activity which is connected with a series of steps that are deliberately undertaken to reach a goal. the process demands that both the sender and the receiver pay attention to elements of successful s.c. komba 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) communication which include the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback (sen, 2005). since each of these elements is significant in making effective communication, a brief explanation of each of them in relation to teaching and learning situation is pertinent. the process of communication begins with the sender who is struck by an idea which he/she wishes to share or convey or exchange with another person. the idea is first converted into a message by using verbal or non verbal medium of communication (sen, 2005). the message is then conveyed to the target destination for the intended impact. in the teaching/learning situation, the sender of message may either be a student or a lecturer or both in the form of turn-taking. the message may include subject matters of different courses offered at the university. in order to ensure that the message is well understood, the sender has to use words and non-verbal signals that the receiver is familiar with. this can only be possible if those who are involved in the communication process are proficient in the language used. for example, during teaching and evaluation processes at the university, language is involved in every stage. lecturers conduct lectures, compose examinations, and organize seminars using english language. likewise, students ought to answer questions, and participate in seminars and lectures using the same language. therefore, english language proficiency is connected to their academic achievement because it acts as the engine in the whole process of teaching and learning as well as testing (wilson & komba, 2012). on the other hand, channel is the vehicle through which the message is carried to the receiver (mafu et al., 1997). in educational settings, instructors have different communication channels which may be used to transmit information to students. for example, the spoken information can use such methods as face-to-face, film, television, or telephone. therefore, the senses of sight, touch, smell and taste assist in accomplishing the communication process. in relation to this study, the channels of communication used to deliver messages during teaching and learning situation at the university may include lectures, seminars, written assignments, books, and examinations. these are situations in which learning takes place. the receivers are the people or group that are the target of the message. according to bojuwon (1998), their interpretations, (decoding), feelings, understandings and total reactions to the message are a function of many factors: their understanding of the symbols used, their perception of the sender and his/her intent, and their limitation of the physical structure of the situation, backgrounds and aspirations that may be significantly different from those of the sender. the implication is that understanding is the key to decoding and that communication effectiveness is greatly determined by the extent to which the receiver's decoding matches the sender's encoding. therefore, communication is only successful when both the sender and the receiver understand the same information as a result of the communication process. this is essentially facilitated by a language in which the intended communication takes place. in the teaching and learning situations, the receiver of the message may either be a lecturer, or student(s) or both depending on who is sending the message at a given point of time. for example, in interactive lectures, lecturers may be sending messages to and receiving the same from students. moreover, feedback is the receiver’s response to the sender’s message and that the response can be both verbal and nonverbal (sen, 2005). feedback is an important factor in the communication 6 the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) process because it helps the sender to determine whether the message has been successfully communicated and understood or not (shannon and weaver, 1949). in the teaching and learning situation, the lecturer as a sender of information may for instance deliberately seek feedback by asking students such questions for example “does this example seem relevant in this context?” or “ am i making myself clear?” likewise, feedback can be through written worksthat is through assignments and examination responses. in view of these elements of communication process, it is clear that successful communication is a two-way process. that is to say, both the sender and the receiver are responsible to make an effective cycle of communication. since communication involves sharing information, it is therefore a crucial entirety in the teaching and learning situations. inn tanzanian context, communication skills course can be perceived as a set of planned lessons which offer skills that enable students to communicate effectively within an academic setting. it is specifically designed to expose students to strategies which aim at improving their efficiency in listening to lectures, reading academic texts, taking notes from speech and writing, and planning and writing essays. the course aims at reducing language problems which may lead to academic under-achievement arising from poor expression and organization in students’ essays and examinations (komba, 2012). the evolution of communication skills course can be traced back to the mid-1970s in england (carroll, 1980). it was during then when it was found that students from africa, arabia, asia and other non-english speaking countries had poor academic performance in the vocational training centres. the poor performance was attributed to their limited knowledge of english language since they came from non-english speaking countries, hence a poor background in the language. as such, communication skills course was introduced in order help students improve their academic performance by improving their level of mastery of the medium of instruction, in this case, english language. in tanzania, communication skills course was introduced for the first time at the university of dar es salaam in 1978 (mlacha & rea, 1985). it was meant to improve students’ ability to learn efficiently and effectively through the medium of english (mlacha & rea, 1985; udsm, 1983). since then, some studies have been conducted on the teaching and learning of communication skills in tanzania (komba, 2008; mwalimu, 1998; & mbowe, 1994; mlacha & rea, 1985). however, these studies did not go an extra mile to examine the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students, which was the focus of this study. methodology as pointed out in the introduction section, the purpose of this study was to examine the perceived importance of communication skills course among tanzanian university students. the study adopted a case study design because the aim of the study was to have an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. a total of 134 undergraduate students (i.e.78 males and 56 females), randomly selected from two universities, were involved in this study. the two universities included sokoine university of agriculture and teofilo kisanji university. since multiple data collection methods are recommended in a case study (yin, 2003), both a questionnaire and interview schedule were used to collect data on the perceived importance of communication skills course. the collected data were analysed using thematic s.c. komba 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) content analysis in which they were first coded and then classified according to themes generated from the responses. for the purpose of protecting the informants’ rights to privacy, private data identifying the participants and their affiliated institutions have not been reported in this article. findings and discussion the main research question for this particular study was “what is the perceived importance of communication skills course among tanzanian university students?” in the analysis of the data collected from 134 students, five categories of respondents’ perceived importance of communication skills course were identified as presented in table 1: table 1: categories of respondents’ perceived importance of communication skills course s/n category 1 acquisition of note taking skills 2 acquisition of academic writing skills 3 acquisition of oral presentation skills 4 acquisition of reading skills 5 acquisition of listening skills acquisition of note taking skills in this aspect, the findings indicated that more than half of the respondents (74/134) considered the communication skills course as being important because it helped them to gain different techniques on how to take notes during lectures and other academic presentations taking place at the university. in this regard, one respondent had this to report: communication skills are a very important course for university students. for example, university students require knowledge of note taking techniques in order to be able to jot down important points during lectures and seminars (q5. r17m). this extract shows that the responded was positive on the utility of the communication skills course in developing note taking skills. there were many other similar observations from other respondents. these findings seem logical because in the communication skills course, students are exposed to different note-taking techniques which are essentially useful in taking notes efficiently during lectures. the techniques include, for example, using acronyms, shortening words by omitting some letters, and shortening sentences by omitting non-content words such as prepositions, articles, and conjunctions in order to keep pace with the speakers (komba, 2012; mafu, et al., 1997). since taking notes is the most effective way of storing the vast amount of information students receive during lectures or seminars (komba, 2012; komba, 2008), the importance of note-taking skills cannot be underestimated. acquisition of academic writing skills the other perceived importance of communication skills course among university students was related to the acquisition of academic writing skills, relevant for university studies. regarding this aspect, 94/134 of the respondents stated that the communication skills course was instrumental in acquiring academic writing skills needed in their different areas of specialization. specifically, the respondents reported that the course enabled them to gain skills needed in writing term papers, special projects, research proposals, laboratory reports, and research reports. 8 the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) university studies require students to do a lot of writing activities which need students to have relevant academic writing skills. the specific skills of writing which students have to learn include writing introductory paragraphs, topic sentences, developing arguments and propositions, and organizing texts and establishing cohesion (komba et al., 2012). in view of the findings of this study, it seemed that the respondents considered communication skills course as being important in the acquisition of such skills. the importance of writing skills to university students has also been underscored by ransom, larcombe and baik (2005). in their survey study which involved students whose first language was not english, the researchers sought to find out which of the four key language skills (speaking, writing, reading, and listening) were the most important for students. the findings indicated that writing skills were the most important as 55.6% of all respondents indicated so. the findings that writing was perceived as the most important language skill for academic performance among students is not surprising because much of tertiary assessment is based on written assignments. acquisition of oral presentation skills the acquisition of oral presentation skills was another perceived importance of communication skills course among students in the two studied universities. with regard to this category, 104/134 respondents stated that the communication skills course helped them to learn oral presentation skills needed in their studies at the university. for example, one respondent had this to voice: oral presentation is one of the most challenging tasks for us. while this is the case, most the courses here at the university require us to make oral presentations and one of the criterion for assessing the presentations is related to how better we employ presentation skills. this is where the communication skills course becomes important for all of us as the course enables us to learn presentation skills (int1. r9f). the respondent’s remark shows that the course was perceived as being important as it enabled them to acquire presentation skills needed for their studies. specifically, the respondents stated that the course enabled them to learn how to choose proper materials for presentation; how to choose a method of presentation suitable for one’s audience; how to handle questions during presentation; and how to use visual media and other resources during presentation. the findings seem to be logical given the researcher’s experience as university lecturer. in the context of tanzanian universities, oral presentation skills are particularly important to students when they are supposed to make presentations on various topics related to their different courses of study. for instance, at sokoine university of agriculture where the researcher is based, all undergraduate students who are in their third year of study are obliged to conduct research and write research reports in partial fulfilment of the award of the registered degree programmes. in some departments, the findings of the conducted research have to be presented orally to the faculty members before submitting the same for assessment and subsequent grading. in this regard, presentation skills play a significant role in determining students’ success in the university studies. acquisition of reading skills reading is one of the four language skills. others are writing, listening, and speaking. regarding the acquisition of reading skills as one of the categories of perceived importance of s.c. komba 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) communication skills course, 88/134 respondents reported that the communication skills course had enabled them to learn how to read for different purposes. the respondents stated that they had, for example, learnt about different techniques of reading such as skimming, scanning, extensive reading, and intensive reading which are used for different academic reading purposes. stressing on the importance of reading skills learned in the communication skills course, one respondent had this to report: some people think that learning on how to read is as good as wasting ones time. that is not true. i feel that if a university student does not have reading skills, it is very disadvantageous. for example, one can waste a lot of time reading a text which is irrelevant to him/her while the student would have skimmed the document beforehand to decide whether or not it is worth reading. i learnt reading skills in the communication skills course and i find them useful in my studies (int1. r7f). from the extract, it is evident that the respondent appreciated the role of communication skills course in the acquisition of reading skills. there were many other similar observations. since university studies require students to read extensively, reading skills are important because they enable students to comprehend ideas, follow arguments, and detect arguments without difficulties. in addition, the skills are useful in serving time the students use in, for instance, deciding which material to read, the extent to which the material should be read, and probably which parts of the material are worth reading according to the pre-determined purpose. research findings in applied linguistics and reading research in applied linguistics have consistently shown a strong correlation between reading proficiency and academic success at all ages from the primary school right to university level (pretorious, 2007). this implies that university students need to be well versed with reading skills in order to have better academic achievement. acquisition of listening skills another category of the perceived importance of communication skills course among the studied university students was related to the acquisition of listening skills. the findings, in this aspect, showed that more than half (72/134) of the respondents considered the communication skills course as being important in enabling them to learn skills needed for effective listening. the respondents stated, specifically, that the course had enabled them to learn how to maintain eye contact with the speaker; how to interact with the speaker; how to concentrate on what is being said as opposed to how it is said; and how to stay active throughout the listening session by asking oneself mental questions, which are useful skills in effective listening. in the context of university studies, effective listening is a pre-requisite to good note-taking (wilson & komba, 2012; komba, 2008). listening skills are specifically important to university students because they are often confronted with situations which require them to make notes either from reading texts or listening to oral presentations such as lectures, meetings, symposia, and seminar discussions. the importance of listening skills to university students has also been reported by powers (1987), who did a survey study whose purpose was to obtain faculty perceptions of the importance of listening skills to academic success. in this study, the findings indicated that listening skills (particularly those related primarily to various aspects of lecture content) were very important as far as academic success was concerned. 10 the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) as pointed out earlier, most of the students who are admitted in tanzanian universities are nonnative speakers of english language. in realisation of the significance of listening skills to university students, listening skills are part and parcel of the communication skills course contents taught in tanzanian universities. conclusion the findings of this study have revealed that the communication skills course is perceived by the majority of university students in tanzania as an important course for the acquisition of communication skills needed in academic settings. in view of these findings, it is recommended that the communication skills course should be sustained because of its potential benefits to students. in this regard, the universities should improve the delivery of the course by ensuring that both human and materials resources are adequately available for the realization of the anticipated course outcomes. references anderson, k.e. 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(2012). the predictive validity of communication skills examination on students overall academic performance at sokoine university of agriculture. unpublished phd (education) thesis. university of dar es salaam, tanzania. komba, s.c., kafanabo, e.j., njabili, a.f. & kira, e.s. (2012). comparison between students’ academic performance and their abilities in written english language skills: a tanzanian perspective. international journal of development and sustainability, 1, (2), 305–325. komba, s.c. & kafanabo, e.j. (2012). investigation of the predictive validity of communication skills examination on university students’ overall academic performance in tanzania. international journal of education, 4(4), 248-266 komba, s. (2008). the impact of communication skills course on students’ development of communicative abilities. unpublished m.a. education dissertation. university of dar es salaam, tanzania. lasswell, h. (1948). the structure and function of communication in society. in l. bryson, (ed.). the communication of ideas, (pp. 37-51). new york: institute for religious and social studies. s.c. komba 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) mafu, s.t.a., neke, s.m., matao, m., & mohamed, i.m. (1997). improve your communication skills: a compendium for communication skills and study skills. morogoro: sokoine university of agriculture. malekela, g.a. (2003). english as a medium of instruction in post-primary education in tanzania: is it a fair policy to the learners? in b. brock-utne, z. desai, & m. qorro (eds.), language of instruction in tanzania and south africa, (pp. 102111).dar es salaam: e&d limited. mbowe, d.c. (1994). factors influencing lack of interest in the english communication skills course among students in tanzanian technical training institutions. unpublished m.a. education thesis. university of dar es salaam, tanzania. mlacha, y.y., & rea, p. (1985). the impact of communication skills in english courses with special reference to students in the faculty of arts and social sciences. papers in education and development, 10, 61-64. mlama, p., & materu, m. (1978). haja ya kutumia kiswahili kufundishia katika elimu ya juu. dar es salaam: bakita. mohamed, h.i. (2006). academic writing as social practice: a critical discourse analysis of student writing in higher education in tanzania. unpublished phd thesis. university of the western cape, republic of south africa. mwalimu, f.m.m. (1998). students attitudes and motivation as factors influencing the learning of the communication skills courses in tertiary institutions in tanzania. m.a thesis. university of dar es salaam, tanzania. mwansoko, h. j. m. (1996). matumizi ya kiswahili bungeni. dar es salaam: taasisi ya uchunguzi wa kiswahili, chuo kikuu cha dar es salaam. ndoloi, d.b. (1980). language without words: non-verbal communication and its implication for teaching practice supervision. journal of linguistics and language in education, 4(1) 75-85. neke, s.m. (2003). english in tanzania: an anatomy of hegemony. unpublished phd thesis. ghent university, belgium. powers, d.e. (1987). validation of listening comprehension tests using item response theory. language testing, 1(4), 170-194. pretorious, e. (2007). the importance of reading. frankfurt international school. puja, g.k. (2003). kiswahili and higher education in tanzania: reflections based on a sociological study from three tanzanian university campuses. in b. brock-utne, z. desai, & m. qorro (eds.), language of instruction in tanzania and south africa, (pp. 102-111).dar es salaam: e&d limited. ransom, l., larcombe, w. & baik, c. (2005). english language needs and support: international-esl students’ perceptions and expectations. language and learning skills unit, the university of melbourne, australia. rubagumya c.m. (1991). language promotion for education purposes: the example of tanzania. international review of education, 37(1)67-85. rugemalira, j.m. (2005). theoretical and practical challenges in a tanzanian english medium school. africa and asia, 52(2005), 66-84. sen, l., (2005). communication skills, new delhi: prentice-hall of india private limited. shannon, c.e.a. (1948). mathematical theory of communication . bell system technical journal, 27(1), 379-423. http://ltj.sagepub.com/search?author1=donald+e.+powers&sortspec=date&submit=submit 12 the perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) swilla, i.n. (2009). language of instruction in tanzania: contradictions between ideology, policy and implementation. african study monographs, 30(1),1 14. tibategeza, e.r. (2009). language-in-education planning in tanzania: a sociolinguistic analysis. unpublished phd thesis. the university of the free state, the united republic of south africa. university of dar es salaam, (1983). intensive grammar programme: a workbook in basic grammar for academic purposes, communication skills unit, university of dar es salaam. widdowson, h.g. (1975). the teaching of english as communication ”. in c.j. brumfit & k. johnson (eds.). the communicative approach to language teaching, (pp.15-18). london, oxford university press. wilson, j. & komba, s.c (2012). the link between english language proficiency and academic performance. a pedagogical perspective in tanzanian secondary schools. world journal of english language, 2, 1-10. yin, r.k. (2003). case study research: design and methods, 2 nd edition. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=19250703&an=84661808&h=bt%2bvosqg86wl6mwu4fbrbtjn6y%2fjcthqr9nqcuvpb0awxaxvz89fo4p%2fldlfxxo3b5nt66cky6w3nibntymjeg%3d%3d&crl=c http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=19250703&an=84661808&h=bt%2bvosqg86wl6mwu4fbrbtjn6y%2fjcthqr9nqcuvpb0awxaxvz89fo4p%2fldlfxxo3b5nt66cky6w3nibntymjeg%3d%3d&crl=c higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school innocent uche anazia school of social sciences, education and social works (sssesw) queens university belfast, belfast, uk abstract. this study used qualitative research method to investigate the views of students and teachers of a private secondary school in lagos state, nigeria on whether higher grading standards motivate students. the study was prompted by the decision of the management of the school to increase its grading standard. to guide the study, 10 students and 7 teachers participated in the study. data were generated using interview technique which centred on two objectives or themes of the study. the first objective was targeted at both the students and teachers, while the second objective was targeted at teachers. thematic analysis was used to analyze the perceptions of the students and teachers. the findings revealed that higher grading standards motivate students to study harder and that higher standards benefit both high-achievers and low-achievers. considering that the study was the first attempt to investigate the issue as it concerns nigeria, suggestions were made on future studies. keywords: grading, grading standards, perception, academic motivation introduction ideally, a school should provide students the opportunity to learn in an academically stimulating environment. effective learning takes place in a motivating atmosphere. teachers and students will show greater commitment when they are motivated. students are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. intrinsic motivation has to do with self-motivation the desire to learn for the sake of acquiring knowledge. in intrinsic motivation, students are keen on learning not just because they want to obtain a grade or get rewarded, but because they want to expand their knowledge (blake, 2015). extrinsic african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 1-20 innocent uche anazia 2 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 motivation on the other hand, refers to externally influenced factors. in this case, a student is motivated to learn or achieve not because of personal interest or the desire to acquire knowledge, but a desire to please others by meeting expectations set by parents, teachers, or factors like a desired grade or gpa (blake, 2015). blake (2015) further states that external motivation can also involve punishment and reward in that students might fear the punishment associated with obtaining a poor grade or the rewards that come with obtaining a high grade or gpa. therefore, they see grading as a powerful academic communication tool. brookhart, guskey, bowers, et al (2016) define grading as “the symbols assigned to individual pieces of student work or composite measures of student performance on report cards”. they traced the history of grading to the 19th century when students’ progress was communicated orally to parents by teachers at the homes of the students. a transition to written narrative reports followed by the turn of the 20th century in high schools due to increasing diversity in student population and in subject areas taught (guskey & bailey, 2001) as cited in brookart et al (2016). schneider and hutt (2013) note that the use of grades as extrinsic motivation is influenced by the need to provide “a readily interpretable messages to future teachers, schools, and employers about the quality of the students” (p. 18). gold, reilly, silberman, et al (1971) are of the view that students’ learning experience in college education should be based on intrinsic motivation whereas, they claim, the use of grades by most colleges induce extrinsic motivation. consequently, when students leave college the motivation for intellectual activity lapses because of the absence of grades. grading remains the major benchmark for evaluating students’ performance in many educational institutions. various grading systems are adopted such as the percentage grading, letter grading, pass/fail grading, among others. in nigeria, letter grading system is widely used, especially at the primary and secondary school levels. in this grading system, students’ overall performance (which comprises of exams and continuous assessments) are assigned letters from a – f on percentage scores ranging from 0% 100%. the grading policies for internal school exams at these lower levels of education are determined by state ministries of education in the case of public schools. while most private schools adopt government policies on grading, they can and often modify theirs as the case was at the school under focus in this study. grades serve myriad of purposes such as for promotion, placement, counseling, rewards, and motivation. however, there is limited knowledge of how well and in what ways these features are met higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 3 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 (lekholm, 2010). harlin and deakin (2002) posit that there have been controversies regarding the effect of grades on the learning, motivation and achievement of students for over 40 decades and that results from research are divergent (as cited in lekholm, 2010). despite these controversies, grading of students’ academic performance remains a long tradition: part of the conventional school system (krawczyk, 2017). grades are used by educational institutions across all levels and around the world “as a fundamental sorting and signaling mechanism for students” (faieza, 2018, p. 86). the method of assessment used by schools is based on their grading system. however, in a bid to suit the school, students, parents, and other stakeholders, grading systems have witnessed changes over time. some grading systems have grading standards which are determined by several factors such as the purpose of the assessments or tests, the school or examination body, and the performance of the test takers. since grading policies directly affect the grades obtained by students (enwefa, 2015), the expectation is that schools would adopt policies and practices that are beneficial and help students to improve their academic and behavioural outcomes (reeves, 2008). grading standards can serve as incentives to some students and disincentives to others as higher standards may spur students who are more motivated to worker harder by increasing their efforts while at the same time, cause some students to become discouraged as the standard goes beyond their reach (betts & grogger, 2003). betts (1995) found that grading standards have more impact on stronger than on weak students as measured by their gpa (as cited in betts, et al, 2003). few empirical studies have been conducted on the effects of higher grading standards (betts et al, 2003; fallan & opstad, 2012; figlio, et al 2003). nigeria’s education system lays a lot of emphasis on grades. students and teachers are rewarded based on grades; parents’ decision to enroll their children and wards in a particular school is influenced by students’ grades in external examinations such as the west african senior school certificate examinations (wassce). adepoju and oluchukwu (2011) note that parents may refuse to send their children to schools that are not reputed for distinction and credit grades in english language and mathematics. grade serves as a competitive tool among students as they strive to outdo each other in their class. many students are very mindful of the rewards and punishments associated with grades. considering that students respond to grades, when there are changes to the rules of assigning grades, it will result in changes in their behaviours and outcomes (todd and larry, 2005) because students derive personal satisfaction from achieving good grades (musoleno and white, 2010). this study therefore seeks to investigate whether higher grading standards motivate students. innocent uche anazia 4 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 study framework and rationale this study was prompted by the decision of the management of a private secondary school to change its grading standard. the table below shows the old and new grading standards. table 1: old versus new grading standard 1 old grading standard 2 new grading standard score grade score grade remark 75 & above a 91 – 100 a++ excellent 85 – 90 a+ excellent 80 – 84 a excellent 75 – 79 b++ very good 65 – 74 b 70 – 74 b+ good 65 – 69 b fairly good 60 – 64 c 60 – 64 c+ above average 50 – 59 d 55 – 59 c average 50 – 54 d pass 40 – 49 e 0 = 49 f fail 39 & below f higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 5 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 the school principal, while addressing parents and members of staff during the parents-teachers forum on the issue, stated that the management of the school took the decision to change the grading standard in order to motivate the students to study harder and aim for “excellence”. this was unanimously adopted by the parents after minor adjustments were made. the implementation of the new grading standard commenced in the 2018/2019 academic session. from the table above, it can be observed that the grading standard was raised in section 2 of the table. for instance, the “a” grade which was initially from 75% and above in the old grading standard was raised to 80% and above, with some distinctive features (the plus signs). the implication is that a student who initially maintained an “a” grade of 75% score would have to work harder to earn the same “a” grade in the new grading standard. also, a weak student who had managed to maintain an “e” grade of 40 – 49% would have to strive to obtain 50 – 54% in the new grading standard if he or she is to escape from the “f” grade which means “fail”. going by this, the study sought to ascertain if higher grading standards motivate students and by so doing, contributed to the limited studies on this topic. results from this study could influence the decisions of school heads, teachers and policy makers regarding grading policies. it could also provide information to researchers that are interested in issues about grades and grading policy to probe further and explore other pertinent areas. objective of the study the aim of this study was to determine whether grading standards motivate students. specifically, the study sought to determine whether: 1. higher grading standard motivates students 2. schools should set higher grading standards. the objectives were developed from the rational of the study and a review of literature literature review the literature on the effect of grading policies on students’ motivation reveals divergent findings from few studies. elikai and schuhmann (2010) examined the impact of strict grading standard against a lenient grading standard on students’ performance in a cost accounting course at the undergraduate level in a regional university through an experimental study. the lenient grading scale (or traditional innocent uche anazia 6 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 grading scale) that they used was based on the following percentage points: a = 90 100, b = 80 89, c = 70 79, d = 60 69, and f = < 60 percent. the strict grading scale was as follows: a = 93 100, b = 85 92, c = 75 84, d = 65 74, and f = < 65 percent. for the strict grading standard, the average mastery was “c” grade which coincidentally was the minimum passing requirement of the professional accounting examinations. their findings suggested that applying a strict grading standard would encourage accounting students to put in more efforts in their studies and thus, acquire more knowledge and skills of the subject matter in readiness for professional examinations. similarly, johnson and beck (1988) examined the relationship between strict and lenient grading scales and students’ performance on tests administered in an undergraduate educational psychology class in appalachian state university, north carolina, usa, based on their performance in the scholastic aptitude test (sat). the subjects for the study were 91 undergraduate students who were enrolled in 11 sections of the educational psychology course over a period of three years. the strict grading scale was used for six sections, while the lenient scale was used for the remaining five sections. the strict scale was based on 8 percentage points such as a = 93 -100, b = 85 92, etc. but 12 percentage points were used for the lenient scale such as a = 89 -100, b = 77 88. their findings revealed that students with low sat score performed better with the strict grading standard. they concluded therefore that students would perform better if strict grading is applied and further stated that lenient grading policy will negatively affect low ability students. however, the studies of elikai, et al (2010) and beck (1988) in usa did not reveal the performance distribution standards of the students unlike the study conducted by betts, et al (2003) which revealed mixed evidence of the effects of higher grading standards. although the results of betts, et al (2003) suggested that students respond positively to higher grading standards and that tests scores rise in schools with higher grading standards, they rise more for students near the top of the achievement distribution than for those near the bottom of the distribution. the study conducted by figlio and lucas (2003) in alachua county, florida, usa, revealed that higher grading standards benefit students. their findings proved that high-ability students benefit more from higher grading standard than low-performing students. but they observed that the effect of high grading standards is highest for high-ability students when classroom ability is relatively low.. they therefore concluded that high standards would motivate students to study harder and that parents who perceive that their children are struggling with their academic work would pay more attention to higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 7 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 helping them with schoolwork than they may have done if they feel that their children are high achievers. hussain, rehman and hussain (2014) also compared the performance of pakistani engineering students on 5 letters lenient grading standard (a, b, c, d, f) and 7 letters (a, b+, b, c+, c, d, f ) strict grading standard. their findings revealed that strict grading standard positively impacted significantly on the students’ gpas than the lenient grading standard. interestingly, they reported that low performing students benefitted more from the strict grading standard than high-performing students. the studies of elikai, et al (2010), johnson, et al (1988), figlio, et al (2003) and hussain et al (2014) were based on letter grading system. this grading system has the advantage of promoting extrinsic motivation and students’ self-improvement (melrose, 2017). however, melrose (2017) notes that it gives room for unhealthy competition among students. most students will prefer a and b grades which creates so much pressure to outperform one another and when they are able to obtain such grades, they see themselves as academically better than those that are unable to. researchers have also compared the effect of different grading systems on students’ motivation and wellbeing. a study conducted by robins, fantone, oh, et al (1995) compared a switch from honors, high/pass, pass and fail grading to just pass/fail by the university of michigan medical school, usa and revealed that students’ performance and motivation did not decrease following the use of the new grading system and the students were satisfied with the new system. similarly, the study of bloodgood, short , jackson , et al (2009) on a change from letter grades to pass/fail (p/f) in a us medical school showed no significant difference in performance but it improved students’ wellbeing and satisfaction. in contrast, a study conducted by gold, et al (1971) showed a decline in academic performance of college students who voluntarily opted to be assessed under pass/fail grading system. gold et al opined that the reason could be the extrinsic motivation the students were already exposed to under the previous grading system and the pass/fail was probably to avoid rigorous study. the p/f grading is viewed as promoting the psychological wellbeing of the students in terms of reducing anxiety, burnout and competition (austin, allareddy and petrie, 2018); and increases students’ intrinsic learning motivation (melrose, 2017). however, it reduces the opportunity of identifying excellent students and students’ commitment to learning (melrose, 2017). it seems that most college students prefer letter grades as identified by leach, queirolo, devoe, et al (2003). leach et al are of the belief that “the https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=bloodgood%20ra%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19704204 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=short%20jg%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19704204 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=jackson%20jm%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19704204 innocent uche anazia 8 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 choice between letter grade and pass/fail evaluation maybe based on students’ motivations for achievement” (p. 496). chamberlin, maï and i-chant (2018) compared the impact of multi-level grading system and narrative evaluation on the academic motivation of students. their findings revealed that grades did not increase the academic motivation of the students, but narrative evaluation enhanced their motivation. similarly, lipnevich and smith (2008) found that descriptive feedback not accompanied by grades or praise had greater effect on the students. while narrative feedback could be useful in formative assessment, it may not be suitable for summative evaluation especially if not combined with any grading system. most decisions on assessment reports (such as placement, promotion, rewards, etc.) are made based on summative evaluations. using narrative feedbacks on summative evaluation could potentially limit such decisions. also, narrative feedback is stressful and time-consuming for the teachers. the study conducted by aftab and riaz (2016) investigated the impact of grade sensitivity on learning motivation and academic performance. although not related to higher grading standard, the study is significant in explaining how much sensitive students are to grades and grading standards. they used a sample of 208 university students and their results showed that grade sensitivity has a positive influence on the learning motivation of students and their academic performance. this suggests that when students aim at obtaining certain grades or when they are aware of the implication of an increased grading standard, it will make them to study harder. but it may also lead to stress and burnout considering the effort that has to go into study. in nigeria, the use of traditional letter grading system has dominated assessment practices, especially at the primary and secondary levels. these grades clearly occupy the largest part of the students’ report/result sheet (enwefa, 2015). enwefa’s (2015) study in a nigerian state raised the questions of whether teachers clearly understood grading policy of students’ scores and whether students’ works were graded appropriately. he discovered that teachers were subjective in awarding grades and included non-academic variables such as attendance in awarding grades, among other findings. these practices raise concern about the validity and reliability of grades awarded to the students. räisänen, tuononen, postareff, et al (2016) note that grades serve as objective way of measuring achievement and therefore they “are trusted and relied on for important decisions and they play a major role in students’ lives” (p. 181). students’ grades should be a true reflection of their higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 9 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 academic abilities and aptitudes based on thorough instruction and adequate exposure to learning materials. contemporary studies on the effect of grading standards on student motivation and learning are very scanty as most of the studies were conducted in the 90s and earlier (krawczyk, 2017). the few studies represented in the literature are mostly on schools in other countries, especially developed ones, and many of them focused at the university level. there is no such study in nigeria. much research, rather, has largely focused on continuous assessment (e.g. awofala and babajide, 2013; onihunwa, adigun, irunokhai, et al, 2018; faleye and adefisoye, 2016; osadebe and uvietseivwi, 2018; osadebe, 2015; ale and omirin, 2015; alufohai and akinlosotu, 2016). furthermore, it is not also known whether the grading policies of nigerian schools have any bearing on students’ academic motivation or behaviours. therefore, this study addresses this gap in the literature. methodoly this qualitative research was conducted using case study approach. zaidah (2007) states that using case study method enables the researcher to closely examine the data within a particular context and that such method selects a small geographical area or a very limited number of subjects. qualitative method was adopted for two reasons: (1) the study framework and rationale centred on a particular school and, (2) most studies on the subject of grading standards are quantitative. to guide the study, 10 students and 7 teachers were selected to elicit information regarding their perceptions on whether higher grading standards motivate students against the backdrop of the change of the school’s grading policy. while the concept of saturation is considered as the principle behind sample size selection in qualitative study (mason, 2010), shari (2012) considers that from 5 to 50 participants are optimum. the participants were selected with the approval of the school. effort was made to seek permission to from the school administration to waive anonymity to enhance the credibility of the study, but it was not granted by the school administration. data were generated using interview technique which centred on two objectives of the study. the first objective was targeted at the students and teachers, while the second objective was targeted at the teachers. the study considered the ability levels of the students (johnson et al, 1988). in order to compare the views of the students on the basis of their academic performance with the new grading system in the first term examination (2018/2019 academic session), they were classified into two innocent uche anazia 10 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 groups high achievers (ha) and low achievers (la). 6 high-achievers were selected and 4 lowachievers were selected. table 2 below shows the classification table 2: classification of the students on the basis of academic performance student grade by overall percentage (100%) remarks (ha; la) student 1 94 ha student 2 97 ha student 3 94 ha student 4 94 ha student 5 92 ha student 6 92 ha student 7 55 la student 8 59 la student 9 53 la student 10 58 la ha: high-achiever; la: low-achiever all the students that participated were chosen from senior school because they had a better understanding of the grading standards. only teachers with considerable years of experience in the school were selected. this was to ensure that the teachers chosen were well familiar with the old and new grading standards. the table below shows the teachers chosen. table 3: selected teachers on the basis of years of experience teacher years of experience teacher 1 7 teacher 2 5 teacher 3 4 teacher 4 4 teacher 5 4 teacher 6 3 higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 11 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 teacher 7 9 analysis thematic analysis was used to analyze the perceptions of the students and teachers. maguire and delahunt (2017) stated that thematic analysis aims at identifying themes or patterns in the data that are important and these themes are used to address the research topic or issue. the objectives of the study formed the themes under which the perceptions of the respondents were analyzed. results: a. students’ perception higher grading standard as a motivator majority of the students stated that higher grading standards motivate students to study harder. further to this, the students expressed the views that grading standards benefit some students more than others. most of them pointed that low-achieving students benefit more from a higher grading standard as it will motivate them to study harder student 1 noted: students who aim at particular grades or aim to maintain particular grades have to put in more effort to attain a higher score that can give them their desired grade student 2 also stated that: a higher grading standard motivates students to work harder. . . not only will the average and dull students work harder, the ‘smart students’ will have to study harder because they will see it as a way to distinguish themselves . . . smart students are so much exalted by their teachers and colleagues . . . however, only student 4 did not consent to the fact that higher grading standards motivate students. she noted: there are different types of students in school. some are comfortable with any standard of grading while others are not. well, grading standards motivate those students who have no problem accepting a challenge. but for those who find it difficult to challenge themselves may just give up on studying. innocent uche anazia 12 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 student 8 stated: when the grading standard increases, it makes students study harder to reach their goals. student 8 stated as follows: some low achieving students would try harder to be better than the high-achieving students and the more they try, the more they get better at it. student 7 noted that: high-achieving students are already used to a higher grading standard . . . and such standard will make the low-achieving students to read more in order to get higher grades student 4 stated: high-achieving students already feel they are the best in all the subjects and do not need to put in anymore effort. while they are thinking so, they may not know that a low-achieving student is working his way to the top . . . b: teachers’ perception 1. higher grading standard as a motivator the teachers stated that higher grading standards motivate some students and discourage others. in addition, most of them noted that such standards motivate the brilliant ones and discourage the lowperforming students. teacher 4 stated: higher grading standards will work more for the more intelligent students. but for the struggling students, higher standards discourage them. teacher 5 noted that, higher standards challenge some students. but for the low-performing students, they could be discouraged. teacher 7 noted that: higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 13 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 higher grading standards will make the brilliant ones to work harder. but the low-achieving students will not be concerned because in private schools, students are promoted regardless of their performance teacher 5 noted that: the standard is just set for those that are really intelligent. they are being helped to discover more excellent potentials about themselves. teacher 3 stated thus: higher standards benefit high-achieving students more. low-performing students will have to struggle to meet up with average, but a high-achieving student has already set a standard for himself and cannot fall below. only teacher 2 expressed a divergent view as follows: while higher grading standards tell a high-achieving student to work more, it tells lowachieving student to also work more. it’s a win-win situation for both sides. 2. setting higher grading standards by schools majority of the teachers expressed the views that schools should set higher standards. their views were based on standards set by public schools and external examination bodies in nigeria such as the west african examinations council (waec). teacher 1 stated that: it is good for schools to set higher standards because teachers may be lenient in say, awarding a 75% “a” grade when for instance, an external exam has a higher standard. so students should be challenged. teacher 5 also stated that: higher grading standards will challenge senior students considering the standard set by external examinations. teacher 3 stated thus: innocent uche anazia 14 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 schools should begin to set higher standards to be in conformity with national examinations and present-day university admission requirements in the case of nigeria. students with more excellent grades have higher points and better chances of being admitted amongst the few that the university faculties can cater for. teacher 7 supported setting higher standards and faulted private schools where students hardly repeat classes when they fail to garner a certain overall percentage or grade unlike public schools where a student is asked to repeat if they do not score up to 50% in core subjects. but teacher 4 stated that: schools should not set higher standards. it should be balanced. the low-achieving students should be considered. discussion the first finding of the study as expressed by both the high-achieving and low-achieving students reveals that higher grading standards motivate students to work harder. this is in line with the findings of elikai et, al (2010); johnson, et al (1988); and betts, et al (2003) which all revealed that setting higher or strict standards would motivate students to work harder. also, aftab, et al (2016) reported that when students are sensitive to grades, they would work harder. this means that when students are aware that the bar has been raised, they would be challenged to maintain or improve on their performance. it is also important to state that students now recognize grade as a competitive tool in their classes and, therefore, would strive to improve on their performance; as one of the students noted, when a student obtains good grades, they will have better prospects. also, the finding from the students reveals that higher grading standards benefit the low-achieving students more than the high-achieving students which agrees with the result from the study of rehman and hussain (2014) where they reported that low performing students benefitted more from strict grading standard. but the views of the students are in contrast with the views of the teachers. although some of the teachers stated that higher standards motivate students, they largely maintained that high-achieving students benefit more from higher grading standards than low-achieving ones. these divergent views could be as a result of their different experiences with grades. teachers may have a different understanding of the students in terms of their sensitivity to changes in grading standards because teachers are the implementers of whatever standard that is set by the school or education/exam body. while teachers are the ones that higher grading standards and academic motivation: perceptions of students and teachers in a lagos (nigeria) private secondary school 15 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 teach and assign grades, students are the recipients. the views of the teachers are in line with the findings of lucas, et al (2003) which revealed that high-ability students benefit more from higher grading standard than low-performing students. however, they (lucas, et al ) also observed that the effect of high grading standards is highest for high-ability students when classroom ability is relatively low. in the second finding, teachers expressed the view that schools should set higher grading standards. as lucas, et al (2003) reported in their findings, setting higher grading standards benefit students. the views of the teachers are widely based on comparison with the standards set by external examination bodies in nigeria such as the west african examinations council (waec) and the national examinations council (neco). one of the teachers noted that higher standard is important considering that some teachers may be lenient in internal examinations whereas external examinations maintain strict grading policies. for instance, in the waec grading system, the a grade which is classified as “a1” falls within 80% -100%. as observed by johnson et al (1988), a lenient grading policy will have negative effect on the students (who for example in their waec exam would be assessed based on their grading standard that is higher). also, one of the teachers compared the standard set by private schools and that of public schools and stated that private schools should set standards that are comparable to public schools. the standards set by public schools are higher than in most private schools. this is because private schools try to justify the huge payments made by parents and therefore, students no longer repeat classes in most private schools in nigeria when they do not perform well or obtain the minimum grade level that will move them to the next class. these private sector schools use this method as a means of overcoming the competitive market for private education. conclusion this study attempted to obtain the views of students and teachers of a private secondary school in lagos, nigeria with regards to grading standards. this study was prompted by the decision of the management of the school to raise the grading standards as a way of motivating the students. a thorough review of the literature revealed that researchers (such as krawczyk, 2017 and betts, et al 2003) have lamented over the limited studies on the subject of higher grading standards and academic innocent uche anazia 16 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 1 -20 motivation. it was also discovered that there are no studies on the issue investigated in the case of nigeria. from the findings, the study concludes that setting higher grading standards would motivate students to worker harder in order to maintain or improve their academic performance. students will do better when they realize that they need to work towards a higher standard. they will pay more attention in class, copy their notes, complete all assignments and other tasks and study more towards their examination. this study also concludes, based on the views of the students and the teachers, that higher grading standards benefit both the high-achieving students and the low-performing ones. this is because higher standards are meant to ensure that the high-achieving students do not rest on their oars and also ensure that low-performing ones are encouraged to put in more effort. it is important that the low-performing ones are given all the necessary support that they need to succeed. for instance, schools can organize extra-mural classes for them so that they can catch up with the more brilliant students. going by the effect of grades on students’ academic motivation and their internal and external uses, it is important that teachers adhere to ethical practices in assessing students as this will ensure the validity and reliability of grades awarded to students. suggestions for further research considering that this study was the first attempt in nigeria aimed at discovering whether higher grading standard motivate students, the researcher therefore suggests the following: 1. more studies should be conducted using both quantitative and qualitative methods 2. larger sample size should be used for subsequent studies which should involve junior students 3. a comparison should be made between private schools and public schools on the same topic investigated in this study to obtain wider views and information. higher grading standards and academic 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(2007). case study as a research method. retrieved from http://psyking.net/htmlobj3837/case_study_as_a_research_method.pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1477-3880(15)30140-7 https://www.ajol.info/index.php/joten/article/view/119392 http://psyking.net/htmlobj-3837/case_study_as_a_research_method.pdf http://psyking.net/htmlobj-3837/case_study_as_a_research_method.pdf the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning at ghanaian colleges of education: ict tutors’ perception john kwame eduafo edumadze university of cape coast, ghana abstract ict is used more at the workplace than in the classroom mainly due to the lack of its extensive integrated into the curriculum by teachers. with the increasing use of ict in our society, teachers must be at the forefront of it use in order to train their students in its proper use. ghana’s colleges of education (coes) are the first place where ict education should begin since they are responsible for the training of teachers in the country. the main objective of the study is to evaluate the extent of ict integration in ghana's coes. this study, based on the unesco’s literature on ict integration in education and teachers’ adoption of ict, examines the perception of ict tutors in coes on the goal to strengthen ict curriculum in coes. it also examines their perception of the capability of their students to competently teach ict studies at the basic levels in ghana's education system. results from the study show that tutors are of the view that ict integration for teaching and learning are at the beginning stages with respect to anderson’s ict in education model. they also are of the view that an elective ict course should be introduced to train teacher-trainees who will specialise in ict teaching at our basic level. finally the study made recommendations to address these challenges. keywords: ict integration education, ict integration, ict adoption, ict curriculum, coes introduction these days, there is not a single day that one will not hear the term information and communication technology (ict). in advanced economies ict has become one of the essential foundations of their society while in sub-saharan africa; it will very soon be the building block in our societies. thus mastering of ict’s basic skills and concepts is an important and mandatory part of the education system. tracing the genesis of ict, anderson (2010) said: when the first computers made their entry into schools in the late 1970s, we used to speak about computers in education. with computers came printers, floppy disk drives, scanners and the first digital cameras. we began to use the term it, or information technology, to describe computers and these various peripheral devices. then the 2 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) internet arrived together with computer networks, the world wide web, email and search engines. a new term entered the language – ict. the term ict, short for information and communication technologies, embraces the many technologies that enable us to receive information and communicate or exchange information with others. ict encompass all the technologies by means of which we can detect these signals, interpret them and exchange information with others. the term ict is plural, referring to a great many technologies. to sum up, ict is an all encompassing term that includes the full gamut of electronic tools by means of which we gather, record and store information, and by means of which we exchange and distribute information to others. (p.4) also, united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco, 2010) defines ict as the forms of technology that are used to transmit, process, store, create, display, share or exchange information by electronic means. this broad definition of ict includes such technologies as radio, television, video, dvd, telephone (both fixed line and mobile phones), satellite systems, and computer and network hardware and software, as well as the equipment and services associated with these technologies, such as videoconferencing, e-mail and blogs. the list of technologies that ict encompasses is been updated daily as new technologies are invented or designed. thus we can say ict is a generic term that refers to technologies, which are being used for collecting, storing, editing and communicating of information in various forms from one user to another. the lack of use of ict in teaching and learning is the responsibility of teachers simply because they implement the curriculum. but most teachers do not use ict in their teaching not because there is lack of access to it, but also because they are neither skilled nor confident in its usage. many teachers report that they have not had adequate training to prepare themselves to use technology effectively in teaching and learning (jung, 2005). this assertion is supported by a survey by the european commission featuring 190,000 responses from 27 european countries that many teachers are ill-equipped to teach students it-related subjects. the study concluded that access to skilled and confident ict teachers is more important than being able to use the latest equipment (taylor, 2013). in addition to the development of the necessary skills that will enable the teacher-trainees to use ict by themselves for research, lesson planning, there is several new teaching and learning models or principles that were developed to enhance effective teaching and learning with ict. the teacher-trainee ought to be trained to acquire ict literacy skills and pedagogical skills. living in a digital world and teaching students who are digital natives, it is important that our teacher-trainees are encouraged or mandated when necessary to incorporate ict in their teaching of class lessons. this is not done as indicated by taylor (2013), which states “20 per cent of secondary-level students in europe claimed to have never (or almost never) used a computer in their school lessons.” this result is after millions of euros were invested in ict infrastructure for the education sectors in those countries. the situation was worse in ghana thus the first thing must happen is that teacher-trainees must be taught to acquire the ict skills that would enable them to live in a world becoming digital and also teach with digital technology to digital natives. for this to be accomplished there is the need to investigate the kind of ict infrastructure, curriculum, and training the teacher-trainees receive at the colleges of education, which is the focus of this study. john k. e. edumadze 3 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) ict is invading every aspect of our society at an astronomical rate. in fact there is not a single area in human endeavor that ict has not been utilized. despite this, the use of ict in the education sector is confronted with enormous challenges including inadequate infrastructure in schools, lack of use it in teaching and learning, and high cost of maintenance and replacement. this should not be the case especially in the century where knowledge is expanding without bounds. teaching is one of the most challenging professions since there are a lot of technologies for accessing information and knowledge at the disposal of students thus the teacher has be constantly updating their knowledge so as the direct their students to successfully navigate this ocean of information, which is overwhelming and confusing. but it is known that ict is used more in work environments than at schools mainly because it is not extensively integrated in the curriculum by education planners. with the increasingly use of ict in our society, teachers must be at the forefront of its use in order to train their students in the proper use of technology. the effective integration of ict in the learning process yields the following: increases student motivation for learning, improves communication of learning goals, facilitates higher-order thinking skills, builds valuable skills that students will use in college and in the workplace, expands students' understanding from novice to mastery among others (melville, 2005). to enjoy the benefits of ict in teaching and learning depends to a large extent on teacher’s familiarity and ability to use it in the classroom settings. this is or can be possible when the ict curriculum of teacher education is both rich in theory and practice. putting things in perspective is very important, but that does not downplay the need to integrate ict. ict in education or ict for education (ict4e) has many components that should be emphasized. citing literature (ser, 1998; moonen and kommers, 1995; pilot, 1998; jager & lokman, 1999) classified the functions of the use of ict in education into four areas: 1. ict as object. it refers to learning about ict. mostly organised in a specific course. what is being learned depends on the type of education and the level of the students. education prepares students for the use of ict in education, future occupation and social life. 2. ict as an ‘assisting tool’. ict is used as a tool, for example while making assignments, collecting data and documentation, communicating and conducting research. typically, ict is used independently from the subject matter. 3. ict as a medium for teaching and learning. this refers to ict as a tool for teaching and learning itself, the medium through which teachers can teach and learners can learn. it appears in many different forms, such as drill and practice exercises, in simulations and educational networks. 4. ict as a tool for organisation and management in schools. when accessing the integration and adoption of ict4e especially for coes, none of these roles should be ignored, so a holistic view is presented. ghanaian colleges of education (coes) are the first place where ict education should begin since they are responsible for the training of teachers. though the coes are tertiary institutions in comparing them to other tertiary institutions, like universities and polytechnics, they are far behind in many things including ict infrastructure. improvement in this area is critically needed, which succinctly was stated by the forum for education reform (ffer). in order to 4 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) improve the quality of the 38 colleges of education in ghana, the ffer listed improving the facilities, updating the quality of instruction, infusing technology, and updating the teaching methods and models, amongst others (nyavor, 2013). though ict is a core subject at the coes, do they have the necessary resources especially infrastructure to teach the trainee teachers? making ict studies core in coes is a good thing, which is not always apparent in every country as alluded in jung (2005) who stated “across the europeans countries surveyed, teacher training in ict is rarely compulsory, meaning many teachers have to use their spare time to develop these skills.” but are our teacher-trainees well skilled to teach ict subjects? again is ict integrated into the overall training of the teacher-trainees in a manner that they use it effectively in either their internship or actual teaching position? answers to these questions and many others need to be ascertained in order for ghanaian society to be assured of our preparedness to participate fully and actively in the knowledge economy. statement of the problem ict plays an important role in today’s literacy and global development thus more and more emphasis is being placed on the education sector of nations to contribute efficiently in meeting global challenges by making our students ict literate and competent. the use of ict in teaching and learning is paramount for life in the twenty-first century and beyond. schools are the best place for ict education and/or training and for this to happen, the role of the teacher is key. this brings us to coes where professional teachers for the basic level of our educational system are trained. the problem for this study is: what is the extent of ict infrastructural provision and integration at ghana’s colleges of education? this article is our attempt in answering this big question. in order to do this, we divided the main question into sub-questions. specifically we will provide answers to the following questions:  what kind of ict infrastructure is in place at ghana’s coes?  how adequate is the ict infrastructure at these institutions to train the teacher trainees to teach ict courses at the basic schools in ghana?  at what stage of ict integration are these colleges in respect to anderson’s model? the introduction of ict studies at both basic and secondary levels of education in ghana by the ghana government in 2004 places a challenge on the colleges of education to adequately prepare our teacher-trainees to teach this subject everywhere they find themselves teaching. an inventory of the infrastructure and materials to teach this subject is necessary thus the study. from the literature review, we discovered that limited research was conducted on the ict infrastructure of ghana’s coes and how the ict tutors rate its integration. this study investigates the needs of using ict in teaching at coes in ghana from the perspective of ict tutors. since the ict tutors are both educators and technologists they are most qualified to assess the extent of ict integration at the coes and whether the teacher-trainees they have taught per the existing syllabus can teach ict at the basic schools. literature review it is established that access to ict infrastructure and tools is cyclically related to its use. it is cyclical in the sense that when management of tertiary institutions build ict infrastructure and provide ict tools for educational purposes both staff (tutors and administrators) and students john k. e. edumadze 5 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) will certainly make use it and this will require constant updating and therefore retraining. as these ict facilities are being used there will be the demand for its expansion and the cycle is perpetual. that is why brown & czerniewicz (2007) said “as access issues are resolved, use opens up more access issues: as use is explored, more and different kinds of access are needed…ad infinitum” (p. 731). the outcomes of the observation that ict infrastructure will be utilized are: first better access is mandatory to accommodate higher frequency in its use, i.e. those students with inadequate access to a range of resources make very infrequent use of icts for learning; while those with adequate or good access make frequent use. in addition, we see that the majority of students with high access also have a more varied use of icts for learning. no matter what the level of access 98% of students use icts for learning in some way (p. 743). according to becta (2003, p. 10), five factors influence the likelihood that good ict learning opportunities will develop in schools: ict resourcing, ict leadership, ict teaching, school leadership, and general teaching. it is worth noting that the first on the list of the five factors is ict resourcing, which must in place for the others to be utilized. pelgrum (2001) classified barriers to integration of ict into education into two kinds of conditions: material and non material. the material conditions may be the insufficient number of computers or copies of software or consistent access to electricity or internet. the non-material obstacles include teachers’ insufficient ict knowledge and skills, the difficulty of integrating ict in instruction, and insufficient teacher time. according to lee & im (2006), the extensive use of blended learning in korea is due to the prevalence of internet access and well-planned and wellsupported infrastructure (p. 281). anderson (2010) presented a model that represents the four stages of ict integration in schools: emerging, applying, infusing and transforming. this model is used use to measure the level of ict integration in education at all levels of an education system. the model is shown in figure 1 and the corresponding characteristics from which the respondents were asked to select the stage of ict integration their college has attained is shown in table 1. table 1 the characteristics of stages of adoption and use of ict in education stage characteristics emerging  focuses on learning basic ict skills and identifying ict components. 6 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) methodology this study was a pilot study to provide an overview of the nature of the ict infrastructure used to support teaching ict at the coes when one of the authors was appointed the chief examiner for basic education (bed) sandwich programme initiated by the institute of education, university of cape coast for the post diploma teachers. of the forty-one coes in ghana (38 public and 3 private), twelve were selected as study centres for the said programme, which was the population of interest. these twelve coes were selected and one ict tutor from each coe was randomly selected for the survey. due to the distance and dispersed locations of the coes from ucc, the respondents chose the form in which the questionnaire was distributed; paperbased or online-based. ten of the questionnaires were distributed in electronic form (via http://www.esurveyspro.com/) while five in paper form. findings and discussion in all 12 ict tutors from 12 different coes responded to the entire survey questionnaire. the findings focus on the following areas: ict competence and training, frequency of ict use and access of ict resources, ict use for teaching, administration, professional development and personal use; and the influence of ict on students’ learning. background data table 2: background data of colleges college name students' population students' gender number of ict instructors number of ict technicians number of pcs available for student  the emphasis is on learning to use a range of tools and applications, and becoming aware of the potential of ict in their future teaching.  teachers and learners become aware of ict tools, how they function, and how they are used. applying  the curriculum has been adapted in order to increase the use of ict in different subject areas, applying specific software tools in teaching. infusing  almost all classrooms are equipped with computers; as are school offices and the library, and schools have internet connections.  teachers are integrating ict in all aspects of their professional lives to improve their own learning as well as the learning of their students transforming  ict are fully integrated in all regular classroom learning activities  ict is used to rethink and renew institutional organization in creative ways  ict are a regular part of the daily life of the institution  ict become an integral, though invisible part of daily personal productivity and professional practice. (anderson, 2010) http://www.esurveyspro.com/ john k. e. edumadze 7 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) akrokerri coe 900 mixed 3 2 20 atebubu coe 500 mixed 2 0 40 brekum coe 900 mixed 3 0 40 enchi coe 510 mixed 2 0 25 foso coe 900 mixed 3 0 56 komenda coe 720 mixed 2 1 30 ola coe 850 female 3 1 85 st john boscos coe 840 mixed 4 0 45 st. joseph coe 820 mixed 2 0 40 st. louis coe 832 female 3 0 40 tamale coe 876 mixed 2 0 70 wiawso coe 720 mixed 2 1 20 table 2 provides background information on the participating coes. the student-tutor ratio ranged from 210:1 to 510: 1 for st john bosco and tamale respectively with an average of 318:1. this ratio alone has a negative impact in the teaching of a technical course like ict or computer studies. the ratio of students to instructional computers ranged from 10:1 to 45:1 for ola and akrokerri respectively with an average of 23:1. this is also on the high side as compare with that of 3:1 in public schools in usa (warschauer, 2010). this is a clear indication of digital divide. the high student-instructional computers ratio will affect hands-on training of the teacher-trainee that will eventually hamper his/her use of ict in teaching upon graduation. table 2 also shows that not all coe have employed full-time ict technicians to maintain the computers meant for students ict training. for those coe without ict technicians the indication is either the ict tutors have additional responsibilities of the maintenance of the computers or a private ict technician does the job whenever the need arises. in the former, ict tutors are over-burdened, which may result in reduced quality of supervision and research while in the latter case, repairing pcs by outsiders may delay practical session time since usually they respond late to repairs/maintenance due to late payment of previous work done. internet connectivity table 3: does your college have internet connectivity? from table 3, 10(87%), of the coes have internet connectivity, which is a good thing since no educational organization can do without internet. that is why it worrisome to observe that 2(13%) of coes do not have internet connectivity thus their stakeholders-tutors, administrators and teacher-trainees-are deprived of the rich resources of information on the internet. internet connectivity frequency percentage yes 10 87 no 2 13 total 12 100 8 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) table 4: bandwidth of internet connectivity from table 4, 5(40%) of the respondents have their questionnaire blank on this matter. comparing the amount being paid by the coes for stated bandwidth with the $18,000.00 that the university of cape coast is paying to vodafone ghana for our dedicated 45 mbps, these bandwidths are shared and not dedicated. shared bandwidth implies that users apart from the coes use the same bandwidth thus data transfer/speed may differ depending on the number. now that most students are using video streaming for educational purposes, coes subscription of shared bandwidth will make their internet to be unstable and slow. looking at the financial position of the coes, all the 41 coes in ghana cannot afford the amount being paid by university of cape coast for their 45 mbps dedicated. with garnet (ghana academic and research network) successful deal with mainonegh ltd to sell dedicated ds-3 and stm-1 for $7000.00 and $15,500.00 respectively, the coes should join garnet to enjoy the said deal. table 5: places with internet connectivity table 5 shows areas on campus where internet could access by both tutors and students. majority i.e. 7(60%) of the respondent said internet is accessible at the computer laboratory, where the computers stated in table 1 are mainly located. once the computer laboratory is locked both students and tutors cannot access the internet unless they have their own private modems. in 2(13%) of the colleges, st. louis and wiawso, internet is accessible in the classroom while another 2(13%) colleges, brekum and st john boscos, have internet connectivity anywhere on campus. lastly only brekum has accessibility in the staff common room. we could deduce from table 5 that internet connectivity is not widespread in the participating colleges. the use of web services table 6: does your college have a website? bandwidth frequency percentage unknown 5 40 52kbps 1 7 10mbps 2 13 50mbps 1 7 54mbps 2 13 100mbps 1 7 1024mbps 2 13 total 12 100 areas yes no total classroom 2(13%) 10(87%) 12(100%) computer lab 7(60%) 5(40%) 12(100%) staff offices 1(7%) 11(93%) 12(100%) students' hall 0 12(100%) 12(100%) anywhere on campus 2(13%) 10(87%) 12(100%) john k. e. edumadze 9 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) table 6 shows that 50% of the respondents said their colleges do not have websites. the colleges that have websites are atebubu college of education (www.atecoe.edu.gh), brekum college of education(www.betco.edu.gh), komenda college of education (www.kmenco.com), ola college of education (www.ola.edu.gh), tamale college of education (www.tatco.edu.com), and wiawso college of education (www.watico.edu.gh). tertiary institutions such coes ought to have websites to enhance communication with the world especially for current and prospective students. websites are one of the avenues provided for organisations in the twentyfirst century to share information with the world. pieces of information such as emails and phone numbers of schedule officers, staff research profiles, admission list, and others should be placed on the website. owning and operating websites is not easy especially considering the precarious financial position of the coes that depend solely on funding from the ghana government nevertheless it is a worthwhile venture. management of coes that cannot afford paid hosting should explore free hosting sites for a start such as google apps education. two of the coes, ola and st. joseph, also have wikipedia pages. majority (80%) do have email accounts though through free email service providers are most often used including yahoo (60%) and gmail (40%). out the 12 coes, 4(33%) reported that their institutions are on google map; these include brekum, ola, st. joseph, and st. louis college. learning management system (lms) also known, as virtual learning environment (vle) is a platform that tutors can upload their course materials, tutors-students/students-students interaction can take place using the discussion forum. finally, students can take online quizzes and upload assignments on this platform. on the issue of the use of lms to augment teaching and learning, it was found, unfortunately, that none of the coes surveyed have such platform. now that africa virtual university (avu) and its partner universities across africa are offering online degree in basic education via such platform, teacher-trainees should be introduced to this technology. once this is established, teacher-trainees will have the necessary exposure to enrol in the much flexible avu programmes if they so wished without any difficulties. with knowledge doubling every two years and the need for lifelong learning, coupled with the difficulty of teachers leaving the classroom for in-service training, sooner than later organisations like ghana education service (ges) will depend on lms as the platform for offering in-service training. ict practical skill training since a critical aspect of computer literacy is the ability to know how to use the computer practically to enhance the work of the end-user, table 7 then depicted the contact hours for teaching the practical component of the computer studies. in this table, 58% of respondents indicated their teacher-trainees use the computer for practical purpose occasionally, while 42% have a fixed period of three hours per week. since computer literacy is not knowing about the terminologies and concept only but also how to use the computer, it important that all coes response frequency percentage (%) yes no 6 6 50.0 50.0 total 12 100.0 http://www.atecoe.edu.gh/ http://www.betco.edu.gh/ http://www.kmenco.com/ http://www.ola.edu.gh/ http://www.tatco.edu.com/ http://www.watico.edu.gh/ 10 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) have a fixed period for hands-on training of window environment such microsoft windows and productivity software such as microsoft office. table 7 how often do your students have computer access for practical sessions? the use of ict in teaching and learning among the twenty-first century skills that both teachers and students acquire are collaboration, problem-solving, and creative thinking. thus learning environments should include activities that will enable students to have such skills and once this is accomplished, students are on their way to becoming effective citizens and members of the workforce. ict can be used to achieve these skills quickly, easily and cheaply. when respondents were asked whether ict is used to inculcate these skills into our teacher-trainees, 9 respondents (73%) said ict is not used at the coes for such skill training while the remaining 3(37%) said they had no idea. apart from the teaching of ict-related courses, most tutors at the coes do not use technology in teaching other courses. table 7 agrees to this assertion. table 8 courses and technology used in teaching courses technology pc projectors internet youtube computer studies-theory 10(87%) 2(20%) 2(20%) 2(20%) computer studies-practical 12(100%) 0 3(27%) 2(20%) other courses 3(27%) 1(7%) 1(7%) 0 table 8 depicts the various technologies used for teaching computer studies and other courses at the coes. the course computer studies introduces information and communication technology (ict) to the teacher-trainees. it is refreshing to know that 20% and 27% of the respondents use internet and especially youtube to enhance the teaching and learning of computer studies theory and practical respectively. the importance of youtube for providing videos teaching and learning cannot be over-emphasised. some people may find it difficult to comprehend how one can teach in this century without projectors but that is the reality on the ground even at the tertiary level such as a coe. only 20% of the respondents used projectors for teaching the theory of computer studies. the practical component of the computer studies, which is microsoft office or its equivalent, was encouraging in that all the respondents indicated the use of personal computers (pcs). on the question of using projectors to teach microsoft office, it is surprising to observe that none of the coes use the said tool. the result of this is that tutors have to spend a lot of time explaining whenever they teach difficult skills couple with the fact that they have to move from one student group to the other to supervise whether or not they are doing the right thing. finally, we can observe that technology is used in the teaching of other courses though not at all coes. though the use of technology in teaching varies from curriculum to responses frequency percentage (%) three hours in week 5 42 occasionally 7 58 total 12 100 john k. e. edumadze 11 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) curriculum, place to place, and class to class (becta, 2003), relatively less technology is used in teaching non ict-related courses as shown in table 8. in a digitalized world that recognizes that role of ict in learning, educational institutions should create situations that enable their students to have holistic experiences with ict in learning. ledesma (as cited in anderson, 2010, p. 21) stated that the ministry of education of new zealand identified three stages of ict in learning namely, learning about ict, learning with ict, and learning through ict. this full cycle exposure to ict for learning is important in a world controlled by ict as an indication that schools are reflecting the realities on the ground (anderson, 2010). this is so since the education sector lags behind home and others sectors of the human endeavour in the use of ict (kraus, 2010). when asked what stage of ict for learning the teacher-trainees have attained through the activities of the coes, all the respondents were of the opinion that their students are at the stage of learning about ict for either ict or non ict-related course at only the enrichment level of activities and not as part of everyday learning. stages of ict integration in education in order to ascertain the stage of ict integration at the coes as base on the characteristics specified in table 1, the respondents’ choice is shown in table 9. it can be observed that 92% of the respondents overwhelmingly said their college is at an emerging stage except ola that opted for applying stage. table 9 perceived stages of ict integration at the coes in looking at the existing ict infrastructure at the coes coupled with the characteristics of the four stages of ict integration in education listed in table 1, the coes are indeed at the emerging stage. the respondents were further asked to express their view on the scale of strongly agreed to strongly disagreed on the following statements:  st 1: ict has transformed the teaching practices in our college.  st 2: ict has been fully integrated into the curriculum across all subject areas in our college.  st 3: the curriculum of our college has been restructured with ict to meet the challenges of the digital world in order to realize our students’ full potential.  st 4: instructors in my college have the capability to use ict effectively in their teaching  st 5: it is critical for educational institutions to prepare students to work and live in the emerging digital world with ict skills. with a composite mean of 4.165, majority of the respondents 10(83%) 12(100%), and 11(91%) respectively did not agreed to the statements st1, st 2 and st 3 as shown in table 10. stage frequency percentage (%) emerging 11 92 applying 1 8 infusing 0 0 transforming 0 0 total 12 100 12 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) table 10 mean and standard deviation of perceived view of ict integration at the coes means were computed on a scale that range from 1 – 5 where 1= strongly agreed, 2 = agreed, 3= indifference, 4= disagreed and 5= strongly disagreed table 11 mean and standard deviation other ict integration issues in education table 11, shows the importance of preparing teacher-trainees with ict skills for teaching and whether their tutors are capable of teaching with ict themselves. on the issue of preparing teacher-trainees with the requisite ict skills for teaching in a digitalized world, majority of the respondents, 10(84%) were in agreement with statement 4 (st 4) as shown in table 11. finally, there was a split, 6(50%) in favour and 6(50%) against, on the issue of the tutors’ capability to teach with ict, statement 5 (st 5) as shown in table 11. there are many reasons for the stalemate, ranging from lack of training, motivation and ict equipment among others. table 12 awareness of the existence of national ict capacity standards for teachers response frequency percentage yes 5 40 no 7 60 total 12 100 as indicated in table 12, majority of the respondents (60%) were not aware of the existence of national ict capacity standards for teachers. the unesco published ict competency standards for teachers (policy framework, competency standards modules, and implementation guidelines) in 2008. it is time for ghana to develop one to measure ict competency standards for ghana’s teachers, tutors, and lecturers at all levels of the education system and fill the gaps with in-service training. there 10(84%) of respondents who viewed that ict competency standards should be included in the curriculum of the coes. conclusion this study aimed to determine the kind of ict infrastructure that exists in the colleges of education in ghana and find out the stage of ict integration at those colleges with respect to anderson’s model. finally, it sought to find out the adequacy of the ict infrastructure used to teach the teacher trainees. from the discourse in the preceding pages, the following observations were made: statements sa a i d sd mean st dev st 1 2(17%) 0 0 6(50%) 4(33%) 3.83 1.4 st 2 0 0 0 6(50%) 6(50%) 4.50 0.50 st 3 0 1(8%) 0 7(58%) 4(33%) 4.17 0.84 composite mean 4.165 statements sa a i d sd mean st dev st 4 4(34%) 6(50%) 0 0 2(17%) 2.17 1.4 st 5 2(17%) 4(33%) 0 5(42%) 1(8%) 2.75 1.36 john k. e. edumadze 13 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015)  there is inadequate ict infrastructure at the coes. this is poor in comparison to the other tertiary institutions in ghana such as the universities and polytechnics.  very low ratio of ict tutor to student with an average of 1:318  moderate student to pc ratio with an average of 23:1  most coes do not have ict technicians who are responsible for maintenance of the ict equipment  internet connectivity is slow and limited mainly to the computer laboratories  lack of adequate practical ict skill training for teacher-trainees  ict not fully integrate in the teaching of all curriculums at the coes  lack of the knowledge among tutors of the unesco’s ict competency standards for teachers and lack of the existence of it corresponding nation ict competency standards for teachers these conditions will ultimately result in low integration of ict in coes thus eventually impeding on technology integration at the basic schools in ghana since the graduate teachers may have little or no exposure to ict practical at the pre-service level. this is in line with albirini (2006). teacher-trainees have a significant role to play in the sustained application of ict in schools. therefore, it is imperative that they are exposed to effective use of ict in their training (steketee, 2006). by integrating ict as a learning resource during regular classes, tutors are exposing students to innovative ways of learning and in the case of the teacher-trainees also to innovative means of teaching with technology. teacher training programs need to effectively train their prospective teachers in using different ict materials for lessons and also to be able to direct and have learners effectively benefit from such materials (osborne & hennessy, 2003). in africa, ghana is not doing badly in terms of the availability of a well-developed ict infrastructure, but their educational sector is far behind the other sectors when it comes to ict infrastructure. in this respect, the government of ghana should team up with well meaning ngos and internet service providers (isps) to provide internet connectivity to the colleges of educations in ghana and other educational institutions. recommendations ict is considered an essential part of the twenty-first century culture and it’s infrastructure a fundamental element of infrastructure in a 21st century economy. thus integrating ict in teaching and learning should be priority that ought to occupy the highest echelon among the strategies for improving the education sector, since by automatic extension education should be twenty-first century one. in order to achieve this goal, ict infrastructure is unavoidable prerequisite. it is essential that ict infrastructure is in place to enable people to access knowledge and gain the skills to compete successfully in this economy (“welcome to glasgow”, 2013).the pervasiveness of ict infrastructure such as the internet presence helps people to become familiar with and take advantage of technology in education such as e-learning and blended learning (lee & im, 2006; p. 282). to accomplish this agenda in education, we discuss our recommendations in the ensuing paragraphs. the first step to effective use of ict in education is accessibility to the technology for all stakeholders in the industry for teaching, learning and administration. investment in the area of 14 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) infrastructure should be made at the coes in ghana. that is adequate ict laboratories should be provided, where the teacher-trainees are taught how to practically use the computer and its accompanying productivity applications. the one laptop per policy which ghana government is pursuing though laudable needs to be augmented with a supplementary policy of one laptop for the teacher/teacher-trainee. this is because once the teacher/teacher-trainee is confident in using the device in education learning, then teaching would the natural extension. lack of ownership of ict leads to lack of confidence in using ict that in turn is considered to be the contributing factor of lack of integrating ict into teaching and learning. though overcoming the lack of ict infrastructure does not, in itself, ensure ict will be used successfully in teaching (balanskat , blamire, & kefala, 2006) but it is a good start. other factors teacher motivation, confidence, competency, training and policy must also be considered. since ict sector is ever changing and expanding, the teacher’s knowledge and skills in ict must be constantly updated to stay abreast with current trends in ict integration in education. the 39 colleges of educations scattered all over the country should be well-equipped with ict and these facilities used for the professional development of teacher-trainees and teachers in both ict-content and ict-pedagogy. the coes should be treated as the nerve centre of the whole computerization programme in our education system. this is logical as the coes are the first place where ict education should begin since they are responsible for the training of teachers in the country. this is because society expects teacher-trainees to help pupils later in schools with their ict as part of their first formal learning in ict. there is the need for critical investment in the coes with the provision ict infrastructure-computers, internet among others, to aid the practical skill development of teacher trainees. unesco published ict competency standards for teachers (policy framework, competency standards modules, and implementation guidelines) in 2008 aimed at helping countries to develop their national teacher ict competency policies and standards. unfortunately, such national policy that indicates such an expectation of ict standards for each teacher at each level of our education currently does not exist. a conference of computer science lecturers and ict tutors at university and the coes respectively should be organized with the main agenda of developing of ict competency standard for teachers. tutors of the coes must be trained on new ways of teaching and learning in ict enriched education so that they in turn incorporate such knowledge and skill into the curriculum for our teacher-trainees who will ultimately teach our digital kids. this was highlighted succinctly by anderson (2010) who said “although ict offer the potential for new ways of learning, this potential is often limited because teachers do not modify their teaching approaches sufficiently” thus integrating ict into the curriculum of the coes is very important to preparation of the next generation of teachers. as ledesma (ibid) puts it, “new learning cultures need to be created to respond to the opportunities and challenges of the digital world”. john k. e. edumadze 15 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the digital world needs new learning and teaching culture, which in turns need digital medium that is built on strong ict infrastructure. references anderson, j. (2010). ict transforming education: a regional guide. bangkok, thailand: unesco, asia and pacific regional bureau for education. balanskat, a., blamire, r., & kefala, s. (2006). the ict impact report: a review of studies of ict impact on schools in europe. european schoolnet. retrieved from http://insight.eun.org becta-british educational communications and technology agency.(2003). primary schools – ict and standards. retrieved june 13, 2008, from http://www.becta.org.uk brown, c. & czerniewicz, l. (2007). if we build it will they come? investigating the relationship between students’ access to and use of icts for learning. south african journal of higher education, 21, 6, pp. 732-747. guttman, c. (2003). education in and for the information society. paris: unesco. jager, a.k. & lokman, a.h.(1999). impacts of ict in education.the role of the teacher and teacher training. retrieved on august 4, 2013 from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001201.htm jung, i. 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(2001). obstacles to the integration of ict in education: results from a worldwide educational assessment. computers & education, 37, pp. 163-178. taylor, j. (2013, april 22). european commission laments education sector's lack of ict skills. http://www.becta.org.uk/ http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001201.htm http://leekraus.blogspot.com/2010/06/home-vs-school-best-21st-century.html#comment-form http://leekraus.blogspot.com/2010/06/home-vs-school-best-21st-century.html#comment-form http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201307/110402.php 16 the integration of information and communication technology for teaching and learning _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) it pro. retrieved from http://www.itpro.co.uk/staffing/19662/european-commissionlaments-education-sectors-lack-ict-skills. warschauer, mark (2010), new reports on technology in us schools: the changing divide. retrieved from http://papyrusnews.com/2010/10/26/new-reports-on-technology-in-usschools-the-changing-divide/ welcome to glasgow. (2013). infrastructure continued 6.159 6.188. retrieved on august 4, 2013 from https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=6896 unesco. 2003. teacher training on ict use in education in asia and the pacific: overview from selected countries. bangkok, thailand: unesco. retrieved on august 4, 2013 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001329/132979e.pdf unesco. 2004. integrating icts into education: lessons learned. bangkok: unesco. retrieved on august 4, 2013 from http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ict/ebooks/ictlessonslearned/ict_in tegrating_education.pdf unesco. 2008. ict competency standards for teachers (policy framework, competency standards modules, implementation guidelines). paris, unesco. retrieved on august 4, 2013 from http://cst.unesco-ci.org/sites/projects/cst/ unesco. (2010). ict in education programme. bangkok, thailand: unesco http://www.itpro.co.uk/staffing/19662/european-commission-laments-education-sectors-lack-ict-skills http://www.itpro.co.uk/staffing/19662/european-commission-laments-education-sectors-lack-ict-skills http://papyrusnews.com/2010/10/26/new-reports-on-technology-in-us-schools-the-changing-divide/ http://papyrusnews.com/2010/10/26/new-reports-on-technology-in-us-schools-the-changing-divide/ https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=6896 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001329/132979e.pdf http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ict/ebooks/ictlessonslearned/ict_integrating_education.pdf http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ict/ebooks/ictlessonslearned/ict_integrating_education.pdf http://cst.unesco-ci.org/sites/projects/cst/ africa journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of sp read corp oration vol. 6 no. 1 2017 pages 56-64 the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among students in public universities in ghana. frank quansah department of education and psychology university of cape coast, ghana. frank.quansah1@stu.ucc.edu.gh abstract this study examines the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among univers it y students in ghana. an exploratory research design was employed in the study. university students’ (both undergraduate and post-graduate) research works were selected from three public universit ies in ghana. with the use of an inclusion criteria, purposive sampling technique was used to sample 100 research works conducted by students. the sampled research works were examined to evaluate how the students used cronbach alpha reliability estimate. it was revealed that 91% of the works properly satisfied the conditions for the use of cronbach alpha. however, 81% of the students calculated for the alpha for multiple constructs which suggests that alpha was treated as a measure of multidimensionality instead of internal consistency. it is recommended that applied courses in research and statistics should be mounted in the various public universities in ghana. w orkshops and seminars should also be organised for both students and lecturers on the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate. keywords: reliability, internal consistency, likert scale, unidimensionality, multidimensionality. introduction data, most often, collected in the social sciences, medicine, marketing as well as business, which are related to opinions, personalities, attitudes, emotions, and descriptions of events or people’s environment involve the utilisation of items on a likert scale (glien & glien, 2003). thus, as researchers attempt to quantify constructs which cannot be directly measured, summated ratings and multipleitem scales are usually employed to quantify the construct(s) of interest. the likert the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among students in public universities in ghana. 57 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 scale was invented by rensis likert (1931), who labelled this method for the measure of attitudes. in agreement to likert’s view, mciver and carmines (1981, p. 22-23) describes the likert scale as: a set of items, consisting of approximately an equal number of favorable and unfavorable statements relating to the attitude object, is given to a group of subjects. they are requested to respond to each statement in terms of their own degree of agreement or disagreement. particularly, they are required to select one of five responses: strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, or strongly disagree. the specific responses to the items are combined so that individuals with the most favorable attitudes will have the highest scores while individuals with the least favorable (or unfavorable) attitudes will have the lowest scores. while not all summated scales are created according to likert’s specific procedures, all such scales share the basic logic associated with likert scaling. the reliability of items on a likert scale is something that cannot be overlooked since every researcher deems it necessary to collect accurate and objective data in conducting research. there is, therefore, the need to estimate the reliability of the scale which is being used to measure the construct of interest. the reliability estimate for items on a likert scale is measured using the reliability method known as cronbach alpha. lee cronbach in 1951 developed the cronbach alpha to offer a measure of the internal consistency of a scale or test, expressed as a number between 0 and 1(cronbach, 1951) which is used for items whose responses are on a scale. internal consistenc y, according to tavakol and dennick (2011), is associated with the interrelatedness of a sample of items on a test. it is important to note that internal consistency is a necessary condition but not sufficient enough for the measure of homogeneity or unidimensionality in a sample of test items (cortina, 1933; green, lissitz, & mulaik, 1977). schmitt (1996) reported that presenting coefficient alpha as an index of reliability or the internal consistency of psychological construct has turned out to be routine practice in almost all social science and psychological research which makes use of the measurement of multipleitem of a construct. from miller’s (1995) view, the concept of reliability, basically, assumes that there is the existence of unidimensionality in a sample of test items and thus, a major underestimation of reliability is caused if this assumption is violated. studies have documented that a multidimensio na l test, essentially, does not have a lower alpha coefficient than a unidimensional test. therefore, a more detailed view of alpha is that it cannot basically, be construed as an index for the interna l consistency of a test (cortina, 1933; green, lissitz, & mulaik, 1977; green & thompson, 2005). frank quansah 58 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 in actual fact, cronbach (1951), categorically indicated that alpha is an underestimate of reliabilit y unless the inter-item correlation matrix is of unit rank (i.e., unidimensional). on another dimension, if a test consists of more than one construct, it may not make sense to present alpha for the whole test as the larger volume of items or questions will inevitably bloat the value of alpha. thus, alpha should, in principle, be estimated for each of the construct rather than for the whole scale (nunnally & bernstein, 1994; cohen & swerdlik, 1996). this is because alpha is not a measure of unidimensionality (cortina, 1933; green, lissitz, & mulaik, 1977) or multidimensionality (schmitt, 1996). again, alpha is affected by the number of items on an instrument. thus, few number of items (less than 10) would definitely yield a small alpha value and vice versa (nunnally & bernstein, 1994; streiner, 2003). more essentially, alpha is entrenched in the ‘tau equivalent model’ which operates on the assumption that each item on an instrument is a measure of the same latent trait on the same scale. hence, if multiple construct/factor underlie the items on a scale, this assumption is violated. this result is an underestimation of alpha as well as the reliability of the instrument (green & thompson, 2005). if the number of test items, on the other hand, is too small, the assumption of tau-equivalence will also be violated and this will result in an underestimation of reliability (graham, 2006). a number of studies have discussed the misconceptions, misuses and abuses of cronbach alpha method for the estimation of reliability (schmitt, 1996; tavakol and dennick, 2011; bademci, 2014; brown, 2002). while some scholars have examined the lapses in the use of alpha, others have compared the effectiveness of alpha to other methods of estimating reliability. all these literat ure together provide a comprehensive understanding of the use of cronbach alpha. however, no study has been conducted to examine how researchers (e.g. lecturers, students, employers, etc) use cronbach alpha reliability. this study, therefore, seeks to examine the use of alpha in research among university students in ghana. this study was conducted among university students because these students carry out research work which is supposed to give insight on pertinent issues to stakeholders across the various sectors of the economy. this means that the findings from the students’ research works conducted in tertiary institutions are quintessential to policy and practice in various specialisations. it is important for students to collect data free of errors in order to come up with reliable findings. thus, their knowledge on the use of this method of estimating reliabilit y, obviously, would determine the dependability of the students’ research findings. the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among students in public universities in ghana. 59 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 methodology the research design employed was exploratory design. the study covered three public universit ies in ghana: university of cape coast (ucc), kwame nkrumah university of science and technology (knust) and university of ghana (ug). the study made use of secondary data – project and thesis work of students. these were selected based on the following criteria: 1. research work which were conducted not more than the previous 5 years (i.e from 2010 to 2015). 2. studies which utilised questionnaire as the data collection instrument. 3. works which used cronbach alpha reliability method for estimating the reliability of the instrument. through purposive sampling, 100 research works of students (50 undergraduate project works and 50 post-graduate thesis/dissertation) were sampled from the three (3) universities. table 1 gives breakdown on the proportion of research works sampled. table 1: the proportion of research work sampled from each university *percentages in parenthesis each work was thoroughly examined to find out whether the responses of the construct of interest was on likert scale and whether the reliability estimate was calculated on single or mult ip le construct. the examination of the research work was done by six (6) post-graduate students of educational measurement and evaluation (mphil) of the university of cape coast. these students were given an orientation on the objective of the study as well as the mode of data collection. the examination of the sampled research works lasted for a month. all the collected data were collated for analysis. simple frequency count and percentages were used for the analysis. results the analysis was done to determine, in general, whether university students in ghana used cronbach alpha reliability estimate correctly in their research work. specifically, the study explored level ug knust ucc undergraduate 10(10)* 14(14) 26(26) post-graduate 12(12) 19(19) 19(19) total 22(22) 33(33) 45(45) frank quansah 60 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 whether the constructs of interest were measured on a scale or not and whether reliability estimate were calculated for single or multiple construct(s). figure 2 and table 2 present the details. figure 1: proportion of works which used likert scale, mixed scale and non-continuous scale items it was revealed that 91% of research works examined used questionnaire s with items or constructs being measured using likert scale (figure 1). about 7% of the students’ research work used a questionnaire which used a mixed scale in measuring construct(s). the mixed scale, in this context, refers to the situation where a construct is quantified using different scales. for instance, some of the studies conducted sought to find out the attitude of teachers in teaching laboratory work. while some of the items used in the measurement of attitude were measured on a five point likert scale, other items were also on dichotomous scale (yes or no), even though all these questions were measuring the same construct (i.e. attitude). even though 2% of the examined research works used cronbach alpha to estimate reliability, the construct of interest was not measured on a continuous scale. table 2, on the other hand, provides information on whether alpha estimate was calculated for single construct or multiple constructs. it was discovered that only 9% of the students estimated the reliability (alpha) for each single construct. moreover, 81% of the students combined mult ip le construct and estimated the reliability for the whole instrument. interestingly, 10% of the students calculated for the reliability estimate for each single construct and at the same time calculated for the alpha estimate for all the construct combined. 91% 7% 2% likert scale mixed scale non-continuous scale the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among students in public universities in ghana. 61 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 table 2: students use of alpha for estimating construct(s) estimate for construct(s) frequency percentage single construct 9 9.0 multiple construct combined 81 81.0 both single and combined multiple constructs 10 10.0 total 100 100.0 source: authors’ fieldwork (2017) discussion the current study sampled 100 thesis and project work of university students who employed cronbach alpha in estimating the reliability of research instrument used. the study revealed that the majority of students made the right decision as to when cronbach alpha is used per the scale the construct is being measured on. cronbach alpha reliability estimate is appropriately used when the items measuring a particular construct is measured on continuous scale (likert scale). with regards to the current study, 91% of the students rightly used the cronbach alpha for items which were measured on a likert scale. however, some of the students used the cronbach alpha to estimate the reliability of items which are measured on dichotomous responses and non-continuo us scale. this was evident as 9% of research works examined, treated the cronbach alpha as if it is used for estimating the reliability of items measured on dichotomous responses. this suggests that some university students do not know the condition to satisfy in the use of cronbach alpha for estimating the reliability of a construct even though most of them were aware of such condition. surprisingly, the study also revealed that only 9% used cronbach alpha to estimate the reliability of each single construct of interest. this was a step in the right direction as it may not make sense to present alpha for the whole test as the larger volume of items or questions will inevitable bloat the value of alpha (nunnally & bernstein, 1994). cohen and swerdlik (1996) added that alpha should be estimated for each of the construct rather than for the whole scale. about 91% of the students, however, treated cronbach alpha as a measure of multidimensionality. this indicates that university students have little knowledge with regards to what exactly cronbach alpha does. it is important to note that alpha is not even a measure of unidimensionality let alone a measure of multidimensionality (cortina, 1933; green, lissitz, & mulaik, 1977). according to green and thompson (2006), if multiple construct/factor underlie the items on a scale, it will result frank quansah 62 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 in an underestimation of alpha as well as the reliability of the instrument. it is therefore essential to use cronbach alpha for estimating the reliability of a single construct at a time. conclusion and recommendations the findings from my research show that students are aware of the condition to satisfy before cronbach alpha estimate should be used. however, most of the students treated alpha as a measure of multidimensionality, a clear demonstration that alpha was not being properly used. this has implications for the kind of conclusions that would be drawn from the data collected using these instruments. the most significant one is equally obvious: once a number of constructs are combined, the items also increase, thereby inflating the value of alpha. thus, the value of alpha will not reflect the actual reliability of the scales being used. this inappropriate use of cronbach alpha estimate by these students is likely to stem from how statistics course is taught at the univers it y level. it appears like the general statistics course taken across ghana’s public universities largely focuses on theoretical understanding. thus, students are not given the chance to practically apply these statistics concepts. this might also be as a result of the fact that statistics, as a course, is taught independently from research method course. hence, students lack the experience of correctly applying their knowledge in statistics in the research context. in many cases, these university students think all items on a questionnaire measure a specific construct of interest at a time, forgetting that a questionnaire can be made up of a number of different scales for measuring different constructs. the consequence of this belief is the likelihood that students would treat alpha as a measure of multidimensionality. that a majority of the sampled research works examined in this study have a sub-topic captioned “reliability of the instrume nt ” demonstrates this. this seems to have misled the students to think that reliability estimate is for the whole questionnaire rather than for only the constructs on the questionnaire. such cases increase the likelihood that students would treat a number of scales measuring different constructs as one. the inability of these ghanaian university students to properly use cronbach alpha reliability estimate in the research context seems to be due largely to how cronbach alpha is being taught as their works demonstrate a lack of in-depth knowledge of its use. however, my examination of students’ research works does not provide the exact and precise indication of the knowledge students have on the use cronbach alpha. it is essential that further studies be conducted to examine quality of the knowledge of university students in the use of cronbach alpha reliabilit y estimate. it is recommended that more applied courses in research and statistics be mounted across public universities in ghana and that workshops and seminars be organised for students on the use the use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among students in public universities in ghana. 63 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 of cronbach alpha reliability estimate. lecturers, irrespective of their area of specialisation, should also be trained in research and statistics through conferences, workshops and seminars. this is because the research works examined in this study were approved and signed off by supervisors, who are lecturers. it is obvious that some of the lecturers would benefit from having a more comprehensive understanding of the use 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(2006). congeneric and (essentially) tau-equivalent estimates of score reliability: what they are and how to use them. educational psychological measurement, 66, 930-944. green, s, & thompson, m. (2005). structural equation modeling in clinical psychology research in: roberts, m., & ilardi, s. (eds). handbook of research in clinical psychology. oxford: wiley-blackwell. green, s., lissitz, r., & mulaik, s. (1977). limitations of coefficient alpha as an index of test unidimensionlity. educational psychological measurement, 37, 827-38. frank quansah 64 ajote vol. 6 no. 1 (2017), 56-64 likert, r. (1931). a technique for the measurement of attitudes: archives of psychology. new york: columbia university press. mciver, j. p., & carmines, e. g. (1981). unidimensional scaling. thousand oaks, ca: sage. miller, m. (1995). coefficient alpha: a basic introduction from the perspectives of classical test theory and structural equation modeling. structural equation modeling, 2, 255-73. nunnally, j. c., & bernstein, i. h. (1994). psychometric theory (3rd ed.). new york: mcgrawhill. schmitt, n. (1996). uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. psychological assessment, 8, 350-353. streiner, d. (2003). starting at the beginning: an introduction to coefficient alpha and interna l consistency. journal of personality assessment, 80, 99-103. tavakol, m., & dennick, r. (2011). making sense of cronbach alpha. international journal of medical education, 2, 53-55 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 299-320 east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. philipo lonati sanga school of education, university of dar es salaam email: philipolonati@gmail.com abstract globally, universities are engaged in various aspects of reforms to improve their outlook and relevance. in east africa, despite the similarities in many dimensions of socio-economic conditions, universities vary in terms of focus and extent of engagement in educational reforms. in order to examine this phenomenon more closely, three purposely-selected east african public universities were studied. analysis of related documents as complemented by responses from key officials of these institutions revealed several findings: the university of dar es salaam’s reforms seemed to conform more to characteristics of competitiveness-driven reforms, the university of nairobi exhibits equitydriven reform, and makerere university practises finance-driven reforms. furthermore, the findings register limitations of effective institutional reforms such as massification of higher education, infringement of university autonomy, emerging technologies, paradox of internationalization, and the incapacity to cater to holistic students’ welfare. the study concluded that, despite the myriad of limitations that the universities face, they have numerous opportunities which if efficiently utilized will enable them run the higher education race more triumphantly. the paper recommends that strategies for reforms should not derail the universities from their mandate to serve their respective countries. keywords: challenges of reforms, east african higher education, institutional reforms. introduction literature and anecdotal evidence support that globalisation has affected many aspects of our life, one of those being education (commonwealth of learning [col] (2019). for instance, aarts and greijn (2010), kinyanjui (2007) and goujon, haller and kmet (2017) highlight that globalisation is changing the ways that knowledge and skills are produced, disseminated and utilized. agreement on what the term globalisation actually refers to or when in fact the http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/view/iiasa/110.html http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/view/iiasa/110.html philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 300 world entered a global age has been difficult (collins & rhoads, 2008). moreover, knowledge is increasingly becoming a commodity that moves between countries. the rapidly increasing demand for higher education, in turn, surpasses the capacity of many countries to provide it locally. likewise, universities in east africa have been directly influenced by the irresistible wave of globalisation. since the last decade, east africa has witnessed reforms taking place in curriculum and general ways of doing things in many of its universities for the sake of improving their outlook. although institutional reforms may be taking place at a remarkable magnitude in africa generally, little has been published on the extent to which african universities are globally competitive. teferra & greijn (2010) argue that, although the systems of higher education in africa are the most marginalised in the world, there is ample evidence that they may be among the most active in reform processes in terms of form, dimension, and scope. obscurity of its actual situation is partly attributed to historical, socio-political, economic, and paradigmatic factors. thus, as marshall (2013) observes, besides wanting to widen their cultural and intellectual horizon or find knowledge and skills to give them a competitive advantage in the job market, african students typically leave their countries because the universities there have insufficient resources or do not offer the required education. this raises the question of what ‘required’ education in the african context entails. can a country provide education that is contextually ‘required’ in another country? most of the initiatives and reforms being made by institutions of higher education in east africa and africa at large apply the dna theory of fostering local knowledge. cheng (2003, p.12) explains that this theory underlines the need to identify and transplant “the better key elements from the global knowledge to replace the existing weaker local components in the local developments.” it means that fostering local knowledge is mainly a process to replace the invalid local knowledge with the relevant global knowledge through globalised education. this idea seems to concur with nyerere’s ideas, that: it is necessary that we should be clear in our own mind about the function of university in the modern world….only when we have done this can we avoid the twin dangers, on the one hand, of considering our university in the light of some mythical ‘international standards’, or, on the other hand of forcing our university to look inwards and isolate itself from the world in which we live east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 301 (nyerere, 1970). various literature indicates that tanzania, uganda and kenya are regularly among the top twelve african countries sending students abroad for university education (kishun, 2006; goujon, haller & kmet, 2017). other countries of origin of the greatest numbers of africans studying abroad are morocco, nigeria, algeria, zimbabwe, cameroon, tunisia, senegal, egypt and botswana. on the other hand, the top ten destinations of african students for university studies abroad are usually france, usa, south africa, united kingdom, germany, portugal, australia, morocco, canada and india. the list for top african countries sending students abroad and that of top destinations of african students for university studies abroad tend to change with time. an interesting phenomenon, however, is that even african countries are found in the list of top destinations for university studies abroad: south africa, morocco and sometimes angola. it is logical to argue by reference to these few african destinations that african countries can somehow reverse the interests of their students who desire to study abroad. universities are reforming and consolidating aspects like teaching, research and innovation, information and communication technology application, funding, and scholarship to ensure that they produce competitive graduates who are well equipped to tap global knowledge resources and apply their education to support local and regional development (nyaigotti-chacha, 2004; sørensen, 2009; teferra & greijn, 2010). the purpose the purpose of this paper is to trace the implementation of institutional reforms in east african universities in the era of globalisation. towards this end, the specific objectives are to: 1. trace the context of east african public universities reforms, 2. examine the priority activities undertaken for institutional reform, and 3. analyse the limitations that these universities face in their pursuit to reform in this era. methodology this paper draws conclusions dominantly from analysis of documents belonging to the three oldest public universities in east africa: the university of dar es salaam (tanzania), makerere university (uganda) and the university of nairobi (kenya). these three are not http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/view/iiasa/110.html http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/view/iiasa/110.html philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 302 necessarily representative of all public universities in east africa but they possess many common characteristics and a shared history which render them key icons of higher education in the region. up until data collection for this study began, these three universities were the oldest, largest, and most reputable public universities in their respective countries. information about the background and priority activities of the institutions was chiefly obtained from the documentary analysis of the institutions’ comprehensive strategic plans. institutions’ websites supplemented the data needed for this study. further, a detailed structured questionnaire was administered to three staff in charge of institutional policy and planning for each of the three institutions. information obtained from these nine questionnaires served the purpose of giving data for the three objectives of this study, especially the third one. equally important, questionnaire responses helped to validate certain documentary information. data obtained from all sources were sorted into four themes: context of institutional reforms, priority activities for institutional reforms, limitations of institutional reforms and other the background of universities in east africa which was deemed useful to set the tone of the findings background of universities in east africa the history of higher education in east africa can be traced back to 1922 when uganda technical school, later renamed uganda technical college, was established. in 1937, the college expanded into an institution of higher education before it became a university college of the university of london in 1949 (makerere university, 2010). afterwards, it became a college for the whole of east africa, offering courses which led to awards and distinctions. until the early 1950s, it was the only college providing university education in east africa. in 1956 the royal technical college was established in nairobi, kenya. then, in 1963, the royal technical college became the university college, nairobi following the establishment of the university of east africa with three constituent colleges in nairobi, dar es salaam, and kampala (nyaigotti-chacha, 2004). in tanzania, up until the time of independence from british colonialism in 1961, there were no universities available locally. africanising the workforce became the main challenge of nationalistic leadership, hence the establishment of the university college dar es salaam as a college of the university of london with fourteen students. it became a constituent college of the university of east africa in 1963 (university of dar es salaam [udsm], 2011). the university of east africa east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 303 offered programmes and degrees from the university of london until 1966. the dissolution of the university of east africa in 1970 led to the creation of the three first autonomous public universities of dar es salaam (udsm), makerere, and nairobi in tanzania, uganda, and kenya, respectively (udsm, 2011). east african countries are increasingly becoming cognisant of the principle that the capacity to assimilate knowledge, especially that knowledge attainable from higher education, is a key factor in any nation’s struggle for socio-economic development. the manifest expansion of the higher education sector seems to be inexorable in all these countries. figures 1-2 show the undergraduate (ug) and postgraduate/graduate (pg) students’ enrolment for the academic years whose data are available for udsm and makerere university. reliable data for the university of nairobi was not available from the accessible documents. figure 1: udsm undergraduate and postgraduate enrolment trend 2011/12-2016/17 source: udsm facts and figures 2016/17 philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 304 figure 2: makerere university undergraduate and postgraduate enrolment trend 2002/032009/10 the context of university reforms in east africa chinnamai (2005) and col (2019) posit that the globalisation of higher education is linked to both internal and external forces. chan (2004) and haigh (2008) outline economic, academic, and socio-cultural drives to this phenomenon. while it is apparent there are diverse forces behind the globalisation of higher education, de wit (2002) perceives that different institutions, stakeholders, and groups of individuals do not have a single exclusive reason for that trend. major reforms at the university of dar es salaam (udsm) came at the same time as reforms in tanzania's banking and financial sectors which had been mandated by the international monetary fund (imf) (nyerere, 1995). luhanga, cited in bollag (2004), reveals that some people wrongly perceived that udsm's reforms had also been mandated by the imf. the 1980s global economic crisis left the university of dar es salaam with diminished government funding. factors, which included low salaries of academics in the engineering discipline compared to their counterparts employed in other sectors saw this faculty losing the most academic staff. responding to this challenge, the faculty of engineering pioneered a series of reforms whose first step was to establish a bureau for industrial cooperation east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 305 (bico) to promote consulting work and allow faculty members and their departments to earn extra income. it was later thought necessary to replicate this model within the entire university. the first draft of this institutional strategic plan was presented in 1992 to a meeting of the university community and foreign donor organisations. this yielded a final publication of the corporate strategic plan (csp) in 1994 which has been the basic guide for the university's transformation. the plan plainly states that the university's mission must adapt to meet the profound changes taking place within the country. however, faced with a collapsing economy and pressure from global lending organisations, the government opened up the economy to private ownership and foreign investment. therefore, the changing labour market required the university curricula to produce graduates with skills different from those traditionally offered. in response to the observed constraints and considering the current and new national and global developments, the university reviewed the csp in 2003 to cover the period between 2004-2014. the main focus areas of csp 2004-2014 are to ensure capacity development, quality assurance, and outreach activities by closely reflecting upon the university’s vision, mission, and its core functions (udsm, 2011). the genesis of udsm’s reforms can be considered to be an example of a top-down revolution (luhanga, 2003). the reforms of the university of nairobi were very much influenced by the public university inspection board’s report which prompted all universities in kenya to undergo a transformation to be compatible with the developmental and entrepreneurial qualities of the 21st century and address many issues including the increasing demand for access and equity. the paradigm shift involved a transformation of higher education for combating national problems and tackling global challenges. it is with this understanding that the university of nairobi had to review the strategic plan of 2005-2010 and recast it to 2013 (university of nairobi strategic plan, 2008-2013). the university was therefore obliged to plan a new strategic direction while at the same time being increasingly aware of the importance of its position in a global community. the institutional transformation of makerere university is referred to as “a quiet revolution” by some authors (makerere university, 2000, p. ii). makerere university’s institutional reform was essentially an implementation of alterative financial strategies as a response to the government’s reduced commitment in financing higher education (kwesiga & ahikire, 2006). the university had to envision being market-oriented and one means to this philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 306 path was the introduction of the private sponsorship programme in 1992 which significantly stretched the intake of fee-paying students. about seven years later, makerere had leaped from its none fees paying position to one where 80% of students paid fees, accounting for more than 50% of the university’s total revenue. emphasis on a private sponsorship programme notwithstanding, enrolment at makerere university has been burgeoning yearly. currently, the university is profoundly dominated by privately sponsored students. due to a public outcry that massive enrolment numbers are harmful to the quality of education, the uganda national council for higher education (nche) resorted to implementing student admissions ceilings for all programmes and to all universities within the country (makerere university, 2010). analysis of these institutions’ background for educational reforms suggests that their decisions to undertake institutional reforms were driven by different motives. carnoy (1999) proposes three categories of reforms. the university of dar es salaam’s reforms conform more to characteristics of competitiveness-driven reforms. these reforms focus on improving productivity, the quality of the “human factor” (organisation for economic co-operation and development, in carnoy, 1999, p. 37), and of the institution. strategies to achieve competitiveness include decentralisation, quality assurance, improved management of institutional resources, and development of academic staff recruitment and training. the university of nairobi experienced equity-driven reforms whose philosophy is to increase equality through increasing accessibility to education. ostensibly, makerere university’s interpretation of globalisation is increasing competition among institutions and nations in a more knotted, international economy, hence finance-driven reforms. priority activities for institutional reforms the strategic choices to address the implications of globalisation appear to differ somehow in terms of scale of preference among these east african universities. hereunder is the summary for the main priority activities which are strategically implemented by each university. east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 307 table 1. top priority activities for reforms university of dar es salaam university of nairobi makerere university ▪ curricular reforms to encourage entrepreneurship skills. thus, putting more emphasis on teaching students business and financial skills, ▪ optimising the use of all the institution's resources through further expansion of student enrolment to optimise the formerly overstaffed university and widening access to university education, ▪ upgrading advanced information and communication technology (ict) infrastructure and enhancing information systems, ▪ increasing academic support through converting traditional teaching/ learning materials into electronic format, enhancing instructional technology resources (software & hardware), and promoting e-learning initiatives, and ▪ general staff development to improve the quality of education. (source: university of dar es salaam revised corporate strategic plan, 2004-2014) ▪ promoting innovative, diversified modes of delivery (technology & distance education), ▪ creating and enabling environment and policy framework that promotes research, development, and other value adding services, ▪ developing effective leadership systems: visionary, innovative leadership & management that is visible, open and transparent, and attracts and maintains highly qualified staff, ▪ strengthening the existing partnerships and linkages and developing new ones, locally and internationally, and ▪ increasing internally generated revenue, instilling fiscal discipline in all operations, and maintaining a balanced budget. (source: university of nairobi strategic plan 2008-2013) ▪ diversifying income generation sources, ▪ investing in e-learning systems, ▪ engaging in international partnerships and distance education, ▪ boosting quality assurance in order to become internationally competitive, and ▪ expanding capacity in medical, technology, and science education. (source: makerere university strategic plan 2008/09 – 2018/2019) the activities and strategies adopted by these universities seem to directly reflect the aspects of reforms which are principally emphasized by each university. for example, it has been realized that the university of dar es salaam’s competitiveness-driven reforms focus most on transforming the curriculum, above all, to prepare students with entrepreneurial knowledge and skills and on upgrading ict infrastructure. in this way, students are prepared to be globally competitive not only academically but also socially and technologically. the philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 308 university of nairobi’s equity-driven reforms focus chiefly on implementing innovative academic curriculum but with a special emphasis on fostering a flourishing environment for research. makerere university’s concentration is on income generation and expanding horizons for international partnership. finance-driven reforms have made it possible for makerere university to be an exemplary model in attracting privately-sponsored students, through which about 50 per cent of the university’s revenue is generated. differences in priority strategies for globalisation may not necessarily be a fundamental reason for variation in the speed and nature of reforms among these institutions, but rather, may be a result of the firmness and consistency the institution employs to implement its priority strategies. some limiting factors there are many limitations that universities in east africa face as they struggle in implementing reforms within the era of globalisation. these limitations mitigate the institutions’ commitment to maximising their potential in realising their missions and goals. while these universities certainly face many challenges, this study unveiled the following to be the primary hurdles. massification of higher education in regard to east african universities, unesco’s basic education for all movement (jomtien, 1990) appears to have induced a higher education for all fallacy. in this paper, massification refers to the increase in student enrolment in higher education institutions. this phenomenon directly induces a sharp increase in the number of institutions, as well as fundamentally different types of institutions, as the diverse needs of students become “reflected in the programmatic and institutional structures of the system” (gumport, 1997, p.2). most of these universities, especially private ones in tanzania, kenya, and uganda, have mushroomed within the last decade. while the use of national enrolment ratios or participation rates may be appropriate to define massification of higher education in heavily industrialised countries, this may not necessarily be the case for less industrialised countries, like those sampled in this study. these countries have a very low higher education enrolment to population ratio but they have experienced a very rapid increase in actual numbers of students enrolled in higher education within the last decade. east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 309 accommodating large numbers of students wishing to access higher education in east african countries became an imperative, the reason these three universities are critically overcrowded just like other public universities in the region. poor planning coupled with a meagre supply of resources tend to exacerbate the problem of overcrowding. in kenya, the admissions crisis had existed for decades and caused a backlog that had forced students accepted to the university to wait for two years before they could be admitted for studies. recently, the government of kenya called for an end to the long wait through a double intake plan, such as through admitting over 8,000 more students in 2011 than in the previous year (ndanyi, 2011). undesirable effects of massification notwithstanding, there are desirable effects too. for instance, by and large, massification is a good vehicle for widening access to higher education because one of the greatest needs of these countries is highly skilled and resourceful human capital to push forward the national development agendas. the belief is that quantity yields quality in the long run. furthermore, establishing and nurturing a truly competitive university calls for a direct involvement of national governments through practical policy intervention and financing. although there are certainly many paths towards this goal, a choice may be required to be made from at least three pre-conditions as put otherwise by liu, wang and cheng (2011). firstly, consider upgrading a small number of existing universities that have the potential for outshining others. secondly, encourage a number of existing institutions to synergise. thirdly, create new competitive universities from scratch. each option has strengths and weaknesses which must be weighed accordingly before decisions to opt for it are made. infringement of university autonomy this study revealed that these three universities share a common cry for autonomy and academic freedom. omari (1991) describes university autonomy as the extent of the proximity of the state to the university. university autonomy can be referred to as the freedom given to universities and manifested in processes such as governing themselves, appointing key staffs, determining the conditions of service of their staff, controlling their students, admissions, and academic curricula, controlling their finances and generally regulating themselves as independent legal entities without unnecessary interference from the government and its organisations. further, mazrui, cited in omari (1991), decries the philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 310 proximity between the universities and the national structure of power which in africa has tended to curtail academic freedom and consequently intellectual expansion among students and staff. for example, there have been reported cases of either direct or indirect government encroachment on university recruitment and contract renewal of retiring dons (university of dar es salaam); university budget and spending (makerere university); and curriculum and timetables (university of nairobi) as it can be reflected from the excerpt below: from now on, the university of nairobi will be answerable to the government and to the ruling party. . . . i do not want to hear any more demands for such a thing as academic freedom. who will give you academic freedom? who pays your salary? even at cambridge, there is no such thing as academic freedom. because the government pays it, they do what the government wants. what are you going to do with this academic freedom that you people of the university of nairobi are calling for? (former president of kenya, moi, cited in chege, 2006). in the view of this paper, education, and especially higher education is a political enterprise. it is neither feasible nor justifiable that any sensible government does not take part in its universities’ affairs. accordingly, government intervention is absolutely justifiable but should be skilfully undertaken. rather than the involvement of the government per se, what requires cautiousness is the extent and manner of the interferences. also, while university autonomy is a necessity for achieving excellence, it is not a sufficient condition. limitation to autonomy in terms of accountability to the state and other stakeholders is indispensable to ensure these universities’ good governance. it is compelling to realise, however, that the debate around accountability of african states and their higher education systems is much linked to the debate around financial resources and how the resources are allocated since the national governments provide the major funding for public universities (maduekwe, 2015). accountability may therefore be viewed as a governance principle to steer universities to be responsive to governmental mandates and policies in the african context. this is evident in the tanzanian situation where public universities are expected to be responsive to the higher education reform initiatives east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 311 that emanate from the state (see for example, the access, quality, funding, and community service as stipulated by the mkukuta policy document) the challenge regarding autonomy for the university has always been in terms of how to position itself amongst the three strong categories of forces: professional/ academic oligarchy, government/state authority, and market forces as portrayed by clark’s triangle (see figure 3). again, tudiver (1999) warns: universities driven by market priorities provide a limited contribution to democratic processes. they cannot foster the kind of debate and social criticism that thrives in an independent academy (readings, 1996). the university is supposed to be a forum for open debate from all perspectives (p. 189). figure 3: clark’s triangle for forces affecting university autonomy limitations related to emerging technologies advanced information and communication technologies (icts) hardware and software are yet to be effectively exploited by these universities. for instance, computing facilities (computers, printers, photocopiers and scanners) in students' public access rooms and places are inadequate. although these institutions are better internet-connected compared to most public and private universities in their respective countries, their reliability is low and access to them daunting. in most cases, the campus buildings have a low capacity for these technologies, they equipped with an obsolete backbone network infrastructure and poor or unstructured local area network (lan). similarly, wireless local area networks philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 312 (wlan), which is one among the many appropriate options for generating better technologies at these institutions, is seldom put to use. the national networked readiness indexes (nri) equally influence these institutions’ extent of access to icts. literature indicates that kenya is ahead of tanzania and uganda in terms of access to icts (bon, 2010). advanced icts are imperative for universities to discharge their functions more competitively in this digital era. although one could expect all university classrooms and learning venues to be at least internet connected, the situation is such that very few classrooms are outfitted with such technologies; even in these most prestigious universities in the region. as such, common synchronous technologies like videoconferencing and web conferencing on one hand, and asynchronous technologies like discussion forums, google, and wiki searching on the other hand, are rarely promoted within the classroom setting. in spite of the clear opportunities related to icts that these universities have, there is still a lack of real awareness about the benefits of icts as a result of biased mindsets, an unwillingness to face the technological changes occurring in universities, and a lack of a clear perception as to how ict resources can be sustainably managed. the paradox of internationalisation while all these east african universities would confidently declare to be effectively implementing internationalisation strategies, this study revealed that in most cases there is actually more localisation and slightly regionalisation than authentic internationalisation. for instance, regarding enrolment of international students, makerere university fact book (2011) documented that makerere university admitted 1,135 foreign students in 2010/11 (3.4% of total enrolment) out of which 1,023 (90%) came from kenya and 88 students (7.8%) from tanzania. only 3 students enrolled at makerere in 2010/2011 were non-african nationalities. the average percentage of international students being admitted at the university of dar es salaam for the period 2005-2010 was 3.5%, of which, similarly, was comprised mostly of students who hailed from east african countries. it can be argued that these ‘international’ students are not international in a strict sense, but rather ‘local’ and/or ‘regional’ students. east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 313 literature, however, suggests that this may be the trend of many institutions worldwide. for example, reviews of studies for two asian national (public) universities which are regularly within the top 50 world universities corroborate this finding. out of 28,017 students enrolled at the university of tokyo in japan in 2011 2,540 (9.1%) were international students (the university of tokyo, 2011). among these international students, 1,678 (66.1%) were from nearby china and korea. analysed otherwise, 2,443 international students (96.2%) out of the total 2,540 international students at tokyo university came from other asian countries. similarly, out the total enrolment of 28,018 students in 2011 at snu, a mere 2,486 students (8.9%) were international students (seoul national university, 2011). it is thus most likely that in many universities globally, ‘international’ students are actually ‘regional’ students from the closest neighbouring countries regardless of the way the institution may try to express its outlook. there is a potential for synergy between internationalisation and regionalisation of higher education but one can just as well limit the success of the other depending on their focus. in these universities, internationalisation has mainly involved new forms of providing higher education to students—sometimes without the relevant curriculum to suit local needs. concurrently, regional approaches in the context of broader pan-africanism on the implications of internationalisation on the continent are being implemented. as such, internationalisation in these universities poses numerous questions in relation to the extent and intensity of their capability to address local and regional access, equity, research, and development agendas. there is, yet one issue seemingly unresolved; institutions, including universities are usually encouraged to both cooperate and compete with one another. nevertheless, in commercial spheres, there is a paradox of cooperation and competition. how can the two exist concurrently? unless the institutional leadership is flexible and prudent enough, balancing cooperation and competition becomes a truly tricky undertaking. incapacity to cater for holistic students’ welfare governments’ reduced capacity for funding of higher education programmes has rendered universities paralytic in providing some necessary requirements for students’ conducive life at universities. as such universities are sometimes confronted with recurring students’ uproars and strikes. in 2011 alone both makerere and dar es salaam universities experienced their students going on strike at various times. recently, nairobi university was involved in philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 314 their academic staffs’ strike in 2011 and 2018 and their student strike in 2010. the persistent student strikes are, by and large, one key symbol of student welfare anomalies. every time students go on strike, they express to the respective authorities their desire for ultimate solutions. normally, going on strike is said to be the last resort after having used all other traditional bureaucracies to express their demands. despite the costs in terms of time, destruction and loss of property, injuries and even deaths of innocent individuals, ample evidence confirms that these strikes have ended with authorities’ positive responses to the students’ demands. student strikes are repeatedly associated with rising tuition fees, lack or poor practical training, biased students’ loans board procedures, poor housing and sanitation facilities and dissatisfaction with general learning conditions on campus. although student welfare is a critical component of any university planning, it is often overlooked in some university planning agendas. some educators and administrators tend to deliberately bypass issues directly related to student welfare. for instance, recommendations such as: “the admission of students to state universities should be de-linked from bed spaces but be linked to availability of academic and tuition facilities,” as summarized by kinyanjui (2007), must be criticised right away. accommodation problems are among the key sources of student frustrations, thus, leaving the task of hunting for accommodation for students themselves is in no way justifiable. this is seriously risky, particularly when one considers the complexities and exorbitant cost of accommodations near these typically urban universities. most importantly, the majority of private housing facilities and transportation to and from the campus are of very poor quality and are unsafe. to promote universities which can effectively compete in this era of globalisation, institutional and national policy makers have to consider students as major partners and responsible stakeholders in the process of policy making. some opportunities available for east african universities despite the myriad of limitations that these universities face, they have abundant opportunities which if efficiently utilized would enable them to achieve better results. the opportunities are such as: east african higher education and the limitations of institutional reforms: a case study of selected public universities. ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 315 i. growing recognition of the role of higher education in the national development. national governments in east africa are rapidly acknowledging the critical contribution of higher education to socio-economic development plans. ii. institutional internationalisation strategies. the increasing admission of foreign students, academic staff collaboration in research and numerous international conferences foster cross-fertilisation of ideas. iii. strategies and innovative use of ict and access to fast broadband internet. innovative use of icts boosts international research activities and improves the local publishing infrastructure. iv. stable collaboration with global development partners. these universities enjoy longterm stable partnership and strategic development assistance from many reliable global partners such as the africa institute for capacity development (aicad), lake victoria basin research initiative, the norwegian agency for development cooperation (norad), swedish sida/sarec, and the carnegie corporation. conclusions and implications it has been disclosed that institutional reforms in these three universities are motivated by both internal and external thrusts. equally important, globalisation should not be perceived as a new phenomenon, but rather, ‘old wine in a new wineskin.’ universities, by their very nature and functions ought to be global institutions from the moment of their establishment. thus, an effective university should be relevant to both local and global contexts. hence, east african universities, both private and public, should always focus on their core functions in the changing world and be able to lead change but not by necessarily deviating from their core missions and visions. it is thus imperative to avoid the twin dangers, first, of considering themselves in the light of some mythical ‘international standards’ and second, of forcing themselves to look inwards and choose isolation from the world. institutions of higher education in east africa should proceed by applying the dna theory of fostering local knowledge to prepare graduates with locally and globally mixed education, graduates who can act and think with both local and global awareness. the widespread trend of excessive student enrolment seems to be inevitable in the present world. despite the numerous political, social, and educational benefits of massification, counter-productive effects in terms of lowered quality of education, philipo lonati sanga ajote vol. 9 (2019), 299-320 316 inadequacy of infrastructure and access to technology are evident. the alleged depreciation of higher education due to the provision of a plethora of quasi-academic courses that are irrelevant to both local and global labour markets should be appropriately dealt with by the nations’ relevant higher education authorities. reform of university activities needs to be given a broader dimension to distinguish these universities from the current trend of localisation and regionalisation. for instance, filling in admission vacancies for foreign students with almost all the students coming from the neighbouring countries may fail to foster the desired impact on cross-cultural and intellectual fertilisation, an essential requirement for global competition. the study has established that more opportunity is available for universities to promote more harnessing of ict for education purposes and applying the same for blended learning mode of delivery. this is in tandem to what nyerere (1995, p.201) underscores that “education and training, especially science and technology, are the keys to survival as well as to development in the future.” open and distance learning are two ways that ict can offer cost-effective sharing of resources, support quality access to marginalized communities and equalise opportunities to learn and enhance affordability. references aarts, h. and greijn, h. 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with the most neglected content areas being the ps and pd subscales. most kg1 teachers focused on ln (listening/speaking—97.7%), with the lowest percentage in ps (getting along/others— 25.0%) and pd (physical exercise—29.5%). similarly, kg2 teachers focused on es (healthy individual-93.0%), and the lowest percentage in ps (knowing/living with others–39.3%) and pd (spatial awareness—42.1%). ps was positively correlated with pd, es, and kecs. inferential tests revealed gender differences for the pd subscale. data indicated grade level differences in teaching ln and pd. these findings suggest that kindergarten teachers in this study continued to focus on academics (ln and es), despite the emphasis of the kg curriculum being on the holistic development of the young child. 1 corresponding author: ssofo@semo.edu seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 87 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 keywords: assessment, curriculum, kindergarten, ghana, teachers introduction the united nations (un) 2030 agenda for sustainable development goal 4, target 4.2 (sdg) stipulates that by 2030, all children should have “access to early childhood education, care, and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education” (un, 2015:19). the sdgs seek to build on the millennium development goals (un, 2013) and what they failed to achieve. educational change focusing on curriculum reforms has been documented in sub-saharan africa (bantwini, 2010; ministry of education [moe], 2012) and globally (flores, 2005; fullan, 2009). however, many of such curriculum reforms in sub-saharan africa have largely not achieved the intended goals due to their disconnectedness to the african socio-cultural contexts (tabulawa, 2013). the planned curriculum or intended (stated) curriculum is the expected content or officially approved curriculum (gehrke, knapp, & sirotnik, 1992; porter & smithson, 2001). it represents the body of knowledge, ideas, and processes the course designers intend for students to learn and experience in the classroom (cuban, 1992; gehrke et al., 1992; remillard & heck, 2014). in contrast, the enacted curriculum is the content teachers implement in their classrooms (porter & smithson, 2001)— it describes the collection of the experiences that students encounter in the classroom (remillard & heck, 2014; stein, remillard, & smith, 2007). stein, grover, and henningsen (1996) asserted that teachers and students are active agents in curriculum implementation, a process that involves three types of tasks: the task from the curriculum materials, the task as the teacher presents it to the students, and the task as implemented and engaged with by the students (stein et al., 1996). a third type of curriculum, the attained curriculum, refers to the content students actually learn during the course (marzano, 2003). the enacted curriculum is the most important feature of any curriculum indicator system (porter & smithson, 2001; raudenbush, 2008), because it occurs daily giving children the opportunity to learn (weisz, 2001). the opportunity to learn, in turn, is a major predictor of student achievement (hunsader & thompson, 2014). the enacted curriculum interacts with numerous aspects of the educational system, from curriculum guides, syllabi, textbooks, and teaching-learning (cal & thompson, 2014). thus, the intended curriculum rarely aligns with the enacted curriculum in k-12 classrooms (stein et al., 2007), because the emphasis teachers place on topics, time they allocate for topics and types of learning experiences, for example, impact students’ opportunities to an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 88 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 learn (hiebert & grouws, 2007). there must be harmony between curriculum as written and curriculum as practiced for effective learning to occur (moore, 2000). the united nations international children's emergency fund ([unicef], 2012a, 2012b)identified the following basic behaviors and abilities as key to school readiness: pre-literacy and numeracy, ability to follow directions, ability to focus on a learning activity for a given period, and socio-emotional development.kindergarten education aims at the holistic development of the child. thus, the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional developments are critical to school readiness(head start, 2018).the holistic development of children prepares them for a successful transition to primary learning (unicef, 2012a; 2012b). however, research indicates that teachers often neglect the physical (burgeson, wechsler, brener, young, &spain, 2001; sofo & asola, 2015) and psychosocial (kankam & abroampa, 2016) domains of development for young children. early childhood teachers need to be well-prepared to teach these two domains, in view of their invaluable contribution to the development and learning of children. the ghanaian kindergarten curriculum seeks to develop the physical domain through gross and fine motor skills, perceptual-motor skills, and sports and games (ministry of education, science and sports[moess], 2006). physical play through movement centers and outdoor play in early childhood contexts plays an important role in this regard. not only does outdoor play, for example, benefit children’s physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development (bullard, 2012; frost, brown, sutterby, & thornton, 2004), but it also serves as a pathway for children to interact, develop friendships, and release stress (wells & evans, 2003). physical inactivity leads to diseases such as childhood obesity and should be a major public health concern since obese children would likely be obese as adults (martyniuk &tucker, 2014). often, obese children are discriminated against due to their nutritional status. consequently, they tend to develop low self-image that persists into adulthood (dietz,1998). furthermore, early childhood educators lack movement-related teaching skills, and often use inappropriate practices in teaching movement (burgeson et al., 2001). children’s ability to self-regulate gives them a sense of self-control and successful peer relationships, helping them to get along with others (onchwari & keengwe, 2011). also, social competence helps children in negotiating the complex world of peers. to enhance children’s psychosocial skills, parents and teachers need to provide opportunities for children to play with their peers (mize & abell, 1996). the role of social competence in young children’s school readiness and seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 89 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 academic success is widely recognized; however, research supporting early childhood teachers in that regard are scarce (fox, hemmeter, snyder, binder, & clarke, 2011). curriculum delivery is affected by factors such as teacher beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, competencies, space and facilities, time constraints, the role of school principal as an instructional leader, students’ ability level and interests (kruse & roehrig, 2005; roehrig, kruse & kern, 2007; son & senk, 2014). weiss et al. (2003), for example, reported the most influence on teacher pedagogy among k-12 teachers were teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, experiences and characteristics. not only do teacher beliefs affect what teachers select to teach, but also the way they teach (capel & blair, 2013). further, the school cultural context has a powerful influence on the actual teaching practices; new teachers come to understand the school culture through interactions with colleagues (brouwer, & korthagen, 2005; christensen, 2013). theoretical framework the alignment between the intended and enacted curriculum is necessary for effective learning outcomes to occur (moore, 2000). however, the intended curriculum rarely aligns with the enacted curriculum in k-12 classrooms (stein et al., 2007). therefore, there is a need for harmony between the intended curriculum (the content), and the context or environment in which the implementation takes place (chapman, wright, & pascoe, 2017). thus, the policy enactment theory (ball, maguire, & braun, 2012) provides an appropriate theoretical framework for the present study. according to ball et al. (2012), four contextual variables impact schools’ ability to implement the intended curriculum. the contextual dimensions included: situated contexts, professional cultures, material contexts, and external factors. situated contexts refer to the environment or the location and population in which the school is located. context factors such as class size and social amenities, for example, affect the ability of teachers to enact the planned curriculum (ball et al., 2012). for example, opportunities for educational activities would be difficult to access in rural areas. schools with access to social amenities such as electricity, internet, and health facilities would have easier access to educational resources than schools without these amenities. professional school cultures such as management style, and supervision of teachers (brouck, 2008) availability of qualified teachers and resources impact the extent to which teachers implement the intended curriculum (ball et al., 2012). in addition, school leaders such as head an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 90 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 teachers/headmasters influence teachers’ enactment by shaping access to policy ideas, the interpretation of the intended curriculum, and creating conditions for professional development in schools (coburn, 2005). material contexts refer to such factors as personnel, and infrastructure available to the school (ball et al., 2012). the layout of the classroom space affects, for example, the availability of space for learning centers and playgrounds in the kindergarten environment. these, in turn, greatly impact the extent to which teachers implement the planned curriculum. external factors are those factors that are outside the control of the teacher (ball et al., 2012).for example, teachers often are unable to complete overloaded teaching syllabi in the planned curriculum (sabol, 2013). in addition, expectations of parents and society to prepare children to be academically ready for primary school can influence the type of curriculum teachers implement in their kindergarten classrooms(ball et al., 2012). the intended ghanaian kindergarten curriculum (moess, 2006) is an external document, and an understanding of the four contextual dimensions is crucial in its implementation in the classroom (chapman, et al, 2017). enacted curriculum research in ghana studies on the kindergarten enacted curriculum in ghana are scarce. most studies were conducted in the primary, or high school or tertiary contexts. first, mereku (1995) compared the official ghanaian primary mathematics curriculum with the way it was implemented. results indicated that coverage of textbooks influenced the emphasis placed on topics covered in the classroom. there was no significant difference in the content emphasized in the intended curriculum and the enacted curriculum. similarly, delivery of content through whole-class teaching was evident in both the intended and enacted curricula (mereku, 1995). second, boahin and hofman (2012) investigated the effectiveness of competency-based training (cbt) implementation in ghanaian polytechnics and industry. while the method of instruction in cbt must be learner-centered, the participating institutions overly relied on lecture notes and assignments, with lesson delivery was generally lecture-centered. in addition, the preparation of teaching and learning materials was the sole responsibility of the lecturers, with no input from students as required in a cbt program (boahin & hofman, 2012). seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 91 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 in a third study, kwarteng (2018) examined the quality of use of the accounting curriculum among high school teachers in ghana. the quality of use was influenced by teachers’ perceived relevance of the curriculum, level of difficulty of topics, availability of teaching aids, interest of the teacher, and availability of curriculum materials. in addition, the freedom or autonomy offered teachers to implement the curriculum shaped the enacted curriculum (kwarteng, 2018). fourth, mereku and mereku (2015) examined the congruence between the intended and implemented information and communication technology (ict) curricula in six african countries including ghana. the classroom practice revealed that only teachers who taught ict as a subject used technology to a limited extent. in addition, teachers focused on students developing skills in operating ict, rather than developing students’ ict literacy. further, gaps existed between the intended and attained curricula and between implemented attained curricula (mereku & mereku, 2015). fifth, mccoy and wolf (2018) used a culturally validated instrument to examine how changes in kg classroom quality predicted early academic and social-emotional skills over a period of one academic year in the greater-accra region of ghana. results showed improvement in classroom instructional quality resulted in small and positive gains in children’s early academic and socialemotional outcomes. however, the relationship between changes in the social-emotional aspects of classroom quality and child outcomes were mixed (mccoy & wolf, 2018). sixth, wolf (2017) evaluated a fast track transformational teacher training program (fttt) among a group of kg student teachers in the western region of ghana. the preliminary results showed that the fttt improved student teachers’ knowledge and implementation of the kg curriculum. in addition, fttt teachers had higher levels of motivation and feelings of personal accomplishment than non-fttt teachers. in contrast, fttt teachers had lower levels of job satisfaction when they became full-time teachers. on a negative note, the improvements from the fttt program did not translate into improved child learning or development outcomes one year after the student teachers became full-time teachers (wolf, 2017). finally, wolf, aber, behrman, and tsinigo (2018) implemented the quality preschool for ghana (qp4g) project aimed at building capacity and improving the implementation of the ghanaian kg curriculum. the qp4g resulted in improving student expression, emotional support and behavior management, but not facilitating deeper learning. in addition, teachers incorporated playan assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 92 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 based and child-centered strategies and appropriate classroom-management skills in their classrooms. furthermore, the intervention resulted in reducing teacher burnout and improving children’s school readiness (wolf et al., 2018). the preceding review revealed some level of incongruence between the intended and enacted curriculum in ghana. also, the review provided evidence that it is possible to impact kg teachers’ knowledge, skills, and effectiveness in the classroom. more research on the extent to which kg teachers implement the intended kindergarten content (topics) in ghanaian classrooms is necessary. that is, more studies are needed to examine what topics or content teachers cover in their kg classrooms. purpose of the study educational policymakers, textbook publishers, and teachers often focus on content coverage and learning activities without regard to educational goals. as bouck (2008) pointed out, contextual, organizational, micropolitical and individual factors influence the enacted curriculum. therefore, the purpose of the present study was to assess the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. specifically, it examined the extent to which teachers implemented the kindergarten intended curriculum in their classrooms. providing students opportunities to learn specific topics in the curriculum are critical to student learning (rowan, camburn, & correnti, 2004). gaining insight into the content teachers teach or neglect would allow educational administrators to work with teachers to provide a balanced curriculum in kg classrooms. research questions the present study was guided by three underpinning research questions: 1. what content (topics) are ghanaian teachers’ major focus in the enacted kindergarten curriculum? 2. what are the correlates of the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana? 3. to what extent do teacher gender, pupil grade level, and teacher professional qualification affect the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana? seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 93 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 method participants participants included a purposive sample of 101 (32 males; 68 females; one did not indicate gender) kindergarten teachers in one district of the upper west region of ghana. participants were 44 and 57 kg1and kg2 teachers respectively. they taught class sizes ranging from 12-159 (m= 47.2; sd = 30.2). participants had teaching experiences ranging from one to 30 years (m = 4.07; sd = 5.31). overall, the sample included 17 untrained teachers, 4 with post-secondary certificates, 70 with diplomas, and 10 with bachelor’s degrees. the breakdown for kgi teachers were untrained (7), post-secondary certificate (2), and diploma (35). the kg2 teachers consisted of untrained (10), post-secondary certificate (2), diploma (35), and bachelor’s degree (10). to maintain their teaching positions for extended periods of time, untrained teachers enrol in the untrained teachers diploma in basic education (utdbe) program in addition to the mandated professional development in basic schools. the objective of the utdbe program is to upgrade the content knowledge and teaching methods of untrained teachers (ministry of education, 2012). the program consists of a 4-year school-based professional development, distance learning modules, and periodic residential sessions on the campus of trainees’ respective colleges of education (ghana education service, 2003). the program allows untrained teachers to prepare to become certified teachers without leaving their respective classrooms when schools are in session. thus, utdbe teachers have had some teaching experience and have acquired some pedagogical skills (kwaah, & palojoki, 2018). instrument the authors developed the kindergarten enacted curriculum scale (kecs) for the study. participants provided demographic information on teaching experience, number of years teaching kg, grade level, gender, class size, and professional qualification. in addition, the kecs included 13 items (kg1) and 17 items (kg2) that assessed the extent to which participants taught content in four subscales: literacy and numeracy (ln), psychosocial skills (ps), environmental studies (es), and physical development (pd). the items for each subscale were content adapted from the kindergarten stated or intended curriculum (moess, 2006). sample items for the ln, ps, es, and pd subscales (kg1) were listening/speaking, responsibilities, healthy individual, and physical exercise respectively. participants responded to the items on a 4-point likert scale as major focus (scored 3), an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 94 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 minor focus (scored 2), touched on briefly (scored 1), and not taught (scored 0). a higher score indicated alignment with the kindergarten curriculum and a lower score indicated non-alignment. the authors adapted the descriptors for the 4-point likert scale from rowan, et al. (2004). the kecs for kg1 and kg 2 had cronbach’s alphas of .728 and .839 respectively. the present study, to the best of our knowledge, is the first attempt to investigate the content that served as ghanaian kindergarten teachers’ major focus. the major strength of the kecs was that it utilized content in the ghanaian kindergarten intended curriculum. however, a major limitation of the methodology of the present study was that it did not assess the quality of the enacted curriculum. another limitation relates to the use of a self-report questionnaire. the study did not examine curriculum documents such as unit and lesson plans as evidence of the content teachers covered in their classrooms. data collection and analysis the human subjects committee at the first author’s institution approved the study. in addition, written permission to conduct the study in the schools was obtained from the district directorate of education responsible for the schools involved in the study. finally, the teachers provided written informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire. participants were at the time of the study attending a one-day workshop organized by the district directorate of education during the third term of the academic year. out of 120 kindergarten teachers in the school district, 101 (84.17%) agreed to participate in the study. the first author distributed the questionnaire to the teachers at the site for the workshop and collected the completed questionnaires the same day at the end of the workshop. a major limitation of the use of purposive sampling for the study was that the sample was not representative of kindergarten teachers in ghana. however, it was representative of kindergarten teachers in the district that served as the site for the study as the sample constituted 84.17% of the kindergarten teacher population in the district. descriptive and inferential data were computed for the entire scale and for each subscale. first, the authors determined the frequencies and percentages of teachers for each item for major focus, minor focus, touched briefly, and not taught. the total number of responses for some items did not add up to 101 because some participants did not respond to all items on the questionnaire. second, correlation matrices were computed for teaching experience, experience teaching kg class, seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 95 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 each subscale, and kecs (overall scale). third, independent samples t-test analyses were conducted for gender, the four subscales, and kecs. fourth, independent samples t-test analyses were computed comparing each subscale and kecs for kg1 and kg2. finally, a one-way anova was done for professional qualification, the subscales, and kecs. results content focus and the enacted curriculum the first research question examined the content (topics) ghanaian teachers focused on in the enacted kindergarten curriculum. tables 1 shows data on the content teachers focused on in the enacted kg1 curriculum. the data indicate that the highest percentage of kg1 teachers had a major focus on listening/speaking (97.7%) and pre-reading (95.5%), both in the ln subscale. alternatively, the lowest percentage of the teachers had as their major focus contents in ps (getting along with others25.0%; self-awareness/responsibilities34.1%). the ps and pd subscales were the most neglected by kg1 teachers. for example, 43.2% of the teachers did not teach or only briefly touched these contents (self-awareness-ps and physical exercise-pd). table 1: percentages of teachers and the focus for each content in kg1 content a major focus a minor focus touched briefly not taught literacy/numeracy f/% f/% f/% f/% listening/speaking 43(97.7) 1(2.3) 0(.00) 0(.00) pre-reading activities 42(95.5) 2(4.5) 0(.00) 0(.00) pre-writing 36(76.7) 3(14.0) 4(9.3) 4(9.10) number/numerals 40(90.9) 3(6.8) 1(2.3) 0(.00) classification 41(93.2) 3(6.8) 0(.00) 0(.00) psychosocial skills self-awareness 15(34.1) 10(22.7) 11(25.0) 8(18.20) getting along with others 11(25.0) 16(36.4) 11(25.0) 6(13.6) responsibilities 15(34.1) 17(38.6) 4(9.1) 8(18.20) coping with emotions 26(59.1) 6(13.6) 8(18.2) 3(6.80) environmental studies an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 96 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 healthy individual. 35(79.5) 2(4.5) 6(13.6) 1(2.30) physical environment. 38(86.4) 5(11.4) 1(2.3) 0(.00) social environment 33(75.0) 3(6.8) 5(11.4) 3(6.80) physical development physical exercise 13(29.5) 12(27.3) 8(18.2) 11(25.00) f/% = frequency/percentage tables 2 presents data on the content teachers focused on in the enacted kg2 curriculum. the results indicated that most kg2 teachers focused on es (healthy individual93.0%) and ln (pre-reading-91.2%; listening/speaking89.5%). alternatively, only 39.3% and 47.2% of the teachers focused on ps (knowing-living with others and coping with emotions respectively). for example, 34.0% and 35.1% of kg2 teachers did not teach or only touched briefly, coping with emotions-ps and sensory motor skills-pd respectively. table 2:percentages of teachers and the focus for each content in kg2 content a major focus a minor focus touched briefly not taught literacy/numeracy f/% f/% f/% f/% listening/speaking 51(89.5) 5(8.8) 0(.0) 1(1.8) pre-reading activities 52(91.2) 3(5.3) 1(1.8) 1(1.8) pre-writing 42(73.7) 11(19.3) 4(7.0) 0(.0) numbers/numerals 40(70.2) 13(22.8) 2(3.5) 2(3.5) classification 46(80.7) 8(14.0) 3(5.3) 0(.0) psychosocial skills knowing/living with others 22(39.3) 17(30.4) 5(8.9) 12(21.4) responsibilities 29(51.8) 10(17.9) 8 (14.3) 9(16.1) coping with emotions 25(47.2) 10(18.9) 10(18.9) 8(15.1) decision-making 27(49.1) 11(20.0) 10(18.2) 7(12.7) environmental studies healthy individual 53(93.0) 2(3.5) 1(1.8) 1(1.8) physical environment 37(64.9) 17(29.8) 3(5.3) 0(.00) social environment 37(64.9) 11(19.3) 4(7.0) 5(8.8) seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 97 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 physical development gross motor skills 49(85.9) 5(8.8) 3(5.3) 0(.00) fine motor skills 37(64.9) 14(24.6) 4(7.0) 2(3.5) spatial awareness 24(42.1) 11(19.3) 13(22.8) 9(15.8) sensory motor skills 31(54.4) 6(10.5) 11(19.3) 9(15.8) sports and games 29(50.9) 15(26.3) 9(15.8) 4(7.0) f/% = frequency/percentage correlation matrices the second research questions investigated the correlates of the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. table 3 shows correlation matrices for teaching experience, experience teaching kindergarten, class size, the subscales, and kecs. the matrix for kg1 indicated that class size had significant negative correlation with the ps, pd, and es subscales. in addition, teaching experience and number of years teaching kg1 negatively correlated with ps. furthermore, ps was positively correlated with pd, es, and kecs. the matrix for kg2 revealed that class size did not correlate with any of the subscales. teaching experience positively correlated with pd. in addition, ps was positively correlated with pd, es, and kecs. table 3: correlation matrices for kg1 and kg2 category 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 kg 1 teaching exprience-1 .271 -.036 -.113 -.310 * -.248 .140 -.215 experience teaching kg1-2 .482 ** -.288 -.344 * -.018 -.107 -.188 class size-3 -.123 -.670 ** -.377 * -.456 ** -.618 ** literacy/numeracy-4 -.107 .121 .170 .070 psychosocial skills-5 .443 ** .354 * .766 ** physical developmen-6 .511 ** .864 ** environmental studies-7 .727 ** kecs-8 an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 98 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 kg 2 teaching exprience-1 .661 ** .170 .076 .098 .315 * -.159 -.128 experience teaching kg2-2 .388 ** .082 .136 .041 .071 .066 class size-3 .247 .041 .132 -.260 -.237 literacy/numeracy-4 .159 .286 * .099 .136 psychosocial skills-5 .433 ** .412 ** .464 ** physical developmen-6 .189 .299 * environmental studies-7 .991 ** kecs -8 *p< .05; **p< .01. gender and enacted curriculum the first part of the third research questions determined to what extent gender affected the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. table 4 presents data on gender, subscales, and kecs (overall scale) for both kg1 and kg2. there was a significant difference for pd (t= 2.86; p = .005). male teachers had a higher mean score (2.40) than their female counterparts (1.82). overall, male teachers were more likely than female teachers to have physical development as their major focus. table 4: independent samples t-test analysis for gender, subscales and overall scale category male (n= 32) females (n=68) t-value m(sd) m(sd) t p literacy/numeracy 2.78(.27) 2.83(.22) -.92 .358 psychosocial skills 1.84(.94) 1.98(.83) -.71 .479 environmental studies 2.58(.51) 2.67(.43) -.85 .397 physical development 2.40(.64) 1.82(1.05) 2.86 .005** kecs 2.52(.53) 2.34(.59) .15 .159 **p< .01 grade level and enacted curriculum seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 99 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 the second part of the third of the research questions examined the extent to which grade affected the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. table 5 presents data on the enacted curriculum for kg1 and kg2. the results showed significant grade level differences for ln, pd, and kecs. teachers in kg1 had a higher mean score (2.88) than kg2 (2.75) on ln. conversely, kg2 teachers had higher mean scores on pd and kecs than those teaching kg1. there were no significant grade level differences for ps and es. table 5: independent samples t-test analyses comparing subscales and kecs for kg1 and kg2 category kg1 (n=44) kg2 (n=57) t-value m(sd) m(sd) t p literacy/numeracy 2.88(.15) 2.75(.28) 2.85 .005** psychosocial skills 1.93(.80) 1.95(.92) -.194 .847 environmental studies 2.65(.39) 2.64(.50) -.003 .998 physical development 1.61(1.17) 2.33(.65) -3.93 .000*** kecs 2.18(.57) 2.58(.52) -3.78 .000*** ** p< .01; *** p< .001 professional qualification, subscales and kecs the third part of the third research question examined the extent to which professional qualification affected the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. table 6 shows data on professional qualification and enacted curriculum for both kg1 and kg2. there were significant differences between untrained teachers and those with diplomas on ps, es, pd, and kecs for kg1. untrained teachers had higher mean scores on the three subscales and kecs. similarly, the untrained teachers had significantly higher mean scores than their counterparts with postsecondary certificates on ps and kecs. the mean scores for kgi teachers with the different professional qualifications on the ln subscale did not differ. data for kg2 revealed significant mean differences between untrained teachers and those with diplomas and bachelor’s degrees on the ps subscale. the untrained teachers had higher mean scores on the ps subscale than their counterparts with diplomas or bachelor’s degrees. in addition, the untrained teachers had a significant higher mean score than those with bachelor’s an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 100 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 degrees on the pd subscale. mean scores for kg2 teachers on the ln and es subscales and kecs for all categories of professional qualifications were similar. table 6: one-way anova for professional qualification and overall mean score category untrained post-sec cert diploma bachelor’s degree f-value p-value m(sd) m(sd) m(sd) m(sd) f p kg1 literacy/numeracy 2.91(.16) 2.90(.14) 2.87(.15) n/a .147 .864 psychosocial skills 2.68(.35) 1.63(.18) 1.80(.81) n/a 4.14 .023* environmental studies 3.00(.00) 2.67(.00) 2.65(.39) n/a 3.73 .032* physical development 2.57(.53) 2.50(.71) 1.37(1.16) n/a 4.26 .021* kecs 2.80(.22) 2.31(.23) 2.05(.54) n/a 6.56 .003** kg2 literacy/numeracy 2.70(.17) 2.90(.14) 2.78(.29) 2.64(.35) .95 .420 psychosocial skills 2.83(.26) 2.25(1.06) 1.71(.84) 1.88(1.11) 4.74 .005** environmental studies 2.22(.66) 2.50(.71) 2.23(.63) 2.76(.62) 1.95 .133 physical development 3.00(.00) 2.83(.24) 2.60(.46) 2.37(.73) 3.23 .030* kecs 2.94(.04) 2.78(.30) 2.54(.48) 2.33(.77) 2.79 .050 * p< .05; ** p< .01; n/a: not applicable. discussion and conclusions drawing on the policy enactment theory, the present study assessed the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. in this section, the authors discuss four major findings from the study. first, the kindergarten teachers in the study focused on academics (literacy/numeracy and environmental studies) to the neglect of physical development and psychosocial skills. this is consistent with moe’s (2012) report that the ghanaian kindergarten curriculum in practice “focused on an academic approach, contrary to the child-centered approach recommended by the intended curriculum”(p. 20). seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 101 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 sofo and asola (2015) reported a sample of ghanaian kindergarten teachers identified the lack of teachers’ guides and manuals as major barriers to teaching movement and physical activity. another study reported that a sample of ghanaian early childhood preservice teachers were not adequately prepared to teach psychosocial skills to young children (kankam & abroampa, 2016). second, class size and teaching experience were negatively correlated with the psychosocial skills subscale for kg1. the kindergarten curriculum in ghana requires that psychosocial skills be integrated across the curriculum. the large class sizes for the teachers in the present study could be a contributing factor for the inability to teach psychosocial skills across the curriculum. providing activities or opportunities that would allow teachers to integrate psychosocial skills with large class sizes is time consuming. however, investing in the development of psychosocial skills would yield high returns in future educational and employment outcomes especially among disadvantaged young people (heckman, stixrud, & urzua, 2006). the role of psychosocial skills in children’s learning and development cannot be overemphasized. the negative correlation between teaching experience and the teaching of psychosocial skills may reflect the way experienced teachers themselves were taught. as moe’s (2012) report noted, their (experienced teachers) training was less relevant to kindergarten than to higher grade levels of education. in addition, the neglect of psychosocial skills could be attributed to cultural reasons. ghana, like other sub-saharan countries, is a culturally communalistic society as against the individualistic eurocentric formal education context in schools. thus, parents view the home as a better setting for teaching psychosocial skills than the school. rather, parents in ghana value early education and consider the school’s main role to be that of preparing children for academics (bidwell & watine, 2014; kabay, wolf, & yoshikawa, 2017) that will provide opportunities for social mobility. the motivations of ghanaians sending their children to school has changed very little since colonial times. as foster (1965) succinctly put it, “education, in practice, was valued for its cash return, and it remained virtually the only mode by which individuals could partially dissociate themselves from traditional society” (p. 64). third, male teachers were more likely than females to focus on physical development. the sport-oriented content related to physical development in the kindergarten curriculum may explain the likelihood of male teachers to focus on physical development (moess, 2006). culturally, boys in the ghanaian society are more likely than girls to participate in sport-oriented experiences in school. as zeichner and gore (1990) espoused, teacher candidates’ early school experiences have stronger influences on their beliefs about teaching and learning than formal teacher education. an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 102 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 fourth, untrained teachers in kg1 were more likely than trained teachers with diplomas to implement the intended curriculum. similarly, untrained kg2 teachers and trained teachers with bachelor’s degrees differed on the implementations of the ps and pd subscales. untrained teachers taught more topics than their professional counterparts perhaps, as rovegno and bandhauer (2017) noted, novice teachers think they must cover all topics in their lesson plan. thus, they get through the materials in their lesson plans even if students do not respond appropriately. in contrast, experienced teachers would proceed to the next topic only if students respond appropriately to the preceding task or topic. the contradictory finding that untrained teachers in this study were more likely than trained teachers to implement the curriculum may be attributed to two plausible reasons. first, untrained teachers would be more concerned about job security than their trained counterparts and would more likely comply with the expectation to teach topics outlined in the curriculum, even if those topics do not align with their beliefs about what kindergarteners need to learn. second, curriculum implementation is influenced by teachers’ beliefs (capel & blair, 2013) and perceived relevance of the curriculum (kwarteng, 2018). therefore, trained teachers would more likely than untrained teachers use their professional judgment to not teach topics (content) that they perceive to be inconsistent with their beliefs or less important to student development and learning. the findings from the current study suggest three main conclusions. first, kindergarten teachers in this study showed characteristics that were like those observed in previous studies. for example, they focused on academics at the neglect of holistic development of the young child. the most neglected contents were psychosocial skills and physical development. second, class size and teaching experience were negatively correlated with the psychosocial skills subscale for kg1. that is, veteran teachers in kg1 were less likely to view psychosocial skills as major focus of their teaching. similarly, large class sizes served to inhibit the teaching of psychosocial skills in kg1. finally, untrained teachers were more likely than their trained colleagues to teach more topics in their classrooms implications for achieving congruence between the intended and enacted curriculum the findings of the present study have four implications for policy, teacher education and practice in achieving congruence between the intended and enacted kindergarten curricula. first, many kg teachers’ training are less relevant to kg than to higher grade levels (moe, 2012). therefore, efforts should be made by preservice and in-service teachers to critically examine the kg curriculum. seidu sofo, eugene f. asola, & reginald ocansey 103 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 second, teacher education programs need to consider preservice teachers’ biography and help them to examine their beliefs and value orientations since early school experiences influence the development of one’s perspectives to teaching and learning (lortie, 1975, 2012; zeichner & gore, 1990). for example, zeichner and gore (1990) asserted that what teacher candidates learn about teaching and learning as children in schools has a stronger influence on their beliefs about teaching than formal teacher education. this should continue with beginning teachers through relevant professional development which focuses on self-awareness and getting along with others. some teachers observed that they had received no training in using the kg curriculum or the training they received was inadequate to support quality teaching and learning (moe, 2102). third, there is the need for colleges of education and universities to provide training in early childhood education to fill the huge gap in kg classrooms with teachers certified in early childhood certification. often teachers without early childhood certification have limited understanding of young children and see themselves as “didactic instructors rather than facilitators of learning” because of the way they themselves were trained (moe, 2012:21). to bridge the gap between official content and content covered by participants in the present study, it is imperative that educators, policymakers, and curriculum planners stress the need and hold teachers accountable for the holistic education of young children. finally, teacher induction for beginning teachers should be an integral part of the kg education. there is the tendency for experienced or veteran teachers to pressure beginning teachers to conform to the status quo, what zeichner and tabachnick (1981) referred to as the “washout effect.”it is the period when the effect of the teacher education program diminishes due to school practices (zeichner & tabachnick, 1981). future research the present study examined the enacted kindergarten curriculum in ghana. it examined the content that kg teachers focused on in their classrooms– it did not assess the quality of the enacted curriculum. more research is needed to gain insight into the quality of the enacted curriculum, and to understand teachers’ decisions regarding content coverage. first, future studies should include classroom observations that would examine pedagogical strategies teachers use in addition to the content taught. second, the use of qualitative methodologies in future research is warranted. interviews, for example, would allow future researchers to understand why teachers choose to teach some topics but not others. finally, replication of the study in other districts/municipalities/metropolitan school contexts in other regions of the country would allow an assessment of ghana’s enacted kindergarten curriculum 104 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 86-110 policymakers and educational administrators to assess regional disparities in the enacted kindergarten curriculum nationwide. references ball, s., maguire, m., & braun, a. 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(1990).teacher socialization. in handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 329-348). new york: macmillan. zeichner, k. g. & tabachnick, r.b.(1981). the effects of university teacher education washed out by school experience? journal of teacher education, 2, 7-11. ajote vol. 7 no. 1, pp. 19 -35 relationship between university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, university of malawi, kamuzu college of nursing richard walibwe nyirongo, and bob wajizigha chulu university of malawi, chancellor college abstract many stakeholders have attributed the decisions of education graduates who decline to enter the teaching profession after graduation, to the university of malawi selection policy, and have called for the abolition of redirecting students to courses other than their choices. the purpose of this study was to measure the relationship between the university of malawi selection ‘re-direction policy’ and ‘entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession’. cross-section data were collected from the total population of education graduates from the university of malawi, chancellor college from 2005 to 2009 (n=760), through document analysis and structured interviews. using the χ2 test, the calculated χ2 (1df) was 3.265, p = 0.071 denoting that the university selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession were independent. the study concluded that education graduates entering or declining to enter the teaching profession after graduation did not depend on whether they chose or were redirected to education during their university selection. keywords: teacher recruitment, teacher wastage, entrance into the teaching profession, selection/admission policy african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no.1 2018 pp. 19-35 wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 20 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 background to the study the malawi secondary education system is beset with a huge shortage of qualified secondary school teachers. mulkeen (2010) found that 61.5 percent of secondary school teachers were qualified as primary school teachers and could be teaching in primary schools. studies have shown that among the major contributors to secondary school teacher shortages in malawi is teacher wastage; “education graduates declining to take up the teaching job after graduating as teachers” (chikazinga, chulu and nyirongo, 2014). research evidence has shown that the completion of a teaching course is not always a positive predictor for entrance into the teaching profession (rots, aelterman, vlerick & vermeulen, 2007). a study on teachers in six anglophone africa countries including malawi found that the entry to teacher training does not necessarily reflect either perceived availability of teacher jobs or the desire to work as teachers. as a result, many people could be trained as teachers, but later decline to enter the teaching profession after graduation, (mulkeen, 2010). it is not clear what drives the decision of education graduates to decline to enter the teaching profession after graduating as teacher when malawi as a country continues to experience the shortage of qualified secondary teachers. however, some education stakeholders in malawi have suggested that the university of malawi selection policy greatly contributes to such decisions. yet no study has been conducted to render empirical evidence to such claims. this provided the impetus for this study to empirically examine whether there is any relationship between the university of malawi selection/admission policy and the education graduates entrance decisions into the teaching profession. selection to the university of malawi is based on the equitable access policy and merit computed from the aggregate score at malawi school certificate examinations (msce) or ‘o’ level equivalent examination. the university of malawi just like other universities provide for students to make choices for the kind of programmes that they would prefer to pursue when selected. at the time of conducting this study students were given three options; first choice, second choice and third choice. the provision for a range of choices emanated from the fact that the university admits meager number of students approximately 1% of those that sit for malawi school certificate examinations. the selection policy states that “candidates will be placed in various faculties using specific faculty requirements, bearing in mind the candidates’ choice of programmes or otherwise redirected to other programmes when the candidates do not compete successfully in programmes of their choice” (university of malawi, 2010). this entails that those students who are unable to make it into their first choice of programme, but still qualify for selection (i.e. they are within the cut-off point) are selected university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 21 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 for the second choice and finally the third choice. however, if some students meet the cut-off point but all their three choice programmes are full, they are re-directed to any other programme which is not yet filled up (nampota, 2009). most students selected to universities or colleges through the ‘redirection policy’ are likely to be admitted to education programmes because relatively few students who perform extremely well during msce or ‘o’ level examinations opt for education as they make choices for selection. kadzamira (2005) found that teacher training programmes at both primary and secondary levels fail to attract better qualified students into teaching in malawi. it seems that academically talented individuals prefer to pursue high status, financially rewarding careers in areas such as medicine, law, engineering, economics, or business studies and not education. in some cases, it seems they are also discouraged from pursuing the teaching career because of the perception that teacher education programmes ‘lack rigor’ and are reserved for those individuals who cannot make it in any other course of study. consequently, many education programmes absorb secondary school leavers that fail to compete successfully and get places in other university’s programmes (mulkeen, 2010). nampota (2009) shows that during the university of malawi selection exercise of 2006, fifty students were selected into education science programme at chancellor college. but out of the fifty only two had made education science (esc) as their choice and this choice was third. the vast majority (48) did not choose education science anywhere but because all the three programmes they were interested in were full, they were redirected into education science. nampota (2009) further, commented on the weakness of redirecting students to programmes other than their choices. she argued that the redirected students may not have commitment to a profession they did not choose. chimwenje (2003) also suggested that the number of graduate secondary school teachers that never enter or remain in the teaching profession in malawi should be higher because most of these students choose other types of training courses other than education but are redirected to train as secondary teachers against their wish. problem statement many stakeholders have attributed the decision of education graduates to decline to enter the teaching profession “teacher wastage” to the university of malawi selection “re-direction” policy. the most compelling argument about teacher wastage advanced in different fora is that when recruits have little initial commitment to teaching they can hardly enter or remain in the teaching profession, and in more wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 22 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 extreme cases, if talented individuals happen to join teaching by accident they are likely to quit at their first opportunity (chimwenje, 2003; nampota, 2009). stakeholders have therefore made calls for the university of malawi, to stop redirecting students to programmes other than their choice during admission. however, no empirical study has ever been conducted to explore whether students redirected to education courses in the university of malawi enter or decline to enter the teaching profession after graduation. this gave a thrust to this study to answer the question “is there a relationship between the university of malawi selection “re-direction” policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession? purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to measure the relationship between the university of malawi selection ‘re-direction’ policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession. in order to achieve this purpose, the study answered three research questions: 1. what choice of study programme did education graduates make during university admission? 2. to what extent did the education graduates enter the teaching profession after graduation? 3. what is the relationship between the university of malawi admission policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession? significance of the study the study will provide feedback to policy makers, educationists and other stakeholders regarding the impact of the university of malawi selection ‘redirection’ policies on the wastage of education graduates. it would also help the university of malawi to re-examine the current admission criteria into its education programmes. it will also add to the body of knowledge on admission policies and education graduates entrance and retention in the education system. theoretical perspective rots, aelterman, devos, and vlerick (2010) developed a model which attempts to explain the teacher education graduates decision whether or not to enter the teaching profession upon graduation. the model distinguishes between, on the one hand, teacher education experiences, initial motivation for teaching, integration into teaching, teaching commitment and, on the other hand, external influences as key variables that influence the intention whether or not to enter the teaching profession. according to the model trainees who start teacher education because they want to work as teachers and those who report higher teaching commitment at the end of teacher education are more likely to show higher university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 23 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 intention to enter teaching at the time of their graduation (rots, aelterman, vlerick, and vermeulen, 2007; rots and aelterman, 2008, 2009 and rots, et al. 2010). similarly, nearly graduated teacher trainees with higher level of teacher efficacy, more extended professional orientation and stronger learner-oriented beliefs are suggested to show higher teaching commitment and subsequently a stronger intention to enter teaching. rots and aelterman (2009) further show that faculty support, mentor support and teacher education preparation have a positive indirect association with intention to enter teaching, while factors external to the teaching profession tend to be negatively related to the intention to enter the teaching profession. two variables from the model namely ‘initial motivation for teaching’ and ‘teaching commitment’ were of particular importance to this study. notwithstanding the exclusion of the other variables, ‘initial motivation for teaching’ which in the context of this study can be depicted by the choice of programme students choose for admission into the university, is shown to have an influence on both the commitment to teaching as a career and the decision of education graduates whether or not to enter the teaching profession. this suggests that there must be a strong positive relationship between admission policy and entrance into the teaching profession. motives for choosing teaching as a career studies on motives for choosing teaching as a career indicate various reasons and show that individuals recruited to teacher education hold personal and sometimes idiosyncratic motives about the teaching profession which have a bearing on whether these individuals become classroom teachers or join the ranks of ‘competent nomads’ (bastick, 1999; mtika and gates, 2010). three categories of motives have been identified to affect students’ choice of the teaching profession namely; altruistic, intrinsic and extrinsic factors (young, 1995; moran, kilpatrick, abbot, dallat, and mc clane, 2001; wang and fwu, 2001; khoh, ling, ch’ng, and chuan, 2005). the altruistic motive is couched in terms that consider teaching as a desire to help children and contribute to society, while intrinsic factors associate interest in teaching with teaching itself such as the activity of teaching and interest in using knowledge and expertise of the subject. the extrinsic motive includes material rewards attached to the teaching profession such as salary, stability and working conditions (chan, 2006; kizilaslan, 2010). scholars who have examined the motives for choosing teaching as a career among both pre-service and inservice undergraduate student teachers and those enrolled in the postgraduate certificate in education programs in the united states of america, united kingdom, greece, turkey and australia have shown that such students are mostly motivated by idealistic and altruistic factors (young, 1995; doliopoulou, wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 24 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 1995; papanastasiou and papanastasiou, 1997; richardson and watt, 2006; kizilaslan, 2010). similar studies conducted in israel and in asian countries of singapore, taiwan, malaysia, and hongkong have reported related findings (wang and fwu 2000; khoh, ling, ch’ng and chuan, 2002; chan, 2005; keow, 2005; ilaiyan and zidan, 2005). doliopoulou’s (1995) research resulted in a profound finding that in greece, early childhood department was the first choice [of teacher education program] of several of the kindergarten teachers (43%) who participated in the study and among the choices of many of them (93%). this suggests that pre-service teachers motivated by intrinsic/altruistic motives are more likely to indicate teacher education as their first choice or among their choices for entrance into the university/college. in most developing countries, it has been shown that student teachers tend to place a high value on extrinsic factors. bista (2006) found that in nepal, for 30 % of the 416 female teachers in his study, joining teaching was an economic compulsion. only 20 % stated that teaching gave them a forum for doing social work while some 18 % happened to train as teachers after they were rejected in their efforts other than teaching. young (1995) for brunei darussalam and bastick (1999) for jamaica, also highlight the fact that extrinsic motives were the main determinants for trainees to choose teaching. the study in brunei darussalam found that almost 15 % of the trainees who entered teaching did so as a last resort due to failure to enter another profession while 12% were influenced by others to choose teaching. mtika and gates (2010) found that among secondary teacher trainees in malawi, some trainees never considered teaching as a career option but joined teaching due to failure to make it to university to study other courses they had wished for. still other trainees showed an intention to use teaching profession as a means to get somewhere else in their career pursuit ‘a springboard to a career elsewhere’. however, the study also found that for some trainees, teaching was the only profession they had ever wanted to pursue ‘teaching as a vocation’ which aligns with both altruistic and intrinsic notions. interestingly, only three out of the fourteen trainee teachers who participated in the study cited entering teacher training course because teaching was a vocation to them (mtika and gates, 2010). these studies show that unlike in developed countries where teacher trainees cite intrinsic or altruistic reasons, in most developing countries student teachers attribute instrumental reasons related to external motives to their choice of teaching as a career. studies from developing countries also suggest that not all student teachers purposefully enter teacher education “entry by design”. for some, entry into teacher education happens by accident “an unintended happening”. it would not be surprising if such students do not enter teaching after graduating as teachers. university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 25 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 commitment to the teaching career few studies have also explored the prospective teacher commitment to the teaching career. coladarci (1992, p.362) define commitment to teaching as the “teachers’ psychological attachment to the teaching profession”. studies in taiwan, hong kong and united states of america have shown that there is a relationship between the motivation for choosing teaching and the degree of commitment to the career (wang and fwu, 2001; chan, 2006). these studies found that teacher trainees who are more committed to teaching regard the teaching career as a calling, display more enthusiasm and place less emphasis on extrinsic motives such as salary and working conditions. in addition, the studies predicted that where teachers are not committed to the teaching profession, most of these teachers would likely decline to enter or remain in the teaching profession. however, some studies have also shown that some trainees that enter teacher education “by accident” or that were “motivated by extrinsic factors” can sometimes reconsider their initial motive due to the teacher education experiences and become committed to the profession after graduation (rots, et al. 2010). entrance into the teaching profession cockburn and haydn (2004) argued that despite teaching being established as a graduate career for many generations in most developed countries, the number of graduates entering the teaching profession has declined in recent years raising a big concern about wastage from the profession. a research report “enhancing the teaching profession” in united states of america revealed that the growing numbers of students indicated interest and entered teacher preparation programmes in various universities and colleges. however, upon graduation many of these students especially those in high demand fields decided not to apply for teaching jobs or did not accept positions when they were offered (hirsch, rodriquez, curran and laine, 2001). bullard’s (1998) synthesis of research studies on teacher recruitment, retention, preparation and professional development in california further noted that the numbers of people who joined teacher training and became credentialed were a fraction of those interested in teaching. those who wanted to enter teacher training programme often did not find slots. as a result, more than 25 % of the programme openings were taken by people who did not enter the teaching profession after graduation while many aspiring teachers were denied entry. this seems to portray that the decision by graduates not to join teaching in california largely emanated from problems with the selection policies to teacher education. purcell, davies and elias (2005) using data from two national surveys of united kingdom graduates of 1995 and 1999 at 38 uk higher wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 26 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 education institutions examined the early career paths of 1999 graduates qualified to teach either by the completion of an undergraduate education degree resulting in qualified teacher status (qts), a postgraduate certificate in education (pgce) or by some other routes. findings from this study revealed that on average 20 % of bed/ba/bsc (qts) graduates and 39 % of pgce holders never entered the profession after completion of teacher education. similarly, findings from the class of ’99 survey revealed that 40 percent of women who had graduated with a bed/ba/bsc (qts) were not teaching at the time of the survey (purcell, et. al. 2005). these studies therefore, show that the tendency of people declining to enter the teaching profession after being trained as teachers happens in many countries even though the magnitude might be different, and that the critical point where a significant number of potential teachers are lost is between the completion of teacher training and the entry to the profession. in sub-sahara africa, mulkeen’s (2010) synthesis of research data from case studies on teachers in eight anglophone africa countries (malawi, uganda, zambia, gambia, lesotho, liberia, zanzibar and eritrea) found that in some countries many of the teachers who were trained never actually entered the teaching profession. a case study in zambia shows that 1,017 teachers with degrees were working in schools in 2005, yet the university of zambia had an output of over 400 graduate teachers each year for the past five years and (431 in 2006). mulkeen concluded that most of the graduates were either not entering the teaching profession or not staying in it very long. a related study in liberia indicates that the university of liberia graduated 13 teachers with degrees in primary education and 23 with degrees in secondary education in 2007. it is reported that most of these were existing teachers who had undergone the degree course on study leave from the post. however, despite a system requiring students to sign bonds committing them to work in schools, very few returned to teaching once training was completed. the synthesis concluded that accurate information on graduate teacher that decline to enter the teaching profession after graduation was rarely available in all the countries under study despite indications that it is a significant problem in some countries. study design the study followed the quantitative approach and adopted the cross-sectional design. entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession was investigated among different cohorts of education graduates from the university of malawi, chancellor college from 2005 to 2009 but data were collected at a single point in time although the actual time took approximately six months to complete university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 27 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 data collection. the study used a census approach where data were collected on the entire population of education graduates from 2005 to 2009. a total of 578 education graduates from chancellor college from 2005 to 2009 formed the units of analysis. the focus on education graduates from the university of malawi, chancellor college was because the university of malawi is the oldest and main university of the country and chancellor college is one of its constituent colleges housing the oldest and main faculty of education which is responsible for training the majority of graduate secondary teachers in malawi. data collection the study reviewed administrative documents from the university of malawi, and malawi ministry of education to obtain data. the decision to undertake secondary data analysis was largely determined by the nature of the study objectives. categorical analysis, a more systematic analysis based on categories constructed before the commencement of the study, was used to review the documents (sarantakos 2005). there were four sets of pre-determined categories namely: 1) graduates that chose education, 2) graduates that were redirected to education, 3) graduates that entered the teaching profession after graduation; and 4) graduates that declined to enter the teaching profession after graduation. the study reviewed the university of malawi, selection books (of 2000, 2002 to 2004) and education graduates lists of 2005 to 2009 to collect data on the choices of programme of study indicated by the education graduates during their university selection to find out those who put education among their choices (chose education) and those who did not indicate education among all their three choices (redirected to education). the use of documents from the university of malawi central office was intended to avoid self-report which could have produced unreliable data due to memory decay or memory distortion and the social desirability effect, where most people would want to indicate that they did not intend to train as teachers but were just redirected during the university admission/selection. the study also reviewed the malawi ministry of education staff returns using a validated list of education graduates from (2005 to 2009) to collect data on graduate entrance into the teaching profession. since staff returns are meant to cover all teachers in the public system, it provided the study with the widest breadth of the data i.e. covering the national population of public secondary school teachers. the pre-determined variables which were supposed to correlate on both documents wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 28 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 were the first name, surname, academic qualification (bachelor of educationabbreviated as bed), college where trained (chancellor college-abbreviated as chanco) and sex. in addition, year of first appointment was supposed to be in exactitude with year of graduation. the researcher also conducted structured interviews with education graduates who could not be traced using staff returns to find out whether they joined teaching immediately after their graduation or not. data analysis the data were entered and analyzed through the statistical package for social scientists (spss 16.0). descriptive statistics particularly frequencies and percentages were generated to summarize the data as well as answer the first two research questions. the study computed the chi-square (χ2) test of independence to determine whether the university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates in the teaching profession were associated in order to answer the third research question. validity and reliability to address the issues of validity the study ensured objectivity by guaranteeing the total independence of the researcher through the use of structured instruments. the variables and constructs measured in the study were also delineated from carefully examined pre-existing theories and research findings to enhance the quality of the measures. the study further ensured that the content of the secondary data was appropriate, comprehensive and thoroughly covered the intended variables without which all dubious secondary data were discarded. similarly, the statistical procedures applied to the data and assumptions required for their application were complied with to avoid conclusions which can falsely influence practice and further research. in terms of reliability, the secondary and primary data collected by the study to answer the research questions of the study were factual, (i.e. either education graduate ‘chose education’ or ‘were redirected’ and ‘entered the profession’ after graduation or ‘declined’) denoting that the results of the study were amenable to replication. ethical consideration informed consent was sought from the institutions involved in this study, namely malawi ministry of education, the six education divisions of malawi, university of malawi central office and chancellor college. this allowed the study to access the official records from which secondary data were generated. similarly, prior to interviews with education graduates who could not be traced on secondary data sources, all relevant information about the researcher and the study in general were university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 29 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 presented to the respondents to gain their informed consent and that the right to withdraw was also guaranteed. the official records and data collected by the study were held with utmost confidentiality and the respondents and personnel from institutions involved in the study were informed that the study by its nature did not expose them to any risk or harm. limitations of the study the study succumbed to the issue of documents selective survival bias, since the entrance examination results book of 2001 was not found at the university office. as a result, the choices of programme of study for education graduates of 2006 were not collected and accordingly omitted in the analysis of data on the third research question. the study also did not examine other factors that influence the education graduates entrance into the teaching profession, as well as the impact of the university of malawi admission/selection policy on the retention and commitment of the redirected education graduate teachers to the teaching profession. this could have been ideal, but it was beyond the scope of this study to examine such issues. results of the study choice of study programme during university admission/selection the figure 1 below shows the choice of study programme made by education graduates during their university admission. while 46% of the education graduates from 2005 to 2009 chose education as one of the choices to be considered for admission into the university, the majority of education graduates (54%) did not indicate education among all their three choices but were redirected to education by the university. figure 1: choice of study programme during the university of malawi admission 46% 54% choice of study programme during admission to university chose education redirected to education wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 30 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 education graduates entrance into the teaching profession the study found that in 2005, 84.8.6% of the education graduates from university of malawi, chancellor college entered the teaching profession after graduation while 15.2% declined. in 2006, 84.7% entered while 15.3% declined, in 2007, 92.5% entered while 7.5% declined. 88.2% of the education graduates entered the teaching profession in 2008 while 11.8% declined, and 88.6% entered in 2009 while 11.4% declined (figure 2). this shows that from 2005 to 2009, 87.8% of the education graduates entered the teaching profession after graduation while 12.2% declined. the study further found that the majority of education graduates who entered the teaching profession were 46.4% of those who did not choose education (redirected to education) during university admission, whereas slightly fewer graduates that chose education entered the teaching profession (42.6%). figure 2: graduates entrance into the teaching profession relationship between university selection policy and entrance into the teaching profession to examine whether the two variables “university selection policy” and “entrance into the teaching profession” were associated the study computed the χ2 test of independence using the 2x2 contingency table of observed and expected frequencies (table 1). 84.8% 15.2% 84.7% 15.3% 92.5% 7.5% 88.2% 11.8% 88.6% 11.4% 0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0% entered declined graduate cohort in years e n tr a n c e d e c is io n graduate entrance into the teaching profession 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 31 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 table 1: (2x2) contingency table for entrance into teaching and the university selection policy entrance into teaching profession university selection policy declined entered total redirected 41 (34.2) 268 (274.8) 309 chose education 23 (29.8) 246 (239.2) 269 marginal total 64 514 578 the study found that the computed χ2 (1df) was 3.265, p = 0.071 and did not exceed the critical value of χ20.05 (1df) = 3.84. it was concluded that whether an education graduate entered or declined to enter the teaching profession (entrance into teaching) did not depend on whether they chose or were redirected to education (selection policy). discussion the study has shown that fewer education graduates from university of malawi chancellor college from 2005 to 2009 (46%) chose education while the majority of the education graduates (54%) were redirected to education as they did not indicate education among all their three choices during university admission. this conforms to findings by nampota (2009) and mtika and gates (2010) that prospective secondary school teachers who do not compete successfully in the programmes of their choice but still qualify for selection during university admission are sometimes simply redirected to study education at the university of malawi against their wish. this implies that entry into teacher education for the 54% of the education graduates in this study was not by design, rather it was an unintended happening. these are the type of education graduates or prospective teachers that the studies reviewed in this paper describe as having little or no initial motivation and commitment to the teaching profession and predict that they are less likely to enter the teaching profession after graduation (chan, 2006; oplatka, 2007). the study further found that 87.8% of the education graduates from 2005 to 2009 entered the teaching profession after graduation while 12.2% declined. surprisingly, among the education graduates who entered the teaching profession were 46.4% of those who were redirected to education compared to only 42.6% of the graduates that chose education during university admission. it is not clear what compelled education graduates who were ‘redirected to education’ to consider entering the teaching profession more than those who chose education during university admission. however, a wanangwa wanyasulu nyirenda chikazinga, richard walibwe nyirongo and bob wajizigha chulu 32 ajote vol. 7. no.1, pp. 19 -35 plausible explanation posited by some studies is that trainees that enter teacher education “by accident” or or were “motivated by extrinsic factors” can sometimes reconsider their initial motive due to the teacher education experiences and become committed to the profession after graduation (stokes, 2007). that is the faculty support, mentor support and teacher education preparation might have enhanced their sense of teacher efficacy (rots, et. al. 2010). most importantly, the study has shown that the wastage rate of education graduates was not associated with the university of malawi selection policy. that is whether education graduates ‘entered’ or ‘declined to enter’ the teaching profession was not related to whether they were ‘redirected’ or ‘chose’ education during the university admission or selection. this is contrary to wide speculations and anecdotal reports which attributed the decision by education graduate to decline to enter the teaching profession after graduation (teacher wastage) to the university of malawi selection “redirected” policy. basically, redirection to education during university admission signifies “lack of initial motivation and commitment”, but the findings of this study contradicted findings reported by most studies which ascertained that education graduates with ‘little initial motivation and commitment to teaching’ were less likely to join teaching after graduation (bullard, 1998; macdonald, 1999). this clearly shows that the positive relationship between ‘initial motivation for teaching’ and ‘entrance into the teaching profession’ found by some researchers (wang and fwu, 2001; chang, 2006) was not conclusive in explaining teacher wastage. this suggest that the initial motivation hardly accounted for the entrance decision of education graduates from chancellor college which begs to seek the role of other factors. conclusion the findings of this study have shown that the majority of education graduates from the university of malawi, chancellor college from 2005 to 2009, were redirected to study education confirming findings of other studies that in developing countries not all student teachers purposely enter teaching education ‘entry by design’as entry into teacher education happen by accident, ‘unintended happening’ for some. the study further revealed that the university of malawi admission/selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession were independent of each other. this is contrary to wide speculations and anecdotal reports which attribute the education graduates’ decision to decline to enter the teaching profession to the university of malawi selection “redirected” policy. thus, this study provides empirical support to the university of malawi selection ‘redirected’ policy. considering that few talented people opt for education as they make choices during university admission, their university of malawi selection policy and entrance of education graduates into the teaching profession 33 ajote vol. 7. no.1 pp. 19 -35 redirection to study education does not have any significant association with declining to enter the teaching profession after graduation. therefore, if necessary the ‘redirected’ policy should continue. however, there is need for further studies to investigate factors that drive the decision of education graduates to decline to enter the teaching profession. references bastick, t. 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(2006). in-service teacher perceptions of teaching as a career; motive and commitment in teaching. paper presented at the aare international education research conference, university of western sydney, parramatta campus, sydney, australia. chikazinga, w.w.n., chulu, b.w. and nyirongo, r.w. (2014). wastage rate of education graduates from university of malawi, chancellor college from 2005 to 2009. educational planning. 21, (4), 5-24 chimwenje, d. (2003). secondary teacher education in malawi. paper presented at an international seminar on teacher education held on 27-28 march, at chancellor college, zomba. doliopoulou, e. 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(3), 275-280. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-354x.htm african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 70 79 accent and ugandan students’ comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms: an experimental study. imelda kemeza1, sudi balimuttajjo mbarara university of science and technology, uganda and dinesh g. sarvate college of charleston, usa abstract: the embrace of diversity and multiculturalism in education facilitates the broadening of students’ experiences as they engage with teachers and classmates from backgrounds different than their own. however, while the positive effects of diversity on students are apparent, few studies have examined possible negative challenges that diversity might have on students. where most subject matter is taught via classroom lectures and the lecture material is presented by a speaker with a different accent than the student is used to hearing, does it make the material harder for the student to understand? on the other hand, could it increase the focus and engagement required by the students in the classroom, and in the process increase their understanding? in this vein, our research sought understand whether students’ learning of the subject matter hindered when they are taught material by a teacher with a different accent. to this end, we designed a simple experiment with a small group of undergraduate students in uganda, to address this question, the result of which we present in this study. keyword: accent, english speaker, comprehension, mathematical concepts, uganda. introduction: in today's world of shrinking global distances, increasing human migration across countries and continents, and increasing global trade, it is inevitable that students will come across teachers who are completely different from them by race, culture, mannerism, or accent. it has been noted that 1 contact: imelda kemeza. email: ikemeza@must.ac.ug accent and ugandan students’ comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms: an experimental study 71 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 even though the instruction itself may be given in a familiar language like english, hurdles still exist. students might perceive foreign teachers’ accents as strange and incomprehensible (kolapo, 2009). in addition, it is not only the accent but also the syntactic structure that an english speaker uses that may affect student learning. it is the authors’ experience that for most students, learning usually gets better as time passes and students get used to the teachers’ accent. however, there are very few, if any, studies that highlight the issue of accent in the classroom and its impact on learning outcomes in institutions of higher learning in uganda. therefore, we wish to examine accent as an important communication hindrance to learning in mathematics. uganda has 40 known living indigenous /native languages. a group of native speakers who keep in close contact grow to pronounce the same words differently from other groups of speakers of the same language and are said to speak the same language with different accents. uganda languages are grouped into three language families; bantu (examples include, nyoro, tooro, and runyankole), central sudanic (or nilo-saharan, examples, including, aringa, lugbara, and pokot), and nilotic (examples include acholi and alur. the central sudanic language family comprises of 60 languages, the nilotic 29 and bantu 12 languages. mbarara university of science and technology, the locus of this study, admits students from across these language families. variation in pronunciation of words based on different accents implies that it is easier for students to understand the spoken english of those who pronounce the same words as themselves. some accents substitute sounds, syllables, and letters making for significant variations to the tone, pitch, and the sounds of words; for example, l is substituted for r and others substitute ch for s and yet others elide some syllables that others sound out. this accent variation affects how they pronounce and comprehend english words during their education from elementary through secondary school. a non-uganda speaker of english thus introduces significant variations to the pronunciation and understanding of english words. most often, teachers of mathematics, including in uganda, expose students to subject content through expositions on the white/blackboard. alongside board work, teachers of mathematics help students solve problems through explanations to become more successful in targeted mathematics areas (gurel cennetkusu, koc, & teker kozcaz, 2020). typically, as teachers solve problems on the boards, they are equally teaching how to solve similar problems in other topic areas on the board, i.e., transfer of learning with help of analogues. of the two teaching methods, accent differences likely imelda kemeza, sudi balimuttajjo, and dinesh g. sarvate 72 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 affect students' comprehension of board work less than with oral explanations where there is a high probability of accent domination. theoretical background a teacher’s accent can have direct and indirect effects on learning activities. the difficulty is twofold; the student’s inability to comprehend the lecturer’s accent as well as the second problem of the consequent hindrance to understanding the subject content (park, klieve, tsurutani & harte, 2017; sicat, 2011; campbell & li, 2008). multiple studies have investigated the effects of english as a second language on comprehensibility using rating scales and methodologies (gurel cennetkusu, koc, & teker kozcaz, 2020; hou, 2018; valles, 2015; & lippi-green, 2012). however, only a few studies have investigated students understanding in mathematics when english is used as a medium of instruction in the course of verbal exchange through questions, instructions and explanations between students and lecturers. an early study by taussky (1970) posits that when students are introduced to mathematical terms, concepts, and information, (like theorems about the sum of the squares that we used in the current study), the chances are that the students comprehend the functionality of integers or prime numbers but not the theorems underlying them, such as expressing them as sums of different number of squares. in this study, apart from having prior knowledge of sums of squares in the pythagoras theorem, students had no access to the pre-recorded material and the quiz that was used in the study. comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning of an action or concept. in theory as well as in practice, comprehension is seen as the basis for quality teaching and learning (smith, 1975). this is crucial because the ways students comprehend squares of integers is the foundation for all their further interaction with squares of various numbers. to achieve this, however, students must invest some mental effort in quality learning (salomon, 1983) in a setting where the teaching is clear, bold, and connected to the context (keene & zimmermann, 1997). a difference in accent between teachers and students may pose an obstacle to achieving the goal of clear teaching, especially in mathematics instruction. comprehension of mathematical concepts requires students to become familiar with words whose mathematical meaning is different from their general and commonly associated meanings. for example, take the word “prime”, wherein common language it means “first” as in “prime minister” or “main” as in “prime suspect”, in math it accent and ugandan students’ comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms: an experimental study 73 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 takes on a whole new meaning. to progress in math, irrespective of their own dialects and accents, students must deduce meaning from the speaker’s oral explanation in order to construct an understanding of the mathematical concepts involved in the seemingly complicated mix of information in phrases such as: “any positive integer can be expressed as the sum of at most 4 squares” “by exactly two if a prime, giving a remainder of 1 when divided by 4” “if the remainder is 3, then the prime can be expressed as the sum of three squares” problem-solving is an integral part of mathematics education. it is critical for students to decipher the true meaning of words when they listen to verbal descriptions of mathematical concepts. in this study, we test students’ ability to understand oral mathematical examples, which understanding they can then successfully use to solve problems on a quiz. aim and questions addressed the aim of the study was to assess the impact of a teacher’s accent on a learner’s comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms. method and description of the experiment in trying to determine the effect of accent on the understanding of mathematical terms and concepts, we designed an experiment strictly about learning mathematical concepts with the only variable being what accent was used in presenting the material. a script was written demonstrating a math concept. this script was independently read verbatim by ugandan and non-ugandan english speaking instructors who were recorded on tape. a neutral person then played back the pre-recorded material to students who were asked to listen to the material and answer in writing some questions based on the materials to which they just listened. by eliminating the visual presence of the teachers, we were able to control for the individual mannerism and language structure of the teachers, and also remove any preconceived ideas or hesitation on the part of the students that might arise when they initially see a teacher in person. in addition, we wanted to avoid the visual and written forms of communication that board work introduces. we chose our topic of study such that we could ask students to solve problems without having to explain solutions using board work or any practice problems. in so doing we directly avoided the effect of teacher’s written communication on students’ understanding and were able to isolate just the effects of verbal communication. imelda kemeza, sudi balimuttajjo, and dinesh g. sarvate 74 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 participants secondand third-year ugandan undergraduate university students were purposely recruited. they were all volunteers and had no prior knowledge of the content in the mathematics passage. only students majoring in mathematics were eligible to participate in the study; students majoring in chemistry, physics and biology but with mathematics as an elective were excluded. for the study, two different recorded readings, one by an english speaker with a native accent and the other by a non-ugandan english speaker with a foreign accent, were played to two different sets of students. each set of students was asked to listen to the recording with the goal of understanding the material and then was given a quiz on the information presented. the procedure was as follow: ● a recorded mathematical passage of a non-ugandan english speaker accent was played to the first set of selected ugandan undergraduate students. the students spoke any of the three main ugandan language families as their first language but routinely received instruction in english which is their second language. ● a recording of the same mathematical passage by an english speaker with a native ugandan accent was played to the other set of ugandan undergraduate students. these students also spoke any of the main three language families in uganda as their first language, but also routinely received instruction in english which is their second language. ● after listening to the passage, the students answered questions from a quiz on the topic. english is the medium of instruction in uganda and is used as a second language by all the students who participated in the study. variables and measures instrument the two speakers employed to pre-record the mathematics instruction for this experiment, the first with a non-ugandan accent, and the other with a native ugandan accent, both learned english as a second language. both of them speak english with clearly different accents and consequently their pronunciation of mathematical terms and concepts that are related to integers and squares were also different. accent and ugandan students’ comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms: an experimental study 75 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 both speakers jointly designed a passage on “positive integers as a sum of squares.” each took turns reading the passage to control for recognition errors associated with context, auditory, and timing. the same recording machine was used by both speakers to control for hesitation and voice quality on the mathematical terms and concepts. data management each group took the quiz after being exposed to the material only once. both sets of students were comparable in education and were randomly selected from the same initial group. each set independently listened to either the non-ugandan or native ugandan instructor’s pre-recorded mathematics passage in english, after which they answered questions from a quiz on the topic. response forms were marked l1, and l2. forms marked l1 were tagged to a ugandan english speaker accent and l2 to the non-ugandan with foreign accent. none of the participants had prior access to the passage or the quiz. data analyses correct responses indicate comprehension of the mathematical terms and concepts. questions 1 to 3 dealt with basic introduction of the squares. questions 4-7 required additional comprehension and processing by the students to answer the questions. for this, the students needed to understand the speaker’s oral explanation of how to express numbers as sums of squares. these questions directly tested whether students' understanding of the mathematical meanings were affected by the pronunciation of mathematical terms. results: the results are presented in table 1 as shown below. table 1: students quiz responses speaker quiz question l1 l2 (a,b,c) (a,b,c) q1 (9,0,0) (9,0,0) q2 (9,0,0) (9,0,0) q3 (8,0,1) (8,0,1) imelda kemeza, sudi balimuttajjo, and dinesh g. sarvate 76 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 q4 (6,2,1) (1,5,3) q5 (2,1,6) (0,3,6) q6 (4,4,1) (2,3,4) q7 (6,0,3) (4,0,5) number of students to each speaker 9 9 key: l1 : stands for local speaker l2 : stands for foreign speaker the ordered triple (a, b , c) indicates the frequency of answer where ● a=correct answers ● b= correct answers but based on wrong reasons ● c= wrong answers discussion for q 1, 2, and 3: the first three questions were meant to be straightforward. the answers were given in the reading itself, except that the answer to question 3 involved a concept. the answer “4” to question 3 was correct and it was not necessary to write “maximum” in words, hence, if a student wrote “requires 4 squares” it was an incorrect answer. every positive integer does not “require” four squares in its representation as the sum of the squares. with regard to q4, the answer with correct reasoning must have three components: first, 37 is a prime, second, the remainder of 1 is obtained after dividing by 4, and then recognizing the fact that only two squares are needed and are guaranteed by the result in the reading. for q5, the answer with correct reasoning must have four components: first, 43 is a prime, second, the remainder of 3 is obtained after dividing by 4, and then recognizing the fact that at least three squares were needed but are not guaranteed by the result in the reading. so, students had to actually find a correct/required representation. (e.g., 43 = 52 + 32 +32.). accent and ugandan students’ comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms: an experimental study 77 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 in q6, here students should not have taken the remainder as it was not a prime and they should have indicated that, at most, 4 squares were needed, and they should have checked and recognized that they can do better: 38=62+12+12. for q7, our expected answer was 1 square, as 25=52, and only one square was needed. though our data set was small, we saw clear differences between the two groups. when exposed to a teacher with a non-native accent, the students’ answers to the quiz clearly show their inability to understanding the instructor’s oral explanation of mathematical terms and concepts. this, however, was not exhibited by the second set of students who heard exactly the same material presented in a native tone and accent. for example, two students understood that the remainder is 1, then they need two squares, and if the remainder is 3, they may need 3 or 4 squares, but these students assumed the answer is remainder +1 squares. then instead of the remainder, they used either the quotient or actual answer in decimals and rounded it up to give the answer to the number of squares needed for various numbers asked on the test, namely 37, 43, and 38. conclusion given that student will often interact with teachers of different nationalities and with different accents in the context of globalization and internationalization of education, our study flags the possibility of a resultant barrier that this might pose to the student’s learning and, specifically, and specifically in our case, the challenge to their understanding of mathematical terms and concepts. this, however, can be overcome by acknowledging the problem and working for a solution. foreign teachers may have to do more preparation than previously expected to overcome the communication hurdles. for example, to be an effective teacher, they may have to provide more written explanations and do more board work than their native counterparts. in addition, this difficulty also likely arises in the opposite direction. universities and schools that are actively recruiting foreign students may find that foreign students have difficulty adjusting to instructions given due to difficulties with native accent. these students may require extra or alternative methods of instruction in order for them to be successful. to combat the possible barrier to learning due to foreign accent, local talents must be encouraged to become teachers and local communities must endeavour to retain them by according them proper pay and respect. even if a foreign candidate may be slightly more qualified in terms of imelda kemeza, sudi balimuttajjo, and dinesh g. sarvate 78 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 certification, nonetheless, universities hiring local candidates may be better for the promotion of students’ learning outcomes and in the long run is likely to be more cost-efficient. in conclusion, although diversity in education is considered to be generally positive in terms of the exposure and experiences it brings, it can also bring hurdles. learners as well as instructors therefore need to expend effort to ensure that a difference in communication does not hinder learning. disclaimer this paper is based on the experiment conducted by the authors; one of them an instructor on fellowship appointment from the us and the other two, host country instructors, during our interactions with students on a science with education training. the opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this study are those of the authors and do not reflect the views of mbarara university of science and technology. references campbell, j., & li, m. (2008). asian students’ voices: an empirical study of asian students’ learning experiences at a new zealand university. journal of studies in international education, 12,375-396. doi:10.1177/1028315307299422. gurel cennetkusu, n., koc, h., & teker kozcaz, e. (2020). an experimental study on incidental voca-bulary acquisition: incidental vocabulary acquisition in foreign language by visual literary quotations. open access library journal, 7:e6176. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106176. hou, y. a. (2018). a study of the role of strategy in foreign language learning. open journal of modern linguistics, 8, 151-175. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojm.2018.85016. keene, e. o. & zimmermann, s. (1997). mosaic of thought: the power of comprehension strategy instruction. heinemann. kolapo, f. j. (2009). immigrant academics and cultural challenges in a global environment. amherst, ny: cambria press. lippi-green, r. (2012). english with an accent: language, ideology, and discrimination in the united states, newyork: routlege. 354page. isbn-100415559103/ ibsn-13:9780415559102. salomon, g. (1983). the differential investment of mental effort in learning from different sources. education psychologist, 18, 42-50. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106176 accent and ugandan students’ comprehension of mathematical concepts and terms: an experimental study 79 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.70-79 sicat, r. m. (2011). foreign students’ cultural adjustment and coping strategies. international proceedings of economics development & research, 5, 338-341. available at http://www.ipedr.com. smith, f. (1994). understanding reading: a psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read. hillside, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. taussky, o. (1970). sums of squares. available at https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/ford/olgataussky.pdf republic of uganda (1995). constitution of the republic of uganda, 1995. park, e., klieve, h., tsurutani, c., & harte, w. (2017). international students’ accented english, communication difficulties and developed strategies, journal of cogent education, 4(1). valles, b. (2015). “the impact of accented english on speech comprehension” (2015). open access theses & dissertations, 1175. available at https://digitalcommons.utep.edu/open_etd/1175. http://www.ipedr.com/ https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/ford/olgataussky.pdf african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 321-343 institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso, bule hora university, bule hora, ethiopia haramaya university, haramaya, ethiopia robadanbi@gmail.com dttadesse@gmail.com abstract this paper assesses the role played by the institutional context in the preparation of critically reflective tefl teachers in the postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) program of dilla, haramaya, and hawasa universities, ethiopia. it examines the extent to which structured opportunities for reflection are used in the three institutions. a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies was employed for collecting information regarding reflective practice in the pgdt program of the three universities. multilevel mixed-method sampling techniques were utilized to select participants. data were collected using questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and observation, and interpreted using simple statistical analysis and descriptive narrative approach. the study shows that most of the participants lack sufficient theoretical and practical knowledge of reflective practice. it shows that structured opportunities for reflection were not created for student teachers to practice reflection. the researchers, therefore, recommend that the government, curriculum designers, teacher education institution, and teacher educators create a common understanding about the goal of the program, and deliberately setup some structured opportunities to promote reflection in the institutions. key words institutional context; pgdt program; reflection; reflective practice; structured opportunity roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 322 introduction since the launching of education and training policy of 1994 (moe, 1994), teacher education program in ethiopia has passed through several reforms in a bid to produce competent teachers for secondary schools. from 1991 to 2003 secondary school teacher education was offered within a four-year training program; from 2003 to 2010 another program which was offered within three-year timing was launched called teacher education system overhaul (teso); and in 2011, the currently ongoing postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) was launched (moe, 1994; moe, 2003; moe, 2009). the pgdt program, designed to be completed within a oneyear duration, gives due attention to theories and practice of teaching. unlike teso, the pgdt program mainly focuses on pedagogical and practical issues in teaching; it assumes that its registrant student teachers would have acquired enough content knowledge during their undergraduate studies. it was founded on the education and training policy guidelines of federal government ministry of education which aimed at improving teachers’ and facilitators’ skills through a national program of teacher professional development (moe, 2015). the pgdt program pays considerable attention to pragmatism or reflective practice approach with the intention of making teaching the profession of choice. the curriculum framework of pgdt program (moe, 2009) states: this program has made this issue a top priority and intends to build a teacher education program that is based on pragmatism and reflective practitioner orientations. change in ethiopian school necessitates graduates that challenge the existing status quo through reflection and changing the existing culture could be possible by involving the teachers in self-study and practice (moe, 2009, p. 5). accordingly, to achieve the proposed goal of the program the ministry of education decided to include relevant foundation courses and core concepts in the curriculum. these include, school and society, psychological foundation of learning and development, teaching in multicultural setting, secondary school curriculum and instruction, teachers as reflective practitioners, and english language skills, and subject area methodology (moe, 2009). in addition to the single course on reflective practice, these courses are all framed with reflective activities. the program simultaneously offers both theories of teaching and practicum (practice of teaching). the practicum is organized into three phases: a week of intensive school observation institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 323 before starting the training, 30% of the credit hours of each course allocated to practical works and projects in schools, and independent teaching practice (moe, 2009, p. 13). one of the course requirements for this program is titled ‘teachers as reflective practitioners’ (trp). in this program, the concept of reflection for pedagogical and content learning and professional development received more attention than in former reforms. its curriculum framework, policy guidelines, policy mission statements, and all courses in the program stress the concept of reflective practice so that student teachers might be able to examine their assumptions, practices, teaching/learning theories, and educational settings (moe, 2009). however, the current authors believe that beyond the rhetoric articulated in the curriculum framework of the pgdt program, the extent to which theory and practice are integrated must be examined. in fact, great effort has been devoted to the study of the pgdt program since its establishment as a teacher education program in two modalities—summer and regular (margo, 2014; mekonnen, 2017; gemachu et al, 2017; awayehu, 2016). most extant studies on the program investigated the practical aspects of the program to see the integration of theory and practice. some employed experimental case studies to investigate whether student teachers were taught how to practice critical reflective skills (birbirso, 2014; gebremedin, 2013). nevertheless, there are still some interesting and relevant problems to be addressed. for example, the findings by both gebremedin (2013) and birbirso (2014) indicate that both teachers who graduated from the program and student teachers in the program lack the basic skills of reflective practice. the question arises as to why; what challenges are there to the practice of reflection; what critical ingredients does the program lack which availability may help student teachers to have a firm understanding of the reflective practice? perhaps attention has not been given to some suggestions of dewey (1933), freire (1972), brookfield (2017, 1995), day (1999), loughran (2005), and farrell (2013) and other scholars of reflective practice regarding the implementation of reflective practice. for example, these scholars believe that it is impossible to empower student teachers to challenge traditional and existing values without creating a welcoming environment for them. furthermore, in order to become reflective practitioners, the individuals should cultivate personal qualities of openness to new information, a willingness to be challenged and a deep hope that change is possible (fook and gardner, 2007). this implies that successful introduction of reflective practice in teacher education requires a right institutional context and a ready student mindset. therefore, the roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 324 purpose of this study is to investigate whether the efl pgdt programs of the three universities have such an enabling context for student teachers to practice reflection during formal training. the following were the research questions investigated: • to what extent is the condition of reflective practice established in efl focused pgdt program in order to promote reflection? • how do student teachers, instructors, and program coordinators think about these conditions in their institutions? conceptual framework while reflective practice in teacher education in general and in the pre-service teacher education program is not without its own shortcoming, it has nonetheless been highly recommended for teacher-learning and development. many scholars agree that reflective practice is a better means to help student teachers understand the potential impediments to their progress during their learning and teaching practices (grant and zeichner, 1984; taylor, 2006; çimer, çimer, and vekli, 2013; day, 2001). however, the implementation of reflective practice is not a simple task. it requires the facility of enabling factors (day, 1999; richards, 2011). in this paper, these enabling factors, which will be discussed in the following sections, are referred to as the institutional context (structured opportunities) for reflection. institutional context the condition of the institution plays an important role either to impede or ensure the progress of the implementation of reflective practice in teacher education. minott (2009) for example acknowledged that for professional learning to occur via the act and processes of reflection, the context in which reflective practitioners operate must be supportive of this kind of learning. for example, the assumption that reflective practice is too simple to practice, resistance to reflection on the part of teachers themselves, and the blocks to an ethical-political reflection that teaching environments and institutions erect are impediments in the path of proper reflective practice (markham, 1999 cited in minott, 2009). a teacher education institution where different modes of reflective practice is under consideration will afford student teachers the safe enabling environment to explore their own beliefs, assumptions, and values about their practice. such an environment will promote student teachers’ confidence to talk and write about their beliefs and institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 325 practice as well as engage in classroom observations to compare their beliefs and practices (farrell, 2013). maxwell (2009) has observed that an institution with a busy and disorganized schedule could not use reflective practice for its professional learning and would be unable to contribute to teachers’ professional growth. cole (1997) also remarked that reflective practice needs to receive institutional support as a legitimate form of professional development as reflective skills such as critical thinking and self-examination never come naturally but rather call for the provision of set-times for reflection, thinking about the process, and consistent focus. therefore, program designers must include in their programs all the elements making for an appropriate learning atmosphere and structured opportunities for reflection that include time and place, shared understanding of the theory, a culture of inquiry and learning through action, and an effective reward system (brookfield, 1995; day, 1999; maxwell, 2009, emphasis is added). we now examine each of these elements. time set aside for reflection loughran (2006) notes that learning through the process of reflection can face difficulties of time constraints. he writes: the ‘when’ of reflection (the time of reflection in relation to the pedagogical experience) influences the learning that might be drawn from that experience. three time frames for reflection are discernible: before, during and after an experience. at each of these times one’s thoughts and actions may be considerably different so that what one learns will be influenced accordingly (loughran, 2006, p. 17 emphasis is original). he suggests the importance of time (the when of reflection) to learn from experience through the setting of a different timeframe for reflection. this indicates that learning through reflective practice needs considerable attention and conscious planning. similarly, for reflective practice in teacher education to be a priority, how to effectively integrate it with and implement it in learning activities must also be a priority. this assigns student teachers some time to examine their learning, practice, assumption, and beliefs. maxwell (2009) asserts that ignoring time for reflection prevents student teachers from staying focused, finding a clear picture to follow, and from examining their emotional difficulties. but if the time is carved out formally for reflection, student teachers are likely to do reflective thinking. roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 326 shared understanding on the goal of the program martin-beltran and peercy’s (2014) study of teacher learning as activity shaped by a greater network of relationships revealed that teaching goals, shared artifacts, administrative support, school norms and division of labor were important features that consolidate collaborative spirit among school teachers. as a result, for the better implementation of reflective practice in the teacher education program, having a shared understanding of the goal and the intended outcome of the program is very important. in the same way, teachers who teach in different contexts need to acquire the appropriate contextual knowledge that will enable both teacher educators and student teachers to have shared goals of the institution to function in those contexts. a teacher education institution can create a school culture made up of teaching methods and relationships within the classroom and the school as fixed behavior that student teachers go through for their reflective practice. richards (2011) emphasized that such fundamental techniques and behaviors should be communicated to all concerned staff and learners. learning to teach, therefore, must involve shared understanding or knowledge about classroom dynamics and the rules and behaviors specific to particular settings. this understanding helps the student teachers to be socialized into a professional culture with its own goal, shared values, and norms of conduct (richards, 2011). pre-informing student teachers about the objective of the program, and the theory of reflective practice, what skills it requires, and how it is implemented reduces challenges that could hinder both student teachers and teacher educators from implementing the new guideline for reflective practice in our case. culture of critical inquiry maxwell (2009) argues that the value gained from reflection depends on the type of questions asked. he says that the better the questions, the more knowledge you gain from your thinking. however, the type of questions one asks or reflects on depends on the culture of inquiry that the institution allows for its staff and student teachers. that means the culture of teacher education institutions plays a pivotal role in supporting student teachers’ stance towards inquiry, which is one of the attributes of reflective practice in teaching that distinguishes reflective practitioners from their non or less reflective colleagues (day, 1993). also as noted by valli et al. (2006), “as the institution discussed desirable features of the program, an agreement emerged that the core institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 327 courses should build teachers’ capacities to inquire into their teaching practices and student learning (p. 97)”. thus, for student teachers to ask a relevant question about institutional setting in general and classroom dynamics in particular, the existence of a trusting and encouraging condition to support their ability and willingness to inquire into different problems without any feeling of negative consequence is a necessity. in trustful atmosphere, according to brookfield (1995), people know that public disclosure of private errors or critical questions will not lead to negative consequences. the teacher education institution is therefore in the proper position to initiate the culture of inquiry by removing cultural inhibitors and creating an opportunity for the student to critically question existing status quos and predetermined teaching-learning principles. a separate place for reflection setting a secure place for reflection is another important element in a teacher education program that embraces the reflective practice. maxwell (2009) also argues that as much as any kind of thinking, reflection requires an isolated place and unorganized time and reflection simply don’t mix. some people feel that reflection can be done on a bus while going home or at a cafeteria while dirking tea or coffee (brookfield, 1995). however, to develop the culture of reflection in teacher education institution there should be a place officially reserved for the practice of reflection. an absence of this element would otherwise provide an excuse for teacher educators and student-teacher to ignore the new approach of teaching. immersion in practice-based learning another principle for the embracement of reflective practice in the teacher education program is immersing student teachers in practice-based learning. maxwell (2009) again says that writing down the good thoughts that come out of one’s reflective thinking has value, but nothing helps you to grow like putting one’s thoughts into action. to do that, student teachers and teacher educators must be intentional. this is one way that helps teachers to bridge the gap between theory and practice (loughran and hamilton, 2016). from this student teachers can learn how to have perspective within context, how to connect their knowledge with action, and how to plan and get direction for future concerns. this process becomes an invaluable tool for a teacher’s personal growth (maxwell, 2009). roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 328 rewarding critical thinking creating the reward system for active involvers is also an important condition to enhance reflective practice in teacher education programs (brookfield, 1995). once the appropriate structured opportunity for reflection has been created in the teacher education program and the old patterns of behavior have become deconstructed, the resulting new atmosphere leads people to act differently. this promotes desirable professional habit in which reflection become normal in the teaching-learning setting. the most important thing to start with is the prevailing rewards system. where a focus on important critical skills is supported by a reward system—praise, giving of responsibility, promotion, certifying, etc.,—reflection becomes a great deal of professional habit in the institution (brookfield, 1995; day, 1999; maxwell, 2009). collaborative learning finally, reflective practice can be instigated in the context of collaborative work which helps both teacher educators and student teachers to reflect on their experience and to experiment with alternative approaches to teaching and learning. as noted by johnson(2009), from a sociocultural perspective, teacher cognition originates in and is fundamentally shaped by the specific social activities in which teachers engage. thus, teachers’ knowledge and beliefs are constructed through and by the normative ways of thinking, talking, and acting that have been historically and culturally embedded in the communities of practice in which they participate (as both learners and teachers) (p. 17) the clue in this quote is the ability of social activities to shape those who engaged in it; in this case student teachers. freire (2005) also strongly believes that substantive educational change cannot occur without conversation and collaborative learning. similarly, though brookfield (1995, 2017) believes that isolated individual reflection is a necessary condition in the empowering of teachers through the self-discovery of their practical knowledge, he calls for collaborative reflection. he believes that unless we are involved in those activities with critical friends we produce or repeat the old culture as it is. horn (2000) suggests that critical conversations facilitate new educational designs, creative problem-solving, and personal and collective critical reflection on theory and practice. the most important attribute of this kind of conversations in facilitating learning is their ability institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 329 to empower those who participate in them. when participants gain knowledge through the process of collaborative learning or through conversation on their experiences of relationships, visions, emotions, and self-esteem, their knowledge of critical reflection increases (horn, 2000). therefore, the attainment of personal practical knowledge, critical reflection, is most effective when it occurs through the medium of critical conversation with other friendly professionals. research methodology study sites this study was conducted at three of the higher learning institutions, dilla, haramaya, and hawasa universities, ethiopia. these sites were selected based on the opportunity created by their relative nearness to the researchers’ work and study stations (cf. holliday, 2007). dilla and hawasa universities, respectively, are the institutions where the researchers have been working collaboratively with some of the schools’ english language staff on issues of curriculum review for undergraduate and graduate programs. haramaya university, on the other hand, is where the researchers work and haramaya the city where they live. the population of the study was all the prospective trainees enrolled in postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) in the three universities in the year 2017/18 of regular modality. the study employed a multilevel mixed-method sampling technique conducted at three different institutions and among participants of the postgraduate diploma in teaching program. the study considered only the regular modality of the 2018 enrollments. sampling techniques the participants involved in the quantitative part of this study were student teachers of efl pgdt program of three universities. to establish a sampling frame, the researchers obtained and carefully evaluated the respective list of the population of the three universities to ensure that they are correct and complete. the information gathered for this purpose showed that the size of the population of english focus student teachers on duty in the 2017/2018 academic year was for haramaya university (hru) 72, hawasa university (hu) 78, and dilla university (du) 45. the total number of the participants was 195. however, the actual number of the population when the study took place was 164 (hu = 67, du = 45, and hru = 52). finally, yamane’s formula (i.e. n = n/1+ (n) (0.05)2) (israel, 1992) was applied to determine sample size. accordingly, 143 roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 330 samples were selected through simple random sampling techniques. purposive sampling technique of the non-probability sampling method was used to select 20 participants for the qualitative part of the study. the best cases among the population of the study were selected based on their roles, responsibility, the course offered, and affiliation to the home department (patton, 2015). all the participants gave relevant information about the context of the efl focus pgdt program. instruments for data collection a descriptive research design with a concurrent mixed (qualitative and quantitative) approach was employed to get a general picture of the current teacher training program in dilla, haramaya, and hawasa universities. the data for this study were direct account that participants provided in response to the research questions directed to them. because the research employed mixed-method, different data collection instruments such as the close-ended question, the semistructured interview, and the observation were utilized for this study. the questionnaire was administered to 143 student teachers and the interview to 12 student teachers (from the same population for the quantitative part of the study), 5 teacher educators and 3 program coordinators. the field observation of the classroom and institutional settings was made at two universities where the researchers stayed for a long period of time for this study. all data collected through interviews and observation were documented in the researchers’ diary and recorded on a video camera. during the interview, an attempt was made to probe the participants’ responses more deeply to get the latest information related to the teaching profession (cohen et al., 2011). methods of data analysis in this study, both quantitative and qualitative analytical procedures were used for the analysis. descriptive statistics, frequency, and percentage have been employed to analyze the quantitative data. the data collected through semi-structured interviews using a video camera was transcribed from participants’ native languages (amharic & afaan oromoo) into english. then the descriptive narrative analysis approach was used to summarize the data collected through interviews and observation field notes. the data were coded based on saldana’s (2013) coding system. the first major theme was identified after a thorough reading of the excerpts; secondly, sub-themes were identified; and finally, propositional statements were developed. to identify institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 331 individuals who provided the comments, identification codes were assigned to each participant (e.g. int-interview, st1-student no.1 at 8:30/may, 2018). the major theme identified in the study was institutional context and some sub-themes were categorized under the major theme. finally, the interpretation was made based on the propositional statement or theme developed from the topic coded. the purpose was to learn how participants felt, experienced, and practiced the concept of reflective practice during their professional training. the results of both qualitative and quantitative data were combined in the discussion section for a better understanding of the findings. results the major theme of this study was the critical role of institutional conditions in implementing and maintaining reflective practice. the findings mainly focus on student teachers' awareness about reflective practice and the incidence of structured opportunity for reflection (such as meeting, safety, reserved setting (time and place), strategic encouragement (rewarding), cooperative learning, modeling, and posing critical questions). the analysis was guided by the idea that reflective practice needs an enabling environment where practitioners could safely practice reflection as a carefully structured and disciplined process (john dewey 1938). consequently, the role that teacher education institutions could play to maintain the implementation of reflective practice was investigated and discussed below. the role of institutional condition to maintain reflective practice the findings on how much emphasis was exerted to improve institutional conditions to maintain reflective practice in pgdt program were presented in two separate sections: background information about reflective practice and structured opportunity for reflection. in the first section, student teachers’ background knowledge of reflective practice is discussed. student teachers’ background knowledge of reflective practice to investigate the participants' background knowledge of reflective practice, among other questions posed was, "have you had any information about reflective practice before joining pgdt program?" the purpose was to examine the link between the undergraduate program and teacher education program in the institutions. to assess this, descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, and non-parametric inferential statistics, i.e. chi-square statistics test (to roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 332 compare the difference between/among frequency distribution of the response) was utilized. the overall measurement results are summarized in table 4.1 below. table 1: frequency distribution of participants’ perception about reflective practice and chisquare test result variables response category frequency percent chisquare p-value have you had any information about rp before you join pgdt? yes, i have 26 21 43.460 .000 no, i haven’t 100 79 total 126 100 how did you hear about rp? from all courses in the program 9 7 125.360 .000 from the program coordinators 22 18 from the course trp 74 59 other sources 21 16 total 126 100 do you believe you have better knowledge about rp? yes, i believe 106 84 58.698 .000 no, i don’t believe 20 16 total 126 100 what new things did you learn from the course trp? teaching method 20 16 87.460 .000 reflecting on practice 76 60 assessing learning 22 18 nothing was new 8 6 total 126 100 institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 333 table 1 shows that of the 126 participants who completed the questionnaire, the majority of the respondents 100 (70%) replied that they came to the program without having information about reflective practice. only 25 participants (21%) said they came to the program with information about reflective practice. the chi-square test value, x2(df 1) =43.460, p<0.05 proved there is a significant difference between the frequency of the response category. this test revealed that the majority number of respondents joined the pgdt program without knowing reflective practice. in response to questions 2 (in the same table), 74 (59%) of the participants heard about reflective practice from the course titled teachers as a reflective practitioner, 22(18%) heard about it from the coordinators during orientation, and 21(17%) heard from other sources (independent reading). a significant difference is observed among the frequency response categories. this shows student teachers responded differently to the question they were asked of how they heard about reflective practice. the largest number of participants replied that the course reflective practice was the source of their information. this appears to be that student teachers heard about reflective practice from an individual course designed for that purpose rather than from all courses described in the curriculum framework. respondents were also asked if they believed they had acquired a better knowledge of the reflective practice. the larger number 106 (84%) replied that they had, while 20 (16%) replied that they did not acquire a better knowledge of reflective practice. there is a statistically significant difference between frequencies of the response categories. the larger number of respondents believed that they had acquired a better knowledge of the reflective practice. we wanted to examine what new skill student teachers learned from the course as elements of the reflective practice. most respondents (76/60%) stated that how to reflect on practice was new to them, while few (22/18%) saw how to assess the learning process as something new that they have learned from the course. the chi-square test value there is a significant difference among the frequencies of response categories. this shows that from the course teacher as a reflective practitioner, reflecting on practice was new for most student teachers. of the 14 interviewed student teachers, almost all participants reported that they came into the program without having information about reflective practice. the majority of those who responded had no information about the existence of the pgdt program, and most of them had roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 334 no interest to be a teacher. the original plan they had for their future was for some job opportunities other than teaching. to illustrate this, one individual stated that: i did not like the teaching profession before i joined this program. however, after i went through the program, some courses made me love the teaching profession. it gave me a clue how to interact with society, which helped me to see teaching beyond classroom activities (intstf1, 2018). in this interview script phrases such as ‘before i join this program’, and ‘after i went through the program’ show the process of change in the participant’s perception of the teaching profession. she remarked that what she gained from the training (the pgdt program) was a change in her perception of the teaching profession. in the same way, all teacher educators and program coordinators of all three universities admitted that the trainees of the pgdt program came in only with subject matter knowledge. the researchers, as instructors in these schools of undergraduate students, are witnesses that pedagogy courses are not offered to the students. thus, it can be concluded that the respondents had no information about reflective practice when they joined the pgdt program, but they heard about it and learned how to reflect on practice after they joined the program. however, field and classroom observations confirmed that though the reflective practice was taught, student teachers could not translate this knowledge into practice. for example, their conception of reflective practice was as classroom presentations and doing assignments and engaging in discussions with friends. structured opportunities for reflective practice this second section presents the extent to which the structured opportunity is recognized and valued in the three institutions for the practice of reflection. the variables such as meeting for reflection, strategic encouragement (reward), guarantee (freedom and safety), modeling, collaborative learning and time and place fixed for reflection purpose were tested using different measurement scales (yes/no, likert/likert type scales). the result was analyzed using frequency distribution and chi-square test statistics. the findings are summarized in the following table. institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 335 table 2: frequency of respondents’ opinion about structured opportunity for reflection no variables response category frequency percent chi-square p-value 1 have you ever met for reflection purpose yes, we have met 13 10 79.365 .000 no, we haven’t met 113 90 total 126 100 2 structured opportunity for reflection was deliberately allowed never 98 78 270.111 .000 rarely 18 14 sometimes 7 6 usually 3 2 certainly total 126 100 3 theory taught was linked with practice yes, it was practiced 19 15 78.905 .000 no, it wasn’t practiced 18 14 i am not sure 89 71 total 126 100 in table 2 above, 13(10%) of the respondents said that they had conducted a meeting for reflection purposes and 113(90%) of the participants said they didn’t meet for reflection. the chi-square test value, x2(df 1) = 79.365, p>0.05) proved there is significant difference among the frequencies of the response categories. the second variable in the above table contained five items (modeling, strategic encouragement, critical questioning, collaborative learning, and fixed time and pace) which later, during analysis, transformed into one variable structured opportunity for reflection to measure the extent to which this value was practiced by using five-point likert type scales. before roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 336 transforming the items into one variable, the consistency of each item was tested using cronbach's alpha coefficient (gaur and gaur, 2009). the cronbach's alpha value for the items was significant at .728 which is greater than .70, the cut-off point for items reliability (nunnally, 1978). therefore, these items are reliable to be transformed into one variable. the result showed that most participants, 98 (78%) reported that the opportunity for reflection was never recognized in the institution, and only very few respondents 18 (14%) replied that there are structured opportunities for reflection. thus, almost all participants negated the use of modeling, strategic encouragement, critical questioning, collaborative learning, and fixed time and place for the deliberate use of reflection. the chi-square test value x2(df = 4, n = 126) = 270.111, p>0.05 indicate the significant difference among the frequencies of response categories. thus, it appears that structured opportunities for reflection were roughly valued as preconditions for reflective practice in the three universities selected for this study. in the same way, the participants were asked to respond yes or no to whether the theory of reflective practice taught in class was applied to practice. accordingly, the larger number of participants (71%) responded that they were not sure while very few participants (15%) responded yes and (14%) no, respectively. the chi-square test value x2(df 2) = 78.905, p>0.05 indicate that there is a statistically significant difference among the categories of the response. thus, it appears that most of them wanted to remain neutral regarding the question of implementation of theory into practice. this implies that the theory taught in the class was not succinctly applied to practice. similarly, more than 85% (11) of those who interviewed reported that there was no special treatment done to facilitate reflection. when they were asked about types of teachinglearning employed in the pgdt program, all participants noted that the pgdt teaching/learning program was not different from the undergraduate program’s teaching-learning process. for example, one-to-five group discussion was used as a collaborative learning method. the researchers observed that the student teachers did not consider one-to-five-group as a proper method of teaching. this might be due to less value attached to it compared to other teaching/learning methods. this negative attitude towards one-to-five group method, thus, impeded the student teachers’ active participation in collaborative learning. institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 337 on the other hand, the result obtained from the interview with teacher educators revealed that even though teacher educators/instructors tried hard to facilitate reflective practice, student teachers had no interest and sometimes did not attend the class. so, instructors blamed student teachers for constraints to implementing reflection. however, from teacher educators’ responses, it is clear that structured opportunities for reflection such as time, place, collaborative learning, rewarding and posing critical questions were not created for the practice of reflection. finally, respondent program coordinators were of the view that opportunities for reflection are already fixed in the course contents and that it is up to the teacher educators to rearrange and apply them. they listed available opportunities for reflection, such as practicum phases, action research, classroom discussion, and assignments. only one participant reported an absence of formally selected reflective practice learning opportunities. likewise, during observation, it was noticed that the coordinators did not have much close contact with student teachers and teacher educators. there was no teaching model agreed upon to be used to enhance student-teacher critical reflection skills, and there was no close follow up to determine whether the program was running as planned in the curriculum. discussion the purpose of this study was to discuss the role of institutional condition to prepare critically reflective teachers in ethiopia’s pgdt program. in the study, attention was paid to student teachers' background knowledge of reflective practice before joining the pgdt program and the structured opportunity used to maintain the culture of reflection in the institutions selected for this study. the findings show that the reformation of the curriculum for the pgdt program is not supported by institutional culture and not grounded in the values that promote reflection. as discussed in the foregoing sections of this study report, the findings show an unpromising institutional context to promote reflection in the teaching-learning process of the pgdt program of the three universities. the findings show that student teachers had no prior background knowledge about reflective practice. this finding is consistent with the study of areaya (2017) which shows that teaching-learning in most ethiopian schools was mainly based on teacher-centered traditional methods. this means the process of reflective practice is not rooted in its principles down to roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 338 secondary education and undergraduate program's teaching-learning processes. an important implication of this finding is that there is a very rough integration between theory and practice. another important finding was that the goal of the program or the prioritization of the notion of reflective practice was not clearly understood by both student teachers and teacher educators. none of the three institutions oriented their student teachers to have a shared understanding of the importance of critical reflection and how it can be applied in professional learning. this finding confirms the idea discussed by day (1999) that learning goals should be explicitly negotiated among student teachers, instructors, and management to meet the perceived needs of the program. a possible explanation for this result may be the lack of adequate training on the foundational issues of reflective practice for teacher educators. it is also noteworthy that in the tefl pgdt program of the three universities the planned structured opportunity for reflection was scarcely utilized to maintain the culture of reflective practice. as a result, the values that are needed for the practice of reflection were not developed in the institutions alongside the curriculum framework and program reformation. hence, the program is only reformed at paper or curriculum level while this reformation is not aligned with institutional cultures, including student teachers' and teacher educators’ beliefs about the teaching-learning process. this coincides with what loughran and hamilton (2016) repeatedly expressed in their writings that to use any reflective tools, student teachers must have model tools as a scaffolding stage to write their own. for example, birbirso (2012) used his innovative reflective tools during weekend sessions to intervene in student teachers’ underdeveloped reflective skills. in doing this, he resolved the problem related to a shortage of time to practice reflection. so, this substantiates the argument of this research that there should be separated time and place to initiate both teacher educators’ and student teachers’ motivation for the deliberative use of reflection. in general, all the findings discussed in this paper show that the three institutions failed to prepare the necessary platform for student teachers to practice learning based on the reflective practice approach in the pgdt program. it might be this core factor that sustained the problem of the student teachers’ inability to reflect and understand the concept of reflection beyond their very shallow meaning. day (1999) and richards (1998) remarked on the need for decisiveness of the match between a reform and institutional conditions to achieve the imaginative goal set in the institutional conditions for preparing critically reflective tefl teachers in the pgdt program of three ethiopian universities. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 339 reform. the implication is that the priority given for reflective practice in the curriculum framework needs the instructors’, student teachers’, and managements’ common understanding of the goal of the program. this was not realized in the three institutions that were selected for this study. reflection was not yet supported by instructors’ commitment of time and effort to major learning endeavors specified in the curriculum. this shows that the problem occurred because the idea of reflective practice was not negotiated between curriculum designers and practitioners. it seems that this misunderstanding between curriculum designers and practitioners contributed to the poor implementation of reflective practice, and this might have accounted for student teachers’ underdevelopment of critical reflective skills. conclusion the objective of this study was to investigate the role of the institutional context in promoting critical reflective practice in efl teacher preparation program of three ethiopian universities: dilla, haramaya, and hawasa. based on the results presented, it can be concluded that student teachers of three universities under the study came to the pgdt program without knowing the concept of reflective practice which might have helped them to choose the teaching profession on their bases and make the training easy along the way. in addition, the institutions overlooked the structured opportunities for reflection such as modeling, conferencing, collaborative learning, separated time and place, safety, and a rewarding system. we also conclude that the pgdt program curriculum reformation was not grounded in institutional contexts. this seems to be because the initiative for curriculum reformation started from the top without been based on the need of student teachers and teacher educators at the bottom. therefore, at the time of implementation, the resistance sparked from the instructors and student teachers and the existing culture of the teaching-learning process in the institutions resulted in the low level of reflection achieved by the efl student teachers of the pgdt program of the three universities. recommendation we recommend firstly that student teachers should come to the pgdt program with sufficient knowledge of reflective practice from their undergraduate studies. secondly, structured opportunities for reflection such as modeling, holding meeting/conference, collaborative learning, separated time and place, safety, and a rewarding system must be given sufficient attention to promote the culture of reflective practice in efl teacher education program. roba danbi wodessa and dereje tadesse birbirso ajote vol. 8 (2019), 321-343 340 otherwise, the pgdt program should be replaced by other teacher education models which provide a longer study time. this will help student teachers to have enough time to learn the theory and engage in reflective practice. finally, we recommend that prospective researchers conduct action research to provide background knowledge and structured opportunities for reflection in the university. references amera, s. b. 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(1977). linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical. curriculum inquiry, 6(2), 205-208. formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana. isaac amoako department of education and psychology university of cape coast, ghana. isaac.amoako2@stu.ucc.edu.gh abstract this study examined formative assessment procedures commonly used by distance education tutors in ghana during facilitation of the course model content. it investigated whether course tutors make use of multiple formative assessment methods or a single method. a descriptive survey research design was employed for the study. census method was used in selecting the study 150 respondents (tutors’). a self-developed questionnaire was used for the data collection after it has been pilot tested and refined. the study revealed that ‘observation’, ‘oral questioning’, ‘peer-assessment’, ‘student self-assessment’ and ‘tutor made test’ are the current formative assessment practices of on-site course tutors of distance education in ghana. it was also found that majority of the tutors made use of multiple formative assessment procedures. it was recommended that through workshops and in-service training tutors are made to sustain the use of a wide range of methods of formative assessment and not cling to a single one. unique student characteristics warrant the use of multiple formative assessment technique. keywords: distance education, formative assessment procedures, facilitation. 1. introduction as a force capable of contributing to social and economic development in many nations, distance learning (or de i.e., distance education) is today, one of the most rapidly growing mode of education and training. it is fast becoming an accepted and indispensable part of the mainstream of educational african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 3 2018 pages 22-36 isaac amoako 23 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. systems in both developed and developing countries, with particular importance for the latter (unesco, 2000). immense attention is given to distance learning to meet the educational needs of the adult population, with a view to providing new and alternative learning opportunities for those who were initially deprived of them, or who, for one reason, or another, did not get the opportunity to be at the regular tertiary education system. mateo and sangra (2007) believed that quality of learning should not be measured only in terms of student learning achievement or success but should also be related to the effectiveness of the instruction that took place in the classroom. for this reason, they argued for the development of an effective formative assessment system as a necessary feature of distance education instruction. they suggested that assessment must help to identify weakness and cause improvements in the student learning process, through a permanent feedback (p. 9). student assessments in education are tools used to track student’s performance and to ascertain whether the learning goals have been achieved. yueming (2004) noted that formative assessment helps teachers to make important decisions about daily instruction. in addition, the assessment information assist in interpretation, monitoring of students’ progress, giving constructive feedback, and improving both students’ learning and teaching methods (flanagan et al, 2009). other studies have supported the idea that formative assessment is part of the learning cycle and adds value to students’ performance (o’farrell, 2009; spiller, 2009). in ghana formative assessment is well embraced and practiced by teachers at all levels of education (anhwere, 2009; asare, 2015; amoako, 2018). the intention for the practice of formative assessment in ghanaian schools irrespective of the level is for improvement of instruction. this means that assessment information that is generated formatively is used by teachers and students to inform subsequent teaching and learning (harlen, 2007). the active dynamic and socially responsive nature of these assessment processes are, not only thought to align with socio-cultural principles of learning formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 24 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 but have also shown to be central to raising of student achievement. assessment from this perspective is therefore said to be formative assessment or assessment for learning (black & william, 1998). facilitation and learning for those pursuing various degrees by the de method is perceived by most students as stressful unlike the regular method. most de students are workers during week days and only go for lecture at the weekends. their plight calls for more effective way of instruction through assessment to drive the concept down to them for better performance and quality. this study sought to investigate de tutors’ techniques regarding formative assessment and also to ascertain whether tutors implement wide range of methods during facilitation or cling to a single method. 2. statement of the problem knowledge is constructed during the learning process. a student discovering knowledge for him/herself, rather than receiving it inspires the notion of performance-based assessment in the lecture room. it is becoming more and more evident that formative assessment is an integral component of the teaching and learning process (nolen, 2007). bordoh, bassaw and eshun (2013) assert that “formative assessment is used to provide information on the likely performance of students; to describe strength or weakness and feedback given to students, telling them which items they got correct or wrong. formative assessment enhances the efficacy of instructional strategies (p.9). ampiah, hart, nkhata and nyirenda (2003) contend that a teacher need to know what students are able to do or not if he or she is to plan effectively. this presupposes that formative assessment is quintessential for the instructor and for the learner. in ghana, the assessment and it practices among teachers has being well researched and documented (amoako, 2018; bordoh et al, 2013; akyeampong, 1997). however, research in this area focused attention on formative assessment practices among senior high school teachers and its impact on students learning (sofo, ocansey, nabie & asola, 2013), among colleges of education tutors and the strategies they use (akyeampong, 1997; bekoe, eshun & bordoh, 2013; eshun, bordoh, bassaw isaac amoako 25 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. & mensah, 2014) as well as among elementary school teachers in the country (asare, 2015). unfortunately, application of formative assessment techniques among de tutors’ during facilitation has not been documented. it is therefore justifiable to inquire whether de tutors in ghana practice formative assessment. if they do, what techniques do they use? what is their perception of the impact of formative assessment practices in the de programs? there are no readily available answers for these questions because the focus of ghanaian researchers regarding formative assessment has over the years not been on distance education but rather on basic, secondary and colleges of education. this study therefore sought to investigate the techniques used by course tutors. 3. literature review theoretical perspective the theory that guided the study is the constructivist theory put forward by lev vygotsky (18961935). constructivism theory is based on the belief that humans are able to construct knowledge by understanding the information they are accessible to. vygotsky’s theory is also known as social constructivism and explains that children are socialized and developed through collaborative activity and learning that takes place through socialization and education. vygotsky’s idea is based on the fact that human learning is dependent on interactions between a learner and an expert within the learners’ zone of proximal development; a zone where learners can almost, but not quite, complete a task alone. in the context of this study the expert is the tutor or facilitator. through the support provided by more knowledgeable others (tutors), students are able to perceive, pay attention, and their memory capacities are transformed by social context, tradition, religion and language. vygotsky believed that for knowledge to be developed, school learning must take place in meaningful context at the same time that learning in real world is taking place (ozer, 2004). formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 26 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 the theory promotes active learning and collaboration among learners where discovery is aided by the tutor and among students themselves. according to the theory, learners’ needs should be identified in the classroom and they should be supported and exposed to discussions, project groups, research collaborations and problem solving. constructing and internalizing knowledge is the key essence of vygotsky’s constructivism theory (ozer, 2004). according to the theory, tutors are expected to interact with learners and guide them by developing a variety of classroom assessment and teaching strategies, the spine of ideology on which formative assessment thrives. instructors’ procedures of formative assessment practices black and william (2010) pointed out that ‘the giving of marks and grading function are overemphasized, while the giving of useful advice and the learning function are underemphasized’ (p. 84.). teachers may find it difficult to ignore the constant need of grading their students’ works instead of putting these on ‘hold’ and focusing on formative practices. in addition, earlier studies have stressed the power of formative assessment with feedback for supporting student achievement and motivation to be essential in the learning process. that is if it provides specific information about the work related to standards or learning progression, suggest strategies for improvement, rather than grades and social comparison (nolen, 2011). formative assessment and feedback would then provide the students with an opportunity to get a better understanding of the gap between their current and desired performance. some suggestions are however, made as procedures for the implementation of formative assessment. educators (black, 2010; hedge, 2001) have presented self and peer-assessment as compliments that could be used to serve a formative function. these can be used as strategies in the classrooms to promote metacognitive thinking among students and to give them a chance to be more involved in their learning. these strategies are becoming more and more popular in schools, especially for tertiary level students. first, self-assessment provides learner autonomy, which encourages the students to monitor isaac amoako 27 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. and notice their own progress. this aim could also help the teachers to prepare their lessons when understanding which areas the students are struggling with and at the same time by giving the students an opportunity to choose the learning focus from their own needs (dragemark & oscarson, 2010). second, peer-assessment compliment differs from self-assessment in the way that it most of the time requires to be taught. the students are usually more serious when they assess themselves (farell, 2002). also, black (2010), suggested that the heart of the formative interaction is the active involvement of students (e.g. asking of questions during teaching and demanding explanations on what the teacher already said whilst teaching) when the learner produces evidence and is used to guide further improvements. black (2010) further pointed out that the evidence that the teachers collect to adapt their teaching to meet student needs must be consistent with established principles for effective learning. black (2010) summarized four basic principles as the following statements: 1. start from a learner’s existing understanding. 2. involve the learner actively in the learning process. 3. develop the learner’s understanding of the aims and criteria for effective learning. 4. promote social learning, i.e. learning through discussion. (p. 360). moreover, teachers can use questionnaires to learn about students’ motivation for learning, the ways in which they like to learn, the problems they have with learning and their reactions to past classroom experience as a procedure for assessing students for learning (formative purpose) (hedge, 2001). this helps the instructor to get a holistic view of students about the entire topic of discussion. moreover, the concept of questioning as a technique has a long history in the area of formative assessment; however, what has changed over the course of time is a shift from close-ended questions to more informative, open-ended formats. black, harrison, lee, and marshall (2003) encourage teachers not only to develop more effective questions but also to facilitate an environment where formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 28 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 students must think analytically and provide their own answers to their questions. in addition, black et al. (2003, p. 39) argue that formative questions challenge “a common misconception, to create some conflict that requires discussion” which encourages students to think of a response or an idea from different angles. to develop more formative questions, black et al. (2003, p.42) encourage classroom teachers to organize their questions considering three themes: “frame questions” around the big idea that are worth asking; increasing the “wait time” so that students can think and express their responses; and facilitating “follow-up’ questions or activities to ensure students understand. 4. research methods the study adopted a descriptive survey design. traditionally, two prominent universities (i.e. university of cape coast and university of education, winneba) are noted to be running distance education programs in ghana. however, university of cape coast pioneered distance education mode in ghana, hence, the study focused on all the tutors’ of college of distance education, university of cape coast as the study population. there are eighty-one (81) study centers for the college across the ten (10) administrative regions of ghana. three regions were purposively selected out of the ten (10) regions for the study. the regions were greater accra, central and western regions. furthermore, for a detailed study, three study centers were selected randomly to represent the three regions. in all, the accessible population of tutors were estimated to be one hundred and fifty (150). since the accessible population was relatively small in size, census approach was used to involve all the 150 tutors as the study respondents (leedy & ormrod, 2005). table 1, gives the breakdown of the accessible population distribution that were selected to represent the three regions. isaac amoako 29 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. table 1 regions centers number of tutors greater accra ebenezer shs 50 central university of cape coast 60 western holy child college of education 40 150 the instrument used for data collection was a self-developed 18-item questionnaire with two sub-scales measuring formative assessment procedures and teachers’ perception of the impact of those procedures on course facilitation and students learning. the first section of the questionnaire contained items that measured formative assessment methods. tutors were asked to tick which of the method(s) they use when assessing students’ formatively. for example, project work, questionnaire, student selfassessment, student peer-assessment; presentation, tutor-made-test and oral questions were the items crafted to measure methods of assessing students formatively. the second part of the questionnaire measured the impact of formative assessment methods on students’ learning. the second part of the questionnaire data was not used in this study. this is because this study sought to explore the formative assessment methods commonly used by de course tutors. the instrument was pilot tested using thirty (30) tutors from kumasi polytechnic centre, kumasi in the ashanti region. the pilot test was necessary because it enhanced the content validity and reliability of the instrument, and to improve questions, format and scales after careful analysis of the items based on the comments passed by respondents concerning the weaknesses, clarity and ambiguity on all aspects of the questionnaire (leedy & ormrod, 2005). the instrument was again, given to an expert in the field of measurement and evaluation for professional scrutiny of the instrument. after, the refinement of the instrument, the administration of the instrument was done in four weeks. the administration was done by the researcher himself together formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 30 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 with two trained research assistants. formal permission was secured from relevant authorities prior to the data collection exercise. respondents were also given the assurance of confidentiality and anonymity as well as the right to opt out of the study if they wished. the data to answer the research question were analysed using descriptive statistics, specifically, frequency and percentages. at the end of the data collection, one hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires were completed and submitted. the data was cleaned and coded using spss version 22, for analysis and discussion. results table 2 statement more often often not often not used total project work --------24(20%) 32(28%) 64(52%) 120(100%) questionnaire 7 (6%) 18 (15%) 30 (25%) 65 (54%) 120(100%) student self-assessment 62 (52%) 28 (23%) 7 (9%) 23 (19%) 120(100%) student peer-assessment 14 (12%) 70 (58%) 28 (23%) 8 (7%) 120(100%) presentation 12 (10%) 17 (14%) 60 (50%) 31 (26%) 120(100%) tutor made test (tmt) 90 (75%) 30 (25%) ------------120(100%) oral questions 77 (64%) 23 (19%) 14 (12%) 6 (5%) 120(100%) observation 45 (38%) 63 (53%) 4 (3%) 8 (7%) 120(100%) overall, 62 (52%) of the tutors indicated that they use students’ self-assessment more often whilst 28 (23%) of the tutor use it (students’ self-assessment) often. again, majority (n=70, 58%) of the respondents showed that in the lecture room, they make use of student peer-assessment strategy ‘often’ whilst 14 (12%) of the tutors use it ‘more often’. overwhelming majority (n=90, 75%) of the isaac amoako 31 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. respondents agreed that they make use of “tutor made test” (tmt) more often whilst 30 (25%) use it ‘often’. moreover, majority (n=77, 64%) of the respondents intimated that “oral questioning” are used in the lecture hall when they are assessing students formatively. on the same issue of the use of oral questions, 23 (19%) of the tutors use it ‘often’. finally, majority (n=63, 53%) of the respondents reported that they use ‘observation’ as a formative assessment tool ‘often’ whereas 45 (38%) of tutors suggested that they use observation ‘more often’. discussion from table 2, the data suggests that college of distance education, university of cape coast tutors make use of student self-assessment, student peer-assessment, oral questioning and observation as classroom techniques when assessing students formatively. the use of the listed formative assessment methods, ‘often and more often’ by course tutors is commendable. this is because it is more likely for tutors to serve varied learning needs of students’ during facilitation when they assess them (students) ‘often’ and ‘more often’ than to think of not assessing them often or no formative assessment at all. from table 2 demonstrates that majority of de course tutors make use of multiple formative assessment procedures during facilitation. this implies that the tutors who utilize student selfassessment, student peer-assessment, oral questions and observation ‘often and more often’, also tend to make use of tutor made test (tmt). however, tutors (i.e. in a minority) that default on the use of student self-assessment, student peer-assessment, oral questions and observation tend to make use of a single formative assessment procedure, which is tmt. it could also be deduced from the data that techniques such as presentation, questionnaire and project work are less considered by tutors in their formative assessment practices. the findings of this study corroborates several study findings in the literature to the effect that peer and self-assessment are critical components of formative assessment. according to black, lee, harrison and william (2004) students will achieve more if they are fully formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 32 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 engaged in their own learning process, aware of what they need to learn and why, and what they need to do to reach it. nonetheless, black et al. (2004) cautioned teachers that peer and self-assessment can only be meaningful in the classroom if it is used to assist students; especially low achievers. also, black (2010), suggested that the heart of the formative interaction is the active involvement of students (e.g. asking of questions whilst teaching and demanding explanations to what you have already said whilst teaching) when the learner produces evidence and is used to guide further improvements. in certain situations, tutors rely on observation to assess students’ performances (mintah, 2003). some educators have reported being able to see the weakness and strength of their students’ better if they make use of paper and pencil test (e.g. tutor made-test) as a formative test (akyeampong et al. 2006). in summary, most academic tutors make use of peer-assessment, student self-assessment, oral questioning and observation as formative assessment techniques in the traditional regular classrooms (eshun, bordoh, bassaw & mensah, 2014). conclusion evidence from the data clearly shows that the use of ‘observation’, ‘oral questioning’, ‘peerassessment’, ‘student self-assessment’ and ‘tutor made test’ are the current formative assessment practices of course tutors as far as distance education, in ghana is concerned. it does appear that, majority of the tutors make use of multiple formative assessment procedures such as student selfassessment, student peer-assessment, oral questions, observation and tutor made test. these course tutors are encouraged to continue with such practices since it’s enure to the benefit of the students, especially, the low achievers. however, the few tutors who tend to cling to the use of a single formative assessment method (i.e. tmt) should emulate their counterpart practicing multiple formative assessments during facilitation. data from this study have implications for in-service professional isaac amoako 33 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. development and tutor preparation and for this reason, critical recommendations are made for policy and practice. recommendation assessment is an integral part of the instructional process. therefore, assessment practices should clearly align with instructional goals, in line with this idea, the university of cape coast, college of distance education should as a matter of policy organize periodic in-service training for tutors to make formative assessment a core part of their facilitation. this would help sustain tutors use of multiple formative assessment methods. again, tutors (thus those in the minority) must be encouraged and empowered through workshops and in-service training to use a wide range of formative assessment and not to cling to a single one. unique student characteristics warrant the use of multiple formative assessment technique. students’ learning styles, for example, influence how they perform on a particular assessment technique. finally, it is worth noting that even though all formative assessment procedures are important and effective, tutors must ensure that they rely on those techniques that are premised on the students’ personal development (i.e. peer-assessment and students self-assessment). references akyeampong, k. (1997). continuous assessment in post-secondary teacher training in ghana: a case study evaluation. unpublished ph.d. thesis. university of nottingham, u.k. amoako, i. (2018). a meta-analysis on formative assessment practices in ghana. research on humanities and social sciences, 8(3), 2224-5766. ampiah, j. g., hart, k., nkhata, b., & nyirenda, d. m. c. (2003). teachers’ guide to numeracy assessment instrument. nottingham: university of nottingham. formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 34 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 asare, k. (2015). exploring the kindergarten teachers’ assessment practices in ghana. developing country studies, 5(8), 2225-0565. bekoe, s. o., eshun, i., & bordoh, a. (2013). formative assessment techniques tutors use to assess teacher-trainees’ learning in social studies in colleges of education in ghana. research on humanities and social sciences, 3(4), 20-30. black, p. & william, d. (1998). assessment and classroom learning. assessment in education: principles, policy and practice. carfax, oxfordshire, 5(1): 7-74. black, p. (2010). formative assessment. international encyclopedia of education, 3, 359-364. black, p., harrison, c., lee, c., marshall, b., & wiliam, d. (2003). assessment for learning. london: open university press. black, p., lee, c., harrison, c., & william, d. (2004). teachers developing assessment for learning: impact on student achievement, assessment in education, 11(1), 49-64. bordoh, a., bassaw, t. k., & eshun, i. (2013). social studies tutors’ cognition in formative assessment in colleges of education in ghana. development country studies, 3(11), 1-11. dragemark oscarson, anne & oscarson, mats (2010) using the cefr in the foreign language classroom. in j. mader and zeynep urkun (ed.). putting the cefr to good use (pp.83-92). iatefl: kent. eshun, bordoh, bassaw & mensah (2014). evaluation of social studies students’ learning using formative assessment in selected colleges of education in ghana. british journal of education, 2(1), 39-48. harlen, w. (2007). teachers’ summative practices and assessment for learning -tensions and synergies. curriculum journal, 16(2), 207-223. isaac amoako 35 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36. hedge, t. (2001). teaching and learning in the language classroom, volume 106. oxford,, uk: oxford university press. leedy, p. & ormrod, j. (2005). practical research: planning and design (8th ed.). upper saddle river, nj: merrill prentice hall. thousand oaks: sage publications. mateo, j., & sangra, a. (2007). designing online learning assessment through alternative approaches: facing the concerns. http://www.eurodl.org/?keyword=online%20learning&article=294 nolen, s. (2011). the role of educational systems in the link between formative assessment and motivation. theory into practice, 50, 319-326. o’farrell c. (2009). enhancing student learning through assessments: a toolkit approach(on line) available at; www.tcd.ie/teaching-learning/academic-development/assets/pdf/250309assessment-toolkit.pdf retrived 13.09.2014 osuala, e. c. (2001). introduction to research methodology. onitisha, nigeria: africana eep publishers ltd. ozer, o. (2004). constructivism in piaget and vygotsky. fountain magazine, issue 48. (on-line) available at; www.fountainmagazine.com/issue/detail/constructivism-in-piagetandvygotsky. retrieved on; 25.05.2015 sofo, s., ocansey, r. t., nabie, m. j. & asola, e. f. (2013). assessment practices among secondary physical education teachers in ghana. international online journal of educational sciences, 5(2), 274-281. http://www.eurodl.org/?keyword=online%20learning&article=294 http://www.tcd.ie/teaching-learning/academic-development/assets/pdf/250309-assessment-toolkit.pdf%20retrived%2013.09.2014 http://www.tcd.ie/teaching-learning/academic-development/assets/pdf/250309-assessment-toolkit.pdf%20retrived%2013.09.2014 formative assessment practices among distance education tutors in ghana 36 ajote vol. 7. no. 3. (2018), 22 – 36 spiller, d. (2009). assessment: feedback to promote learning. the university of waikato: new zealand. (on line) available at; www.waikato.ac.nz/tdu/pdf/booklets/6assessmentfeedback.pdf retrieved 13.09.2014 udoukpong, b. e., & okon, c. p. (2012). perception of formative evaluation practices and students’ academic performance in junior secondary certificate examination in social studies. international journal of business and social sciences, 3(15), 204-212. unesco (2000). the dakar framework for action, education for all: meeting our collective commitments, adopted by the world education forum dakar, senegal, 26 28 april 2000, paris: unesco. vygotsky, l. s. (1935). the problem of teaching and mental development during school age]. in l. s. vygotsky, mental development of children in the process of teaching (pp. 3–19). moscow and leningrad: giz. yueming, j. (2004). english as a second language: teacher’s perception and use of classroom-based reading assessment. doctoral dissertation, texas a&m university. (online) available at; http://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/3102 retrieved 15.1.2015. http://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/3102%20retrieved%2015.1.2015 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 49 69 affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review jimmy ezekiel kihwele1,2 & guoyuan sang1 1. faculty of education, beijing normal university, p. r. china 2. department of education foundations and teaching management, mzumbe university, tanzania. abstract lesson study (ls) has been adopted worldwide as a research tool for teachers who teach the same subjects to cooperate in identifying problems, planning a lesson, teaching that lesson and coming up with solutions to the problem identified. this helps them grow professionally. this study is a review of approaches to implementing ls in different places, of opportunities that the use of ls provides, and of constraints on its effectiveness and sustainability. in this study, 30 published research articles were thoroughly studied and analyzed so as to answer three key questions that serve as its underpinning. the findings show that the methods used to implement ls vary in many places. however, in several cases, ls practitioners try to implement the original structure of ls as it was implemented in japan in the 1960s. the findings show that ls affords more pedagogical opportunities than constraint: teachers learn new professional skills and knowledge and they improve their understanding of the subject matter, and change their attitudes, beliefs and views on collaborative working. keywords: lesson study, teacher professional development, in-service teachers, teaching practices introduction lesson study (ls) has been widely adopted as a method of professional development for both preservice and in-service teachers. several studies have reported challenges and obstacles relating to jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 50 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 traditional teacher professional development (tpd) models in improving and updating teachers’ professional skills (ono & ferreira, 2010; tan, chang, & teng, 2015). according to ono and ferreira (2010), traditional tpd models train teachers to follow rigid and prescribed expert-driven top-down patterns. such models use cascading methods to train teachers to improve their pedagogical and content knowledge and the training times are usually short and occasional. kelly (2006), kelani and kourey-bowers (2012), and hennessy, habler and hofmann (2015) have explained as a drawback of the traditional tpd models, the wrong belief it instils in teachers that tpd can be achieved merely by attending occasional workshops, seminars or meetings. the use of the traditional models has seen governments expend scarce resources for tpd without achieving set goals as some teachers are always after incentives that come with it rather than learning (ono & ferreira, 2010). these traditional tpd models have shown that ‘one-time takeaway’ training is less effective than school-based research models like ls. the former model has been associated with many teachers merely going after promotions, status and material gains rather than developing their professional competencies. the learning of such teachers thus does not result in them acquiring new skills and knowledge (popova, evans, breeding, & arancibia, 2018). the cascading method of traditional tpd mostly reduce and dilute the intensity of what teachers learnt in training or seminars and, consequently, what they were going to share with colleagues who did not attend the training or seminars (ezeugbor & chukwuemeka-nworu, 2018; hassler, hennessy, & hofmann, 2018). kelly (2006) shows that teachers’ expertise develops only gradually with the transformation occurring through collegial interaction and via teaching practices within the working environment during normal daily routine. wells (2000 p. 4) observe that learning is “the transformation that continuously takes place in an individual’s identity and ways of participating through his or her engagement in particular instances of social activities with others”. teachers need to change the belief that professional development depends on activities that detach them from their teaching environment, and largely on activities facilitated by people coming from the outside of teachers’ working contexts. the ls can be a sustainable method of tpd to help teacher move towards expertise (lewis, perry, & murata, 2006). its adoption and implementation though, requires initiatives for making skills and practices part of teachers’ routine activities. once teachers have affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 51 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 internalised the values of ls, they will gradually transform their beliefs, attitudes and practices regarding teaching and learning process. ls is the planning, teaching and examination of samples of lessons prepared and given by teachers for the purpose of learning and improving their practices collaboratively (saito et al., 2006). ls originated in japan, where it is called ‘jogyou-kenkyu,’ a method of improving lessons through collaborative working. the goal of ls is that teachers be able to produce high-quality lessons with a significant impact on learners (thinwiangthong, inprasitha, & loipha, 2012). the collaboration involves teachers who teach similar subjects sharing their experiences in terms of both content and pedagogy. the adoption of ls gives a signal of hope as it has proven to be a sustainable method of teacher learning through planned practices and collaboration with others (coe, carl, & frick, 2010; lewis & perry, 2014; thinwiangthong et al, 2012). understanding various implementation approaches, how teachers have benefited from ls studies, and the challenges they faced and how they solved them are very important. the us, a late adopter of ls, borrowed the initiative from japan after learning its seemingly effective practices in transforming teachers’ pedagogical and content knowledge. various approaches were used [by who?? in the us?] in different contexts in implementing ls; these include integrating different theories, customizing the procedures to fit specific contexts, and focusing on either teachers’ practices or students’ performances. some african countries are in the early stages of adopting ls. south africa and zambia have systemically integrated it in their teacher education system. the world association of lesson studies (wals) website shows that its 2018 annual conference received 6 papers from two african countries, namely south africa (3) and zambia (3). likewise, in 2019, there were 6 papers from five african countries, namely south africa (2), zambia (4), ghana and rwanda (1 each), and tanzania (1). ls is thus gradually spreading to african countries. hence, this is the right time to synthesise the affordances and constraints for proper planning and successful implementation of ls, the task that we set for ourselves in this paper. this study reviews and synthesises studies to understand the approaches used to implement ls, how it offers opportunities for teachers to cooperate in planning lessons, in teaching and reflecting on those taught lessons, and in identifying weak points and how to improve the teaching activities to strengthen their professionalism. we also examine the constraints of implementing ls. this jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 52 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 review contributes to the existing literature by informing the continuing spread, adaptation, and innovation pattern of ls across various contexts around the world. to achieve this goal, the review addresses the following questions. i. what approaches are used to implement ls for teachers’ professional development? ii. what are the affordances of ls in teachers’ professional development? iii. what are the constraints on effective implementation of ls for teachers’ professional development? methodology the review employed a systematic qualitative review approach (gikandi, morrow & davis, 2011). this review began by searching for peer-reviewed articles which were published between 2006 and 2019, the period when ls reached africa. articles were downloaded from springer, sage, science direct and jstor.. the searching concepts were ‘lesson study tpd’, ‘lesson study implementation’, ‘using lesson study in-service teacher training’, ‘lesson study as a school-based teacher training’ and ‘teacher coaching through lesson study’. a total of 172 articles were obtained and sorted in keeping with the research objectives mentioned above. articles that did not reflect the themes required to answer the review questions and those which did not have practical and empirical evidence of ls were excluded from the study. a total of 183 articles were obtained and sorted in keeping with the research objectives. table 1 shows the geographical distribution of all articles obtained. table 1: articles specific geographic locations location country number of articles asia singapore 14 indonesia 15 japan 32 pakistan 20 europe netherlands 11 england 14 turkey 10 affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 53 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 north america the us 41 canada 3 australia australia 9 africa south africa 7 zambia 4 uganda 1 malawi 2 ethiopia 1 total 183 out of the total population of 183, we selected 30 articles using weed's methodological guidelines for review papers (1997). the guideline provides for article inclusion and exclusion based on such criteria as time period, type of publication (peer-reviewed, conference proceedings), language of publication, study design, topic and population studied. articles that did not meet the criteria were excluded from the pool for study. articles from japan were also excluded to fulfil the goal of reviewing articles on late adopters of ls for the purpose of providing a lesson to african countries. furthermore, the sorting of articles was validated by the feedback obtained from the external reviewers who are experts in the field of ls. of the 30 selected articles, 12 (40%) were from north america, 11 (36.7%) from africa, 3 (10%) from europe and 4 (13.3%) from asia. the distribution in subject area were; mathematics (55.6%), science (19.4%), pedagogy (13.8%), linguistics, social sciences, physical education and early childhood education each (2.8%). as depicted in the table 2, 5 (16.7%) articles were published in african journals while the rest were published in journals outside africa and in various international conferences websites. the 30 articles were thoroughly studied and analysed to provide answers to the key questions of the study. the analysis involved extracting findings that reflected to key concepts of questions. the extracted information regarding affordances and constraints has been organised and presented in the sections below. the presentation and discussion have been organized to logically reflect the questions and they contain data from africa, europe, the usa and asia. the published articles reviewed are presented in table 1. jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 54 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 table 2: summary of articles author country subject category of data akiba and wilkinson (2016) usa stem deepening content knowledge, limited institutional support baba & nakai (2011) zambia pedagogy improve professional practices, limited research skills banda, mudenda, tindi & nakai (2014) zambia sciences improve professional practices, time requirement bocala (2015) usa mathematics boosting self-efficacy, variation in learning chassels and melville (2009) canada mathematics & science deepening content knowledge, experimenting innovations, boosting self-efficacy coe, carl and frick (2010) south africa mathematics improve professional practices, accommodating varying perspectives, variation in learning fauskanger, jakobsen & kazima (2018) malawi mathematics variation in learning, deepening content knowledge fernandez & zilliox (2011) usa mathematics integrating theories fujii (2013) uganda & malawi mathematics misconceptions gero (2014) usa mathematics deepening content knowledge, boosting selfefficacy hart and carriere (2011) usa mathematics fostering collaboration, accommodating varying perspectives, change roles inprasitha (2015) thailand mathematics experimenting innovations ishida, mwanza, luchembe, masaiti, & nsama (2016)** zambia mathematics & science limited institutional support leavy and hourigan (2016) ireland mathematics fostering collaboration, limited research skills lee and madden (2019) usa linguistics improve professional practices, boosting selfefficacy, change roles letloenyane & jita (2015) ** south africa mathematics improve professional practices, limited research skills lewis and perry (2014) usa mathematics experimenting innovations, limited research affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 55 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 skills meyer and wilkerson (2011) usa mathematics time requirement, mhakure (2019) south africa mathematics improve professional practices, norwich, dudley, & ylonen (2014) united kingdom pedagogy (learning difficulties) improve professional practices, diagnosis of students needs ogegbo, gaigher & salagaram (2019) ** south africa physical education improve professional practices, varying perspectives, boosting confidence, lack of time olson, white and sparrow (2011) usa mathematics accommodating varying perspectives ono and ferreira (2010)** south africa mathematics & science improve professional practices, misconceptions, limited institutional support rappleye & komatsu (2017) usa pedagogy misconceptions saito and sato (2012) singapore science & social sciences seclusion behaviour, time requirement, stages of ls saito et al., (2006) indonesia mathematics & science fostering collaboration, stages of ls, integrating theories schipper et al., (2017) netherland s interdisciplina ry improve professional practices, time requirement shingphachanh (2018) laos mathematics limited institutional support, stages of ls, integrating theories sims and walsh (2009) usa early childhood education fostering collaboration, improve professional practices yadeta & assefa (2017) ** ethiopia pedagogy & curriculum fostering collaboration, deepening content knowledge, seclusion behavior ** articles published in african journals findings this section presents the findings obtained from the review of the articles and it is divided into three parts. first, the approaches used in various countries in implementing ls, second, the affordances of ls and the constraints of ls to tpd. jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 56 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 approaches to implementing ls the original ls model had features which were unique to it that were bound to the japanese cultural context. according to thinwiangthong et al. (2012), the original ls had three steps, tagged, plan-do-see. because ls is rapidly spreading into diverse cultural contexts, it continues to develop features which are different from those of the original version. the first variation is the that different scholars have designed ls with different stages. ono and ferreira (2010) and saito et al. (2006) give three steps in implementing ls: planning, teaching and reflection. they are referred to as plan-do-see. shingphachanh (2018) has added a fourth step; defining a problem. coe et al. (2010) added two more steps, namely debriefing and result sharing. and yet other scholars have identified eight steps, i.e. defining a problem, planning a lesson in teamwork, teaching the lesson, reflecting and discussing that lesson, revising the lesson, re-teaching the lesson, discussing the retaught lesson, and sharing the results (fujii, 2013). these steps vary depending on the extent to which practitioners want the implementation of ls to reflect specific contexts. lesson study implementations have also included the integration of different theories as part of the approaches suited to diverse contexts. for instance, social learning theories have been used to link tpd with the context and culture of the workplace. fernandez and zilliox’s (2011) practices are based on research on socio-cultural learning theory developed by vygotsky. bocala (2015) used the socio-cultural theory which explains that novice teachers gradually become experts through interacting with experienced mentors in their working contexts. kelly (2006) used wenger’s social theory of learning that assumes socio-cultural contexts to be responsible for tpd. the authors made assumptions that “knowledge about teaching is socially constructed through learning communities.” ono and ferreira (2010) integrated the constructivist theory which argues that the gradual process of rethinking what is taught, how it is taught, and how learning is assessed collaboratively in a specific context help teachers to construct new and better content and pedagogical knowledge. ono and ferreira (2010) further show that teacher learning is constructed from interaction and collaboration within their socio-cultural contexts. gero (2014) also supports the position of the socio-cultural learning theory in tpd that “teaching is not simply a set of procedures, but a cultural activity.” affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 57 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 affordances of ls on tpd lesson study has many success stories around the world with respect to its contribution to tpd. the following sub-section gives a summary of the evidence obtained from the studies reviewed. many african countries which are yet to adopt ls tpd can consider these affordances. fostering collaboration and self-reflection one character of high-quality teachers is their ability to collaborate and work in teams so as to achieve a common goal. ls has helped to develop collaboration among teachers teaching similar subjects (saito et al., 2006; sims & walsh, 2009; coe et al., 2010). collaboration means planning and designing lessons together, observing what others are teaching, criticising their wrong practices and critiquing their approaches and commenting on their best practices (fujii, 2013; leavy & hourigan, 2016; lee & madden, 2019). the collaboration will help get rid of the tendency of working individually, self-confining to narrow understanding and acting rigidly, not allowing others to see what one does in the classroom and what their teaching plan is (hart & carriere, 2011). the ls thus helps teachers to open up their mind to learn from colleagues through collaborating in lesson activities. deepening knowledge of the subject matter in some contexts, teachers do not have the opportunity to attend formal out-of-school tpd programmes to update their knowledge of content and pedagogical skills (gero, 2014; laddunuri, 2012; magidanga, 2017). studies show that teachers can benefit in terms of improving their content and pedagogical knowledge by implementing ls (chassels & melville, 2009; meyer & wilkerson, 2011; akiba & wilkinson, 2016). participants can acquire a good mastery of the subject matter that will influence pedagogical practices like leading students’ discussions and changing the way of asking questions from reciting texts from readings to more application of knowledge in real-life situations (olson, white, & sparroe, 2011). improving professional practices in schools high standard professional practices are those which merge professional theories and actual classroom practices. student teachers learn theoretical aspects of teaching at college and they expect to merge them with routine practices at schools through the mentoring process (coe et al., 2010). as meyer and wilkerson (2011) argue, teachers adopting the ls can learn new and appropriate instructional methods. in the same line of thought, leavy and hourigan (2016), lewis jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 58 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 and perry, (2014), sims and walsh, (2009) point out that this deepens their understanding of the proper methods of managing students’ behaviour. more adaptive teaching competencies will be developed which are important for professional growth (schipper, goei, de vries, & van veen, 2017). furthermore, ls helps teachers to link their classroom teaching practices with broader educational objectives and goals (ono & ferreira, 2010). this linkage makes teachers more flexible and dynamic in using a variety of instructional methods to actively engage students in learning activities in the classroom. teachers develop capabilities to accommodate different views, perspectives, and ideas about teaching and learning (saito et al., 2006). the new insights developed helped teachers to be more creative and they transform their practices (lee & madden, 2019). ls offers teachers a continuous learning opportunity so that they can identify challenges and find solutions to them by transferring knowledge to new contexts (coe et al., 2010; fujii, 2013). experimenting with innovations in the process of implementing ls, new, creative, innovative ideas emerge and are tried in an experimental way that may impact teachers’ professional practices (chassels & melville, 2009; inprasitha, 2015; lewis & perry, 2014; schipper et al., 2017). moreover, ls can activate inquiry that helps teachers to dive into vast resources and come up with new methods, solutions and practices that may improve their teaching and influence students’ competencies (chassels & melville, 2009). accommodating varying perspectives in teaching and learning teachers hold certain perspectives, beliefs and views concerning teaching methods and styles as well as the ways of developing their professional skills (olson et al, 2011). some teachers believe in the objectivity of individual practices, as coe, carl and frick (2010) report. in such cases, teachers dominate over teaching with limited students’ involvement because they regard students as passive, without ability, and with the need to be filled with knowledge and skills (inprasitha, 2015). in ls, through collaboration, teachers are encouraged to open up their mind to learn and share their practices with their colleagues for self-development purposes (lee & madden, 2019). the collaboration from ls helps teachers to develop the culture of self-criticism, openness and acceptance of different perspectives (hart & carriere, 2011). criticism and challenges are useful resources for tpd. accepting different perspectives leads to teachers’ change of practices like affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 59 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 improving abilities in asking diagnostic questions, understanding students’ needs and interests as well as activating students’ participation in classroom discussions (olson et al, 2011). boosting teachers’ self-efficacy teachers’ confidence is central to facilitating the learning process (chassels & melville, 2009). this confidence should come from mastering the subject matter, from appropriate selection of pedagogical methods to facilitate learning, and from the ability to manage students’ behaviour (lee & madden, 2019). using ls, teachers develop confidence through detailed explanations that provides solutions to the problems they have been facing (hart & carriere, 2011). teachers who have been involved in planning, teaching, observing and in reflecting on lessons in a series of ls have transformed their pedagogical practices in managing lesson delivery in the classroom and thus, gained more confidence than those who have not participated in them (gero, 2014; hart & carriere, 2011). novice teachers benefit much from ls cycles (bocala, 2015; shingphachanh, 2018). collaborating with experienced colleagues allows novice teachers to get a better understanding of actual classroom situations which is different from how they perceived it during teacher education training, thus enhancing their confidence (akiba & wilkinson, 2016). changing role of teachers lesson studies have influenced teachers to change not only their perspectives and beliefs towards the teaching profession, but also their role in class. according to lee and madden (2019), teachers and principals have changed their roles, from being evaluators to being coaches. teachers support learners in constructing and applying knowledge in real-life situations, and not in accumulating knowledge. the shift from teacher-centred teaching methods to learner-centred teaching methods helps students to learn and teachers to develop their pedagogical skills so that they can improve their delivery of lessons (hart & carriere, 2011). lesson studies enable teachers to be aware of what students understand and how to correct their constructed knowledge. constraints in implementing ls the interpretation and implementation of ls, in different contexts, face several constraints. these constraints result from misinterpretation of ls cycles and the right starting point, cultural challenges, little experience in implementing ls and variation of interest participating teachers. these constraints are explained in the sections below. misconception of ls by practitioners jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 60 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 ls has been contextualised so that it fits into different geographical and cultural settings which are important in modifying the structure of ls for its successful implementation (meyer & wilkerson, 2011). the more ls is localised, the more it deviates from its original version (lee & madden, 2019). originally, ls focused on collaborative teacher-learning activities for the purpose of improving classroom instruction and content knowledge (akiba & wilkinson, 2016; rappleye & komatsu, 2017). currently, in the usa, ls is used not only to improve classroom instruction, but also to improve leadership skills (lee & madden, 2019). in the us, as well as african countries, where ls has been implemented, teachers misinterpret ls by focusing a strict implementation of its steps to accomplish the planned content rather than teaching it as a lesson so that learners understand the concepts (chassels & melville, 2009; ono & ferreira, 2010). in malawi and uganda, some teachers find it difficult to adhere to their agreed upon customized steps of ls while others apply ls as a ‘fixed script’ and focus on the given stages within a prescribed time rather than ensuring a normal flow of the lesson based on learners needs and interests (gero, 2014; fujii, 2013; meyer & wilkerson, 2011). thus, participating teachers strive to complete the planned ls steps rather than focuse on pedagogical aspects of the lesson. also, some participating teachers were known to have decided to adapt and customise the ls cycles so that they can fit into their specific contexts. all this results in confusion. (hart & carriere, 2011). they end up unable to produce lessons like the original japanese ones (rappleye & komatsu, 2017). referencing indonesia, saito et al. (2006) show that teachers did not know whether they should consider students’ feedback as important in improving classroom instruction or only consider the lesson planned and how teacher delivered it to the class. the same findings were reported in the us context (bocala, 2015). some researchers argue that observing students’ facial expressions, comments in discussions, murmurings and rates of participation in classroom learning process(i.e. students’ feedback) can provide more information to teachers about the quality of their instructions in a particular lesson they have planned and taught than could students grades from assessment (saito et al., 2006). this observation, they argue, will help teachers to develop pedagogical skills and get better understanding students’ behaviours. in africa, the us, europe and asia, the studies done in science and mathematics subjects outnumber those which have been done in other fields (bocala, 2015; fujii, 2013; hart & carriere, affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 61 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 2011; meyer & wilkerson, 2011; olson et al., 2011; ono & ferreira, 2010). since many ls studies are in mathematics and science subjects, teachers have developed a belief that ls is for science subjects only (sims & walsh, 2009). according to rappleye and komatsu (2017), if the misconceptions are not cleared, there is a danger of failing to harness the potentials of ls in impacting teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter and pedagogical skills in all disciplines of learning. ls requires ample time to implement time is an important resource in facilitating and accomplishing the implementation of ls (coe et al., 2010; meyer & wilkerson, 2011). teachers have to implement ls cycles which in some cases goes to a second or more phases until a fine version of the lesson has been developed (leavy & hourigan, 2016; schipper et al., 2017). in many contexts, it has been difficult for teachers to go to the second or third phase of ls cycles due to limitation of time (hart & carriere, 2011). for instance, in japan, some cases of ls spanned from six months up to one year to complete full ls cycles (fujii, 2013). in this context, akiba & wilkinson (2016) claim that teachers meet every week to work on ls activities. in other countries where they have localized ls to fit their contexts, it also consumes a considerable amount of time. saito and sato (2012) have argued that occasional rather than sustained meeting for tpd put the effective implementation of ls is in doubt. spending short time to implement ls limits the analysis of the planned and implemented lessons, hence hinders teachers in reforming lessons (gero, 2014). seclusion behaviour of the teacher affects ls the basic requirements of ls include teachers’ willingness to collaborate and work in teams to achieve a common goal. in the usa, south africa and japan, some teachers have a culture of working in isolation and they do not want to be observed when they are preparing lessons or are engaged in classroom teaching (chassels & melville, 2009; coe et al., 2010; hart & carriere, 2011; saito & sato, 2012). as pointed out by olson et al. (2011) and ishida et al. (2012) such isolation tendency develops when teachers cannot stand criticism from colleagues and when they feel insecure and are less confident. furthermore, many teachers believe that teaching is an individual practice, hence they perceive ls as an activity that adds more responsibilities to their task (hart & carriere, 2011; gero, 2014). inprasitha, (2015) has observed that isolation culture among teachers affects the formation of ls groups, making it difficult for ls to succeed (saito et al., 2006). such jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 62 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 isolation behaviour affects the prosperity of ls as it limits collaboration and learning from reflection on teachers’ teaching practices (olson et al, 2011). in some cases, teachers who passively joined ls groups did not concentrate on observing lessons, some walked out during the lessons (hart & carriere, 2011; rappleye & komatsu, 2017; saito et al., 2006). chassels & melville (2009) indicate that some teachers held beliefs and practices of individualism and never changed those beliefs even after participating in a series of ls cycles. the consequences of the seclusion behaviours is a fragmented learning achievement, as some teachers develop new knowledge that improved teaching practices and others did not learn any new knowledge (schipper et al., 2017). limited research skills among teachers lesson study is action research by nature, requiring accomplishment of the research procedures that will lead to tpd (akiba & wilkinson, 2016; bocala, 2015; lewis & perry, 2014; shingphachanh, 2018). the process of gathering data through observing lessons that are being taught and sharing the findings requires strong research skills (hart & carriere, 2011; schipper et al., 2017). so also does the presentation of the findings. the possession of limited research skills by some teachers, unfortunately, hinders effective implementation of ls (coe et al., 2010). to fill the research skill gap among teachers who participate in ls activities, schools should collaborate with universities’ experienced researchers to build research skills in teachers to help them improve the implementation of ls cycles (leavy & hourigan, 2016; shingphachanh, 2018). experienced researchers from universities should act as coaches to guide teachers to adopt ls for tpd (hart & carriere, 2011). saito et al. (2006) and inprasitha (2015) both stress that schooluniversity collaboration is vital for the effective implementation of ls. once some success has been made, the experts could slowly withdraw to give full autonomy to school teachers while they employ occasional follow-ups to monitor progress. the withdrawal process will empower teachers and make them independent researchers in schools. variation of the amount of learning and level of experience while lesson study encourages collaborative learning approach, the amount of learning acquired depends on individual teachers’ self-efforts, attention and devotion during the implementation of ls. bocala (2015) noticed that combining novice teachers and experienced teachers in ls process could lead to an unpredicted problem of the former focusing on the lesson content and the latter on affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 63 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 students’ responses. in evaluating the effectiveness of the ls on tpd the two sides (novice and experienced teachers) will have different views. ono and ferreira (2010) also highlights that practice variation was noted among teachers who participated in ls. hence, as noted by bocala, participating in the ls does not guarantee improvement to teaching practices of all teachers equally unless the teachers are committed to learn and improve and unless their experience variations are taken into consideration in the ls process. the variation of learning, therefore, is limited to individual interest to improve pedagogical and content knowledge and the level of experience among the collaborating teachers (coe et al., 2010). limited institutional support in some contexts, institutional management does not provide the ls with the required support despite ls being the learning activity that starts from the grassroots to improve teachers’ pedagogical competencies (schipper et al., 2017). principals assign teachers extra duties and changes in the school timetable and the changes made in curriculum affect ls activities (ono & ferreira, 2010; shingphachanh, 2018). teachers’ average working time per week in the us are 26 hours while in japan they are 17 hours (akiba & wilkinson, 2016), this may explain the success of ls in japan and the usa since teachers have enough time to participate in ls. in zambia, some principals had a negative attitude towards ls as they perceived it adds more to the responsibilities at school (ishida et al., 2012). chassels and melville (2009) as well as saito and sato (2012) show that teachers have varying workload and the school schedule may limit teachers’ participation in ls. the success of ls depends on the perfect collaboration between principals, teachers and students in creating workable environments (inprasitha, 2015). it has been difficult in some places for principals to attend ls meetings due to the burden of their administrative responsibilities or because they have little interest in the initiative. but it has been observed that teachers take ls activities seriously when principals participate in ls cycles. the presence of principals motivates teachers to effectively participate in the learning process..[provide a reference for this] in more advanced stages, ls require additional financial resources and electronic facilities for recording and displaying the sample lessons taught in the class and when they find they cannot provide the required resources and facilities, some principals lose interest (hart & carriere, 2011). jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 64 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 discussion the findings show that approaches used in implementing ls vary in different contexts. emulating the original ls procedures as were implemented in japan is difficult due to variation in sociocultural and environmental contexts. any attempt to copy the original ls version will hinder the effective implementation of ls in localized contexts. in adopting ls, it is recommended to customize it to fit in the targeted contexts, considering cultural, political, economical and social aspects (meyer & wilkerson, 2011). teachers should be free to design ls to fit in their working environments and get all the necessary support. there are variations in teachers’ workloads and school timetable hence localizing the ls is important as it offers a chance for teachers and schools to initiate ls activities. studies by shingphachanh (2018) and ishida et al. (2012) show how teachers’ heavy workload affects the implementation of ls. therefore, principals should consider ls as part of school activities. the working context in developing countries calls for practitioners to be more innovative in localizing the ls for successful implementation. lesson studies have improved teachers’ perception, attitudes and views of teaching practices. teaching roles have changed in all contexts; teachers have acquired innovative pedagogies that put learners at the centre of learning process and has broadened content knowledge among teachers. individualistic cultures of teachers working in isolation have changed to a large extent in the us and asian cases except in cases reported from the african context, although effective implementation of ls in africa will eliminate the isolation culture among teachers. schools should work to adapt ls to foster not only to collaboration among teachers to influence students learning but elevate teachers’ pedagogical and content knowledge. although teachers still need the training to shape their experience in broader aspects, the ls allows them to collaborate, build teachers’ confidence and inquiry mind, to innovate and try new ideas, which will add value to the discussions on matters pertaining training and seminars that teachers attend. the ls practitioners should consider the varying experience between members in ls groups: experienced members taking the responsibilities of coaching the novice towards tpd. experienced members should, however, refrain from dominating the discussion so that all teachers could learn from each other. in asian and us cases, the implementation of ls has created more mentors whereas in african countries, many ls projects are at initial stages of adoption. unfortunately, a considerable number of these teachers are abandoning the initiative, considering affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 65 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 ls to be impossible to implement in their contexts ( ono & ferreira, 2010; yadeta & assefa, 2017). there is, therefore, a need to plan for methods of sustaining ls practices in the long run. teacher education institutions should intensify research courses to promote ls practices to teachers. in the few african cases discussed here, external researchers have been responsible for initiating and implementing ls while schoolteachers have been involved as participants with limited autonomy. in some schools, teachers lacked adequate research skills and were dependant to researchers. this situation calls for collaboration between schoolteachers and research experts from universities to empower schoolteachers in implementing ls activities. the theoretical perspectives learned from the experience of ls practices in places that have reported success can help in improving the implementation of ls in diverse directions. although theories act only as the blueprint, still they guide practitioners to get rid of misconceptions and have the perfect cycles of ls. from socio-cultural learning perspectives, school culture and social contexts of the working environment have great impacts on ls. the perspectives about ls impact on tpd can be categorized into six elements of a transformative framework: context, collaboration, procedures, reflection, teacher-learning, and teacher identity. mobilizing ls groups should be preceded by obtaining teachers’ consent to participate in the learning process. ls organizers should diagnose teachers’ needs and interest of what they want to learn and improve. rules and regulations to guide the process, for instance, stipulating the responsibility of group members, the appropriate language to use in commenting, critiquing and giving suggestions for improving ls should be framed in advance. the presence of rules and regulations may prevent members from dropping out during the ls process and encourage them to fully participate in ls activities. ls should not be associated with monetary benefits since participants may be conditioned by money and not the need for tpd. involvement of financial benefits may jeopardize the prosperity and sustainability of ls activities. conclusion and recommendations teachers have transformed their beliefs, attitudes, teaching roles in the classroom as well as knowledge of subject matter. teachers should be empowered with research skills and schools should include ls in their timetables while teacher education institutions should integrate ls courses in their teacher preparation programs. the collaboration between schools and universities should be embraced to create a viable environment for ls to succeed. total dependence on external jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 66 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 researcher limits teachers’ autonomy and jeopardizes the future of ls because teachers may believe that implementing ls depends on external researchers. perfection of ls cannot be achieved in a short time given the many intervening factors involved; it is achieved only as a gradual process involving a cycle of ls activities. teachers should be intrinsically motivated to participate in ls for tpd, as it will help them to own the responsibility of learning to improve their teaching practices. more studies should be done and directed to understanding institutional culture and its impact on teachers’ adoption of ls. references akiba, m., & wilkinson, b. (2016). adopting an international innovation for teacher professional development: state and district approaches to lesson study in florida. journal of teacher education, 67(1), 74–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487115593603 bocala, c. (2015). from experience to expertise: the development of teachers’ learning in lesson study. journal of teacher education, 66(4), 349–362. chassels, c., & melville, w. (2009). collaborative, reflective, and iterative japanese lesson study in an initial teacher education program: benefits and challenges. canadian journal of education, 32(4), 734–763. coe, k., carl, a., & frick, l. (2010). lesson study in continuing professional teacher development: a south african case study. acta academica, 42(4), 206–230. ezeugbor, c. o., & chukwuemeka-nworu, i. j. (2018). models and delivery methods of in-service teacher’s professional development programmes of federal government colleges. international advanced journal of teaching & learning, 4(1), 1–13. fujii, t. (2013). implementing japanese lesson study in foreign countries : misconceptions revealed. mathematics teacher education and development, 16(1), 119–135. gero, g. (2014). the prospects of lesson study in the us. international journal for lesson and learning studies, 4(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlls-02-2014-0007 hart, l. c., & carriere, j. (2011). developing the habits of mind for a successful lesson study community. in l. c. hart, a. alston, & a. murata (eds.), lesson study research and practice in mathematics education: learning together (pp. 27–38). new york: springer. affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 67 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 hassler, b., hennessy, s., & hofmann, r. (2018). sustaining and scaling pedagogic innovation in sub-saharan africa: grounded insights for teacher professional development. journal of learning for development jl4d, 5(1), 58–78. inprasitha, m. (2015). transforming education through lesson study: thailand’s decade-long journey. in s. j. cho (ed.), selected regular lectures from the 12th international congress on mathematical education (pp. 343–354). new york: spinger. ishida, y., mwanza, p., luchembe, m., masaiti, g., & nsama, p. (2012). scaling up lesson study in urban and rural schools to realize sustainable , inclusive teacher professional development in zambia. 247–269. kelly, p. (2006). what is teacher learning? a socio-cultural perspective. oxford review of education, 32(4), 505–519. laddunuri, m. m. (2012). status of school education in present tanzania and emerging issues. international journal of educational research and technology, 3(1), 15–20. leavy, a. m., & hourigan, m. (2016). using lesson study to support knowledge development in initial teacher education: insights from early number classrooms. teaching and teacher education, 57, 161–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.04.002 lee, v., & madden, m. (2019). “we’re in this together”: principals and teachers as partners and learners in lesson study. nassp bulletin, 103(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636519826717 lewis, c., & perry, r. (2014). lesson study with mathematical resources: a sustainable model for locally-led teacher professional learning. mathematics teacher education & development, 16, 99–116. lewis, c., perry, r., & murata, a. (2006). how should research contribute to instructional improvement? the case of lesson study. educational researcher, 35(3), 3–14. magidanga, f. s. (2017). impediments towards enhancing the pedagogical content knowledge to secondary school teachers in tanzania. international journal of education and research, 5(1), 273–284. meyer, r. d., & wilkerson, t. l. (2011). lesson study: the impact on teachers’ knowledge for jimmy ezekiel kihwele & guoyuan sang 68 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 teaching mathematics. in l. c. hart, a. s. alston, & a. murata (eds.), lesson study research and practice in mathematics education: learning together (pp. 15–26). new york: springer. olson, j. c., white, p., & sparroe, l. (2011). lesson study research and practice in mathematics education. in l. c. hart, a. alston, & a. murata (eds.), lesson study research and practice in mathematics education: learning together (pp. 39–58). new york: springer. ono, y., & ferreira, j. (2010). a case study of continuing teacher professional development through lesson study in south africa. south african journal of education, 30, 1–11. popova, a., evans, d. k., breeding, m. e., & arancibia, v. (2018). teacher professional development around the world the gap between evidence and practice (no. 8572). washington, dc. rappleye, j., & komatsu, h. (2017). how to make lesson study work in america and worldwide: a japanese perspective on the onto-cultural basis of (teacher) education. research in comparative and international education, 12(4), 398–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499917740656 saito, e., harun, i., kuboki, i., & tachibana, h. (2006). indonesian lesson study in practice: case study of indonesian mathematics and science teacher education project. journal of in-service education, 32(2), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674580600650872 saito, e., & sato, m. (2012). lesson study as an instrument for school reform: a case of japanese practices. management in education, 26(4), 181–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020612445101 schipper, t., goei, s. l., de vries, s., & van veen, k. (2017). professional growth in adaptive teaching competence as a result of lesson study. teaching and teacher education, 68, 289– 303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.09.015 shingphachanh, s. (2018). teachers’ understanding and concerns about the practices of lesson study in suburb schools in laos. international journal for lesson and learning studies, 7(2), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlls-12-2017-0062 sims, l., & walsh, d. (2009). lesson study with preservice teachers: lessons from lessons. affordances and constraints on implementing lesson study for teachers’ professional development: a review 69 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.49-69 teaching and teacher education, 25(5), 724–733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.10.005 tan, a.-l., chang, c.-h., & teng, p. (2015). tensions and dilemmas in teacher professional development. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 174(february), 1583–1591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.808 thinwiangthong, s., inprasitha, m., & loipha, s. (2012). adaptation of lesson study and open approach for sustainable development of students’ mathematical learning process. psychology, 03(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2012.310136 well, g. (2000). dialogic inquiry in education: building on the legacy of vygotsky. in d. d. lee & p. smagorinsky (eds.), vygotskian perspectives on literacy research (pp. 51–85). new york: cambridge university press. challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching-learning practices abiy zewdu agegnehu (abiyzewd@gmail.com) abstract quality is at the heart of any education and training system. it influences what trainees learn, how well they learn and what benefits they draw from their education and training. whether a particular education and training system is of high or low quality can be judged in terms of input, output and process. until recently, however, much discussion of educational quality has been centered on only system inputs in terms of the provision of teachers, educators, teaching materials and other facilit ies, and on output in terms of trainees’ achievement. little or no attention is given to the teaching-lear ning process, the dimension which involves what really happens in the classroom. this study thus, aims at finding out the extent to which innovative approach to teaching and learning are employed in the ethiopian primary teacher training classrooms, to identify the factors that affect its implementat io n, and to recommend better ways and means for further improvement. in conclusion the study found that traditional lecture methods, in which teachers talk and students listen, dominate most classroo ms. the common obstacles to the employment of innovative methods of teaching as found out by this study are: the ethiopian tradition of teaching, lack of institutional support, and learning resources, teachers’ lack of expertise, inappropriate curricular materials and student teachers’ lack of prior experience to actively participate in the teaching and learning process. key words: quality, innovative, training, traditional africa journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.6 no. 1 2017 pages 39-55 challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 40 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 background of the study effective teaching and learning requires the use of different methodologies and strategies to meet the demands of the learners. the challenge is to find new ways and strategies to stimulate and motivate the creative abilities of today’s generation who have varied set of orientations towards learning than the learners in the past. the traditional ‘chalk and talk’ approach with the students as recipients of knowledge may not be suitable for today’s generation. the approach does not provide opportunit ies for students to interpret, organize and transfer knowledge to solve authentic problems. it is true that students must do more than just listening and note taking: they must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems. most important, to be actively involved, students must engage in such higher order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation this is why in schools throughout the world there is a movement from learning that is made up of facts to a new model i.e. active-learning which emphasizes understanding, making connections in the world around us, collecting and using information in active manner (leu, 2000:10). we should think of active-learning first and for most in terms of students being intellectua l ly active. by intellectually active we mean that teachers do not simply expect students to memorize and repeat facts. teachers should expect students to use information critically and analytically. nardos (2000:87) has pointed out that, in active learning the learners have a marked degree of freedom and control over the organization of learning activities. usually these activities involve problem solving, inquiry and investigational work etc. similarly, aggarwal (1996:96) has mentioned that the basic purpose of education is to enable the learners to adapt in a society, which is full of problems. not only social life is full of problems but there are problems and puzzling situations, which are normal features of a child’s everyday life in school as well. therefore, it is very important that problem solving skills should be encouraged in school learning. on the basis of this philosophy, the education and training policy of ethiopia gives due emphasis to strengthening the individual’s and society’s problem solving capacities at all levels. as stated in the etp: (1994:7) one of the objectives of education is “to develop the physical and mental potential and problem solving capacity of individuals by expanding basic education for all”. what is active learning? active learning is a broad strategy that includes such techniques as substituting active-lear ning exercises for lecture, holding students’ learning responsibility for the materials that have not been abiy zewdu agegnehu 41 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. explicitly discussed in class assigning open ended problems and problems requiring critical or creative thinking that cannot be solved by following text examples, involving students in stimulating and role plays (leu,2000). the growth of active-learning as stated by nunan (1991:11) “… signifies a paradigmatic shift from the transmission model of teaching to a process oriented, participatory model, seeing learners as active agents in their learning and teachers as researchers of their work.” from the above argument supported by different scholars, it can be realized that active-learning is an essential element in education that have received a universal importance and it is a method of educating students that allow them to participate in class. it takes them beyond passive listeners and makes them to take some direction and initiative during the class. teacher education and active learning frazee et al. (1995:80) state that the training of teachers is a crucial factor among others that affect the implementation of active learning, because the teacher is the final decision maker in regard to the actual learning opportunities provided to the students. the best designed curriculums as well as the poorest owe ultimate success or failure to the quality of the teachers’ planning and implementation. in other words, according to frazee et.al, if teachers lack knowledge of the teaching (active learning) method which requires new roles and commitment, implementation will be seriously hampered. hence, provision of in-service teacher training is essential to acquaint teacher trainers with new teaching learning methodologies, which are learner-oriented (active learning). if the expectation that learners should be the agents of change is taken seriously; the capacities this work requires of them should be considered carefully, current practice; preservice and inservice teacher education should be examined critically, and ways to enhance teachers’ learning across their careers should be explored more (mukalel, et al, 1999:301). in line with this idea the education and training policy of ethiopia emphasizes new teacher education and training packages which are strongly practiceoriented at all levels of training, so that graduating teachers attain the necessary skills and a positive attitude in the application of variety of methods (icdr, 1998: 40). in general, even though, the policy advocates active learning, there is a gap between theory and practice. thus, teacher education needs to model class room teaching skills and methods that reflect and go in line with the education and training policy. challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 42 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 the problem in ethiopia, as indicated in the education and training policy document of the transitio na l government (tge, 1994:4), the previous curriculum design and instructional processes suffered from old and traditional approach and therefore the current curriculum calls for emphasis on active learning and teaching. the policy document entitled as “teacher education system overhaul (teso) program which was introduced in 2003, among other major programs, one emphasizes the implementation of participatory, activelearning in the pre-service and in-service programs of teacher education (moe, 2003:31). however, little attempt is made by the policy document and other subsequent education and training strategy documents to give elaborations and to indicate how it can be translated in the teaching learning process at the classroom situation. thus, learner-centered is most commonly understood for what it is not. even education personnel at different levels are only phrasing around the term without mastering it and thereby providing support system for teachers, which is just only half the battle. under such circumstances, curriculum designers, textbook writers, teacher training institutions, education experts, and teacher educators all followed their own way in translating learner-centered approach into practice. thus this study attempts to find out how far the learner-centered approach is being employed in the ethiopian primary teacher training institutes and what challenges teacher educators encounter while implementing it. the research questions the study attempted to answer the following research questions: 1. how is learner-centered approach being employed in the ethiopian teacher training institutes? 2. to what extent does the ethiopian traditional teaching affects the implementation of learnercentered approach in teacher training institutes? 3. were the curricular, training materials and modules prepared in a way to facilitate learnercentered approach? 4. how far is the institutional environment conducive to utilizing the learner-centered approach? 5. are teacher trainers (educators) equipped by the learner-centered approach during their training? 6. what is the trainees’ view of being taught through active learning approach? abiy zewdu agegnehu 43 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to assess the quality of ethiopian pre-service primary teacher education from the perspective of teaching strategies employed by teacher trainers. to this end, the study aims at analyzing the extent to which student-centered approach (active learning strategies) is perceived and practiced among teacher trainers and trainees. in addition, the study aims at exploring; the teacher trainers' perceptions and institution related variables militate against the implementation of active learning student-centered approach (active learning strategies). ultimately, its findings are meant to help teacher educators, researchers, key educational policymakers and other education experts, to explore possibilities of developing more effective ways of utilizing active learning approach at intuition training level. methodology this study is an explanatory study of quality of education in relation to quality of training, and a descriptive survey method is used in the study. data sources the sources of data were different groups of respondents that consist of college teacher educators and student teachers. moreover, curriculum materials, training modules, and classrooms were used as data sources. questionnaires and observation were used as instrument for collecting data. sampling procedure the research was conducted in hawassa college of teacher education. the primary teacher education in ethiopia is delivered in cluster modality. there are four cluster areas such as: language, social science, natural science and aesthetic. two classrooms were randomly selected from each cluster. two teachers and 15 students from each cluster (8 teachers and 60 students) were randomly selected to fill in the questionnaires. furthermore, four training modules one from each cluster were selected and evaluated and observation of classrooms were made in order to substantiate the data. presentation and analysis of data before discussing the data related to the major questions, a summary of characteristics of the subjects is presented here. the intended information for this study has been gathered from two groups; namely, instructors and students of hawassa collage of teacher education. a total of 68 respondents were challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 44 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 included in the study. sixty of them were students and eight of them were instructors. two instructors are qualified first degree holders and the rest six have second degrees. all of them have taken courses on general method of teaching. as far as training on active learning is concerned, almost all of them have special training and six of them have gone through the higher diploma program. students on the other hand, reported that they have started attending methodology courses in the collage and practicing active learning. questionnaire result using the instructors’ and students’ questionnaire, responses about their perceptions of active learning were calculated and presented below. the data taken from the surveys were analyzed in line with the research questions. in analyzing the perceptions of instructors and students on active learning, the questionnaire entitled “knowledge and experience on active learning” served as the primary source of information. table 1. frequency distribution of data collected on perceptions of instructors items 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= undecided 4=agree 5=strongly agree (_∑vxf) x=_∑vxf n f % f % f % f % f % 1 4 50 4 50 36 4.5 2 4 50 3 37.5 1 12.5 13 1.6 3 4 50 4 50 32 4.0 4 8 100 8 8.0 5 2 25 6 75 38 4.75 6 2 25 6 75 38 4.75 7 4 50 4 50 36 4.5 8 5 62.5 3 37.5 35 4.4 9 1 12.5 7 87.5 39 4.9 10 5 62.5 3 37.5 35 4.4 11 2 25 6 75 38 4.75 abiy zewdu agegnehu 45 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. 12 2 25 6 75 14 1.8 13 3 37.5 5 62.5 13 1.6 14 4 50 4 50 20 2.5 15 4 50 4 50 36 4.5 16 4 50 4 50 20 2.5 g. mean 3.5 active learning demands that teachers not only be experts in their fields, but also that they understand how students learn. it is a challenge for teachers to accept an active learning approach. as can be seen in table 1, the mean value of their responses (4.5) ranges from “agree” to strongly agree.” hence, all the instructors agreed on the idea (assumption) that current knowledge depends on the previous knowledge or understanding. on the other hand, item 2 of the same table says. “the teacher holds most of the knowledge necessary for the students.” the mean value for this response is between 1 and 2 i.e. the instructors reflected their strong disagreement. this implies that all the instructors believe that students can also be sources of knowledge. item 4 encountered strong disagreement by 100% of the instructors. this means that teaching facts alone is not enough to prepare students to understand their environment. for items 5 and 6, the mean values of the responses are 4.8 each. this indicates that instructors strongly agreed that teachers must prepare students to communicate. almost all (87.5%) of the respondents showed their strong agreement with the item 9 which states that “active learning offers opportunities for progress.” furthermore, the mean value of the responses (4.9) strengthens the assumption raised. item 13 says “active learning is not economical in the use of instructional aids.” a good percentage (62.5%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement. item 14 of the same table is about the requirement of active learning. fifty percent of the respondents strongly disagreed with the idea and the other 50% of respondents supported the idea. but the mean value of the responses tends to disagree with the issue. the general analysis of all the items indicates that most instructors seem to have a positive attitude towards active learning. the grand mean value (3.5) of all the responses tend challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 46 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 to support the values for agree. hence, one can deduce that the groups of instructors have perceived active learning positively. table 2. frequency distribution of data collected on perceptions of students items 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= undecided 4=agree 5=strongly agree (_∑vxf) x=_∑vxf n f % f % f % f % f % 1 1 1.7 4 6.7 2 3.3 20 33.3 33 55 260 4.3 2 13 21.7 33 55 5 8.3 7 11.7 2 3.3 132 2.2 3 19 31.7 36 60 5 8.3 106 1.8 4 6 10 11 18.3 1 1.7 11 18.3 33 55 240 4.0 5 1 1.7 15 25 44 73.3 283 4.7 6 5 8.3 2 3.3 9 15 25 41.7 19 31.7 231 3.9 7 4 6.7 15 25 41 68.3 277 4.6 8 23 38.3 21 35 5 8.3 7 11.7 4 6.7 128 2.1 9 1 1.7 25 41.7 34 56.7 273 4.6 10 2 3.3 18 30 40 66.7 278 4.6 11 14 23.3 30 50 16 26.7 242 4.0 12 16 26.7 20 33.3 7 11.7 8 13.3 9 15 154 2.6 13 1 1.7 1 1.7 2 3.3 16 26.7 41 68.3 278 4.6 14 2 3.3 3 5 20 33.3 35 58.3 268 4.5 g. mean 38 it is not only instructors’ perception that affects the effective implementation of active learning instructional method. the perceptions and expectations of students also affect how learning is viewed and how teaching is organized. in relation to this, 14 items were presented to students to find out their perceptions and their prior knowledge about active learning. in table 2 item 1 states “i believe that learning depends on previous understanding”. in responding to this item 55% of the students showed abiy zewdu agegnehu 47 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. their strong agreement whereas 33.5%of them expressed their agreement. about 6.7% of them showed their disagreement and 1.7 said they strongly disagree with the idea. one of the assumptions of active learning says “the current knowledge depends on the previous understanding.” in responding to the related item, a total of 88.5% the respondents showed their agreement. this indicates that the students have good understanding on the assumption forwarded. item 3 states “lectures are the best ways of getting necessary knowledge.” the statement is not supported by almost all the respondents. sixty percent of the respondents showed their disagreement and 31.7% of them strongly disagreed with the idea. a small number (8.3%) remained neutral. this seems to generalize that most of them have the assumptions that lecturing alone has nothing to do with their learning. but during observation, instructors use lectures in their classrooms in contrast to their responses in questionnaire. the reason for this may be the fear not to cover the portion. in item 5 of table 2, the respondents were asked whether they believe active learning motivates them to learn. in responding to the item, the majority of the respondents (73.3%) replied that they strongly agree with the idea, and 25% of them again showed their agreement. and the mean value of the responses indicates strong agreement. learning by “doing” is a theme that many educators have stressed since john dewey’s convincing argument that students must be engaged in all active quests for learning new ideas. students should be presented with real life problems and then helped to discover information required to solve them. in line with this, respondents were given an item which states “i believe that active learning is learning by doing.” the majority of the respondents (68.3) answered that they strongly agree with the assumption. the mean value of the responses also shows that the respondents strongly agree. item 10 which says: “i believe that active learning prepares us for participation.” this issue was supported by the majority (66.7%) of the respondents. the mean value of the responses is between “agree” and “strongly agree”. the grand mean value of the responses of the students is between “undecided” and “agree”. most instructors and students seem to have positive attitudes towards active learning. the grand mean values of instructors 3.5 and students 3.8 are tending to the value for “agree”. hence, the two groups have perceived active learning positively. but, the observation result reflects that they do not implement active learning in their classrooms. the next part shows us a comparison of the instructors’ and students' responses on the extent to which active learning is implemented. challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 48 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 table 3. a comparison of percentages and mean values of instructors and students indicating the use of active learning strategies no items instructors students frequency of active learning(%) mean values frequency of active learning(%) mean values 1 lecture/ explanation 12.5 3.1 41.7 4.1 2 project work 0.00 2.8 15 2.5 3 problem solving 0.00 4.0 31.7 3.1 4 role playing 50 3.5 20 3.2 5 discussion 25 4.6 20 3.9 6 brainstorming 0.00 5.0 23.3 3.4 7 peerteaching 87.5 3.9 25 3.6 8 co-operative learning 75 4.5 8.5 2.9 9 field trip 0.00 1.3 1.7 1.6 10 group work 50 4.5 41.7 4.2 11 question and answer 37.5 4.6 30 3.9 12 demonstration 50 3.5 35 3.3 13 debating 0.00 4.0 18.3 2.8 g.mean 29.8 3.8 22.2 3.3 a comparison between the responses of instructors and that of students was made to determine the relationship between their implementation of active learning in their classrooms. the researcher also compared the average responses and mean values of instructors and students for each of the specified questions as shown in table 3. according to the percentage and the mean values obtained, there is a difference in the implementation of active learning between instructors and students. for example, problem solving approach (one of the strategies) of active learning is reported by instructors to be frequently used whereas students pointed out that they use it sometimes. brainstorming is again reported to be used always by the instructors but students said it is implemented only sometimes. the observation result however, revealed that both ‘problem solving’ and ‘brain storming’ are rarely used in the classrooms. the mean value for debating is (4.0) for instructors, and it is (2.8) for students; i.e. instructors reported that they implement it frequently but the students claimed that they see it abiy zewdu agegnehu 49 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. sometimes. in looking at the grand mean of all the items (3.8) for the instructors, which is nearly close to “frequently”, where as it is (3.3) by the students side which is only “sometimes”, indicates that the implementations of active learning is not as expected to be. table 4. percentage and mean values of factors affecting instructors ’ implementation of active learning items 1= not serious 2= undecided 3= serious 4=most serious (_∑vxf) x=_∑vxf n f % f % f % f % 1 4 50 1 12.5 3 37.5 23 2.9 2 4 50 3 37.5 1 12.5 17 2.1 3 3 37.5 1 12.5 4 50 17 2.1 4 5 62.5 1 12.5 2 25 16 2.0 5 5 62.5 3 37.5 14 1.6 6 3 37.5 2 25 1 12.5 2 25 18 2.3 7 1 12.5 3 37.5 4 50 26 3.3 8 3 32.5 1 12.5 4 50 22 2.6 9 2 25 2 25 4 50 18 2.3 10 4 50 1 12.5 3 37.5 15 1.9 11 6 75 2 25 10 1.3 12 2 25 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 19 2.4 g. mean 2.3 table 4 shows factors affecting instructors’ implementation of active learning. in this part there were twelve factors assumed to be affecting the implementation of active learning. among these factors, the researcher has selected four of the factors to discuss. the factors are selected because the respondents indicate them to be those that significantly affect the implementation of active learning. 1 students’ lack of knowledge and experience in active learning -50% 2 the design of the training modules – 50% 3 classroom environment – 50% challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 50 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 4 instructors belief and perception -50% there is no question that knowledge, experience and perceptions are crucial factors in implement ing active learning in classrooms. as can be seen from table 4, one of the hindering factors for the implementation of active learning is lack of students’ knowledge and experience in active learning. this factor is supported by 50% of the instructors as a serious one. another factor negatively affecting the implementation of active learning proposed by the instructors is the design of training modules. according to the data obtained from module evaluation, most of the modules are not engaging and do not have tasks and activities which promote active learning. it is also very difficult to apply active learning to large classes and in a situation where there is very limited or no access to resources which support active learning. in line with this, 50% of the instructors identified that large classes and unsuitable classroom environment are the most serious factors affecting the implementation of active learning. students on their part indicated factors that affect their participation in active learning. table 5. percentage and mean values of factors affecting student’s participation in active learning items 1= not serious 2= undecided 3= serious 4=most serious (_∑vxf) x=_∑vxf n f % f % f % f % 1 14 23.3 6 10 17 28.3 23 38.3 169 2.8 2 10 16.7 9 15 25 41.7 16 26.7 167 2.8 3 33 55 13 21.7 7 11.7 7 11.7 108 1.8 4 5 8.3 11 18.3 21 35 23 38.3 182 3.0 5 16 26.7 17 28.3 16 26.7 11 18.3 142 2.4 6 14 23.3 9 15 19 31.7 18 30 161 2.7 7 21 35 10 16.7 12 20 17 28.3 145 2.4 8 9 15 14 23.3 27 45 15 25 178 3.0 9 17 28.3 11 18.3 19 31.7 13 21.7 148 2.5 10 23 38.3 8 13.3 13 21.7 16 26.7 142 2.4 11 7 11.7 16 26.7 24 40 13 25.7 163 2.7 12 5 8.3 8 13.3 35 58.3 12 20 174 3.0 abiy zewdu agegnehu 51 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. it is no wonder that the shortage of time (item 2) in applying active learning is indicated as one of the major factors. this factor was selected as a serious one by 41.7% of the students. some students’ dominance and the design of the teaching module are also assumed to negatively affect the implementation of active learning. accordingly 40% and 58.3% of the students proposed these factors respectively as serious problems. the other factor proposed as a hindering factor to implement ing active learning is instructors’ lack of knowledge and experience on active learning and their tendency to use lecture method. thirty eight percent of the students identified this factor as the most serious problem in the use of active learning. many researchers pointed out that time constraint is the major factor to consider in implementing active learning. for example, capel et al (1995), explain that, some teachers dislike active learning simply because it brings an extra demand in the planning, preparation and evaluation. they believe that time table constraint pressurizes active learning. likewise, 30% of the students pointed out that the time table is the most serious problem in the implementation of active learning. observation result the observation was conducted by the researcher and his co-observer and the result of observed cases were added up and presented in the following table. table6. classroom condition no item yes no no % no % 1 is there enough sitting space for all students? 7 78 2 22 2 are the seats movable? 7 78 2 22 3 is the classroom layout arranged to facilitate active learning? 3 33 6 67 4 are the desks arranged in straight row? 9 100 5 is the class size appropriate? 1 11 8 89 6 is there enough space for movement between desks? 1 11 8 89 as depicted in table 6 the data obtained from classroom observation proved that the classroom condition and seating arrangement is not convenient to implement active learning. one major problem observed in the classroom is the lay-out of the classes. majority (67%) of the observation result challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 52 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 indicates that the classroom lay-out is not arranged to facilitate active learning. the physical environments of the classroom do not reflect the required condition for active learning practices. table 7. instructors’ activities no item yes no no % no % 1 arranging students for different classroom activity 2 22 7 78 2 clarifying the learning objectives 1 11 8 89 3 giving direction about procedures and activities 1 11 8 89 4 using different instructional methods to implement active learning 9 100 5 encouraging students to become active participant 2 22 7 78 6 managing the class for active learning implementation 2 22 7 78 in table 7 above, the classroom observation result indicates that majority of the activities expected to be practiced by the instructors were not observed. for instance, 100% of the observed classes did not show the use of different instructional methods to implement active learning. this indicates that the instructors implement the traditional/teacher fronted approach to teaching. the reasons for not applying the activities mentioned in table 7 may be lack of training on active learning and classroom conditions such as large class size and fixed desks. table 8. activities of students during the lesson no item yes no no % no % 1 students are participating in problem solving activities 9 100 2 students are playing roles 2 22 7 78 3 giving direction about procedures and activities 3 33 6 67 4 students are discussing issues in groups 3 33 6 67 5 students are practicing demonstration 1 11 8 89 the observation result of table 8 shows that students are not portraying the required behavior for their own learning. among 9 observed sessions, only 33% of them were observed discussing issues in their abiy zewdu agegnehu 53 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. groups. the main reason for their poor participation may be the failure of their instructors to use active learning in their respective classes. table 9. utilization of instructional materials availability of instructional materials in classroom is the major factor to enhance the whole process of education. whereas in table, 9 the observation result indicates that in 78% of the observed classes, there was no instructional material. moreover in 100% of the observed classes, the instructors do not use instructional materials. to sum up, the utilization of instructional materials in the observed classes was found to be at a minimum level. this might be due to lack of resources to be used. table 10. classroom evaluation no item yes no no % no % 1 the instructor gives group work activities, for the learners to participate. 3 33 6 67 2 the instructor follows up students’ participation 2 22 7 78 3 the instructor elicits responses from the students 4 44 5 56 4 the instructor evaluates students’ group cooperation 4 44 5 56 5 the instructor checks and gives constructive feedback to students work 3 33 6 67 table 10 above indicates that all classroom activities are not well performed by the instructors. for example, many instructors do not give group work activities, ask questions or give exercises. moreover almost all of the instructors do not follow up students’ participation and activities. according to the no item yes no no % no % 1 are there charts, posters, diagrams, etc? 2 22 7 78 2 does the instructor use the instructional materials other than books, charts, posters? 9 100 3 does the instructor illustrate ideas using instructional materials? 9 100 challenges in ethiopian teacher education pedagogy: resistance factors to innovative teaching -learning practices 54 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55 observation result, only 33% of the instructors check and give constructive feedback to students’ work. in an active learning classroom however, classroom assessment motivates the learners towards their learning. (teso, 2003) conclusion the ethiopian government has taken quite a number of measures particularly aimed at improving quality of teacher education and training. however, despite the concern for quality education and training, it is found out that traditional lecture methods, in which teachers talk and students listen dominate most classrooms. the common obstacles and barriers to the employment of active learning in ethiopian teacher education classrooms are the ethiopian tradition of teaching and learning, lack of institutional support and learning resources, teachers’ lack of expertise, inappropriate curricular materials and student teachers less preference to actively participate in learning due to lack of prior experience. references aggarwal, j.c. (1996). principles, methods and techniques of teaching, new delhi, s.n. printers. bennet et al (1996). researching in to teaching methods in colleges and universities. london: kogan page. bonwell, c and elison, a (2003). active learning creating excitement in the classroom. rhen: grips borich, g. d. (1984). effective teaching methods. new york: macmillan publishing company. brad, hayes (2000). teacher centered instruction vs student centered instruction: armuchee high school. american government schools (http://www.secondaryschools.com/approach.html. bruner, j.s. (1966). towards a theory of instruction. harvard university press. calahan, j. et. al. (1988). teaching in the middle secondary schools: planning for competence, new york: macmillan. capel, et. al. (1995). learning to teach in the secondary schools. london: rutledge. chet, et al (1993) promoting active-learning strategies for the college classroom. sanfransisco : jossey. base dale, e. (1969). audiovisual method in teaching 3rd ed. new york: the dryden press. dary, n. and terry, e. (1993). reforming open and distance education: critical reflection practice. london: kogan page. abiy zewdu agegnehu 55 ajote vol. 6. no. 1. (2017), 39 – 55. felder, d. (2000). active learning and cooperative learning. url http://www.honolulu,hawail.edu/intrant/teachtip.htm. frazee, m.b. et al (1995). integrated teaching methods: theory classroom approach., and field based connections. new york: mc graw hill inc. hailom banteyerga (1998). “explorations towards an alternative model in teacher education classroom in focus” in quality education in ethiopia, visions of 21st century. addis ababa: ier. icdr. (1999). teacher education hand book. addis abba finfine printing and publishing. leu, e (1998). designing integrated curriculum materials for primary education: a paper presented at the workshop in oromia education bureau. (unpublished) ____________ (2000). the role of curriculum integration in basic education tigrai education bureau. (unpublished) moe (2003). teso pre service committee a notional curriculum guideline for pre-service teacher education programs. addis ababa (unpublished) moon, j.a. (2002). reflection in learning and professional development; theory and practice. uk kogan page limited mukalel. j. (1998). creative approaches to classroom teaching, new delhi: discovery. nardos abebe (2000) issues and methods and materials in teaching primary school subject addis ababa. aau. nunan, d (1989) a client centered approach to teacher development. elt journal 43/2 o’hara, m. and o’hara, j.a (1998) cooperative learning: a paradigm for learning in 21st century american secondary education. snnp, reb (1997). “curriculum development: controversies and prospects.” awassa: unpublis hed. squazzin, t. and grann, m.v. (1998). education reform and innovations in namibia. okahandja: namibia. temecheqn engida (2002) “teaching primary school subject using learnercentered methodology in the ethiopian journal of educational researchers association vol. 1 no. 1. addis ababa. eera. teso (2003) teacher education system overhaul programme. addis ababa. transitional government of ethiopia (1994) new education and training policy (netp) addis ababa.: empda. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 104 119 secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia. abate demissie * & getu lema shewangezaw**1 arbaminch university, ethiopia abstract cooperative learning (cl) has been encouraged in ethiopia’s secondary schools as an important strategy to facilitate effective student learning. however, the effectiveness of cl hinges, among other factors, on appropriate assessment of students’ group work. challenges faced by teachers and students in implementing assessment of group work have remained an obstacle to the effective use of cl. the aim of this study was therefore to examine what ethiopian secondary school teachers and students, respectively, consider to be problems and obstacles in the way of efficiently implementing student the cooperative group work assessment. accordingly, 213 teachers and 212 students were randomly selected for a questionnaire survey. in addition, two teachers and five students were also interviewed and a focus group discussion (fgd) was carried out in each of the five schools selected for data gathering. the data acquired through the questionnaire was analyzed through one-sample t-test while the data obtained through interviews and fgd were analyzed through qualitative verbal descriptions. the findings indicate the main challenges from the point of view of the teachers to be their inadequate training on the assessment of group work process and individual contributions; uncertainty on what should be assessed, and heavy workloads. from the * abate demissie gedamu, department of english language and literature. (abachad22@gmail.com) **getu lema shewangezaw, department of geography and environmental studies. (shewangezawgetu@gmail.com) acknowledgements: we would like to acknowledge arba minch university for funding this study. we also thank the head of research coordination office at the college of social sciences and humanities (cssh) for facilitating our research by his timely responses to any query we made. we are also grateful to teachers and students who participated and helped with data collection for this research. finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to dr. tesfaye h. mariam for his constructive comments time and again. mailto:abachad22@gmail.com mailto:shewangezawgetu@gmail.com secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 105 students’ perspective, the main challenges were inadequate teacher support and follow up and equal reward for unequal contribution by members to group work.. keywords: assessment, group work assessment, assessment challenge, group work assessment challenge introduction cooperative learning (cl) is a student-centered educational practice in which students work with each other in small groups to make the best use of their individual and joint learning (johnson & johnson, 1999; sharan, 1994). cl engages students actively in constructing their own meaning (johnson & johnson, 1999; liang, 2002). the literature associates several benefits with cl, including better student performance and improved communication, higher self-esteem, acquisition of problem-solving skills, and of socialization (johnson & johnson, 2002; slavin, 1996). in addition, it offers the students non-threatening, more comfortable and supportive learning environment whereby they can engage in open and friendly discussions with each other (gupta, 2004). ethiopia’s education system has implemented the cl at different levels, though this remains at infancy stage (abiy, 2015; feyisa & simeret, 2018). even the pre-reform government (before 2018) in ethiopia mandated and encouraged teachers to employ group works at all levels of education. students were required to perform classroom study tasks in fixed ‘one-to five’ permanent groups that they stay in during a semester. these are mixed ability and gender representative student groups where a high achiever among them is designated as the leader of the group until another member’s better semester examination result elevates him/her as the new leader (abiy, 2015). cooperative learning emerged from within vygotsky's socio-cultural theory (sct) which considers learning to be a social process that occurs through reciprocal interactions among learners for the achievement of shared goals (johnson & johnson, 2008; vygotsky, 1978). thus, in this context, learning is socially constructed through interactions (lantolf & thorne, 2006). accordingly, “individual learners first learn through individual to individual social interaction and then knowledge is individually internalized” (vygotsky, 1978, p.84). this implies that individual meaning and performance are acquired through social interaction of the group as knowledge is constructed from cooperative efforts to learn, understand, and solve problems. the theory does not deny that individual learning also occurs whereby knowledge is acquired and skills are internalized. abate demissie gedamu & getu lema shewangezaw ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 106 many studies have affirmed that cl enhances students’ academic and social growth as they interact with others in their group to complete shared goals (johnson & johnson, 2002; slavin, 1996). baloche and brody (2017) concluded that cl “has positive effect on students’ achievement, motivation for learning, inter-group relations, critical and creative thinking, problem-solving, and a host of other well-researched outcomes” (p.1). gupta (2004) stressed how it provides students with an encouraging, comforting and helpful learning environment as compared to individual or competitive group work. however, the effective implementation of cl has faced many challenges. these include teachers’ lack of the concepts of cl (mcmanus & gettinger, 1996), large class size and shortage of class time (peek, winking & peek, 1995), high noise level, and teachers’ difficulties with implementing cooperative group work assessment (gillies & boyle, 2010; le, janssen & wubbels, 2018; ross & rolheiser, 2003; topping, buchs, duran & van keer, 2017), mismatch between teachers’ beliefs and orientations of cl (brody, 1998), cultural constraints (sharan, 2010), lack of training on the assessment of collaborative learning, and absence of assessment criteria (le, janssen & wubbels, 2018; ross & rolheiser, 2003). ross and rolheiser (2003) found teachers’ difficulties with assessing cooperative group work to be the most critical of these challenges. relatively few studies have been carried out on assessment of cooperative group work challenges for ethiopian schools. for example, muhammed (2012) and zeleke & tsega, (2015) have carried out studies on cooperative learning practices in ethiopia, hanna (2015) on teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards cooperative learning, berhanu (2013) on teachers’ knowledge, attitude, and practice of cooperative learning, and wondwosen (2008) on oral group lessons in promoting cooperative learning. however, studies on the assessment of group work in general and group wok assessment challenges are scarce. le, janssen and wubbels (2018) argue that teachers could not directly and accurately assess the collaborative process since they are unable to observe how students collaborate. they note the literature’s suggestion of using selfand peer-assessments to assess collaborative process but argue that both teachers and students distrust their legitimacy as assessment techniques although they use them. thus, students reported that when they applied selfand peer-assessments, they assessed their friends leniently and granted high marks to all group members regardless of the differences in the individual contribution to the group work (le, janssen & wubbels, 2018). secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 107 on the side of the students, issues of concern that are obstacles to the assessment of cooperative group work include their lack of adequate training on social interactions for collaboration, and peer and self-assessments (galton, hargreaves & pell, 2009; kutnick et al., 2005) and lack of credible instruments to assess collaborative skills (koutrouba, kariotaki & christopoulos, 2012). capping these challenges was student resentment of the lack of fairness in group work assessment when non-contributing peers are not equitably assessed according to their levels of contribution (davis, 2009; ross & rolheiser, 2003). some studies have also investigated teachers’ psychological disposition to and thought about group work assessment. casal (2016) observed that many teachers already developed underlying beliefs that assessing social skills and group and individual performances were difficult. many teachers are said to harbor uncertainty and ambiguity on the content and methods of assessing collaborative learning (frykedal & chiriac, 2011; gillies & boyle, 2010; ross & rolheiser, 2003). it is therefore difficult to expect serious attempts of cooperative group work assessment from such teachers. research goal it is apparent that teachers’ assessment practices significantly affect student learning. nonetheless, the involvement of students in their own learning is highly valuable as it determines the quality of their learning. resolving the dual issue of student involvement in their own learning and teachers’ views of challenges of cooperative group work assessment would serve to enhance appropriate assessment practices that will promote student motivation and learning. consequently, this study sought to explore cooperative group work assessment challenges through the lenses of teachers and students at selected secondary schools in the southern nation nationalities peoples' regional state (snnprs) of ethiopia. the study has two specific objectives: (i) to investigate cooperative group work assessment challenges from teachers’ perspective; (ii) to examine cooperative group work assessment challenges as viewed by the students. research methodology research design to address the objective of the study, a cross-sectional descriptive survey research design was adopted as it was appropriate to use it to canvas opinions on the issue. hence, to collect the relevant abate demissie gedamu & getu lema shewangezaw ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 108 data, questionnaires were administered to teachers and students, interviews were conducted with teachers, and fgd were held with the students. participants of the study selected teachers and students from five secondary schools in snnprs participated in the study. these schools were arbaminch secondary school, karat secondary school, sawula secondary school, merab-abaya secondary school and konso secondary school. they were selected purposively due to their relative proximity to arbaminch, the researchers’ workplace. among 450 teachers in the five secondary schools, 254 teachers were selected for this study through systematic simple random sampling technique for questionnaire survey. the teachers were sampled from all academic subjects taught in the schools as per the curricula of the federal state of ethiopia. two hundred and thirteen (213) of the selected teachers properly filled and returned their questionnaires. two teachers from each school were selected for in-depth interview. for the students, two hundred and seventy (270) were selected for questionnaire survey through systematic random technique. of this number, 212 properly filled and returned their questionnaires. to carry out focus group discussions (fgd), five students at each school were selected on the basis of their willingness to participate in the study. data collection instruments the questionnaires, interview and, fgd were developed based on the few prior empirical works and related review literatures on cooperative learning (frykedal & chiriac, 2011; gillies & boyle, 2010; le, janssen & wubbels, 2018; paul & ralph, 2005; valente, 2018; webb, 1994). each of the tools is described and presented below. questionnaire the purpose of teacher questionnaire was to elicit quantitative data concerning challenges the participants’ (teachers and students) believed they faced in the assessment of cooperative group work. the self-rating questionnaire for teachers consisted of (n=12) items while that of the students had (n=6) items. both were prepared on 5-pont likert scale which were labeled as strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), undecided (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5). the questionnaire for teachers had internal consistency reliability of (α= .76). the student questionnaire maintained (α= .81) value of internal consistency reliability. this implies that the tools could consistently measure what they are supposed to measure. secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 109 interview in addition to the questionnaire, semi-structured interview questions were used to intensively probe challenges teachers felt in the assessment of cooperative group work. to this effect, face-to-face individual interview was conducted with each interviewee. the interview was transcribed verbatim for data accuracy. focus group discussion with students focus group discussions were held with selected students to generate data on the challenges the students’ perceived in their assessment of cooperative group work. fgd helped to get more indepth qualitative data that could not be captured through a closed-ended questionnaire. to guard against fgd participants getting anxious with been audio-recorded, field notes were used to capture their responses. the discussants were assured of the confidentiality of their opinions after which the discussions were conducted. the field notes from the fgd were thereafter transcribed. methods of data analysis the data collected through questionnaires were encoded into spss version 21 for analysis. mean values at both item and scale levels were units of analysis. on the other hand, data collected through interviews and focus group discussions were coded and categorized thematically for analysis. the quantitative data obtained through questionnaires on cooperative group work assessment challenges was analyzed with one sample t-test. one sample t-test was used to determine whether there was statistically significant difference between the observed mean and expected mean (3.00) at both items and scale levels. the assumptions of the t-test were tested to avoid possible flaws that might have originated from violation of the assumptions before applying it. in addition, five percent (α = 0.05) level of significance was used throughout the study. finally, the coded and categorized data secured through interviews and focus group discussions were analyzed qualitatively through verbal descriptions. results before running one-sample t-test, the data obtained through questionnaire from teachers and students were checked for normality of the distribution. the results indicated the skewness and kurtosis values of the data were below 2.00 at an item and a scale level. this shows that one-sample t-test could be applied. to this effect, t-test results of teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges were provided below. abate demissie gedamu & getu lema shewangezaw ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 110 teachers’ questionnaire data analysis on assessment challenges table 1. one sample t-test results on group work assessment challenges ( teachers’ view) test value = 3 no items mean df t p 1 assessment of cooperative group work was time consuming 4.01 212 14.43 .000 2 there is lack of clear assessment criteria to assess group work 3.48 212 6.04 .000 3 there were too many students in my classes 4.03 212 12.14 .000 4 i have insufficient training on the assessment of cooperative group work 3.02 212 0.24 .806 5 cooperative group work assessment increased teacher workload 3.46 212 4.51 .000 6 i was unfamiliar with cooperative group work assessment techniques 2.47 212 -6.27 .000 7 i had too many classes (sections) to assess group work 3.84 212 9.47 .000 8 i am uncertain on what should be assessed in group work 3.01 212 0.15 .875 9 difficulty of assessing and weighting of group work process 3.42 212 9.58 .000 10 unreliability of peer or self-assessments 3.44 212 5.43 .000 11 the management of non-contributing students in the group 3.57 212 7.02 .000 12 inability of assessing individual contribution to the group work 3.09 212 1.08 .279 scale 3.40 212 9.19 .000 as shown in table 1, one sample t-test was performed to find out whether the observed means of the items on the group work assessment challenges were significantly different from the expected mean (3.0). the results indicated statistically significant positive mean differences for most items from the expected mean (3.0) at (p < 0.01). on the other hand, significant but negative mean difference from the expected mean was found for ‘unfamiliarity with group work assessment techniques’ item at (p < 0.01). in addition, the results confirmed statistically non significant mean differences at (p > 0.05) for items on ‘insufficiency of training on the assessment of group work’, ‘too many classes of students (sections) to teach’, and ‘inability of assessing individual contribution to the group work’. secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 111 from the above presentation, it can be deduced that time consuming nature of group work assessment, lack of clear assessment criteria, class size, the number of class sections teachers cover, work load, assessment of group process, a lack of trust in peer and selfassessment, and problem with management of free riders were the challenges teachers faced in their effort to assess cooperative group works. conversely, unfamiliarity with cooperative group work assessment techniques is not found to be a challenge to teachers. however, the finding revealed that teachers remained ambivalent on the items ‘insufficiency of training on the assessment of group work’, ‘uncertainty of what should be assessed in group work’, and ‘inability of assessing individual contribution to the group work’. students’ questionnaire data analysis on assessment challenges table 2. one sample t-test results on assessment challenges (students’ view) test value=3 items mean df t p 1 insufficient support and follow-up from the teacher 3.30 211 2.96 .003 2 unequal contribution of individual to the group work 3.36 211 3.67 .000 3 the effect of non-contributing members (free riders) in the group 3.10 211 1.00 .315 4 lack of proper peer evaluation of non-contributing in the group 2.99 211 -.102 .919 5 long time friendships among members of cooperative learning group 3.22 211 2.39 .017 6 insufficient training and experiences on peer assessment 3.13 211 1.25 .209 scale 3.18 211 2.54 .012 as shown in table 2, one sample t-test was run to find out whether the observed means of the items on group work assessment challenges were significantly different from the expected mean (3.00). the results show statistically significant positive mean differences for ‘insufficient support and follow up’, ‘unequal contribution of individual to the group work’, and ‘long time friendship’, at p < 0.01 of the items of the scale. conversely, the results revealed statistically nonsignificant mean differences at (p > 0.05) for items ‘the effect of non-contributing members (free riders)’, ‘lack of proper peer evaluation of non-contributing members (free riders)’, and ‘insufficient training and experiences on peer assessment’. these show that insufficient support for and follow up by teachers, unequal contribution of individual to the group work, and long-time friendship among group members were found to be abate demissie gedamu & getu lema shewangezaw ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 112 major challenges to assessment of cooperative group works. however, students seem to be undecided on the effect of non-contributing members (free riders), lack of proper peer evaluation of non-contributing members, and insufficiency of training and experiences on peer assessment. analysis of teachers’ interview data on group work assessment challenges teachers were interviewed on the challenges they faced in their attempt to assess cooperative group work and particularly with regards to the challenges they experienced in the assessment of individual contribution to the group work and group process. one interviewed teacher noted: as teachers, we have not put the principles of cooperative learning into effect as it should have been. we use to let the group leaders present the group work and be accountable for the entire group work. yet, we offer equal marks to all group members regardless of the assessment of individual contribution to the group work, and the group process they have passed through to complete the task. this situation has been a prevalent problem not resolved yet (teacher 1). describing the assessment challenges they faced, another teacher noted: the assessment of cooperative group work is a daunting task. teachers assess the group product and offer the same marks regardless of the differences in the group. the group leader in most occasions is high achiever. the task of the group lies on the shoulder of this individual and the teacher assess the final outcome without paying attention to the process. as the result, everybody in the group will get the same mark. this situation has been a break down in the implementation of cooperative group work (teacher 6). as for the basic attributes behind their shortfall in assessing cooperative group works, the teachers enumerated some inadequacies and proffered elaborations that include their workloads, class size, and number of sections they teach, their training on the assessment of group work, time constraints and other related limitations. one of the interviewed teachers reported, . . . we handle 20 and plus [class] periods a week with class size of 70 or more in most cases. we cover 4 to 5 sections… and this means we get in touch with 280 to 350 students every day. as a consequence, it will be very challenging to assess group work process and individual contribution to the group work. we offer equal marks to the group product with little or no consideration of group process and individual contribution to the group work (teacher 2). secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 113 other interviewed teachers also emphasized large class size and workload as major challenges in their assessment endeavor of group process and of individual contributions to the group work. the teachers reported that they could not assess group process and individual contributions either through presentation or any other formal or informal means. consequently, they offer equal marks for all students based on the final work. it is interesting to note that class size problem (40-50 students) mentioned above was not found to be a challenge at one of the schools, merab abaya secondary school. in addition to class size and workload, teachers reported time constraint as one crucial challenge in the assessment of group work. on this issue, the interviewed teachers argued that the contents of the curriculum to be covered in an academic year are too vast. due to this, in most cases, they said they were always in a race against time, short of time to assess each and every group work group process and individual contribution. the other challenge teachers reported include inadequacy of their expertise on the assessment of cooperative group work, and inadequacy of their students’ knowledge and experiences of peer and self-assessment, although there are variations among senior and junior students. teachers, therefore, found it difficult to involve students as they should in assessing group process and individual contribution to the group work. the teachers reported that they had not taken any staff development or continuous professional development courses on assessment of cooperative group work. they reported inadequate assessment skills to inhibit group work assessment practices. focus group discussion analysis the focus group discussions with students on group work assessment corroborated teachers’ feelings about challenges they faced in the assessment endeavors. there was a consensus among them that unwillingness of all group members to participate and contribute proportionally if not equally remains a prevailing problem in group work. they all deplored the fact that the unwilling/reluctant students are beneficiaries of marks equal to what the other contributing and hardworking members earned for their efforts. a discussant underlined the situation as follow: the majority of the group members are reluctant to participate and contribute their best to the group work. the group leaders will do the entire works. group leaders shoulder the group burden and responsibility. the majority of students are reluctant; yet, they favor abate demissie gedamu & getu lema shewangezaw ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 114 group work and its assessment as they are beneficiaries of equal group marks with little or no contribution. concerning the effects of long-time friendship among group members on assessment and the lack of teacher support and follow up of group work, a fgd participant who has been a group leader for long time reported, i have been group leader for long time. the group leaders used to report the levels of the group members involvement and the amount of individual contribution to the group work. the reports we give are not genuine in most cases. we used to report as if everybody did his/her best to the group work due to long time friendship among members of the group and the influence of free riders on us. in addition, there is no sufficient support and follow up of the group work from the sides of the teachers. the teachers, on most occasions, offer the same equal marks on the basis of our wrong reports. discussing the effect of non-contributing group members on the group work, the discussants emphasized that group leaders tended to shoulder the responsibility of the groups, ending up doing the entire work with little or no contributions to the group work from the rest of the members. yet, teachers give equal marks to all members without distinction. the discussants unanimously affirmed that the consequence of this unfairness and of the over burdening of group leaders was that the group leaders and the bright students are discouraged. they consequently are declining to do their best in group work assignments. although students are only rarely involved in the assessment of group work, the fgd discussants reported that when they participated, it was not on the strength of a prior orientation or experiences of group work assessment. they averred that they had no peer and self-assessment skills for assessing their peers and for awarding marks for individual contributions to the group works. discussion and conclusions the data acquired from teachers through questionnaire and interview confirmed a number of challenges that have been ascribed to the assessment of cooperative group work in the literature and are therefore consistent with conclusions, for example, in works by le, janssen & wubbels (2018) and ross & rolheiser (2003). these include time constraints and workloads challenges. while the results from the questionnaire indicated that ethiopian teachers are familiar with group work secondary school teachers’ and students’ perspectives on cooperative group work assessment challenges in ethiopia ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 115 assessment techniques, the teachers nonetheless reported that they found it difficult in practice to assess and weigh group processes. the questionnaire result also show that teachers are unclear and ambivalent about a number of other group assessment items, including, ‘sufficiency of training to assess group work’, ‘certainty of what should be assessed’, and ‘ability of assessing individual contribution’ items of the group work. what was very clear from the interview results was that teachers have difficulty in assessing group process and individual contribution to the group work. the results show that they had inadequate skills for the assessment of cooperative group work. consequently, the assessment done by the teachers was on group work product for which they give the same grade to all the students regardless of the differences in individual contribution to the tasks. this implies that the participant teachers did not have adequate skills for the assessment of group work process and evaluation of individual student contribution to the group work, methods of group work assessment, nor were they even certain on what should be assessed. all these findings agree with and confirm previous works and observations on cl assessments by le, janssen & wubbels (2018), ross & rolheiser (2003), and on many teachers been uncertain and ambiguous on the content and methods of group work assessment (frykedal & chiriac, 2011; gillies & boyle, 2010; ross & rolheiser, 2003). the other important challenge the interviews identified in the assessment of cooperative group work was the distrust teachers had of students’ peer and selfassessment. consequent to this, teachers rarely involve students in the assessment and only in a limited way. while the literature suggests that peer and self-assessments provide good opportunities for assessment of group work process and of individual contribution to the group work, this study shows that students require to be educated on the processes involved in the assessment of group work and should be provided with clear assessment rubrics. this will help to obviate or reduce teachers’ doubt of student peer and selfassessment and decrease their tendency to thereby assess only the group product and offer equal marks to all group members irrespective of individual contribution (le, janssen & wubbels, 2018). the problem of how to manage for free riders remains a very difficult one. results from both questionnaires and interviews identify the free riders’ effect as a top challenge for the optimal function of the cl group and the assessments of its work. from students’ perspective, the support abate demissie gedamu & getu lema shewangezaw ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.104-119 116 and follow up by teachers were insufficient, a factor said to adversely affect their peer assessment of cooperative group work. on the surface, the data obtained from students through questionnaire and fgd contradicted each other on some assessment challenges in the assessment endeavor of cooperative group work. thus, the results from questionnaire implied a neutral level of concern by the students on the effect of a lack of proper peer evaluation of non-contributing (free rider) students, on insufficiency of training, and on lack of experience on peer assessment. this would seem to be caused by students not wanting to expose the wrong they did by assessing each other high marks regardless of nonequal contributions to group work. however, results from fgd revealed that most group members tended to leave the bulk of group work to group leaders because they realized that they would earn the same mark even without them contributing to the work. the consequence of this unfair workload and assessment marks distribution was that group leaders and the brilliant students began to reduce the quality of their contribution. it is therefore evident that the effect of the lack of proper management of non-contributing members to student group work constituted a major problem to the group. the results are consonant with early works which showed that among the obstacles to the assessment of cooperative group work were students’ resentment of the lack of fairness in assessment due the lack of management of non-contributing peers (davis, 2009; ross & rolheiser, 2003) and the absent or inadequate training on peer and self-assessments (galton, hargreaves & pell, 2009; kutnick et al., 2005). recommendations in view of the challenges in the assessment of cooperative group work, the snnprs and district education bureaus should organize on-the-job training on the assessment of cooperative group work for teachers to overcome or minimize its challenges similarly, teachers should educate students on and involve them in the assessment of their own learning via selfand peer assessments. in addition, teacher education institutions should revamp the group work assessment component in their curricula to appropriately equip teachers with the requisite skills while they are being prepared for going out into the field. references abiy, y. 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(2015). a study on the practices of cooperative language learning method: enango high school grade 9 in focus. star journal, 4(2): 278-287 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/star.v4i2.39 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 152 174 student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools william pastory majani educational psychology and curriculum studies dar es salaam university college of education (duce) tanzania abstract this paper reports on student-teachers’ experiences during a six-week teaching practicum of disruptive classroom behaviours by students in selected tanzanian secondary schools and the strategies that the student-teachers employed to manage them. questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were employed to collect data from 70 student-teachers. using qualitative thematic analysis and descriptive quantitative analysis strategies, it was revealed that student-teachers did very little to enhance appropriate classroom behaviours. instead, they relied on punitive strategies such as punishment to deal with disrupting students. reliance on punitive measures limited their ability to use positive feedback, tolerance and relational support strategies, which are regarded as more effective in fostering appropriate classroom behaviours by empowering students to take control of their own behaviour. these findings have important implications for teacher training programmes, and students learning. the paper concludes by asserting that like any other lessons, appropriate behaviours in classrooms need to be taught and nurtured not simply demanded. keywords: disruptive behaviour, punitive and supportive strategies, tanzania background of the study classroom management and students’ disruptive behaviours are considered major challenges that face student-teachers as well as experienced teachers (ghazi, shahzada, tariq & khan, 2013; wubbels, 2011). the ability to manage disrupting students is reported as a critical variable for effective teaching and classroom management (matsoga, 2003; njoroge & nyabuto, 2014; närhi, kiiski & savolainen, 2017 semali & vumilia, 2016). however, scholarly evidence show that many student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 153 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 pre-and in-service teacher programmes lack concrete strategies to equip student-teachers with competencies necessary to deal with students with different behavioural problems in the classroom (ghazi, shahzada, tariq & khan, 2013; stough, 2006;woodcock & reupert, 2017; wubbels, 2011). the deficit is the cause of both studentteachers and the experienced teachers reporting being overloaded by students’ disruptive behaviours such as fighting in the classrooms, hostility, abusive language and bullying etc (semali & vumilia, 2016). on the other hand, students complain about their teachers’ aggressiveness and harsh punishments (ghazi, shahzada, tariq & khan, 2013; gibbons et al., 2018; nene, 2013). they are of the view that teachers are too harsh, uncaring, and unfriendly (mugabe & maposa, 2007; nene, 2013). the deteriorating relationship between teachers and students rooted in poor management of disrupting learners makes learning challenging and non-inspiring (vitto, 2003). drawing on this backdrop, this study reports on student-teachers’ experiences and the management strategies they employed to address classroom disruptive behaviours in selected tanzanian secondary schools during teachers’ preparatory practicum. typologies of classroom disruptive behaviours the literature indicates that disruptive behaviours in schools take many forms such as verbal abuse towards teachers, aggression, and students hurting others (shavega, tuijl & brugman, 2015). disruptive behaviours also include personal attacks on teachers, students’ noncompliance or refusing to follow instructions (gibons et al., 2018; shavega, tuijl & brugman, 2015). they include speaking disruptively out of turn, threatening to physically harm teachers and fellow students, bullying and harassment. hence, scholars have classified disruptive behaviours based on the degree of severity and the mode through which they manifest and are presented. according to levin and nolan (1996), what commonly occurs during disruptive behaviours could be categorized into; a). verbal interruptions such as talking out of turn, name calling, humming and calling out, b). off task that includes daydreaming, tardiness, doodling and inattentiveness, c). disrespect that involves refusing directions, verbal aggressions and negligence and, d). physical movements such as wandering about, visiting other leaners and throwing objects around the classroom. scholars regard these classroom behaviours to have a mild impact on teaching and learning. however, if left unattended, they tend to inhibit the normal flow of teaching and learning from occurring (marais & meier, 2010; nene, 2013; woodcock & reupert, 2017). william pastory majani 154 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 classroom behaviours have also been categorized based on the consequences the behaviours bring to students, teachers, and the entire teaching and learning process. de wet (2003), mugabe and maposa (2007); nene (2013) and rayment (2006), categorized the most serious disruptive behaviours to include; a). physical violence (e.g. fighting). b). bullying (e.g. name calling such as; stupid, fat, skinny or retarded and dispossessing fellow learners belonging). c). insubordination to teachers (e.g. cursing and threatening to harm teachers) and d). the use of drugs and other psychoactive substances. the latest classroom disruptive behaviours category takes the form of aggression via electronic media directed at both teachers and fellow students (baker & tanrikulu, 2010; kowalski & limber, 2007; shapka, onditi, collie & lapidot‐lefler, 2018; sharrif & jonny, 2007). consequences of classroom disruptive behaviours the landscape of teaching and learning is affected by classroom disruptive behaviours in many ways. the general literature agrees that students’ disruptive behaviours pose enormous challenges not only to teachers but also to students and the teaching and learning process (matsoga 2003); njoroge and nyabuto 2014; and o’brennan, bradshaw and furlong 2014). they observe that disruptive behaviours affect learning in different dimensions (cooperkline 2009; and finn, fish and scot 2008). first, disruptive behaviours affect students’ learning, reduces the possibility of their excelling in higher in education, and interferes with their progress and graduation. second, they constitute a major source of stress and distraction to teachers and thereby contribute to teaching ineffectiveness (browser & tomic, 2000; hastings & bham, 2003; oliver & reschly, 2007; rose & gallup, 2005). disruptive behaviours are leading causes of teachers’ burn out and turnover (ghazi, shahzada, tariq & khan, 2013; mahvar, farahani, & aryankhesal, 2018; närhi, kiiski & savolainen, 2017; woodcock & reupert, 2017). the fear of dealing with disruptive behaviours are closely associated with why some novice teachers balk from joining the teaching profession after they have graduated (sullivan, johnson, owen & conway, 2014; yusoff & mansor, 2016). third, disruptive behaviours consume both time and resources that should be channelled to learning (walker, ramsey and grasham, 2004). in summary, disruptive behaviours waste teaching time, disrupt those students who are learning, threatens safety, overwhelms teachers and contribute to ruining students’ chances of successful schooling and life (walker, ramsey and grasham, 2004). these consequences call for immediate interventions (vitto, 2003; wubbels, 2011). drawing on student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 155 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 this understanding, this paper advocates for the need to have teachers with sufficient knowledge and skills to address disruptive behaviours more effectively. this is made possible if educators and policymakers capitalize on classroom management skills as core components in both pre-and inservice teacher programmes (mahvar, farahani, & aryankhesal, 2018; sullivan, johnson, owen & conway, 2014; wubbels, 2011). categories of classroom management strategies student-teachers, as well as experienced in-service teachers, use various strategies to curb classroom disruptive behaviours. the strategies include those categorized as punitive; when teachers use punishment or reprimand (stewart, 2004), use of threats and warnings (tulley & chiu, 1995), detention and setting extra work (reupert &woodcock, 2011). the second category of strategies is using non-verbal cues that include saying a students’ name as a sign of warning (atici, 2007; bromfield,2006; stough, 2001). a third category includes relational and supportive strategies such as the use of rewards and praise (nene, 2013), effective feedback (reupert &woodcock, 2011) and helping students develop self-regulation (woodcock & reupert, 2017; marais & meier, 2010). of all the strategies employed to curb classroom disruptive behaviours, research shows little evidence that supports the use of punitive and authoritarian strategies (osher, bear, sprague & doyle, 2010; sullivan, johnson, owen & conway, 2014). instead, scholars recommend strategies that are democratic and focused on fostering learners’ self-regulation and meaningful student-teacher interactions (mahvar, farahani, & aryankhesal, 2018; woodcock & reupert, 2017; wubbels, 2011). these may include effective feedback, student-teacher mutual communication and interactions, clear and consistent classroom rules and expectations (mahvar, farahani, & aryankhesal, 2018; närhi, kiiski & savolainen, 2017). despite many studies on the consequences of disruptive behaviour in teaching and learning particularly in the developed countries, little is known about strategies employed by student-teachers to address disruptive behaviours in the classroom especially during practicum in developing countries. based on this background information and the knowledge gap highlighted above, this paper explores studentteachers’ experiences and the strategies they employed to address disruptive classroom behaviour in tanzania secondary schools. william pastory majani 156 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 research methodology qualitative and quantitative research strategies were employed to study student-teachers’ experiences and the strategies they employed to manage classroom disruptive behaviours. data collection and analysis of the research employed qualitative and quantitative strategies involving semi-structured interviews and questionnaire. to analyse and interpret data in this study, thematic qualitative analysis was merged with descriptive quantitative analysis. bryman (2016), creswell (2015) denzin and lincoln (2013) and stake (1995) referred to this approach as triangulation, viz., the use of more than one source of data to cross-check the trustworthiness of the findings (bryman, 2016). sample size and sampling procedures the participants of this study included undergraduate and postgraduate student-teachers who practised teaching in four (4) secondary schools that had previously reported having many disrupting students. the sample included 18 in-service undergraduate student-teachers, 31 thirdyear students and 21 postgraduate student-teachers. this category of participants was purposely selected based on different criteria and assumptions. the in-service student–teachers were selected because they were considered to have had the necessary information and experiences required for this study. the inclusion criteria for this group was their experiences and the prior training they had undergone in the teaching profession. their classroom teaching experience dealing with students’ classroom behavioural problems was regarded as an additional key criterion for their inclusion in the study. third-year student-teachers were selected for their experiences on matters relating to classroom interactions and classroom management acquired through apprenticeship and teaching practicums during their first and second years of undergraduate studies. the postgraduate student-teachers included in this study were those who had prior teaching experiences before joining the university to upgrade their teaching qualifications. the recruitment of this group involved circulating a register to a whole class of postgraduate students-teachers to establish their prior experience in teaching. those with prior experience in teaching and who were willing to participate were thus obtained for the study. table 1 illustrates participant distribution. student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 157 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 table 1. distribution of participants by degree programme degree programme sex total % female male bachelor of science 9 7 16 22.9 bachelor of science with education 9 6 15 21.4 bachelor of arts 8 5 13 18.6 bachelor of arts with education 4 5 9 12.9 postgraduate diploma in education 7 10 17 24.3 total 37 33 70 100 source: field data (march 2018) data collection and analysis questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were administered to the participants to seek their perceptions, opinions, and attitudes towards students’ disruptive behaviours and what strategies they regarded as suitable in addressing behavioural problems. a total of 70 questionnaires were filled and handed back to the researcher for data analysis and interpretation. data obtained through close-ended questionnaires were analysed descriptively (statistically describing, aggregating, and presenting the constructs of interest or associations between these constructs) (bryman, 2016; johnson & christensen, 2017). percentages and frequencies were processed manually, systematically analysed and presented into percentages and frequencies to suit the research purpose. the information generated through semi-structured interviews were coded, transcribed and analysed thematically in accord with braun and clarke (2006) and joffe (2012)’s definition whereby thematic analysis involves sorting, discovering, interpreting and reporting patterns and clusters of meaning within the data. findings from the semi-structured interview were further sorted, grouped into allied themes and units. this was followed by categorizing data into similar themes and subthemes for discussion and interpretations. in this paper, descriptive and thematic analysis strategies were integrated in discussing and interpreting findings in this study. william pastory majani 158 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 research findings the magnitude of disruptive behaviours in selected secondary schools in order to understand the magnitude of disruptive behaviour in selected secondary schools, participants were asked how frequently they encountered disruptive behaviours during classroom instructions. the table below illustrates the magnitude of disruptive behaviours in selected secondary schools. table 2. student -teachers’ responses on encountering disruptive behaviours in the classrooms responses frequency percentage always 24 34.3 rarely 28 40 not at all 18 25.7 source: field data (march 2018) findings from the questionnaire (table 2) indicate that 28 (40%) student-teachers reported that they rarely encountered disruptive behaviours in their classes. whereas, 24 (34.3%) reported to have always encountered disruptive behaviour in their classrooms. eighteen participants (25.7%) reported to have not encountered disruptive behaviour at all in their lessons. however, information from semi-structured interview contradicts the findings from the questionnaire. for example, during the interview sessions, seven (7) out of ten (10) participants who took part in semi-structured interview sessions agreed that they encountered many incidences of disruptive behaviours causing them to spend most of their time dealing with students’ behavioural problems. the following excerpts illustrate further student-teachers’ responses to the question, how frequent did you encounter disruptive behaviours in your lessons? table 3. student teachers’ extracts on encountering disruptive behaviour in the classrooms data extract emerging themes i think, it is a common thing to all of us! you know with revolution in technology, students are difficult to manage. you find some students who illegally bring the phones with them in the classroom are text messaging, some are talking without asking permission from the teacher and [showing] 1. disruptive behaviour is common 2. usage of phonestext messaging student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 159 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 other unwanted behaviours. these interfere teaching in many ways (bsc3rd year). always! there is no single day you can say i have not encountered a disruptive behaviour in my classroom, what i normally do is to punish the disruptive student before fellow students. this acts as a lesson to other disrupting students (baed-3rd year). teaching is like parenting, students do differ. therefore, you do not expect your classrooms to be calm every day. today is calm but tomorrow chaos. therefore, as a teacher i am prepared for every situation every day. what i do is to make sure students are all involved in the lesson (in-service teacher). 3. side conversation 4. teaching disrupted 1. disruption is normal 2. punitive measures 3. compliance to classroom rules 1. students behave differently 2. supportive teacher(s) 3. on-task behaviour findings from both the questionnaire and semi-structured interviews indicate that many of the participants had encountered disruptive behaviours during classroom instructions. while the questionnaires disclosed that 18 participants (25.7%) had not encountered disruptive behaviours at all, the findings from semi-structured interviews show that disruptive behaviour is a common feature in the selected secondary schools. while the findings from questionnaire and semistructured interviews understate the degree of disruptive behaviours in classrooms, they point out an important perspective concerning how the student teachers interpreted the current research. the contradiction is a reflection that student-teachers felt that if they reported frequently encountering disruptive behaviour, it could be interpreted as a sign of weakness and ineffectiveness in managing their classes. as brouwer and tomic (2000) and friedman and farber (1992) noted, teachers tend to ignore classroom disruptive behaviours to avoid burn out and protect their self-esteem. this suggests that student-teachers (indeed experienced teachers) tend to employ what mahvar et al. (2018) referred to as avoidance strategies in order to deal with disrupting classroom behaviours. it can be deduced from this finding that the student teachers believed that ignoring the unwanted behaviour will eventually make it disappear. however, ignoring the problem as a classroom william pastory majani 160 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 management strategy remains debatable among scholars and researchers in education and social science (booth, 2017; brandon et al., 2014). overall, data collected through questionnaire and semi-structured interviews suggest that disruptive behaviours are evident in many classes of the secondary schools composing the sample of this study. different types of disruptive behaviours and their severity data generated through questionnaire and semi-structured interviews indicate that common disruptive classroom behaviours in tanzania schools range from mild to dangerous ones. the findings of this study revealed that within the period of their six weeks practicum, student-teachers experienced and dealt with different disruptive behaviours that ranged from classroom side conversations to bullying and aggressive or offensive comments addressed to them and to fellow students. the table below indicates student-teachers’ responses in a questionnaire about common disruptive behaviours they encountered in the classrooms. table 4. common classroom disruptive behaviours reported by student-teachers disruptive behaviour # instances reported bullying 9 text messaging 8 abusive language towards teachers 5 students fighting one another 7 side conversation 17 personal attack to the teacher 9 students leaving classrooms without permission 13 noncompliance 12 student speaking without permission 10 making offensive comments to the teacher 6 constant disagreeing with the teacher 5 students dominating and monopolizing the discussion 4 source: field data (march 2018) student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 161 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 table 4 indicates that the participants reported instances of side conversation, students leaving classrooms without permission and students’ non-compliance with instructions as the most recurrent disruptive behaviours in their classrooms. this was followed in terms of recurring frequencies by the problems of students speaking without permission and bullying fellow students. these findings suggest that many of the reported disruptive instances fall under the category of mild or common occurring classroom behaviours (refer levin & nolan, 1996). however, instances of bullying (7), fighting (6) and aggressive or offensive comments directed to teachers and fellow students (6) signal the presence of severe or seriously disruptive behaviours in tanzanian secondary schools. as a way to triangulate findings, i asked student-teachers in an interview to describe the nature of students who are most likely to be involved in disruptive behaviours that they highlighted in the questionnaire and some participants mentioned age, gender, class level and students’ subject mastery or capability as critical variables. the following excerpts illustrate further: table 5. student-teachers ‘opinions on different types of disruptive behaviours and their severity data extract emerging themes in my class, i do not see many girls misbehaving like what boys do” (in-service student -teacher). “generally, my students are behaving well, however, there are still few especially the ones who are performing poorly in my assignments tend to disturb their fellow students when i am teaching” (bsc, 3rd year student). “last week, i had the most terrible experience in my form two classroom. as i was teaching, i noticed that two boys, backbenchers (aged between 13-15) were fighting. i called them in front of the class and told them to kneel down. one of the boys refused and ran away. i have ordered him not to attend my lessons till he apologizes to me” (postgraduate student-teacher). “ i teach geography in forms two [ages between 13-15] and four[15-17 years]. the form two, especially boys, are too disturbing [sic] than their brothers in form four. i 1. boys disrupts more than girls 1. inattentiveness 2. weak students 3. teacher attributions 1. boys are involved in physical violence 2. teaching is stressing 3. punitive strategies 4. non-compliance 1. disruptions attributed to age william pastory majani 162 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 spend most of my time correcting this and that [misbehaviour] instead of teaching. host teachers insist that i plan my practicum assessment with the form fours who seem more mature and well behaving.” and gender 2. classroom level 3. practicum is for grading 4. poor mentorship source: field data (march 2018) findings from table 5 show that although lessons in tanzania secondary schools are largely dominated by mild or common occurring disruptive behaviours, there are moments when more highly disruptive behaviours such as fighting in the classrooms are reported. boys tend to engage more in all types of disruptive behaviours ranging from mild to severe than girls. additionally, student-teachers attributed misbehaviour to students’ inability (poor performance in school subjects), classroom level and age of the students. implying that adolescent boys are more likely to engage in disruptive behaviours that are aggravated by attention seeking and fighting is opted as the way to resolve conflicts (rayment, 2006; de wet, 2003). it can also be deduced from the excerpt above that many behavioural problems reported by student-teachers were partly due to student-teachers inability to communicate effectively during classroom instructions. they were also caused by a lack of or poor mentoring of student-teachers by experienced teachers and by “the practicum grading syndrome”, whereby student-teachers consider their practicum as an avenue to be assessed and assigned a grade for their program of study rather than seeing it as a moment for practicing and learning how to teach effectively. however, some studies also suggest that students may become involved in disruptive behaviours because of boredom or demotivation when the teacher is not delivering the lesson according to students’ expectations (gibson et al., 2018). drawing on these findings, it is important that teacher trainers and educators in teacher education emphasize equipping novice teachers with the pedagogical skills and competencies necessary in managing classrooms and know how to deal effectively with disruptive behaviours. ensuring effective mentorship of student-teachers during practicum is one way of doing this. student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 163 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 student-teachers’ strategies in dealing with disruptive behaviour in the classrooms in order to understand how student-teachers dealt with disruptive behaviours, participants were asked to indicate strategies they employed to address disruptive behaviours in the classrooms. these are reflected in table 6 below: table 6: strategies towards addressing behavioural problems in the classroom (by frequencies and percentages) behaviour employed strategies teachers using the strategy side conversation telling the student to keep quiet suspending the student from the lesson ignoring the student 21 (30%) 3 (4%) 3 (4%) bullying suspending the student from the lesson students bring their parents use corporal punishment (caning) 13 (19%) 14 (20%) 4 (6%) student abusing the teacher apply corporal punishment report the student to disciplinary office students bring parents to school disciplinary committee 20 (29%) 2 (3%) 3 (4%) using mobile phones during the lesson suspending student from the lesson confiscating the phone from the student report the student to the disciplinary office orienting students on the proper use of mobile phone 2 (3%) 17 (24%) 12 (17%) 5 (7%) listening to music while the teacher is teaching report the student to the discipline office take away the /mp3/ipod teach the students the effects of listening to music 6 (9%) 12 (17%) 10 (14%) william pastory majani 164 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 during the lesson student speaking without permission ask the students to raise up their hands before speaking telling the student to keep quite ignoring the misbehaviour 20 (29%) 4 (6%) 1 (1%) facebooking reminding students on classroom rules and regulations applying corporal punishment confiscating student’s phone 2 (3%) 21 (30%) 11 (15%) physical aggressiveness towards fellow students report the student to the disciplinary office punish the student (corporal punishment) reminding the student about classroom rules 8 (11%) 15 (21%) 6 (9%) student text messaging while the teacher is teaching taking away the phone from the student report the student to the disciplinary office suspend the student from the lesson 18 (26%) 10 (14%) 1 (1%) students fighting one another report the student to the disciplinary office students bring their parents to the schools’ disciplinary committee suggest to the committee to expel students from studies 19 (27%) 6 (9%) 4 (6%) sleeping in the classroom punish the student (corporal punishment) suspend the student from the lesson find out why the student is sleeping 21 (30%) 1 (1%) 5 (7%) preventing other students send the student outside the classroom 4 (6%) student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 165 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 from concentrating in the lesson modifying student’s sitting plan provide extra assignment to the student 22 (31%) 4 (3%) threatening to harm the teacher report the student to the discipline office punish the student suspend the student from the lesson 15 (21%) 12 (17%) 1 (1%) student monopolizing class discussion encourage the student ignore the student appoint the student as a class leader 8 (11%) 6 (9%) 8 (11%) source: field data (march 2018) findings from table 6 indicate that there is no difference between how student-teachers responded to mild or common occurring disruptive behaviours like students engaging in side conversations to the most serious ones like fighting. the table illustrates further that the student-teachers responded to disruptive behaviours mainly by using punitive/ reactive strategies as opposed to rewards and students’ self-regulation/control techniques. the student-teachers seemed to have considered the disciplinary office to be the principal means of addressing classroom disruptive behaviours. hence, measures such as reporting students to the disciplinary office or reporting students to the disciplinary committee received higher frequencies in this study. the implications of these findings are twofold; first, teacher preparatory programmes need to integrate classroom management skills as key curricula component. secondly, because the 2014 tanzania educational training policy (etp) prohibits teachers from applying corporal punishment to students, except with the permission of headteacher, student-teachers directed disciplinary matters to the responsible office. nonetheless, the findings show that some student -teachers still used corporal punishment on students, an indication of a mismatch between the policy requirements and teachers’ practices. the persistence of punitive measures in addressing disruptive behaviours in schools indicates that it might be deep-rooted in the school system. changing teachers’ practices, however, demands altering the educational and training policy in the first place. drawing from william pastory majani 166 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 these findings, it is positive that both the pre-and in-service teachers know that it is difficult to teach and learn effectively in a classroom dominated by disruptive behaviours. however, as the literature suggests it is also challenging, if not impossible, to address classroom disruptive behaviours by relying on techniques that aim to impose teachers’ control to obtain submissiveness of the learners (mahvar, farahani, & aryankhesal, 2018; osher, bear, sprague & doyle, 2010; sullivan, johnson, owen & conway, 2014). maintaining appropriate behaviours to improve learning in the classroom using a questionnaire, student-teachers were asked to indicate strategies they employed to foster learning. they were at the same time required to comment on the suitability of those strategies towards nurturing appropriate behaviours and maintaining effective learning in the classroom. the table below illustrates. table 7. participants’ responses on use and suitability of various strategies to address classroom disruptive behaviours strategy use suitable state clearly classroom/school rules and regulations 14 (20%) 18 (26%) teach social skills 13 ( 19%) 9 (13%) counselling 7 (10 %) 7 (10%) create conducive learning environment 50 (71%) 40 (57%) use other forms of punishment (beside what?) on disruptive students 46 (66%) 50 (71%) reward /reinforce well behaving students 21 (30%) 19 (27%) teachers as role models 16 (23%) 8 (11%) suspend disruptive students from the lesson 36 (51%) 41 (59%) get students engage students with tasks 18 (26%) 16 (23%) involve students in extra-curricular activities 4 (6%) 3 (4%) apply corporal punishment 60 (86%) 58 (83%) student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 167 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 restrict mobile phone usage in the classroom 58 (83%) 47 (67%) involve parents 7 (10%) 5 (7%) inform students about the consequences of disrupting 6 (9%) 1 (1%) report the student to the disciplinary office 45 (64%) 42 (60%) develop positive student-teacher relationship 17 (24%) 11 (16%) regular meeting with students 14 (20%) 4 (6%) apply learner centred teaching approaches 10 (14%) 2 (3%) source: field data (march 2018) findings in table 7 show that the majority of the participants used corporal punishment (86%), restricted mobile phone usage in the classroom (83%), created a conducive learning environment (71%) and used other forms of punishment to disrupting students (66%). commenting on the suitability of the strategies, 83% of the participants reported the use of corporal punishment, 71% other forms of punishment, 67% restricting mobile phone usage in the classroom and 64% reporting disruptive students to the disciplinary office as the most suitable strategies or techniques to address students’ behavioural problems. the findings above suggest that student-teachers used more restrictive and control measures than supportive strategies to address disruptive behaviours. the punitive strategies might seem to be working because students were forced to maintain order and comply with classroom rules and regulations that were set forth by teachers or the school administration. this in turn, perpetuated the “teacher centred classrooms” where students remained recipients of orders from the teachers. as reported in the literature, this sort of learning environment makes students less engaged in the lessons due to teachers’ authoritarianism and reliance on classroom rules and regulations as means to curb disruptive behaviours (booth, 2017; mugabe & maposa, 2007). discussion the fact that effective teaching is partly influenced by how best teachers can minimize disruptive behaviours from occurring becomes a critical variable for teacher training programmes around the world. to understand how classroom management skills are put into practice during practicum, this study explored student-teachers’ experiences and the strategies they used to manage classroom william pastory majani 168 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools. although there is a dearth of literature around this topic on tanzania, the regional and international literature reviewed challenge the dominance and appropriateness of punitive strategies and techniques (as evidenced in tanzania classes) in addressing misbehaviours in schools (mahvar, farahani, & aryankhesal, 2018; osher, bear, sprague & doyle, 2010; sullivan, johnson, owen & conway, 2014; wubbels, 2011). instead, strategies focusing on supporting and empowering students with selfregulation and control and with problem-solving skills are recommended in pre-and in-service teacher programmes (booth, 2017; brandon et al., 2014; woodcock & reupert, 2017). recent studies recommend various behaviour management approaches as a replacement to punitive or reactive strategies predominantly in tanzania and other developing countries (matsoga, 2003; njoroge & nyabuto, 2014; semali & vumilia, 2016). these recommended strategies include restorative practices (drewery, 2014; mccluskey, 2018; wearmouth & berryman, 2012), pro-active strategies (cluniesross, little & kienhuis, 2008; ellis &tod, 2013) and holistic/ecosytemic (kourkoutas, 2012) as alternative behaviour management approaches in schools. altogether, these strategies underscore the need for several essential elements for effective management of disruptive behaviours, including, a). positive student-teacher relationship, student-teacher mutual communication and interaction, b). reciprocal accountability, respect and support and focus on the problem and not the student/person as being the problem, and c). contextualizing disruptive behaviours. the latter implies that the context, either social, cultural, or environmental, is key to determining what is the un/acceptable behaviour and what type of learning that is valued and desirable. the last essential element is, d). focus on preventive measures rather than waiting for inappropriate behaviours to occur before (re)acting (clunies-ross, little & kienhuis, 2008; drewery, 2014; ellis & tod, 2013; kourkoutas, 2012; mccluskey, 2018; wearmouth & berryman, 2012). conclusion the persistence of disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools, as elsewhere, calls for new approaches in classroom behaviour management skills. these new skills and approaches need to be reflected in teacher preparatory programmes to equip future teachers with the required competencies to address the causes and consequences of disruptive behaviours. to delay attending to disruptive behaviours may interfere with socio-emotional functioning of students past their time at school and into adulthood. hence, this should make it a matter of urgency to policy makers and student-teachers’ experiences and strategies of managing disruptive behaviours in tanzania secondary schools 169 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.152-174 educators. moreover, practicums as avenues where these classroom management practices are put into practice need to be paired with effective mentorship by host teachers, university supervisors, and other relevant stakeholders. as evidenced through the findings of this study, participants perceived both mild and severe disruptive behaviours as a hindrance to teaching and learning. they held the view that appropriate student classroom behaviour is a precursor to effective teaching and learning. however, the reactive strategies in dealing with disrupting students they adopt negates the possibility of a conducive learning environment. as such, this study advocates that, like any other training for competencies, appropriate behaviours need to be nurtured rather than simply demanded. this presupposes that, while students may feel that adopting the punitive strategy is necessary to prevent disruptive behaviours in the classroom, it is more important to teach and nurture appropriate classroom behaviours through supportive strategies such as tolerance, effective feedback and by creating positive student-teacher relations. to achieve this, educators must spend some time to teach, reinforce and set guidelines jointly with their students on how to maintain appropriate 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(2016). the effectiveness of strategies used by teachers to manage disruptive classroom behaviors: a case study at a religious school in rawang, selangor, malaysia. iium journal of educational studies, 4(1):133-50 . kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching: teacher beliefs, attitudes, self-efficacy, computer competence, and age gladwell wambiri kenyatta university, kenya mary n. ndani kenyatta university, kenya abstract information and communication technologies (ict) has become globally recognized as an effective medium for learning. the kenyan government made a commitment to provide computers for use in teaching in primary schools. this is expected to enable teachers to integrate ict in their teaching beginning in primary standard one. teachers will directly implement the ict project at the classroom level, so are very crucial players to its effectiveness. this article discusses the preparedness of lower primary school teachers for this implementation process regarding their beliefs and attitudes, computer competence, and computer self-efficacy. the authors argue that the provision of computers and other infrastructure in schools may not automatically lead to integration of ict in schools unless the government addresses teachers’ beliefs and attitudes, computer competence and their self-efficacy. the authors recommend revision of the primary teacher education preparation syllabus and training practice for preservice teachers in ict pedagogy to enhance their preparation to integrate ict in their teaching in primary school. keywords: ict teacher age, ict primary education, teacher self-efficacy, kenya teacher computer competence, kasarani division, kenya. introduction the twenty-first century witnessed rapid globalization and infiltration of information and communication technologies (ict) in almost all sectors of life. the rapid advancement of ict and the subsequent emergence of the “knowledge-based” society make it almost mandatory to integrate ict in teaching and learning at all levels of schooling. the use of ict in schools has many benefits to the learner. these include easy access to digital information and understanding of concepts (brush, glazewski and hew, 2008); and facilitating student-centered and self2 kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) directed learning where students can select, organize, and interpret information and data (catro sanchez and aleman, 2011). in addition, ict improves teaching and learning quality (shan fu (2013) and improves learning outcomes and learners’ competencies (andoh, 2012). ict is therefore very crucial for teaching and learning today. as such, educational systems and institutions need to incorporate teaching using ict to prepare learners for life in the modern world and beyond. in this regard, ogutu (2008) observed that to achieve the kenya government vision of facilitating ict as a universal tool for education and training, every educational institution, teacher, and learner should be equipped with appropriate ict knowledge and skills and the relevant infrastructure provided. the kenya government in its “vision 2030” envisages making the country a middle level economy by using ict, and therefore committed itself to providing computers to children in primary schools (kenya government, 2007). the government expects teachers to integrate ict in teaching from as early as primary standard one. it undertook an extensive electrification program to ensure consistent power supplies to previously unreached areas. however, availability of infrastructure does not automatically ensure integration of ict in schools. effective implementation of ict involves interplay of multiple factors besides provision of computers and infrastructure (aktaruzzaman, shamim and clement, 2011). one vital group of factors significant in the integration of ict in the classroom is the teacher factors. teachers are significant players in the process of integrating ict as they are directly involved in the implementation process (bikos & tzifopoulos, 2011). as leaders in the planning and execution of the lesson, their personal characteristics including their beliefs and attitudes towards the use of technology, their level of training in ict, and their self-efficacy in using ict may influence its integration in teaching and learning. teacher beliefs and attitudes towards ict use studies show that teacher attitudes and beliefs are crucial in influencing their acceptance of and subsequent successful integration of ict in the teaching/learning process (huang & liaw, 2005; hew & brush, 2007 and keengwe & onchari, 2008). further, woodrow (1992) argues users need to have positive attitudes towards the innovation to successfully transform the educational practice. teachers’ attitudes are likely to be influenced by their perceptions on the usefulness of ict. in this regard, mingaine (2013) argues that teachers are more likely to use ict if they perceive it to satisfy their own needs or those of their learners. consistently, studies show that teachers’ attitudes towards ict largely influence their willingness to adopt and integrate ict in their teaching. as andoh (2012) found that ghanaian teachers who perceived ict to offer them opportunities for obtaining educational resources from the internet, improve teaching and learning process, and enhance students’ participation and feedback to teachers, were more willing and ready to use ict in teaching. however, contrary findings, such as eugene (2006) investigated the effect of teacher beliefs and attitudes towards use of ict in schools found inconsistencies between practice in use of ict in teaching and teacher beliefs and attitudes. the study attributed the apparent inconsistencies to various factors including lack of ict resources and lack of access to appropriate technology, inadequate support from the management, and lack of necessary pedagogical training. this gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani 3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) implied that even if teachers have positive attitudes, they must be effectively trained and have the relevant support. although the kenya government is committed to the process of integrating ict in primary schools and has integrated ict in primary teacher education syllabus; teacher beliefs and attitudes towards use of ict in schools remains unknown. there is need to assess teacher beliefs and attitudes towards ict use as a measure to ensure successful implementation of kenya’s ict program. ict training another key factor in teachers’ preparedness is their competence in using ict in teaching and learning. readiness to integrate ict in teaching calls for teachers’ ability to handle computers and other ict gadgets and associated software. in this regard, drent & meelisen (2008) established that the quality and level of teacher training influences effective adoption and use of ict in schools. in another study, simonson (2008) found that teachers’ skills are related to their use of ict in the teaching-learning process. further, bordbar (2010) reported that teachers’ competence in computer use is a good predictor of ict integration in teaching. research shows that training must be relevant if teachers are to be well equipped to use ict. most of the studies on ict training for teachers were conducted with secondary school teachers. a study by andoh (2012) reported that teacher training institutions emphasized training about technology as opposed to how teachers could use technology to teach. these findings echoed muriithi (2005) who reported that ict training in kenya was limited to ict literacy. similarly, mingaine (2013) reported that secondary school teachers did not have sufficient skills on how to integrate ict in teaching and learning. other studies in kenya (ayere, odera & agak, 2010) reported that 55% of teachers in secondary schools did not have any ict training at all. of those who had training in ict, 51% obtained training through personal initiatives after employment as teachers. consequently, teachers in secondary schools in the rift valley region (ng’eno, githua and changeiywo, 2013) were found to perceive themselves as ill-prepared to integrate ict in mathematic instructions. the lack of ict training could be due to a lack of serious focus on ict in the teacher training program. these secondary school findings cannot however be directly applied to primary school teachers because their training and expectations are different. ict was integrated in the kenya primary teacher education (pte) syllabus in 2008, so that by the time teachers are posted too teach, they are expected to have ict knowledge. still there remains the need to find out the extent of primary school teachers’ perceived ability to teach using ict based on their training. as such, this study was conducted to establish lower primary school teachers’ readiness to implement ict in primary school teaching and learning. self-efficacy self-efficacy in this study refers to the teacher’s belief in his or her ability to perform an activity using computers. the focus is not on the skills one has, but on the teacher’s judgment on what he or she can do with the skills one possesses. available literature affirms that lack of self-efficacy in the use of computers could lead to lack of confidence in using ict in the classroom. as koliadis (1997) asserted that a person’s self-efficacy can validly predict the behavior that the 4 kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) individual will demonstrate in performing a task. further and consistent with that assertion knezek & christenson (2006) argue that computer self-efficacy is related to confidence in computer technology; and teo (2009) found teachers’ self-efficacy to significantly predict intention to use and actual use of technology. his findings confirmed compeau and higgins (1995) finding that teachers with higher self-efficacy used computers more often and experienced less computer related anxiety. other researchers also found a positive correlation between self-efficacy and computer use. benson (2004), for example, found computer efficacy to correlate with the integration and development of modern technologies in educational practice. self-efficacy may also be related to other teacher characteristics. self-efficacy is therefore crucial in understanding teacher characteristics and their relation to teachers’ effective use of ict in the classroom. integration of ict in primary education being a relatively new development in kenya, studies have not yet established teachers’ self-efficacy in the use of computers. teacher age and use of computers a key factor in readiness for computer use and integration in teaching is teacher age. the level of self-efficacy is not equally distributed across ages. gill and dalgarno’s (2008) study on influences of pre-service teacher preparedness to use ict in the classroom found younger respondents to have higher confidence in their ability to teach using computers than older respondents. in gill and dalgarno’s study, most mature students expressed reluctance to adapt to teaching using ict claiming they were more comfortable with the old techniques of teaching. their main concerns were that their school leaver peers were more competent in ict, and their students were also more likely to know more than themselves. this fear was confirmed by those who had taught using computers before joining the training college as they attested to students having better computer competence than them. in another study on the use of computers in government finance organizations, elder, meelissen & ruth (1987) found that older workers were more likely to experience techno stress compared to younger workers. similarly, harrison and rainer (1992) examined individual differences on skill in end-user computing and found that age is negatively correlated with skill level. zeffane and cheek’s (1993) study of computer usage in an australian telecommunications organization also found that age negatively correlated with computer usage. in the context of the internet, studies show that users tend to be younger adults (straits and times, 1996). age is an important variable for any study on teachers in kenya. as hiring teachers was irregular over the past two decades; consequently there may be a huge age imbalance in the teaching personnel in public primary schools and this could impact the extent of teacher use of computers and their self-efficacy in integration of ict. this article draws from an exploratory study that sought to establish the extent of teacher preparedness to teach using ict with respect to their training, beliefs and attitudes, and selfefficacy in using ict in the classroom, and whether these aspects are related to teacher age. study objectives 1. to establish primary school teacher beliefs and attitudes towards the use of computers in teaching. 2. determine primary school teacher self-efficacy on teaching using computers. 3. to establish primary school teacher computer competence. gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani 5 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) 4. to determine the relationships between teacher age and their beliefs and attitudes towards computers and computer use, self-efficacy, and computer competence. methodology the study sample was comprised of 236 primary male and female teachers who were teaching standard one to standard three classes in 31 public schools in kasarani division, kiambu county, kenya. the teachers ranged in age from 21 to 57 years. all the teachers in the sample had a minimum of two years of primary teacher education. their teaching experience varied from two to 28 years. lower primary school teachers were chosen for this study as it was common practice in most kenyan primary schools for a teacher to start with children from class standard one and move with them up to class standard three and then return to class standard one. going by this practice, it was assumed that the selection group of teachers in lower primary school would be the first cohort of teachers to implement the government ict lap-top project. the preparation of these teachers was, therefore, critical for successful implementation of ict in primary school. teachers were selected with the assistance of school head teachers. a researcher developed questionnaire consisting of items measuring three dependent variables: beliefs and attitudes towards computers, computer competence, and self-efficacy was used to collect data. teacher beliefs and attitudes were measured using three subscales that focused on general use of computers, usefulness of computers in teaching, and the use of computers to teach. computer competence was measured using three subscales relating to basic computer knowledge and skills, ability to teach basic computer knowledge and skills, and ability to teach using computers. self-efficacy was measured using two subscales. these subscales related to general use of computers, and the use of computers to teach. the teachers completed questionnaires in their schools. administration of the questionnaires was accomplished by two researchers and two research assistants with support from the school head teachers. this process made it possible to realize a 100% response rate. a pilot study was conducted prior to the main study to establish validity and reliability. the pilot study sample consisted of 27 lower primary school teachers from three public schools in ruiru zone in kiambu county, kenya. these schools were not included in the main study. test-retest reliability was established for the three questionnaires using pearson’s correlation coefficient test. the reliability coefficients for the three instruments were as shown in table 1.1. expert judgment of ict trainers and ict trained teachers established content validity of the instruments. adjustments were made on items as suggested by the experts. the resulting lists of questions were administered to the 30 teachers in the pilot study and further minor modifications of two items made to ensure item clarity. 6 kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) table 1.1 pearson’s reliability coefficients for test-retest findings of the study distribution of teachers by gender, age, and teaching experience data were recorded. the composition of teachers by gender is shown in table 1.2. table 1.2 distribution of teachers by gender out of the 236 teachers interviewed, 79 (33.6%) were male and 157 (66.3%) female. there were more female teachers than male teachers. this aligned with murage (2015) that documented most early childhood teachers in kenya were as female in other studies. table 1.3 showed the composition of teachers in this study by age level. table 1.3 composition of teachers by age the ages of respondents ranged from 21 to over 50 years, with the majority falling within the 3140 age group. although these ages were almost equally distributed, younger teachers in the 2130 age group and relatively older teachers, above 50 years old comprised the minority groups. the comparatively few younger teachers may be because the input of trained teachers to primary schools in kenya exceeds the current absorption rate of newly trained teachers. this is to reduced hiring rates by the government. older teachers, on the other hand were fewer due to natural resignations, retirements, and death. table 1.4 showed the composition of teachers by the number of years of teaching experience. instrument subscale reliability coefficient teacher beliefs and attitudes general use of computers 0.73 usefulness of computers in teaching 0.75 use of computers to teach 0.81 computer competence basic computer knowledge and skills 0.76 ability to teach basic computer knowledge and skills 0.77 ability to teach using computers 0.84 self-efficacy general use of computers and 0.78 use of computers to teach 0.76 gender number of teachers percent (%) male 66 33.6 female 130 66.3 age number percent (%) 21-30 years 51 21.6 31-40 years 73 30.9 41-50 years 60 25.4 above 50 years 52 22.0 gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani 7 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) table 1.4 proportions of teachers by years of teaching experience majority (33.1%) of the lower primary teachers’ years of teaching experience was between 16 and 25 years. a significant number at 27.1% had teaching experience totaling more than 25 years. this meant 60.2% of the teachers had at minimum 16 years of teaching experience. leaving 39.9% with less than 15 years of teaching experience. this suggested that there were more older teachers than younger teachers in lower primary school classes. teacher beliefs and attitudes the teacher beliefs and attitudes were measured in relation to the use of computers in general, usefulness of computers in teaching, and using computers to teach. the scores were classified as low (scores between 5 and 15), average (scores between 16 and 25), and high (scores between 26 and 30). the number of teachers in each level of beliefs and attitudes aligned with age levels is shown in table 1.5. table 1.5 number of teachers by level of belief and attitude towards computers aligned to age attitude subscale age (years) level of beliefs and attitudes low (5-15) average (16-25) (high (26-30) total beliefs and attitudes towards use of computers in general 21-30 8 13 30 51 31-40 10 24 39 73 41-50 21 24 15 60 above 50 41 6 5 52 total 80 (33.9%) 67 (28.4%) 89 (37.7%) 236 beliefs and attitudes towards usefulness of computers in teaching 21-30 10 13 28 51 31-40 20 20 33 73 41-50 32 14 14 60 above 50 29 16 7 52 total 91 (38.6%) 63 (26.7%) 82 (34.7%) 236 beliefs and attitudes towards using computers to teach 21-30 9 14 28 51 31-40 35 21 17 73 41-50 35 12 13 60 above 50 31 15 6 52 total 92 (39.0%) 62 (26.3%) 82 (34.7%) 236 years of teaching experience number of teachers percentage below 5 years 41 17.4% 39.9% 5-15 years 53 22.5% 16-25 years 78 33.1% 60.2% above 25 years 64 27.1% 8 kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) teacher beliefs and attitudes towards use of computers in general at 37.7% of the teachers demonstrated high or positive beliefs and attitudes. most of the teachers with high beliefs and attitudes towards use of computers in general were below 40 years of age. in terms of beliefs and attitudes towards usefulness of computers, and towards using computers in teaching, the largest proportion of teachers was at 38.6% and 39% respectively that demonstrated low or negative beliefs and attitudes. when the comparisons are made based on age, majority younger teachers held high or positive attitudes towards use of computers in general. this could be attributed to younger people tended to use and manipulate ict gadgets, like mobile phones more than the older people. this experience with handheld and other computers likely influenced the younger teachers’ beliefs and attitudes in a positive way. table 1.6 pearson’s correlation coefficient relationship between age and teacher beliefs and attitudes independent variable dependent variable beliefs and attitudes towards general use of computers usefulness of computers using computers to teach age -.212* -.231* -.264* as shown in the above table 1.6, teacher age correlated negatively with all belief and attitude dependent variables. that included their beliefs and attitudes toward: i) the general use of computers, ii) usefulness of computers, and iii) use of computers to teach. this meant overall that younger teachers held higher or more positive beliefs and attitudes to computers than older teachers. computer competence table 1.7 shows the number of teachers by age at each level of self-assessed computer competence. the level of perceived computer competence in each of the three subscales included: basic computer knowledge and skills, ability to teach basic computer knowledge, and skills and ability to teach using computers. these are shown aligned with age levels. most of the teachers that perceived high competence in the three components of computer use were younger, while majority of those who perceived low computer competence tended to be older. the largest proportion of teachers with low perceived competence at 63.1% reported this low competence in their ability to teach using computers as compared to basic computer knowledge and skills or their ability to teach basic computer knowledge and skills. teachers with high perceived computer competence in basic computer knowledge and skills and who felt able to teach such did not necessarily feel capable of teaching using computers. this suggests that teachers felt less competent in teaching using computers than they did in teaching basic computer knowledge and skills. gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani 9 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) table 1.7 number of teachers level of perceived computer competence aligned by age computer competence subscale age (years) level of perceived computer competence low (5-15) average (16-25) (high (26-30) total basic computer knowledge and skills 21-30 7 14 30 51 31-40 15 23 35 73 41-50 31 16 13 60 above 50 32 12 8 52 total 85 (36.0%) 65 (27.5%) 86 (36.4%) 236 ability to teach basic computer knowledge and skills 21-30 13 13 25 51 31-40 14 18 41 73 41-50 30 9 21 60 above 50 37 8 7 52 total 94 (39.8%) 48 (20.3%) 94 (39.8%) 236 ability to teach using computers 21-30 26 15 10 51 31-40 33 17 23 73 41-50 53 4 3 60 above 50 37 8 7 52 total 149 (63.1%) 44(18.6%) 43 (18.2%) 236 relationship between teacher age and teacher perceived competence the relationship between a teacher’s age and their perceived competency with computers was established using pearson’s product moment correlation east. the correlation coefficients are presented in table 1.8. table 1.8 pearson’s correlation coefficients relationship between age and perceived computer competence independent variable dependent variable competence sub-scale basic computer knowledge and skills ability to teach basic computer skills teaching using computers age -.654* -.613* .076 correlation coefficients for the relationships between age and perceived computer competence measures obtained from basic computer knowledge and ability to teach basic computer skills were significant at .05 level of significance. the relationships between age and teachers’ perceived competence in basic knowledge and skills and their ability to teach basic computer skills were negative and significant. 10 kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) teacher level of self-efficacy teachers scores on two self-efficacy subscales were categorized as low (scores between 5 and 15), average (scores between 16 and 25), and high (scores between 26 and 30). as in the case of beliefs and attitudes, teachers below 40 years of age were found to have higher self-efficacy in both general use of computers and using computers to teach. younger teachers were found to have higher competence levels, and they felt confident in their ability to teach using computers. the subscales used to measure teacher self-efficacy related to computers are demonstrated by the number of teachers by the level of self-efficacy and age level shown in table 1.9. table 1.9 number of teachers by level of computer self-efficacy aligned to age self-efficacy subscale age (years) level of computer self-efficacy low (5-15) average (16-25) high (26-30) total self-efficacy in general use of computers 21-30 5 12 34 51 31-40 18 21 34 73 41-50 25 21 14 60 above 50 24 19 9 52 total 72 (30.5%) 73 (30.9%) 91 (38.5%) 236 self-efficacy in using computers to teach 21-30 10 10 31 51 31-40 20 21 32 73 41-50 31 17 12 60 above 50 31 15 6 52 92 (39.0%) 63 (26.7%) 81 (34.3%) a higher proportion of the teachers with high self-efficacy were the younger teachers. most of the older teachers had a low or more negative self-efficacy related to computers, thus selfefficacy generally decreased as age of the respondent increased. younger teachers had more confidence with general use of computers and in using computers to teach since they reportedly comparatively higher use of computers, cell phones, and cameras. some also reported receiving instruction on computer use in schools and private colleges before joining teacher colleges. relationship between teacher age and their self-efficacy in computers the relationship between the teacher age and self-efficacy in the self-efficacy two subscales was established using pearson’s correlation test. results of this analysis are shown in table 1.10. table 1.10 pearson correlation coefficients relationship between age and self-efficacy independent variable dependent variable self-efficacy general use of computers use of computers to teach age -.219* -.234* gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani 11 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) correlation coefficient (-.219) for the relationship between age and self-efficacy were significant for general use of computers. the correlation coefficient (-.234) for the relationship between teacher age and use of computers was significant. this suggested that the teacher self-efficacy in general use of computers and in the use of computers in teaching decreased with increased age. discussion younger teachers had higher or more positive beliefs and attitude scores towards usefulness of computers than the older teachers. this could be attributed to the fact that most of the younger teachers graduated from college more recently and were more likely to receive training on computer use as ict was integrated into the primary teacher education curriculum in 2008. teachers that graduated after 2008 likely had some training in ict. this training could have impacted on their attitudes towards ict and use of computers. a document analysis of the primary teacher education curriculum (kenya institute of education, 2008) showed that acquisition of positive attitudes towards ict and acquisition of positive attitudes necessary for adapting to a fast-changing technology are some of the notable objectives of the primary teacher education ict coursework. in addition, younger teachers may have more practice using computers or computer related gadgets more frequently than the older teachers. young adults reported elsewhere to tend to manipulate and use computers more often than older adults (zeffane & cheek, 1993). this could probably account for the higher or more positive attitudes in the usefulness of computers, and appreciation of their value in teaching. this finding is consistent with findings by cavas, cavas, karaoglan & kisla (2009) and tweed (2013) who found that young turkish science teachers had significantly higher positive attitudes towards teaching ict than older teachers. teachers felt less competent in teaching using computers than they did in teaching basic computer knowledge and skills. this also suggests that even where a teacher may have basic knowledge and skills, s/he may require extra support or training to feel capable of using computers to teach. a document analysis of the primary teacher education syllabus revealed that the content has focused mainly on computer literacy (knowledge and practical skills on how computers work). there is no explicit content on using computers to teach. younger teachers had significantly higher computer competence in their basic computer knowledge and in their ability to teach basic computer skills. however, the correlation coefficient for age and perceived competence to teach using computers was not significant. furthermore, a large proportion of the youngest and oldest teachers indicated low perceived competence in their ability to teach using computers. even the young teachers who perceived themselves as competent in teaching basic computer skills did not perceive themselves as capable to teach using computers as much. this suggests that even when teachers perceive themselves as capable of using computers, they may not be able to integrate computers in teaching. going by bordbar (2010) who argues that that teachers’ competence in computer use is a good predictor of ict integration in teaching, one would expect teachers who view themselves as competent in using computers to perceive themselves as competent to teach using computers. this is not fully reflected in the current study findings. this can perhaps be explained by the fact that these teachers may not have specific training in how to integrate computers in their teaching. 12 kenya primary school teachers’ preparation in ict teaching _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) a study by andoh (2012) reported that teacher training institutions in ghana emphasized teaching about technology as opposed to how teachers could use technology to teach. mingaine (2013) reported that secondary school teachers in kenya did not have sufficient skills on how to integrate ict in teaching and learning. thus lower primary school teachers in this study may need specific training on integrating ict in teaching. most of the older teachers had a negative self-efficacy; thus, self-efficacy decreased with age. younger teachers had more confidence with general use of computers and in using computers to teach since they reported more use of computers, cell phones, and cameras. some also reported receiving instruction on using computers in schools and private colleges before joining teacher colleges. the younger respondents expressed higher confidence in their ability to teach using computers than the older respondents. this finding was consistent with gill & dalgarno’s (2008) that most of the mature teachers expressed reluctance to adapt to teaching using ict claiming they were comfortable with the old techniques. this was paired with younger adults being more conversant with computers, so were more likely to expect less frustration when they work with computers. conclusion the findings of this study imply that provision of computers and infrastructure in schools will not necessarily guarantee that teachers will integrate ict in schools. there is need to pay attention to primary school teachers’ beliefs and attitudes and particularly those that older teachers have towards the use of computers. attitudes are a strong influence of teachers’ behavior with ict. older teachers in this study overall held negative beliefs and attitudes in the three components of computer attitudes. it is important for the ministry of education to address teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards computers and their use in teaching. this calls for the need to provide ict training to long serving teachers, especially those that went through training before ict was integrated into the teacher education curriculum. even where teachers perceive themselves as knowledgeable in operating computers, they may not be able to integrate computers in teaching unless they receive specific training on how to teach using computers. thus, such teachers may need specific training on integrating ict in teaching. the ministry of education may, therefore, need to provide professional development coursework on ict integration in teaching for such teachers. such training could take an in-service mode structured in such a way that it may be conducted during holiday sessions to make it possible for practicing teachers to be available for training. to enhance teacher preparation, the current primary teacher education curriculum should be revised to include content on ict pedagogy. this will help to ensure that trainers focus on developing teachers’ knowledge and skills for teaching using computers in addition to teaching computer literacy. the current study only focused on computers. there are other ict tools that could be used in the integration of ict in teaching and learning. this study should be replicated with primary teacher educators as their role is critical in determining the competence of the effectiveness of the teacher preparation process. gladwell wambiri and mary n. ndani 13 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) references aktaruzzaman, m. shamim, r.h., & clement c.k. 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(2013). technology implementation: teacher age, experience, self-efficacy, and professional development as related to classroom technology integration. electronic theses and dissertations. retrieved from paper 1109. http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1109 woodrow, j. e. (1992). the influence of programming training on the computer literacy and attitudes of pre-service teachers. journal of research on computing in education, 25(2), 200-219. zeffane, r. and cheek, b. (1993). profiles and correlates of computer usage: a study of the australian telecommunications industry. computers in industry, 22, 53-69. http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1109 exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda. denis kintu1 and irene aheisibwe 2 1department of mechanical & production engineering, kyambogo university p.o box 01, kyambogo-uganda 2department of foundations of education, bishop stuart university. p.o. box 09, mbarara-uganda. abstract artisans trained informally in katwe, a community of practice in kampala, uganda are capable of doing various technical tasks such as to operate, service, repair and fabricate various equipment and tools. in this study, we set out to find out the effective methods used for training. we employed a qualitative approach to collect data, analyze and present findings. the methods commonly used in katwe are; practicing through trial and error, observations, mentoring and coaching, discussions, and by real-world problem-solving. challenges for katwe community of practice include: high cost of materials, electricity and little time for training. we concluded that the training methods used can be incorporated in the formal curriculum to improve competence. keywords: apprenticeship, communities of practice, working and learning introduction communities of practice communities of practice are self-organized and selected groups of people who share a common sense of purpose and a desire to learn and know what each other knows (lave and wenger, 1991). “passion, commitment, and identification with the group’s expertise” is the glue that holds these groups together (wenger and snyder, 2000, p. 139). it is with this group that you learn the intricacies of your job, explore the meaning of your work, and encounters learning on the job as ‘… an integrated and inseparable aspect of social practice’ (lave & wenger, 1991, p. 31). african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 238-253 exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 239 in communities of practice, the transmission of traditional culture and indigenous knowledge has long been operated in the form of informal apprenticeship. informal learning can take place in any space, such as the workplace, the family, a religious institution, the community and the like; like formal and non-formal learning, informal learning can occur at any age, from birth to death (schugurensky, 2000). the european training foundation (etf) (2006), observed that traditional/informal apprenticeship is the main entry point for dropouts from education, and also for some graduates from pre-secondary vocational education. this type of training is unregulated and relies largely on kin or personal relationships in which the apprentice is trusted to the master. normally the apprentice’s family pays the master for the right to have the youngster trained. in other cases, apprentices pay for their learning by working for wages lower than that of semi-skilled workers (etf, 2006). in communities of practice, skills and experiences are communicated from masters to apprentices (lave and wenger, 1991). an example of a community of practice is katwe, found in kampala-uganda. katwe community of practice katwe, located in makindye division, is bordered by nakasero to the north, nsambya to the east, kibuye and makindye to the southeast, ndeeba to the south and mengo to the west. the road distance between kampala's central business district and katwe is approximately 3 kilometres. at the time of uganda's independence from britain in 1962, katwe was a center of african ingenuity, where artisans, craftsmen and technicians repaired imported electronics, automobiles, televisions, refrigerators and all kinds of home appliances. the more ingenious of these craftsmen would improvise and "manufacture" imitations of the original articles. the baganda, an ethnic group in uganda call such improvised articles magezi ga baganda (wisdom of baganda) (lule & nambooze, 2006). over the next half a century, that ingenuity has sharpened, the industry has thrived and taken in more apprentices and the range of articles locally manufactured has increased. in 2007, it was estimated that katwe employed over 3,000 artisans and metal fabricators in over 800 individual small enterprises, according to katwe small scale industry association (kassida), the association under which most enterprises are registered. the katwe artisans now collaborate with makerere university's faculty of technology, to take their industry to the next level. another group that has been traditionally attracted to katwe are entrepreneurs and independent businesspeople, starting from meager beginnings, who have been viewed as "risky" by uganda's conservative banking industry. these have included cooked food vendors, wholesalers of local foodstuffs, herbalists and owners of small transportation companies. other businesspeople who have come to katwe include vendors of second-hand electronics, and sellers of scrap goods and exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 240 previously-owned merchandise (wikipedia.org/wiki/katwe). a lot of apprenticeship takes place alongside working in katwe, a community of practice. this is manifested from the fact that artisans trained from this community are skilled and competent to carryout various mechanical technical tasks like to operate, service, repair and fabricate various equipment and tools, yet they have not been to any school but learnt on the job (kitubi, 2019). this is a capability that these researchers have found that artisans from the formal vocational training institutions (vtis) struggle to achieve. problem according to unesco-unevoc (2014), the informal sector in uganda remains a stronghold of employment, accounting for 58% of non-agricultural employment in 2011. however, the technical vocational education and training (tvet) system has largely neglected the specific training needs of the informal sector; there is no systematic approach to skills development for people already in or seeking to enter the informal sector; many of the training offers are supply driven, not based on market assessments and only duplicate formal sector training at very low levels (unesco-unevoc, 2014). according to the association for the development of education in africa (adea) (2008), in most african countries with a large informal economy like uganda, informal/ traditional apprenticeship is the most common option available for young people wanting to acquire the vocational skills they need in order to find work, especially for those with a low level of education. in many of these countries, it is even the main system for training young people who are seeking work (adea, 2008). in katwe community of practice, an informal sector in kampala-uganda, working and learning is done concurrently. the importance of this community in terms of skills and economic development cannot be underrated. over the years, informally trained artisans from this community have repaired various equipment and produced artifacts, yet they have not been to any school but learnt on the job (kitubi, 2019), a capability, which to our knowledge, that artisans from the formal vocational training institutions (vtis) struggle to achieve. this paper explores the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice. it is based on a research that set out to find out the organization of working/learning activities, effective training/learning methods and the issues affecting the working/learning in katwe as a community of practice. the paper focuses on the following research questions: 1. what are the working and learning activities in katwe as a community of practice? 2. how are the working and learning activities in katwe as a community of practice organized? exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 241 3. what are the effective training and learning methods used in katwe as a community of practice? 4. what are the issues affecting the working and learning activities in katwe as a community of practice? theoretical framework the theoretical perspective is the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria (crotty, 1998). the theories underpinning this research were the sociocultural theories of learning. sociocultural approaches emphasize the interdependence of social and individual processes in the construction of knowledge (john-steiner & mahn, 1996). whereas much of the background for sociocultural theory was put forward by lev vygotsky (1931/1997), additions, elaborations, and refinements of sociocultural theory can be found in works regarding activity theory (chaiklin & lave, 1993) and cultural-historical activity theory (cole, 1996). although these theories are not all identical, they share some concerns and beliefs (wilson & peterson, 2006). first is the point that knowledge is inseparable from practice: we know by doing. this means that we need to look at people while they are doing something meaningful-that is, working on authentic problems-if we want to “see” what they know. a second principle of the sociocultural theory is that learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon that takes place within the communities we belong to. these two beliefs lead to the idea that knowledge and learning exist in the interactions between individuals and the contexts in which they live, in the activities we participate in. thus, “communities of practice” or “learning communities” become critical to learning. a third feature of these theories is that it is within those communities that standards lie. the norms for testing the quality of a performance are determined by groups, not individuals, and one’s performance is assessed through genuine participation (wilson & peterson, 2006). literature review the international labour organization (ilo) (2012), defines informal apprenticeship as a system by which a young learner (the apprentice) acquires the skills for a trade or craft in a microor small enterprise learning and working side by side with an experienced craftsperson. apprentice and master craftsperson conclude a training agreement that is embedded in local norms and traditions of a society. costs of training are shared between apprentice and master craftsperson (ilo, 2012). this distinction reflects the socialization of the act of apprenticeship and its evolution from being a family responsibility to being a social responsibility incumbent upon professional organizations (ilo, exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 242 2012). more comprehensively, de grip (2015), defined informal learning in the workplace as the acquisition of skills through learning by doing as well as by watching other workers, taking instructions, and receiving supervision or feedback from supervisors or co-workers (de grip, 2015). the ilo (2012) further observes that informal apprenticeship is not just on-the-job skills development, it is a real form of training featuring rules (the contractual relationship between a master craftsman and an apprentice is guaranteed by social norms and/or the profession) and pedagogy: a process characterized mostly by progress from an introductory phase (observing) to initiation (starting to do), participation (carrying out alongside) and recognition (being able to practice the occupation). schugurensky (2000), conceptualized three forms of informal learning. the first is self-directed learning refers to 'learning projects' undertaken by individuals (alone or as part of a group) without the assistance of an 'educator' (teacher, instructor, facilitator), but it can include the presence of a 'resource person' who does not regard herself or himself as an educator. it is both intentional and conscious. it is intentional because the individual has the purpose of learning something even before the learning process begins, and it is conscious, in the sense that the individual is aware that she or he has learned something. the second is incidental learning refers to learning experiences that occur when the learner did not have any previous intention of learning something out of that experience, but after the experience she or he becomes aware that some learning has taken place. thus, it is unintentional but conscious. the third form is by socialization (also referred to as tacit learning). this refers to the internalization of values, attitudes, behaviors, skills, etc. that occur during everyday life. not only we have no a priori intention of acquiring them, but we are not aware that we learned something. the great advantage of these forms of learning is that they offer young people a path into employment (adams et al, 2013). furthermore, de grip (2015) identified the following pros of informal learning: learning by doing is often an automatic byproduct of productive work; and knowledge spillovers between peers in the workplace contribute to firm productivity. additionally, halliday-wynes & beddie, (2009) propose another advantage of informal learning. in their view, people with minimal school education, poor literacy and numeracy skills, and low self-esteem often lack confidence in their ability to learn in formal settings and, consequently, they can become disengaged from learning. disengaged learners may have useful skills but are unable to articulate them and build on them therefore informal learning can be a potent means for re-engaging such disengaged learners (halliday-wynes & beddie, 2009). exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 243 however, informal learning is not without shortcomings. de grip (2015), urges that policymakers neglect informal learning and emphasize formal training courses for lifelong learning because continual technological change alters skill demands. in a similar vein, ilo, (2012) are of the view that informal apprenticeships, which concern a large majority of young people in many african countries, fail to address certain needs, for example there is no access to new skills and technologies (ilo, 2012). further, de grip (2015), observes that learning by doing does incur opportunity costs through forgone work time. therefore, young workers are often expected to pay (part of) these opportunity costs by accepting a lower wage in an apprenticeship, internship, or traineeship position in their first year of employment (de grip, 2015). the european training foundation (etf) (2006), also highlighted the main limitations of informal apprenticeships. these are: (i) lack of formal arrangements, which can lead to exploitation of labour; (ii) limited transfer of knowledge to the apprentice; (iii) quality issues in the training provided; and (iv) lack of opportunities for further learning for apprentices. however, despite the limitations of informal apprenticeships, the sector remains important regarding skills development for employability in the informal economy. for example, in kenya, the available information indicates that some 40–60% of informal sector operators acquired their skills through apprenticeships commonly known as ‘jua kali’ training. the ‘jua kali’ programme was introduced in kenya to encourage training in the informal sector (johanson & adams, 2004). the kenya ‘jua kali’ training programme was successful in its pilot stage in expanding the supply of training to workers in the informal sector and lowering cost. this training programme had positive impact on the earnings of participants and strengthened the capacity of local ‘jua kali’ associations in kenya and the development of tvet in the country (maclean & wilson, 2009). the above literature therefore brings out the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in communities of practice. methodology study design the research design was a descriptive survey design. in descriptive research, a researcher begins with a well-defined subject and conducts a study to describe it accurately and the outcome is a detailed picture of the subject, the specific details of a situation, social setting, or relationship; focuses on exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 244 "how?" and "who?" questions: "how did it happen?" "who is involved?" (neuman, 2007). additionally, kombo and tromp (2006) note that a descriptive study design is used to describe the state of affairs, as it exists. it is used when collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of education or social issues. many educational study approaches are descriptive because as they only give an account of the conditions or existing relationships and practices that are happening (cohen and manion, 1994). the researchers therefore used the descriptive study design because it was deemed suitable to gather data on the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in katwe, a community of practice. study area the study was carried out in kampala district, the capital city of uganda-east africa. this is where the community targeted for the study, katwe, lies. the researchers sought permission from the kampala city council authority (kcca) to carry out a study of the area. a reconnaissance trip was made to the area to familiarize the researcher with its operations. katwe community of practice was deliberately chosen because it is the largest informal community of practice in uganda with a wide range of informal working and learning activities, the community possesses a rich history in apprenticeships, among other factors. in addition, it was accessible to the researchers without difficulty. study population the target population of the study consisted of the business owners, the workers, the apprentices, and the administrators of the area. sampling procedure a total of thirty participants were involved in the study. they included twenty-two males and eight females, mostly from the baganda ethnic group of central uganda in the age range of between 15 years to 45 years. they were selected purposively. the only condition applied was that one should have been involved in working and learning activities for at least two months in katwe. this requirement ensured that the respondent was conversant with all the activities within this setting. the researchers ensured that at least 3 participants were selected from each of the various working and learning activities. exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 245 methods of data collection the researchers employed three methods for data collection: interviews, observations and documentary analysis. according to cohen, manion, and morrison (2000), interviews involve a two-person conversation initiated by the interviewer to gather data through direct verbal interaction between individuals. on the other hand, observations enable the researchers to understand the context of programmes, to see things that might otherwise be unconsciously missed and to discover things that participants might not freely talk about in interview situations. questionnaires were deemed unsuitable for the study because of the rigorous nature of work activities in the informal sector and also because most respondents were illiterate. interview method in this method, face to face interviews between the researchers and the respondents were carried out using a pre-tested interview guide with open ended questions. the data from the respondents was recorded and later transcribed. the interviews ensured accurate information and allowed deeper investigation into the study problem. additionally, it enabled the researchers to observe non -verbal communication. bhandarkar et al. cited in odiya (2009) classified interviews as focused or clinical. in focused interviews, which were used for the study, attention was focused on a respondent’s experience. the researchers had a definite set of topics to be covered and sought a definite type of information. to create a good connection with the respondents, and also because most of them are semi-illiterate, the researchers used the local dialect, luganda which is also commonly used during the working and learning activities during the interviews. this ensured that the views of each of the respondents were properly articulated. observation method one of the more obvious ways of gathering data is by observing the culture or environment under study. consent was sought from the administrators for the researchers to carry out observations of working and learning activities. the observations were done as interviews were being carried out and were recorded. a well-structured observation checklist was used for the study. the observations took place in such a way that the people who were being observed were not aware because if they were, naturally they can change behaviour. documentary analysis exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 246 creswell (1994) explains that documents are any written information or physical objects that are analyzed for study to obtain data such as manuals, books, journals, registers, newspapers, letters and minutes. the researchers used documentary analysis method to obtain information on some of the working/learning activities in katwe community of practice. the documents were got from the administrators. validity of the data collection instruments the research instruments were validated beforehand by colleagues at our departments. they reviewed and analyzed the contents of the interview guides and observation checklists in order to ascertain that the instruments were suitable for the purpose for which they were designed. they offered suggestions which the researchers used in introducing the necessary corrections and improvements to the instruments. data analysis procedure data were analyzed qualitatively. all the data gathered were subjected to content analysis in order to abstract relevant information. this was done by first transcribing all the interview responses, interpreting, and reflecting after every session in the field to identify major themes and put them in categories. this approach to analysis is supported by creswell (1994) who argues that qualitative data analysis primarily entails classifying things, persons, and events and the properties which characterize them. furthermore, content analysis delivered a good account into the working and learning activities in katwe as a community of practice in uganda. results and discussion introduction the presentation and discussion of findings observed the sequence of the research questions. what are the working and learning activities in katwe as a community of practice? the first research question sought to identify working and learning activities. from the interviews and observations, we identified the following activities; motor-vehicle and motorcycle mechanics, welding and metal fabrication, foundry technology, electrical and electronics repairs, tailoring, knitting and garments, saloon and barber services, fitting and machining, carpentry and joinery, shoes/leather and restaurant and catering services. these business activities are mostly owned and operated within family lines. it’s within the family that knowledge and skills about these activities are transmitted. this is a exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 247 form of traditional apprenticeship, a system in which skills are transmitted from a father or mother to family members (ilo, 2012). in europe, prior to industrialization, the learning of occupational skills typically occurred in the family, or in small businesses which served and met the needs of their communities (billet, 2013). how are the working and learning activities in katwe as a community of practice organized? this research question sought to clarify how the working and learning activities in katwe are organised. from the interviews and documents accessed, we found out that most of the trades are under an umbrella organization, katwe small scale industrial development association (kassida). the association controls and organizes most of the activities of registered members. for instance, interested members are selected from various trades to participate in the non-formal skills development programme. this programme is organized every year by business, technical, vocational education and training (btvet) department of the ministry of education and sports (moes). the major aim of the programme is to further enhance the development of skills of the informal artisans in the various trades. the participants are assessed for competence by the directorate of industrial training (dit) and awarded a certification document known as workers pas (practically acquired skills) permit. this is supported by nilsson (2011), who posits that possession of a certification document which can be shown to others is one of the ways of measuring competence levels of an individual. we also found out that kassida engages students from various formal vocational training institutions and universities in industrial training/internship activities. mjelde (1993), points out that learning at workplaces by apprentices places the learner in direct contact with the subject matter as well as with the training supervisors and colleagues. billet (2001), further emphasises that the types of activities individuals engage in and the guidance they access are central to learning the knowledge required for work. participation in workplace tasks assists new learning and reinforces what has been learned at school through further practice. workplaces are seen as legitimate and effective learning environments. what are the training and learning methods used in katwe as a community of practice? the research question sought to identify the training and learning methods often used in katwe community of practice. basing on the observations and interviews carried out, five methods emerged from the working and learning activities. exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 248 the first type and commonly used method is “learning by practicing through trial and error” until one perfects. one respondent, a turner in one of the enterprises had this to say regarding this method: ‘at first, it was a challenge to perfect turning. but senior colleagues encouraged me on. they offered me off cut pieces to practice on. setting the work on the lathe and taking accurate measurements using vernier calipers were tricky. i would machine under dimensions. i tried several times during off hours until i perfected. i’m now a senior turner in this enterprise’ (personal communication, march 10, 2018). according to billet (2013), across human history, learning through practice (for example, of the skills needed for work) has been the single most important process for developing occupational competence and it has served both societal and personal needs well. a key point for vocational teaching is that a balance needs to be sought between allowing learning through experimentation and trial and error (wilson & peterson, 2006). the second method “observing from more experienced colleagues” involves learning a new task from a more proficient co-worker or supervisor. one respondent, a welder employed at one of the enterprises had this to say regarding this method: ‘when i came here, i would just stand and observe the way my workmates would take measurements, mark out and then cut and join different metal pieces together. i only used to help them by lifting the heavy pieces. slowly, i learnt taking measurements and cutting using the hacksaw under their observation. initially, i made errors but they would correct me. they started to trust me and could assign me less complicated tasks. am a fast learner….after three weeks, i fabricated a window frame unsupervised’ (personal communication, march 10, 2018). this supports the social learning theory which recognizes the idea that individuals learn through observing and then imitating others. the third method “mentoring and coaching” is another type of learning commonly applied in katwe. an apprentice of the saloon trade had this to say about this method; ‘when i finished my diploma studies in accountancy, i searched for a job but failed to get one. my mother suggested that i come to katwe and join her saloon business. i had exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 249 some idea but couldn’t plait nicely. when a customer comes, we could plait together with mum as she observes, guides and corrects my errors. i have now mastered the trade and earning money from it’ (personal communication, march 10, 2018). mentoring is often associated with the act of providing guidance, assistance and informal support to less experienced work colleagues and new employees. support for this notion of mentorship is supported by spencer (1999), cited in misko, (2008) who distinguishes the mentor relationship from other forms by noting that it is based on encouragement, constructive comments, openness, mutual trust, respect and a willingness to learn and share. the fourth method “learning through discussion” with peers and supervisors was another main method of learning. one respondent, an apprentice of motor vehicle mechanics had this to say regarding this method: ‘when a vehicle is brought in for repair, i would listen to customers explain the fault to my senior colleagues but couldn’t really tell which part is faulty. then am requested to bring the toolbox. i slowly started by learning how to identify sizes of the spanners and how to use them before learning the different parts of the vehicle and to diagnose faults and rectify them. my colleagues have been very helpful by explaining to me the procedures to follow. i hope to be a good mechanic soon’ (personal communication, march 10, 2018). this is similar to an ethnographic study of apprenticeship learning by yucatec midwives by jean lave and etienne wenger (1991), which emphasized the role of conversations about problematic cases. as stories were told by attendees at a birth, other attendees offered similar stories. together, the stories were packaged as ‘situated knowledge’. the fifth method “learning by real-world problem-solving”. this is another method commonly used in katwe. usually, work activities involve services such as repairs, modifications and maintenance which are practically done by the masters alongside apprentices. it’s a highly effective means for developing expertise. one respondent, a welder had this to say regarding this method: ‘some days at work, customers would bring broken components like wheelbarrows, motor vehicle parts, metallic molds etc. for repair. i would keenly follow my senior colleagues as they weld back broken component parts together. they would allow me exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 250 to do the final touches. with time, i participated more and that is how i became a good welder.’ (personal communication, march 10, 2018). ‘problem based learning’ is an enquiry-based approach to problem solving that grew out of medical education. it is intuitively appealing as a way of developing knowledge in the context of vocational education (savery & duffy, 1995). what are the issues affecting the working and learning in katwe as a community of practice? this item sought to identify the issues affecting the working and learning activities in katwe. a number of challenges were identified. the first challenge identified was the high cost of materials and electricity. regarding this aspect, an enterprise owner lamented; ‘the cost of materials keeps fluctuating, i can’t have standard prices for my products and my customers keep complaining. profits have drastically reduced….the electricity tariffs have also escalated and we sometimes experience load shedding, which affects our working and training activities. no one seems to care about us. even the government has abandoned us’ (personal communication, march 10, 2018). the second challenge was that the time availed for training is so little. the third challenge was that the working and training area is small and congested. the forth challenge is that the workers and apprentices lack the necessary personal protective wear, yet they are in constant interaction with workshop safety hazards. the fifth was that the trainees complained of poor remunerations and lack of insurance policies. and the sixth challenge was that it is difficult to attract females in most of these activities because they prefer lighter tasks compared to their male counterparts. conclusion and recommendations the main conclusion based on the findings of the study was that some effective training and learning methods in this community of practice such as learning by real-world problem-solving and learning by practicing through trial and error should be incorporated in the formal vtis curriculum to improve competence levels of graduates from this education sub-sector. accordingly, the researchers recommend that the formal vtis should create more linkages with this community to improve on graduates’ competence by collaborating on practical training. the government should make decisions and policies that position this community to maximize the benefits and minimize the challenges exploring the effectiveness of informal apprenticeship in a community of practice: a case study of katwe, kampala-uganda ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 238-253 251 presented; allocate funding for this community to enable them produce goods that can compete globally and stimulate more training and learning. references adea (2008). biennial meeting of the association for the 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(2006): theories of learning and teaching. what do they mean for educators? national education association 1201 16th street, n. w. washington, dc 200363290. employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania raymond mwemezi boniface department of educational foundations, management and lifelong-learning, university of dar es salaam, tanzania. abstract retaining teachers in their work stations is influenced by many factors which are contextually explained. teachers’ retention practices in tanzania and most sub-saharan african (ssa) countries have been ineffective partly because of being monetary based. while ‘voicing’ is regarded as a more feasible strategy for retaining teachers in these countries, conditions which favour voicing over exiting a remote school particularly in the tanzanian context have been not systematically mapped out. this article presents and discusses seven conditions, to include: empowering, listening and cooperative leadership; habitability; friendliness outside school environment; investment potentialities; a supportive and peaceful school working environment; life as a “challenge” mindset; as well as patriotism and profession commitment, which were found to favour voicing over exiting a remote school. the findings imply that there is a need to empower teachers to influence change and reforms that matter to them, increasing teachers sense of investment in schools they are posted and in the profession (social and financial capital), checking ‘who goes into the teaching profession and with what level of struggle’; improving school-level relationships including justice practices from leaders and management, positive coworkers exchanges; training teachers to become patriotic to the nation and be committed to the teaching profession; and the need to improve cooperation and understanding between schools and their surrounding communities. key words: exiting, remote school, school level strategies, tanzania, teachers’ retention, voicing. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 8 2019 pp. 159-193 raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 160 introduction teachers’ retention forms an important aspect in teaching resource planning and management practices. entire employee planning efforts, including training, are totally meaningless if such employees cannot be properly retained. evidence shows that teachers’ retention is a critical problem in tanzania as it is in many other parts of the world, mostly affecting remote areas (itftefa, 2010; moon, 2007; urt, 2008). for example, it is documented in the tanzanian teachers’ development and management strategy (tdms) that . . .there is an acute shortage of teachers at all levels and in almost all subjects, including the subjects of the biased curriculum. more specifically the situation is worse for science, mathematics and language subjects. remote and peripheral areas critically suffer from shortage of teachers…the teaching and learning environment is not motivating, making it difficult to attract, obtain, train, and retain high quality teachers in schools. this situation needs immediate attention . . . (urt, 2008, pp. 9, 10.) while teachers’ retention is a critical problem, most countries, including tanzania, have consistently been unable to come up with strategies for their retention particularly in remote areas. this is because retaining a teacher is a function of many combined factors. the few observable strategies to attract teachers in remote areas in tanzania (urt, 2008) and other african countries have been strongly criticized as being hardly implementable (january, 2010; chenelo, 2011; mbiling’i, 2011) as they are monetary based (mulkeen, david, joan & elizabeth, 2007; urt, 2012). there is, therefore, a need to investigate less monetary inclined teachers’ retention alternatives. one of these strategies is to inquire into different ways under which teachers could be empowered to voice, and therefore remain in remote schools, instead of exiting. a dissatisfied teacher in a remote school has two options at his /her disposal. the first option is to ‘voice’ and the second one is to ‘exit’. ‘voice’ is used to mean the possibility of a teacher to remain and search (in different ways) for solutions to his/her dissatisfaction in a remote school, while ‘exit’ means leaving a remote school (armstrong, 2006; gorden, 1988; hirschman, 1970; mccabe & david, 1992). employee voice, therefore, covers a whole variety of processes and structures which enable and sometimes empower them, directly or indirectly, to contribute to decision-making in the firm (boxall & purcell, 2003). it is ‘the ability of employees to influence the actions of the employer’ (millward, alex & john, 2000). the concept covers the provision of employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 161 opportunities for employees to register discontent and modify the power of management. it embraces involvement, and more significantly, participation. several ways that employees could voice their dissatisfactions have been documented around the world. these include formal grievance procedures, suggestion systems, arbitration, mediation, employee-management meetings, counselling service, ombudsman, non-management task forces, question and answer programmes, and survey feedback (armstrong, 2006; mccabe & david, 1992; spencer, 1986). this could be done individually, i.e., bringing desired changes, or collectively, that is, contributing to the desired changes (dowding, john, mergoupis & van vugt, 2000). moreover, both individual and collective voicing can be done directly-through two-way communication with another member of the organization (for instance when an individual discusses a problem with a supervisor or team member), or indirectly through representatives (luchak, 2003). employee voicing and exiting are therefore meaningfully connected to retention and attrition. while voicing and exiting seem to offer viable strategies to teacher retention, this area has not attracted significant attention in teachers’ retention efforts, especially in the tanzanian context. this study inquires into this issue using experienced teachers to get relevant contexts which are considered facilitative of voicing over exiting a remote school. experienced teachers in this context are those who have worked and lived in remote schools for not less than six months. 84.9% of teachers involved in this study had lived and worked in remote rural areas in between one and ten years (boniface, 2016). aim of the study the aim of this study is to establish conditions under which a teacher could decide to voice instead of exiting a remote school. it was guided by two research questions: the first question was: under what “perceived school level conditions” can a teacher voice his/her concerns instead of exiting in a remote school? the second question was concerned about what the implications of these perceived conditions on retaining remote teachers are. literature review why teacher retention? teacher retention, for quite some time now, has been a topic of critical focus among academics, researchers, practitioners and policymakers (guarino, santibañez, daley & brewer, 2004; raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 162 ingersoll, 2001; johnson & birkeland, 2003; national commission on teaching and america's future, 2003). the core question has been why teachers leave or remain in the teaching career. researchers in this area have therefore continuously sought to find answers to that question so as to be able to successfully retain teachers, especially ‘quality teachers’. this is because research has confirmed that teacher quality makes a difference in student learning (akiba, gerald & jay, 2007; goldhaber & anthony, 2004; rivkin, hanushek & kain, 2005; rockoff, 2003; rowan, correnti & miller, 2002; rowe, 2003; sanders & horn, 1998; sanders & rivers, 1996; stronge, et al., 2007; sumra, 2004; wright, horn & sanders, 1997). for instance, coleman, campbell, hobson, mcpartland, mood, weinfeld and york (1966) concluded that teacher characteristics tend to explain more variance in student achievement than any other school resource. rowe (2003) as well as sanders and horn (1998) document that the teacher may be the “most important factor in the academic growth of students.” pitsoe and pertunia (2012), and ntim (2013) indicate that teachers are not only placed at the centre of students’ success, but also at the heart of education quality and students’ learning outcome debates. within the fast and frequently changing world to date, few will disagree on the critical role of teachers in preparing young people to face the future with confidence, build it with purpose and become responsible global citizens. this is because teachers are the key facilitators of the teaching and learning process, and core implementers of educational plans and programmes (ntim, 2013). unfortunately, however, despite researchers’ tireless efforts, to effectively attract and retain quality teachers remains a baffling puzzle (moon, 2007). in tanzania, there is plain evidence that teachers assigned in remote rural schools report in low numbers, and even those who are already there seek transfer to urban areas (tanzania education sector analysis-tesa, 2011; urt, 2008). significant evidence has shown that, despite high-turnover schools serving large populations of low-performing and low-income students who are in greater need of consistent and supportive school experience (boyd, pam, marsha, ing., hamilton, susanna & james, 2011), these schools are mostly found to be exposed to inconsistent staffing from year to year, while students are taught by an increasing number of inexperienced teachers (rivkin, hanushek & kain, 2005). within that context, some questions are worth asking: can ‘equality of educational opportunity’ of staffing every classroom in remote schools with a highly qualified and talented teacher (borman & maritza, 2008) be attained? how can global educational reforms and restructuring be realized? in the tanzanian context, for instance, where many students are enrolled in poor schools in remote employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 163 rural areas, teacher attrition is likely to create social and educational injustice and stratification, hindering learners from nourishing their valued capabilities acquirable from quality education and equality in educational opportunities (tikly & barrett, 2010, 2011). challenges of retaining teachers in remote contexts. some notable challenges that are encountered when it comes to retaining teachers in remote areas are those of their demographic characteristics: of gender (borman & maritza, 2008; griffeth, hom & gaertner, 2000; stockard & michael, 2004), age and years in the profession (ahuja, chudoba, kacmar, mcknight & george, 2007; armstrong, 2014; borman & maritza, 2008; griffeth et al., 2000; kavanaugh, jo & juliana, 2006; wilson, squires, widger, cranley & tourangeau, 2008; stockard & michael, 2004), marital status ( griffeth et al., 2000), qualification / education level (agyeman & ponniah, 2014; borman & maritza, 2008). while teachers’ demographics could be a challenge to retaining teachers across many contexts, it is likely to be even more challenging for remote areas with an unsatisfactory environment. additionally, male teachers who are most likely to stay and are normally found in remote schools, are noted in previous research to be rarely satisfied with their teaching career. moreover, previous research pinpoints the uneven distribution of teachers across areas (akyeampong & lewin, 2002; lewin, 2008; mulkeen, 2010; uis, 2006). remote areas are strongly affected, with fewer, mostly unqualified, teachers. the imbalance is so strong that it is possible to find unemployed qualified teachers in urban areas while there are unfilled vacancies in remote ones. this is exacerbated by the wastage phenomena and by the availability of possibly well-paying alternative employments in urban areas (mulkeen, 2010; mulkeen et al., 2007). more generally, other challenges to retaining teachers include the increasing roles assigned to poorly prepared school heads, which makes school management weak (dadey & harber, 1991; de grauwe, 2001; gottelmann-duret & hogan, 1998; kucera & stauffer, 2003; mulkeen, 2010; riley, 1999; ross & hutchings, 2003;unesco, 1996), the increasing difficulty of retaining female teachers due to local community practices and personal factors ((bennell & akyeampong, 2007; bernard, 2002; kadzamira, 2006; lowe, 2006; mulkeen & chen, 2008), the diversity in local languages in remote areas affecting teachers’ effectiveness in supporting teaching, learning, and integration into the community (bennell, hyde & swainson, 2002; brock-utne, 2007; mulkeen, 2010), the effect of the hiv/aids pandemic (mulkeen, 2010; mulkeen et al., 2007; raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 164 kelly, 2000; pitsoe, 2013), and poor practices in teachers’ promotion and advancement (gaynor, 1998; mkumbo, 2012; mulkeen, 2010; mulkeen et al., 2007; vso, 2002). in addition, it seems more challenging to retain teachers with low intrinsic motivation for the career coupled with a low sense of career investment in remote areas (borman & maritza, 2008; kirby & grissmer, 1993; leung, 2008; mkumbo, 2012; mulkeen et al., 2007; ntim, 2013; ramlall, 2004; shen, 1997; towse, kent, o-saki & kirua, 2002; tye & o’brien, 2002). feasibility of teachers retention strategies in remote contexts: a critical view the efficacy of a few observable strategies to attract teachers in remote areas in tanzania such as introducing reward systems, fee exemptions for students’ teachers, and increasing attractive incentive packages (urt, 2008) is questionable. most of these policies are financially or economically based, minimal, unsatisfactory, and ineffective (chenelo, 2011; january, 2010; mbiling’i, 2011). research evidence indicates that monetary-related policies and incentives are difficult to implement in retaining teachers in countries like tanzania, where such a resource is scarce (mulkeen et al., 2007; urt, 2012). in tanzania, the difficulty is evidenced, for instance, in the continuous strikes and confrontations at different times between the teachers’ union and the government over the issue of salary and fringe benefits for teachers (onyango, 2013; peter, 2012; rweyemamu, 2013, 2014; yankami, 2014). moreover, policies addressing the shortage of teachers in tanzania seem to focus more on supply-side solutions, especially enrolment expansion, while paying less attention to the demand side, particularly the ‘revolving door’ whereby teachers, for various reasons, leave the teaching profession in unprecedented numbers. hence, though many teachers are being trained, yet, they cannot be traced in the education system. thus, getting more teachers into the career pipeline alone cannot address teachers’ deficit problem (pitsoe & pertunia, 2012). evidence shows that many teachers immediately after graduation have continued to flee from the teaching profession, instead of going to classroom (onyango, 2013; peter, 2012; rweyemamu, 2013, 2014; urt, 2008; yankami, 2014). suggestions such as forcing teacher graduates into classes without proper motivation are even worse. it is likely to generate a negative outcome in practice and in effect. the other teacher retention policy option considered has been to recruit and/or post teachers from within their local areas of origin. however, evidence indicates that the policy is hardly attainable, employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 165 as most teachers usually do not want to be posted to their home areas due to the burden of extended family obligations (bennell & mukyanuzi, 2005). complexities in teachers retention while teachers’ retention is a critical problem, most countries, including tanzania, have consistently been unable to come up with feasible strategies for their retention. one possible explanation could be the complexities involved in researching teachers’ retention and attrition. scholars of this topic have adopted two major approaches, the first being a multivariate or theoretical approach, and the second being a bivariate approach. the first, the multivariate or theoretical, approach inquiries into a set of variables simultaneously to test theories of explaining why teachers choose to stay in or leave the teaching profession (shen, 1997). some of these theories include: career choice theories such as the work adjustment theory; holland’s vocational personalities in work environment; super’s selfconcept theory of career development; the social cognitive career theory; and gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise (leung, 2008). they further include motivational theories such as need theories maslow’s need hierarchy and mcclelland’s need theories; equity theory; expectancy theories vroom’s original theory and porter and lawler’s extension theory; as well as a job design model herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory and job characteristics model (ramlall, 2004). other theories include human capital theory (kirby & grissmer, 1993; shen, 1997) and the theory of teachers as economically rational decision makers (shen, 1997). the second approach, the bivariate approach, inquires into the relationship between retention/attrition and another variable (shen, 1997). for example, borman and maritza (2008) in their comprehensive meta-analysis study document that teacher attrition and retention can be related to teachers’ demographic characteristics (gender, teacher race, age, marital status, having/not having a child, number of children); teachers’ qualifications (teacher training, experience, teacher ability or achievement, teaching specialty area); school resources (average class size, teacher-student ratio, school expenditure for support per teacher, school expenditure for teaching materials, teacher classroom assistance, instructional spending, per pupil spending, salary); school organizational characteristics (school location, sector, size, administrative support, beginners’ mentoring programmes, collaboration & teachers' network, regular supportive raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 166 communication with administrators, opportunities for advancement, bureaucracy; and school student body characteristics (students’ achievement levels, the school socioeconomic composition, racial/ethnic school composition). this clearly shows that studying teachers’ retention (and attrition) can be examined (as has been done) from many angles, with different approaches, depending on specific study interests. this paper discusses teachers’ retention from the organizational perspective (organizational support), and therefore, adopts organizational support theory (ost) which offers an understanding on voicing and exiting phenomena. theoretical stance this study draws from the organizational support theory (ost) and its central construct, perceived organizational support (pos): “the degree to which employees believe their work organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (eisenberger huntington, hutchison & sowa, 1986; rhoades & eisenberger, 2002).” within organizations, some employees have vested interest in authorities or rights over other employees on the basis of their knowledge, experience, skills or any other bases. these appointed authorities are considered agents of the organization, and their actions are considered organization actions. this is because employees relate to their organization as a person because they have been constituted into the legal fiction of a person and its acts are considered to be the acts of human beings (eisenberger et al., 1986; levinson, 1965). organizations, therefore, have a relational agency with all its employees. implicitly, support of any kind from employees is translated as support from the organization. such a broader perception of organization has necessitated examining its support from several angles. key categorizations of pos are notable in woo (2009) and in chou and robert (2008). in their studies, it is argued that pos could be studied from three main perspectives: support from management, from supervisors /leaders, and from co-workers /colleagues/peers. hence, organizational support broadly means support from these three categories or perspectives. in alignment with ost/pos, the study further incorporates two models related to the analysis of exchange that exists in organizations. these are ‘leader – member exchange (lmx) and ‘coworkers’’ exchange (cwx). employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 167 leader-member exchange (lmx): this is sometimes referred to as “the relationship-based approach to leadership” (schriesheim, stephanie & claudia, 1999). lmx has its roots in the social exchange theory (blau, 1964) and assumes that relationships of varying quality develop between leaders (or supervisors) and different subordinates in working places (deconinck, 2009; erdogan & jeanne, 2007; gerstner & day, 1997; schriesheim, stephanie & claudia, 1999). it is presumed that the quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and a follower is predictive of outcomes (attitudes and behaviour) at the individual, group, and organizational levels of analysis (gerstner & day, 1997; liden, sparrowe & wayne, 1997). co-worker’s exchange (cwx): co-workers have been noted as central to workgroup culture and form a distinguished basis for organizational commitment and social support (leah & colin, 2013). cwxs describe the dyadic relationship shared by two peers who report to the same manager (sherony & green, 2002). coworkers form varying exchange relationships among themselves, characterized by different levels of trust, respect and loyalty (leah & colin, 2013; sherony & green, 2002). co-workers are important as they define the social environment, serve as organizational guides (clarifying role ambiguity, mitigating conflicts and ameliorating overload), help to reduce peer turnover intentions and may be able to satisfy interpersonal and professional needs far beyond what lmx can do (basford & offermann, 2012; chiaburu & harrison, 2008; clay & olitt, 2012; siegal, 2000). lmxs, cwxs and group dynamics: evidence suggests that high-quality leader-member relations act as (affective and calculative) forces that embed staff in the organization, influencing their retention (ballinger, david & schoorman, 2010). the latter forces, affective and calculative, respectively relate to benefits accrued by in-group members from positive lmx like trust or better communication with a leader, and the perceived high utility related to alternative receivable from tangible benefits like protection, job latitudes, and extra resources to perform critical tasks by in-group members (ballinger, david & schoorman, 2010). moreover, organizational support, in its broadest sense, is widely acknowledged as an influence on turnover and retention (ballinger, david & schoorman, 2010; gerstner & day, 1997; raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 168 leah & colin, 2013; liden et al., 1997). more intriguing is the evidence that, even in the absence of tangible benefits, high-quality relationships (reflected in understanding and friendship or intangible benefits) are valuable for being related to employee well-being (epitropaki & martin, 1999, 2005). good organizational relationships and support would, arguably, embrace employee voicing and, in return, mitigate exit. armstrong (2014) writes, “…the level of job satisfaction is affected by…the quality of supervision, social relationships with the workgroup and the degree to which individuals succeed or fail in their work (p. 264)”. research design and methodology the study was conducted in dodoma region within three districts of chemba, kondoa and mpwapwa. dodoma region and the three chosen districts display serious hardships in terms of the working and living environment for teachers. for example, a review of the 2013 government education reports for the dodoma region indicates shortages in important infrastructure and furniture, comprising of classrooms, teachers’ housing, latrines, administration blocks, laboratory, stores, hostels, students’ tables and desks, cupboards, teachers’ chairs and tables, shelves and beds (sedp report, urt, dodoma, 2013). moreover, there is a significant shortage of teachers and the region has quite a long-standing record of not achieving satisfactory results in national examinations (mkumbo, 2012). schools with an even larger shortage of teachers, teaching, and learning facilities, as well as relatively poor academic records and located far (at least 30 km) from district municipalities were specifically chosen. a sample included 28 schools (5 used in the pilot, and 23 in surveys and follow-up interviews), 27 school heads (4 used in the pilot study, and 23 in surveys and follow – up interviews), and 231 teachers [61 used in the pilot, and 170 in surveys and follow – up interviews). schools and school heads who were used in the pilot were purposively sampled whereby school heads (used in surveys and follow – up interviews) and all teachers were simple randomly sampled. data were sequentially collected in three phases (as suggested by creswell, 2003; 2009): by a pilot study, surveys and follow-up interviews. qualitative data were first collected in kondoa district in a pilot study. the results informed the construction of the survey questionnaire, which was then used to collect quantitative data in dodoma’s three districts of kondoa, chemba and mpwapwa. then, qualitative data were collected as a follow up of the survey results with employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 169 interviews in selected schools in mpwapwa district. data were collected using a survey questionnaire and interviews. the analytical procedures followed included data transformation, i.e., quantitizing (converting qualitative data into quantitative data) and/or qualitizing (converting quantitative data into qualitative data) (cf. caracelli &jenniffer, 1993; driscoll, appiah-yeboah, salib & rupert, 2007; johnson & larry, 2012; tashakkori& teddlie, 1998; teddlie &stringfield, 1993). while quantitizing helped to see the apparent weight of each theme in the dataset, qualitizing simplified narrative descriptions of data from numerical perspectives. braun and clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis techniques and procedures were followed to generate themes and sub-themes from the interview data. close-ended questions from surveys were subjected to descriptive statistics with the support of imb spss (statistical package for the social sciences) data analysis assisting software to generate frequency distributions (tables). findings as highlighted earlier on in this paper, the study aimed at establishing conditions under which a teacher could decide to voice instead of exiting a remote school. the findings are summarized in. table 1 conditions for teachers’ voicing in a remote school s/n influential “perceived voicing” contexts qualitized survey results t o ta l (n ) contexts/condition(s) agreeing group (n/%) disagreeing group (n/%) not sure (n/%) 1. empowering, listening and cooperative leadership1 119 (73.5%) 30 (18.5%) 13 (8%) 162 2. habitability2 116 (71.6%) 14 (8.7%) 31 (19.1%) 161 1 supportive in solving teachers’ problems, involving teachers in decision-making. 2 a habitable environment mainly prioritizes the presence of decent teachers’ houses and other important human services such as clean and safe water, electricity and healthy centres. raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 170 3. friendliness outside of the school environment3 105 (64.9%) 26 (16%) 29 (17.9%) 160 4. investment potentialities 103 (63.6%) 36 (22.3%) 22 (13.6%) 161 5. supportive and peaceful school working environment4 99 (61%) 24 (14.5%) 39 (24%) 161 6. life as a “challenge” mindset 93 (57.4%) 39 (24.1%) 29 (17.9%) 161 7. patriotism & professional commitment 77 (47.5%) 41 (25.3%) 41 (25.3%) 159 non-influential “perceived voicing” contexts 1. locality (nativism) policies 55 (33.9%) 65 (40.1%) 39 (24.1%) 159 2. no “alternative door” beliefs 25 (15.4%) 65 (58.6%) 36 (22.2%) 156 the conditions found in the data were grouped into two broad categories. first, influential and, secondly, non-influential “perceived voicing” contexts. the first category contains seven conditions under which teachers’ responses from the “agreeing group” were higher than those of the “disagreeing group”. implicitly, these are conditions under which the majority of teachers favour voicing before exiting a remote school. they are labeled “influential perceived voicing contexts”. in the second category, two conditions were found where responses from the “disagreeing group” were higher than those from the “agreeing group”. they are labeled “noninfluential perceived voicing contexts”, implying that the majority of teachers would not favour voicing over exiting under those conditions. in the paragraphs that follow the conditions are presented with the support of verbatim quotations. 3 respect, recognition, valuing and support from the community surrounding the school, particularly parents. 4coworkers’ support, conflicts/grievances resolution frame, palatable teaching and learning facilities coupled with students’ discipline. employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 171 influential “perceived voicing” contexts empowering, listening and cooperative leadership teachers’ empowerment at the school level is described as one of the important aspects of positively influencing teachers’ intention to stay instead of leaving a remote school. empowerment is identified alongside ‘attentive and cooperative leadership’. most of the teachers (73.5%) who responded to this question supported this condition. only 18.5% disagreed, while 8% were not sure. empowering especially entails giving classroom teachers voice to influence classroom activities and broad school level decisions. this means that teachers are given ‘real autonomy’ on various issues at the school level. when coupled with a leadership which is supportive and cares about teachers’ concerns, it is possible to find that teachers could opt to remain rather than leave. one of the critical factors which the study identifies as leading teachers to leave is the inability to contribute to their school development because of school leadership practices. notably, a number of teachers single out school leadership as being an important source of teachers’ dissatisfaction at the school level. one of the teachers commented: …many teachers have good and excellent ideas, but they are segregated…mmhh...not listened to at all… and this is highly discouraging and demoralizing…. dictatorship kind of leadership…not advisable. whenever a teacher provides advice, he/she is seen as an enemy and enmity starts. in such situation, teachers develop inferiority complex and cannot provide their ideas or advice or suggestions… you find the school head initiating unnecessary conflicts with any teacher providing opposing or critical ideas to the management…a teacher becomes unfree, uncomfortable and decides to leave. habitability is the area habitable for humans? teachers emphasize the presence of at least a minimum of social services, and especially teachers’ housing, clean and safe water, and electricity are matters which could make them think of staying. while solving teachers’ housing and other social problems might not be an easy task at the school level, several suggestions of how to look at it were advanced. one teacher suggested: …if they cannot build them, then at least they should look for them within the school surrounding environment and assist in paying rent for teachers… raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 172 another teacher suggested: school management in collaboration with the village government where the school is located needs to see the importance of building teachers’ houses around the school or near school premises. this will help in terms of managing teachers and supporting them in case of immediate problems. friendliness outside the school environment teachers describe the predominant model of living in remote rural areas as being communalist. people are highly dependent on social support within their environment for conducting different activities. schools are built within communities, and teachers emphasize that they need strong support from those communities, especially parents’ support. one reason identified as to why teachers are unwelcome and disrespected is the low value attached to education and cultural practices in remote areas. one teacher clearly noted: i am not sure in other areas, but here in this region, a teacher is seen as an invader, without home origin, a fool. people are very disrespectful and look down upon teachers. what they are interested in is marrying and getting married. for instance, a teacher who is unmarried is highly disrespected such that many teachers see it better to leave…i have also noticed many cases of parents convincing and telling their children to devalue teachers and the teaching profession. it was also reported that some parents in remote areas use children as their sources of income. a teacher noted, . . . some parents tend to send their girl children to unmarried male teachers’ houses with the pretence to help with home chores... a girl would stay in the house until late hours in the evening/night. parents then ambush the house claiming the teacher has sexually abused the girl, forcing him to give some money or else they would report the incidence to the police or the school where the teacher is teaching or to the teachers’ union. in fear of damaging their reputation and integrity, the teacher ends up agreeing with the parent’s demands. issues of robbery and witchcraft also surfaced in one teacher’s responses: employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 173 …there is a bad ideology among people in remote rural areas…they think teachers have a lot of money, so we sometimes get robbed … many teachers are complaining of witchcraft. . . . they are made as trial objects by wizards. . . .this especially makes teachers run away from these remote schools. investment potentialities most teachers (63.6%) describe the availability of opportunities for increasing their incomes as indeed being influential in their decision to stay in remote areas. while this is probably a problem for all teachers in the country, those in the urban centres are seen to have more opportunities for topping up their incomes, such as giving extra private teaching for payment, popularly known as “tuitions”. this is because the social and economic standards in urban areas are higher compared to remote rural areas. one teacher commented: … we have complained for a long time…what we earn is very little, not enough at all…i have family and relative to support, but i cannot and i feel really bad…may be the school management can see how we can make extra money here in our environment…that is important to keep us going… supportive and peaceful school working environment teachers are particularly concerned about collegial support and harmony at the school level. it also includes a working environment where there is no conflict. further, teaching and learning facilities, as well as students’ discipline, were noted to be critical. one of the issues noted in a remote school which could help in building a peaceful working environment is an organ for resolving conflicts. it seems as if teachers have no specific and reliable mechanism of expressing and solving their problems and conflicts at the school level, as one of the teachers indicated: …we teachers here have many problems. but, where do we express them? there is no conflict or say dissatisfaction resolutions systems in schools. this means that teachers have no special and reliable place to reveal their frustrations…we all suffer internally...and i would say that this is indeed a big problem in many schools... life as a “challenge” mindset raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 174 it was found that contemporary teachers start their work with the ‘life is easy’ mentality. this is typically a mindset developed while still in college and in the university environment; it was the life they lived while studying. however, the working arena for teachers in countries like tanzania cannot be expected to be very easy. the concern was raised by respondents (teachers) that student teachers in universities and teachers training colleges ought to be given a special course on how to develop an appropriate mindset in line with the practical teaching environment in the country. most teachers (57.4%) who responded to this aspect show their endless concern about the critical importance of building up in teacher trainees’ minds that life is about challenges. on this issue, one teacher commented: teachers we get today seem unaware of the real teaching environment in the country. most schools are in remote rural areas. by the time student teachers decide to join the teaching profession should be aware of that...they think the working environment is easy, no, it is not…i think they are misled by expecting a continuation of the kind of life they live[d] while studying…universities and colleges must help us on this. patriotism and profession commitment majority of the respondents (47.5%) supported the need for teachers to be patriotic to their country and to be committed to the teaching profession, while 23.5% did not, and 25.3% were not sure. the findings suggest that teachers should be taught to feel proud of teaching anywhere in the country without being much bothered by school level conditions given that they are ‘educating their nation.’ moreover, teachers should be taught to be committed to the teaching profession. while the study did not investigate whether teachers are committed or not to their profession, data suggest that the retention difficulties noted are partly explained by teachers’ lack of loyalty to the teaching profession. one school head observed: i think many people who go into the teaching career are not really interested in teaching…they are not there to make sure the profession grow…i think the nationalism spirit is also an issue… employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 175 non-influential “perceived voicing” contexts locality (nativism) policies in the pilot study, it was perceived that posting teachers to remote schools located in areas where they come from would increase their retention. this is labeled “locality retention policies.” the logic is that posting teachers to remote areas where they do not originate makes their lives miserable leading them to quit. therefore, the assumption was that it should be easy for teachers who originate from those areas, who are already used to the environment and have relatives and friends, to find it easy to stay. however, the survey data indicate that 40.1% disagreed that such policies could lead to teachers’ voice in favour of exit in remote contexts, while 33.9% think that the policy could work, and 24.1% were not sure. one of the comments on this issue was as follows: …i am not quite sure if sending teachers into areas they come from is a solution to make them stay. i think it is important to address teachers’ problems…teachers should be able to work anywhere in the country… no “alternative door” beliefs the other condition which initially was considered may possibly lead to voice over exit is the lack of alternative jobs. this hinges on the belief that teachers who leave remote schools probably find employment somewhere else. it was initially noted from the pilot study that teachers could choose to stay rather than leave if there was no other job for them to join. however, the survey data indicates that 58.6% disagreed, while only 15.4% agreed and 22.2% were not sure. the data suggest that it is technically wrong to assume that teachers will stay in a remote context simply because they cannot get another job without addressing critical low retention causes. it is also important to note that a significant number of respondents were not sure whether the lack of alternative jobs could influence them to stay or not. this could mean that some teachers are likely to stay in a remote condition for some time, while a small change, either in improved school level support or finding slightly better opportunities could affect whether or not they were retained or swept away. one teacher commented on this: …some teachers have left here because of poor environment. i have information others have not got another job yet… sometimes staying here is equally as being unemployed…it really makes little or no difference… raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 176 discussion looking at influential ‘perceived voicing’ contexts, the findings from this study suggest that to opt for voicing over exit, teachers in remote schools value opportunities that could positively and effectively allow them to participate in and contribute towards a meaningful change in building a satisfactory school working environment. this is built into the belief that changes are possible, which perceives the voice option as a promising tool towards a successful end. the findings echo other studies in the area of voicing and exiting (hirschman, 1970; rusbult, johnson & morrow, 1986; withey & william, 1989) arguing that choosing voicing over exiting for teachers is an option likely to be strengthened by the extent to which teachers feel that they have invested in their profession and in the schools they are working in, including their social capital and entry costs (barriers). those with a high investment in the profession or schools [for instance possessing a high social capital, having struggled dearly to join the profession, possessing a specific professional knowledge, or having other investments like businesses (depending on school contexts)] are likely to opt for voice because of the high exit cost. moreover, the findings partially echo the argument by rusbult et al (1986) that choosing voicing over exit could be more plausible to the extent that teachers’ movement elsewhere is made ‘easy and possible’ due to the presence of other quality alternatives within the labour market. yet, in contrast to rusbult et al., (1986), the current study shows that teachers in remote contexts might opt to exit regardless of the presence of alternatives, depending on the extent with which they are dissatisfied. within that context, it could be argued that, regardless of opportunities that could be intentionally created in the rural or remote areas to give voice to the employee, remoteness and rurality generally have an unwelcoming and, especially in africa, poorer life quality reality. teachers therefore want to leave for the city even when their economic lot is not better there. looking at non-influential ‘perceived voicing’ contexts, observations from ‘locality (nativism) policies’ show that although it seems logical to think that recruiting and positing teachers from areas of their origin could strengthen voicing, yet, such an outlook need to be taken with care. consistent with bennell and mukyanuzi (2005), the economic costs of voicing become higher for natives because of the burden of extended families. in contexts where there are many de-motivators in remote schools, including low salaries and meagre investment opportunities, the exit cost may be deemed low as compared to voicing for native teachers. notably, observations from ‘locality (nativism) policies’ align with ‘no alternative door beliefs’ to show that teachers employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 177 might decide to quit even if they are not sure of alternative employment. such observations are in some sense in contrast with a number of studies (rusbult et al., 1986; withey & william., 1989) which observed that the exit option was greatly associated with the presence of better-quality alternatives. while it is obvious that teachers who quit remote schools go elsewhere, yet, the current study does not suggest that teachers will stay because they do not have other alternatives. this is evident in teachers’ views that sometimes staying and working in remote contexts may be equated to having no job (or being jobless), as it makes no significant difference between them and other unemployed persons in the urban street. the findings signify that teachers may exit when the environment becomes extremely dissatisfying even in the absence of feasible alternatives. in terms of theory, the findings show that the concept of leader-member exchange (lmx), co-worker exchanges (cwx) and organizational support theory/perceived organizational support (ost/pos) offer meaningful insights into extending the understanding of how and why empowerment, listening and cooperative leadership are essential to facilitate meaningful voicing practices. this is because cooperation is enhanced through an ability to collaborate especially within strengthened collegial relations. this is clearly notable where there is collective help, assistance, sharing, and work (little, 1990). however, a smooth cooperative school atmosphere is possible within supportive school heads’ contexts –that is, a school head who is ‘listeners’ and teachers’ empowering’. such supportive contexts would reflect quality exchanges between school heads and classroom teachers (i.e. lmxs) and classroom teachers themselves (i.e. cwxs). the findings draw significant implications for school-level leadership and management practices, including enhancing teachers’ perceived sense of robust ‘investment’5 opportunity that is capable of influencing voice and retention thereafter in remote contexts. furthermore, the study findings show that motivational theories could be meaningfully used to extend the understanding of the grounds leading teachers to opt for voice over exiting a remote school. this is because a close look at the findings from conditions such as empowering, attentiveness, cooperative leadership, friendliness outside of the school environment, and a 5investment is used in this study context to mean teachers’ perceived valuable contribution to the school/profession/community. it may include time spent, energy devoted, social and human capital accumulated over time (some of which may be specific to the teaching profession), physical establishments for generating incomes like businesses established within ‘educational supportive arrangements’ such as reduced or no tax deduction agreements in schools and/or educational settings, raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 178 supportive and peacefully working environment broadly suggest that the decision to voice or exit is built on a variety of factors. they include, for instance, the need for achievement, recognition, possibility of influencing policies and reforms in their schools and work. these are part of the ‘motivators’ in herzberg’s theory, improvement in co-workers’ support and better school head exchange relations which are part of ‘hygiene factors’ in herzberg’s theory (herzberg, mausner & snyderman, 1959; herzberg, 1966; ramlall, 2004), fair treatment of teachers and the distribution and sharing of school level benefits/opportunities/resources; also are part of equity theory (pinder, 1984; ramlall, 2004; robbins, 1993). moreover, the findings stress the need for decent housing and basic social services (notably in habitability conditions), the need for safety, e.g., from being attacked by wild animals, robbery, diseases, the need for love, friendship, affection, belongingness, the need to be respected and valued (by students and the community). all these could be meaningfully explained within maslow’s basic needs of physiological safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization (maslow, 1943; ramlall, 2004). equally notable from the findings is that the voicing conditions are defined within aspects which enhance teachers’ autonomy in their work, better performance and knowledge of results and feedback; part of the job characteristic model (hackman & oldham, 1980; pinder, 1984). it could, therefore, be argued that teachers define ‘voicing over exiting conditions’ by focusing on aspects which enhance their motivation and satisfaction in the work and living environment, partly because they reinforce qualities of their lives and well-being (diener, 1995; hagerty, 1999). implicitly, and in logical agreement with steers and porter (1983), it could be suggested from the findings that school managements need to create a climate conducive to realizing ‘those basic needs’, thereby reducing teachers’ frustration, and hence enhancing voicing and retention. moreover, the findings pose a challenge to the school head to design and develop comprehensive reward systems that are more in line with ‘justice practices’. a further critical reflection on the findings, particularly of the influential voicing conditions of ‘life as a challenge mindset’ and ‘patriotism and professional commitment’, triggers thoughts about the critical question: ‘who actually goes into the teaching career in tanzania’? this is because the findings, particularly with regard to these two conditions depict teachers as having difficulty in adapting their mindset and [in mitigating a] low attachment to the profession. such findings suggest that ‘career choice’ perspectives could be useful in offering more explanatory insights into why such a situation arises. in this context, two career choice theories, i.e. social employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 179 cognitive career theory (scct) and work adjustment theories are used to strengthen this discussion. within social cognitive career theory (scct), for instance, it could be argued that as many teachers in tanzania as joined teaching as their ‘last resort6’, lack internal/intrinsic motivation for it, which strongly underlines the need for more tangible external rewards or reinforcements in order to retain them (lent, 2005). moreover, since they operate in a context not in their interest within a poor working environment, this means that the energy to perform better is low and the perceived difficulty of the work becomes high and probably more stressful. such perceived failure to achieve a ‘personal performance accomplishment’ may deprive teachers of their self-efficacy. it may instead reinforce a low attachment to career, making voice a less attractive option, especially in remote area contexts with many problems. the situation is made worse by teachers’ perceived low returns -‘low outcome expectations [of] external rewards’(e.g., low salary and respect) from the profession, which might make them likely to devote less effort to their tasks. according to the scct interest model, individuals mostly develop an interest in activities that they feel efficacious and associate with positive outcomes (lent, 2005). the findings regarding these two conditions, viewed from a career choice perspective, suggest the absence of a mutual balance between most teachers and their work environments, i.e., schools and the profession (dawis, 2005; lent, 2005), which make their adjustment and attachment difficult. this is validated by the work adjustment theory (twa) that teachers’ failure to satisfy their psychological and/or physical needs through their schools and the teaching profession explains the incongruence between the teachers on the one hand, and schools/teaching profession, on the other. in such circumstances, teachers are likely to act with inflexibility, (when they are intolerant and easily dissatisfied with the environmental conditions) and a lack of perseverance (unable to wait to try to adjust within the prevailing contextual condition) (dawis, 2002; 2005), making voicing a costly (less attractive) option and retention altogether difficult. 6 some exceptions persists in tanzania where teachers join the teaching profession because of their love of and personal interest in the profession, as well as the influence from significant others, including parents, friends and other people who matter to them (cf. sumra, 2004; mkumbo, 2012).however, to a great extent, evidence shows that most of the teachers in tanzania are pulled into the teaching career by extrinsic ‘circumstantial’ forces. although both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational aspects positively influence employees’ retention (ramlall, 2004; watt & paul, 2007; samuel & crispen, 2009), yet, in contexts like remote schools in tanzania, where plenty of de-motivators persist, retaining teachers of high calibres is a challenge of gigantic proportions. raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 180 implications for teachers’ retention in remote schools the findings generally suggest that teachers’ decision to voice over exit in remote schools is grounded on diverse factors including those emanating from school managerial practices, collegial support and from factors outside school environments. it is also based on the [socio-psychological] make-up of individual teachers, the economy [of their remote location], and the grounds for the choice of career and life quality enhancement. this has strong implications in terms of thinking and providing relevant voicing arenas. notably, since voicing is primarily about participatory management (stueart & morgan, 2007), if well understood and used, it could help as armstrong (2006) noted, to articulate individual dissatisfaction with management or the organization. it could enhance the perceived sense of collective organizational management. it could strongly help in making employee contributions to management decision-making, particularly regarding work organization, quality, and productivity successful. moreover, it could demonstrate the mutuality of the employeremployee relationship. generally, the findings imply that in order to meaningfully retain remote teachers in the tanzanian context through voicing, several requirements must be met: • empower teachers to influence changes and reforms that matter to them, • increase teachers sense of investment in the schools they are posted to and in the profession (social and financial capital). this includes checking the entry regulations into the teaching profession – ‘who really goes into the teaching and with what level of struggle’, • improve school level relationships including just practices from leaders and management, as well as positive co-worker exchanges, • facilitate training teachers to become patriotic to the nation and to be committed to the teaching profession, • work to improve cooperation and understanding between schools and their surrounding communities. employee voice contexts and teacher retention in remote secondary schools in tanzania ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 181 conclusion and recommendations this paper has discussed the conditions perceived conducive by teachers in an ideal remote school in tanzania that could make them resort to voicing over exiting. seven influential and two non-influential conditions are identified and discussed. close analysis implies that the conditions are grounded in teachers’ beliefs that changes are possible and that they could positively contribute to those changes; on a feeling of an investment level within the school and the profession, that is the social and other capital dimensions, entry and exit costs; as well as on the plausibility of alternative jobs existing in the labour market. above all, these conditions show the importance of addressing teachers’ sources of low retention in tanzanian remote schools, as teachers are likely to leave remote dissatisfying situations whether or not they are native to that remote local area even if they have no feasible alternative employment. the findings have shed light on important areas of concentration towards influencing voicing over exiting among remote secondary school teachers in tanzania. however, these conditions need to be improved before they can be used. this is partly because the definitions of those conditions are grounded on various issues which lead to difficulties in operationalization. moreover, these conditions can be explained from a number of theoretical perspectives, including organizational support/perceived organizational support, leader-member exchanges, co-worker exchanges, the exit, voice, and loyalty framework as well as motivational and career choices. equally, responses seem unstable from the viewpoint of their differences across those in agreement, disagreements, and uncertainty, whereby a slight change within schools or in teachers’ labour market may lead to significantly higher or lower changes in voicing-exiting options. indisputably, the effective implementation of these conditions requires a broad knowledge of these aspects. in the light of the above discussion, significant implications are drawn for school-level leadership and management practices in tanzanian remote schools, particularly in dodoma region. it is recommended that school managements should strengthen teachers’ involvement through power decentralization, banking more on collegial management and leadership practices and avoiding dictatorial leadership; they should create arenas for reflective dialogue and open discussion, as well as strengthening support in schools; and work towards improving teachers’ commitment (especially through enhancing their perceived investment) to the profession and to raymond mwemezi boniface ajote vol. 8 (2019), 159-193. 182 the schools they are working in. by doing that, teachers’ ties with their schools can be increased and perceptions that changes are possible will be realized. references agyeman, c. m., & ponniah, v. m. 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(2014 january 7th). many teachers ‘fleeing’ after training. the guardian. dar es salaam. anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale department of educational foundations and counselling faculty of education obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria abstract the study examined the influence of anonymity and mutual disclosure on trust in online counselling relationships in obafemi awolowo university (oau), ile-ife, nigeria. the study adopted a descriptive survey research design. the population for the study comprised undergraduate and postgraduate students of obafemi awolowo university (oau), ile-ife, nigeria. findings revealed that majority of the students showed moderate level of trust. it was also revealed that anonymity (β = 0.310, p < 0.05) and mutual disclosure (β= 0.627, p < 0.05) had positive and significant influence on counsellor-client trust. also, sex significantly and inversely influenced counsellor-client trust (β= -1.683, p < 0.05), while the type of concerns presented by students had no significant relationship with counsellor-client trust (f= 2.313, p > 0.05). keywords: online disinhibition, computer-mediated-communication introduction guidance and counselling is commonly described as a trusting relationship. this is because the client would otherwise not be able to reveal personal information which may be the source of the current state of anxiety, fears, or maladjustments that they may be experiencing. the development and sustenance of effective counselling relationship is thus dependent on counsellor-client trust. trust is the willingness of one party (trustor) to rely on the actions and/or inactions of another party (trustee). trust is largely attributed to relationships between people, community, and social groups. due african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9. no. 2 2020 pages 90-109 anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 91 to the neurobiological structure of the human brain, humans are said to have a natural disposition to trust (kosfeld, heinrichs, zak, fischbacher & fehr, 2005). trust is to have confidence on the reliability and integrity or ability of others. it connotes a feeling of security built on the conviction that someone or something is knowledgeable, reliable, good, straightforward, and effective. simpson (2007) suggested that trust is a multidimensional and complex concept that can be construed and understood in different ways, e.g., trust as person-centred disposition vs. trust as interpersonal orientation. building trust in a relationship is developmental in nature. it develops when people interact with pleasant results in terms of the quality of the outcome and its delivery or presentation, e.g., of information, services, companionship. developing trust requires openness and vulnerability of the partners involved in the relationship. trust is helped by listening and supporting one another emotionally; by a proper understanding and consideration of one another; and by consistency in character and attitude, i.e., a conformity of words and behaviour (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2000). it also involves showing consideration and care, showing mutual respect for boundaries, being dependable, feeling safe with each other, not controlling or monitoring each other, and building a tight and strong bond, among others (ndvh, undated). trust is the bedrock upon which every relationship is built (eric 2015). according to eric (2015), the level of freedom in every relationship depends on the level of trust exhibited in it; freedom gives room for partners to share and pour out their hearts to one another without any sense of shame or fear. trust also increases the level of affections and emotions involved in every relationship as it gives more room for love and intimacy. trust must be valued, enjoyed and then be protected for a relationship to be strong, lasting and enduring. some examples of trusting relationships include those in marriage, banking and marketing, business, friendship, family, and work partnerships. a very important trusting relationship is that which occurs between a counsellor and his/her client. reichheld and schefter (2000) explain that the main role of trust in a counselling relationship is reducing risk and uncertainty associated with the counselling relationship. trust also plays a major role in counsellor-client decision-making processes as both the counsellor and client establish a commitment to the value of the counselling relationship which consequently generates repeated counselling sessions. earning clients’ trust is the key to their coming back to repeatedly engage and interact with the counsellor in a counselling environment. oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 92 zahedi & song, 2008 note that trust in counselling relationships helps clients/counsellors decide whether to accept the information from each other and act on it or ignore it. when the trust levels between the client and counsellor are high, not only would they accept the information offered during the counselling relationship, it would also help them to continually use the counselling platform and build a meaningful relationship with one another. they would be able to freely share their knowledge and expertise and openly express themselves within the counselling environment. if high levels of trust persist in counselling environments, there would be fewer conflicts and misunderstandings between clients and counsellors, and they would gradually adopt and continue to use such counselling interactions (rusman, bruggen, sloep & koper, 2010; chang and hsiao 2013) however, all these are peculiar to face-to-face counselling relationship where both the counsellor and client are in physical contact with each other. in such a relationship, the working alliance between client and therapist can be easily described as the extent to which both work collaboratively and purposefully and connect emotionally (horvath & lubarsky, 1993). however, the adoption of new technologies and an increase in the use of computer has brought what was formally face-to-face engagement over into the virtual mode through the computer and the internet. because of its conveniences and time, cost and energy-saving characteristics, people increasingly seek out and enjoy virtual relationships over the internet; including in business, banking and finance, dating, education, etc. guidance and counselling services is one such relationship carried out over the internet. it is commonly called online counselling, e-counselling, e-therapy or internet counselling; a relationship whereby a counsellor offers guidance and counselling services to a client or clients over the internet (campos, 2009). a major issue in online counselling is the lack of person to person physical contact which at times puts the safety of information disclosed by clients into a question. in all computer-mediatedcommunication, the parties to the online interaction may not know each other; a condition of anonymity. to achieve a successful online counselling relationship, therefore, client and counsellor must build trust between them. anonymity is the state of a person being anonymous, i.e. the identity of the person one is interacting with online is not known. the definition includes identity as an antipode of anonymity (antonín, 2005). anonymity implies that the real author of a message (which could be any communication unit) is not shown (palme, 2002). goddyn (2001) defined anonymity as the absence of identity. it is the anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 93 absence of a true identity and in research is as a means of identity and privacy protection. pavlicek (2005) defines anonymity as being without a name and identity or with an unknown name, commonly referred to as pseudonymity, which is the usage of a false name. it implies that the real author of a message is not shown (palme 2002). it makes it impossible or very difficult to find out the original author of a message, statement or conversation. akdeniz (2002) relates the concept anonymity to free speech and privacy and because internet technology allows anonymous communication, this can be used for building trust in computer-mediated-communications. assurance of anonymity in clients’ interactions with counsellor(s) could promote disinhibition as well as enhance trust between the client and the counsellor. branscombt (1995) considered anonymity in the net world to mean that no one could trace the source of an electronic message and therefore suggested that online counselling communities needed to embrace the propriety of anonymity, though studies continue to debate the claim. kang, brown and kiesler (2013) argue that internet anonymity is no longer assured by the use of pseudonyms or many other methods used in guaranteeing internet anonymity given that the clicks made during online search and browsing are recorded and may eventually be linked to ones’ professional sites or real online personnel. turner and dasgupta (2003) highlighted different ways through which internet users seek anonymity including the use of proxy servers, secure sockets layer technology, anonymous emailers, and cookie managers. even then, concerns have been raised about the privacy and security of these methods (berendt, 2005; zhang, 2005 & albrechtsen, 2007). nonetheless, it could be argued that in online counselling relationship, where the client only relates with the counsellor for professional helping relationship, anonymity plays a huge role in contributing to the success of the relationship. the possibility of genuine anonymity throws up the paradoxical challenge of the positive value in protecting the sources of certain information as well as the danger inherent in allowing individuals to speak and write in secrete. for some computer-mediated communication, anonymity affords the capacity to develop a high degree of trust between counsellors and client; to remain unidentified, and to be authentic and transparent in their behaviour because their identity is hidden. several studies have pointed out that people benefit from being able to assume different personae(bargh, mckenna & fitzsimons, 2002; yurchisin, watchravesringkan & mccabe, 2005).anonymity ensures the identity of computer-mediated communication users is protected especially where there is fear of retaliation or harm should the source of the information be known. also, disguising the sources of messages or postings relieves their authors from responsibility for any harm that may ensue. this will further strengthen the cords of trust between the counsellors and clients. oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 94 crow and wiles (2007) postulated that anonymity and confidentiality of participants are central to ethical research practice in online counselling. counsellors’ aim should be to assure participants or clients that the information they provide cannot be traced back to them in reports, presentations and other forms of dissemination. hence, an arrangement that preserves anonymity and confidentiality in computermediated communication should be used. pinsonneault and heppel (1998) argued that anonymity is a fundamental concept in computer-mediated communication that is expected to reduce the fear of disapproval and of evaluation, and to lower inhibition and censorship. this should create an environment that improves participation and communication, that promotes more objective and honest evaluation of ideas and that enhances the productivity of groups and their decision-making process (pinsonneault & heppel, 1998). it is commonly argued that by divorcing statements from their authors, anonymity offers a low-threat environment, reduces evaluation apprehension, and breaks down social barriers and conformance pressures, which disinhibits behaviours, promotes more equal participation by group members, and leads to the generation of more ideas (weicher, 2007). anonymity thus may help to promote trust in online counselling relationships because it creates trust and encourages the process of disinhibition in the counselling relationship. since verbal cues which could inform feelings of trust are not present in online counselling, trust becomes a pre-condition for working in an environment through the process of anonymity (fletcher-tomenius & vossler, 2009). another concept relevant to the counselling relationship is mutual disclosure. the prevailing research in computer-mediated communication supports that there is a positive relationship between anonymity and disclosure (e.g., bailenson, yee, merget, & schroeder, 2006; chiou, 2006, 2007; joinson, 2001). mutual disclosure is the act of revealing personal information about one to another (rosen, cheever, cumming & felt, 2008). in the counselling relationship, disclosure is the revelation of both personal and professional information between the counsellor and client (zur, 2007). generally, when disclosure in counselling relationship goes beyond the standard professional disclosure of name, credentials, office address, fees, emergency contacts and cancellation policies, it is considered as disclosure (zur, 2008). disclosure therefore can be deliberate, unintentional, or accidental, it can be verbal or non-verbal and it can be available to the client and counsellor without the counsellor’s/client’s knowledge or approval. in the internet era, the concept of disclosure of information about counsellors/clients has become even broader and more complex. search engines, such as google, and specialized for-fee background checks anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 95 have completely changed the way clients and counsellors can obtain information about each other, what kind of information is available to the counsellors/clients with the click of the mouse and, correspondingly, what counsellors/clients may inadvertently disclose online (zur, 2008). when both the counsellor and client embrace this level of interaction, it could then be considered mutual. also, online communication is said to be characterized by increased mutual disclosure. rheingold (1993) pointed out that online interaction emboldens individuals to open up and reveal themselves far more intimately than they would be inclined to do without the intermediation of screens and pseudonyms. the properties of online interaction – nonverbal cues, altered identifiability, asynchronous communication, and a need to reduce uncertainty – have a positive impact on individuals’ self-awareness, self-presentation considerations and other psychological aspects and therefore encourage self-disclosure and intimacy (joinson 2004). research has shown that counsellors tend to prefer clients who disclose intimate details to those who disclose less about themselves (collins & miller, 1994). the study also shows that client may reveal more intimate information to counsellors they trust and also tend to trust those to whom they have revealed intimate information (collins & miller, 1994). mutual disclosure implies openness and vulnerability of both the counsellor and the client. gibbs, ellison and heino (2006) suggested that perceived success in online relationship is commonly predicted by mutual disclosure. although studies have been carried out on students’ disposition to trust and on disclosure on oau online counselling platform (obisakin 2016 & adebowale, 2014),and about anonymity and mutual disclosure promoting disinhibition in other computer-mediated communication, the effectiveness of anonymity and mutual disclosure in enhancing students’/clients’ trust in online counselling relationships has not been established. hence, the study objectives of the study the main objective of this study is to determine the influence of anonymity and mutual disclosure on trust in online counselling relationships among obafemi awolowo university students. the specific objectives of the research are to: 1. examine the level of counsellors-clients trust in online counselling relationship. 2. investigate the influence of anonymity on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship. 3. determine the effect of mutual-disclosure on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship. oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 96 4. investigate the moderating influence of sex and type of concerns on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship. research questions 1. what is the level of counsellor-client trust in the online counselling relationship? 2. what influence has anonymity on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship? 3. what is the effect of mutual disclosure on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship? 4. what are the moderating influence of sex and type of concerns on counsellor-client trust in the online counselling relationship? methodology the study adopted the descriptive survey research design. the population comprised all the undergraduate and postgraduate students of obafemi awolowo university. the oau online counselling platform is synchronous, where counsellors and clients can have instantaneous interactions. however, clients can leave offline messages for counsellors in case they are not online when they visit. the online counselling platform was designed in such a way that students/clients who visit can engage with counsellors using pseudo identities that could not be traced to them. interactions with student-clients are recorded under these pseudonyms that are given by the client and subsequent or follow-up visits to the online counselling platform are based on them. information given by a client is only accessible to the online counsellor and such client. copies of online questionnaire were sent to the users of the platform out of which 200 that were returned were selected for analysis. only those who had successful counselling relationships with the online counsellors with full and complete counselling sessions/interactions until their issues of concern were completely resolved were selected. the online questionnaire was titled “trust in online counselling relationships”. the questionnaire contained 4 sections. section a contained information on participants’ demographic variables. section b contained items trying to measure trust adapted from rotter’ trust scale (rotter 1991). it includes evaluative statements like “online counsellors usually can be relied on to keep their promises during online counselling relationship”, and “i believe that, in spite of what i say online, counsellors are primarily interested in my welfare”. section c is a scale on clients’ anonymity adapted from whelan and meade (2009) including items such as “i am confident that others do not know who i am in online relationships”, “i feel certain that my online presence is anonymous”. section d contained anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 97 items used to measure the level of self disclosure of the respondents, the scale was adapted from wheeless (1976) and contained items such as “when i express my feelings online they are always accurate reflections of who i really am”, and “when i express my personal feelings online, i am always aware of what i am doing and saying” etc. data collection was done by preparing the questionnaire as google forms with the link sent to participants through the online counselling platform. respondents questionnaires were automatically returned when they clicked a submit button when their responses were registered in the database of the researchers’ mailbox from where they were transcribed on to the excel data format and then converted to spss for analysis. the data were analysed using frequency counts, percentage, and linear and multiple regression analyses. results research question one: what is the level of counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship? to answer this research question, the responses provided by each of the research participants to items on section b of the web-based questionnaire was scored in such a way that “strongly agree” response was scored 4, “agree” response was scored 3, “disagree” response was scored 2 while “strongly disagree” response was scored 1. these scoring was transposed for negative items like item b5, b10, b12, b16 and b18. the resulting scores were cumulated to constitute a measure of trust in online counselling relationship. on the measure, the minimum score was 19 while the maximum score was 65 with a mean score of 47.59 and a standard deviation of 5.92. the obtained scores were categorized such that those who scored 51-65 were regarded as possessing high level of trust, 41-50 as moderate level of trust, while those who scored between 19-40 were regarded as possessing low level of trust. the categories were then analysed descriptively and the result is presented in table 1 table 1.: level of online counselling trust among oau students level of trust frequency percent low 15 7.5 moderate 134 67.0 high 51 25.5 total 200 100.0 oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 98 table 1 showed the level of trust clients demonstrated in their counsellors in online counselling interaction. it also showed that the majority of the clients (67.0 %) showed moderate level of trust, while 25.5 % showed high level of trust. only 7.5 % showed low level of trust in the online counselling interaction. research question two: what influence has anonymity on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship? to answer this question, an attempt was made to investigate the influence of anonymity on counsellorclient trust in the online counselling relationship. in determining this, responses to the anonymity items were scored in such a way that “strongly agree” response was scored 4 while “agree” response was scored 3, “disagree” response was scored 2, while “strongly disagree” was scored 1. the resulting scores on all items under session c of the questionnaire were added up and the aggregate was made to constitute a measure of anonymity of the respondents. this measure was then subjected to linear regression analysis, while the anonymity of counsellor-client was used as independent variable (predictor), and the measure of trust was used as the dependent variable. the result of the model obtained was presented in table 2 along with its anova test of significance. table 2: influence of anonymity on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students. model summary anovaa model r r square adjusted r square f sig. 1 0.251a 0.063 0.058 13.260 0.000b a. predictors: (constant), anonymity b. dependent variable: trust tables 2 presented the influence of anonymity on counsellors/clients’ trust. the table shows that the r-square value obtained in the test was 0.063 while adjusted r-square found was 0.058. this may be interpreted to mean that anonymity can account for a maximum value of 6.3 % on trust in online counselling among oau students and a realistic value of 5.8 %. since the p-value is less than 0.05, it can be concluded that the model is significant. this can be interpreted to mean that anonymity has a significant influence on the level of trust experienced by oau students in online counselling relationships. the table of coefficient is presented below: anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 99 table 3: coefficient of the strength of influence of anonymity on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 37.769 2.733 13.821 0.000 anonymity 0.310 0.085 0.251 3.641 0.000 a. dependent variable: trust table 3 showed the strength of influence of anonymity on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students. it showed that anonymity exerts influence on trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. the b-value obtained is 0.310 with a t-value of 3.641 which is significant at 0.05 level of significance, (p < 0.05). research question three: what is the effect of mutual disclosure on counsellor-client trust in online counselling relationship? to address this research question, mutual disclosure was obtained by scoring the responses provided by the participants to items in section d of the questionnaire in such a way that “strongly agree” response was scored 4 while “agree” response was scored 3, “disagree” response was scored 2, while “strongly disagree” was scored 1. this process was reversed for negative items such as 3, 7, 9, 11, 14 and 16. the resulting scores were summed up into a measure of mutual disclosure. the participant’s scores on anonymity were subjected to linear regression as the criterion variable while trust was treated as a dependent variable. the result is presented in table 4. table 4: influence of mutual disclosure on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students. model summary anovaa model r r square adjusted r square f sig. 1 0.412a 0.170 0.166 40.562 0.000b a. predictors: (constant), mutual disclosure b. dependent variable: trust oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 100 table 4 showed the influence of mutual disclosure on trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. the table also showed that the r-square value in the test was 0.170 and adjusted r-square was 0.166. this may be interpreted to mean that mutual disclosure was found to exert an influence on trust as mutual disclosure can be able to explain a maximum of 17.0 % of the variance observed in the measure of trust and a realistic percentage of only 16.6 %. in fact the f-value obtained in test of the model for significance was 40.562 at p = 0.000. since the p-value is less than 0.05, it can be concluded that the model is significant. this may be interpreted to mean that mutual disclosure significantly influence trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. in order to find the strength of the influence, the coefficient table attached to the regression analysis is presented in table 5 table 5: coefficient of the strength of influence of mutual disclosure on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 21.596 4.103 5.264 0.000 mutual disclosure 0.627 0.099 0.412 6.369 0.000 a. dependent variable: trust table 5 showed the influence of mutual disclosure on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students. it showed that mutual disclosure exert influence on trust in online counselling relationship among oau students as the b-value obtained is 0.627 with a tvalue of 6.369 which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. research question four: what are the moderating influences of sex and type of concerns on anonymity, mutual disclosure and trust? the moderating influence of sex and type of concerns (academic and socio-personal) on students’ trust in oau online counselling platform was carried out through stepwise multiple regression. the result is presented in table 6: anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 101 table 6: influence of sex and type of concerns on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students. model summary anovaa model r r square adjusted r square f sig. sex 0.142a 0.020 0.015 4.087 0.045b type of concern 0.151b 0.023 0.013 2.313 0.102c a. predictors: (constant), sex b. predictors: (constant), sex, types of concern c. dependent variable: trust table 6 showed the moderating influence of sex and types of concern on trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. the table also showed that the r-square value in the test was 0.020 and adjusted r-square was 0.015 for sex. this may be interpreted to mean that sex was found to exert influence on trust as trust can be said to explain a maximum of 2.0 % of the variance observed on trust and a realistic percentage of only 1.5 %. also, the f-value obtained in test of the model for significance was 4.087 at p = 0.045. since the p-value is less than 0.05, it can be concluded that the model is significant. this may be interpreted to mean that sex significantly influence trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. in addition, the table shows that r-squared value for types of concern was 0.023 and adjusted r-square was 0.013 for types of concern. this can be interpreted to mean that the maximum value exerted by types of concern on trust is 2.3 %, while the realistic value is 1.3 %. also, the f-value obtained in test of the model for significance was 2.313 at p = 0.102. since the p-value is greater than the 0.05 cut-point, it can be concluded that the model is not significant. this may be interpreted to mean that the little percentage of the variance that types of concern was able to explain is actually due to sampling error or mere chance. it can then be concluded that types of concern exert no significant influence on trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. to find the direction of the influence exerted by sex on trust in online counselling relationship among oau students, the coefficient table attached to the regression analysis is presented in table 7 oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 102 table 7: coefficient of the strength of influence of sex on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 50.075 1.288 38.870 0.000 sex -1.683 0.832 -0.142 -2.022 0.045 a. dependent variable: trust table 7 showed the coefficient of the influence of sex exerted on trust. it can be seen that the b-value for sex is -1.683 while the standardized beta value is -0.142. both values are negative, and this can be interpreted to mean that trust in online counselling among oau students increases with decreasing sex, that is, a decrease from 2 (which stands female) to 1 (which stands for male) leads to increase in the level of trust in online counselling relationship among oau students. this implies that male students will trust more in the online counselling relationship, while female students will trust less. discussion of findings & conclusion. research question one was posed to investigate the level of counsellor-client trust observable in online counselling relationship on oau online counselling platform. the result obtained indicated that most of the students demonstrate moderate level of trust during interaction with the online counsellor, while only about 25.5 % of the participants was found to demonstrate high level. it is however important that most of them demonstrate high level as research has shown the importance of a high level of trust to the therapeutic alliance. for instance, fletcher-tomenius and vossler (2009) suggested that high levels of trust are important in online counselling interactions because cues and signals such as facial expressions, tone of voice and gesture are not available online. building and maintaining trust is therefore acknowledged as a necessary condition for cooperation and as a key factor for the effective functioning of collaborative computer-mediated communications, (o’hara-devereaux & johansen, 1994). there is the need to note the suggestions of heitler (2002) that trust can only be built in such an online interaction where clients feel that their therapist will be helpful in guiding them through the resolutions of their issues; will keep clients safe from blame, anger or harmful comments, and will nourish positive feelings of hope anonymity, mutual disclosure, and trust in online counselling relationships among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 103 and self-esteem. trust was also said to engender more expressive feelings and that users make more frequent mention of interpersonal issues (zimmerman, 1987). also, anonymity was found to exert a significant and positive influence on trust in online counselling relationships among oau students. this finding is in line with the result of the research carried out by rainie, kiesler, kang and madden (2013) when a good percentage of their respondents believed that it was preferable to be completely anonymous in online relationships. however, skarderud (2003) opined that participants can explore the possibilities of selective anonymity and self-presentation. the anonymity provided by the internet may have improved users’ trust on the internet because users could take on various personas, different genders, and could express facets of themselves without fear of disapproval and sanctions by those in their real-life social circles (bargh, mckenna & fitzsimons, 2002). also, the ability for a user to adopt an online persona is a step toward reaching a deeper trust in online communication (whitty & carr, 2003). research suggested that trust and participation have steadily increased within social networking websites, chat rooms, through the process of anonymity. (bagozzi & dholakia, 2002). result from this study further showed that mutual disclosure has significant and positive influence on counsellor-client trust in oau online counselling relationship. this finding is in line with mckenna and bargh (2000) who averred that when people meet on the internet in the absence of gating features that are present in face-to-face situations, they tend to like one another and trust one another better than they would have if they had initially met face-to-face. also, there is a tendency to self-disclose and reveal personal information to others more on a computer than face-to-face (joinson, 2001). moreover, mckenna and bargh (2000) found that people, most especially socially anxious and lonely individuals can express their true selves online and form close trusting relationships which could also be integrated into their offline lives, while increasing their social circles and becoming less socially anxious in the process. also, joinson (2008) argued that since mutual disclosure is a vital social component to developing trust in faceto-face relationships, it is sensible to infer that this factor may just be as necessary to developing trust within computer-mediated communication environments. the review of the literature confirms that anonymity assists with self-disclosure, which is a key contributor to relationship formation. as participants enter the anonymous internet to disclose and connect with others, they may also explore the depths and limits of their online self-presentational identity and their online trust (joinson, 2001). oluwaseun solomon omotehinse & olusegun fatai adebowale ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 90-109 104 finally, an attempt was made to investigate the moderating influence of sex and types of concerns on client/counsellor trust in oau online counselling platform. the result of this study showed that types of concern of academic and social-personal have no influence on the level of trust exhibited by oau students in the online counselling relationship. whereas sex was found to have exerted influence on trust in the online counselling relationship, it may be because of the impact of beliefs regarding the characteristics of online relationships and the trustworthiness of web participants which differ according to gender (slyke, belanger & hightower, 2005). also, male students were found to have a higher level of trust in oau online counsellors than their female counterparts. this seems to agree with the study by durndell and haag (2002) that female students in romania tend to possess less experience with it, higher levels of computer anxiety, and lower online self-efficacy and interactions than their male counterparts. it also tallies with chen, yan, fan and gordon (2015) who observed for china that male students tended to possess a greater level of trust and propensity to belief in computers-mediated communication. our study fits with the larger literature to the effect that anonymity and mutual disclosure are potent factors that could influence counsellor-client trust in oau online counselling relationship. references adebowale, o. f. 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(2008). goggle factor: therapists’ self-disclosure in the age of internet. independent practitioner, 28(2), 83-85. the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study bekalu atnafu taye kotebe metropolitan university, ethiopia abstract the aim of this article is to examine the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions and the perceived consequences of the failure to learn a lingua franca. the study was qualitative and it used interviews and focus group discussions (fgds). five teachers and five students took part in the interviews and six teachers and six students participated in the fgds. the findings of the study showed that the role of amharic as a working language has not been given recognition despite the fact that amharic was constitutionally granted to be a working language. due to language barriers, students who are speakers of oromipha and other languages from the eastern and western parts of ethiopia suffer passivity in the classroom because they do not speak amharic although amharic has been taught as a subject in all regional states of the country. increased identity politics seems to have generated a negative attitude towards amharic, ethiopia's former official lingua franca. non-amharic native speakers appeared to lose interest in learning amharic while they were in primary and secondary schools. the absence of an official, common language which could be used for wider communication in higher education has resulted in having challenges among the student population. key words: medium of instruction, ethiopia, language, lingua franca, amharic, oromipha background on multilingualism citing the us census bureau, odugu (2011) indicates that the world’s population of approximately 6.9 billion belongs to only 194 or so sovereign states sharing a whopping 6,909 languages. of the 6,909 languages, an estimated 445 of them are in india, 521 in nigeria and 36 in bolivia (odugu, 2011). in relation to this, europe and the north america comprise only 7% of the total number of the world’s african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 1-24 bekalu atnafu taye 2 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 identified languages, whereas asia and africa which are the most linguistically and culturally diverse continents account for about 64% of the world’s languages (jong, 2011). africa is the most linguistically diversified continent with over 2,086 languages (chumbow, 2013). this indicates that most nations in africa are multi-ethnic, multicultural and multilingual as a result of which multilingualism has become a reality in the vast continent. since the mid-twentieth century, multilingual societies that had never publicly recognized their multilingualism started to acknowledge their diversity (garcia, 2007). during the 1960s, ethnic identity became a concern of many groups throughout the world (fishman, 1989). this greater interest in ethnicity was fueled in part by the independence of many african nations, the increased vitality of indigenous people groups all over europe, asia, and the americas, the growth of civil rights, especially in the united states, and the dynamic movement of immigrants and refugees throughout the world(garcia,2007). in these changed national, regional and global contexts, indigenous knowledge systems and linguistic and cultural heritage have gained recognition in educational practices of nationstates all across the globe (singh et al., 2012). monolingual education is now openly blamed for the exclusion of language minorities from society; thus, throughout the early 1960s, the use of the mother tongue, along with the majority language, especially in the initial years of schooling, came into practice (garcia, 2007). european countries that had once insisted on monolingual instruction, such as great britain and spain, adopted bilingual instruction for the education of regional minorities like welsh and basque (siguan, 1988 cited in garcia, 2001). multilingualism, apart from opening doors for quicker and easy communication, has a number of advantages. nelde (2007) underlined that multilingualism, as well as second and third language acquisition, may be of use to peace and cooperation between nations. for garcia (2007), bilingualism and multilingualism are important for both language majorities and minorities for cognitive, social, and psychological reasons. in a similar manner, okal (2014) and chumbow (2013) suggested that multilingualism practices enhance intellectual flexibility and creativity. recent studies have indicated that children who grow up in a supportive environment speaking more than one language from an early age are more perceptive and intellectually flexible than those who speak one language. the ethiopian data also indicate that trilingual education does not detract from overall achievement; on the contrary, it coincides with higher achievement (heugh, et al., 2007). hamel (2005) cited in singh et al. (2012) the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 3 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 notes that multilingualism is not only a requisite for ecological sustainability, it is also an individual and collective asset; a source of wealth and strength. in addition to cognitive advantages, bilingualism and biliteracy can bring about greater understanding among groups and increased knowledge of each other (garcia, 2007). instruction in a language familiar to pupils immeasurably improves the quality of interaction between teacher and pupil. it also narrows the psychological gulf between home and school, integrates the school better into the local community and gives recognition to the language and culture the child brings to school with positive effects on the self-esteem of individuals and local communities (ferguson, 2006). furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that long ago, unesco proposed that education is best carried on through the mother tongue of a pupil. the mother tongue plays a huge role in the defining of culture, identity, and in learning new knowledge (singh et al., 2012). moreover, from a pedagogical point of view, the use of the child’s first language in education has been shown to enhance the academic, linguistic, and cognitive achievement of learners. ferguson (2013) reviews a substantial body of academic opinions asserting the view that primary education, particularly early primary education and early literacy, is most effectively conducted in a language familiar to the pupil. this is because the potential for the child’s cognitive development is strengthened by using the mother tongue during the early years of learning. in a multilingual society, a platform of international declarations and conventions support the learning of at least two languages in education: a mother tongue and a language of the larger community, as well as access to international languages (ball, 2011). vernacularization, the language of the indigenous people has immense benefits for the home countries. first, it is the right of the child to use its mother tongue for schooling. citing the ghanaian experience, owu-ewie (2006) argued that denying the ghanaian child the use of his/her native language in education is committing the crime of “linguistic genocide” in education. next, vernaculariztion, which is an adoption of indigenous language as official language, derives from the modernization and standardization of an indigenous language that redeems those languages which are in the state of extinction due to globalization or internationalization. despite the fact that many countries developed bilingual and multilingual polices after ww ii, most of them still tried adopting the languages of their former colonial rulers (singh et al., 2012). people supporting internationalism as an ideology, instead of vernacularization, prefer to adopt a non-indigenous language of wider bekalu atnafu taye 4 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 communication as an official language, for instance, english in nigeria, ghana, india, sierra leone etc (victoria, 2010). consequently, many countries have tried to preserve indigenous communities and their linguistic heritages. there is widespread agreement by in the literature that the mother tongue or a local language well known in the community is, in principle, the most suitable medium for education in the initial years of education. the argument is that cognitive development and subject learning is best fostered through teaching in a language the child knows well. along with globalization and unesco declaration, in the past few decades, many programs have been launched by nation states to honor their rich and diverse linguistic heritages of indigenous, minorities and tribal communities, and preserve them for the future generations. accordingly, ethiopia has tried since the dergue regime in the 1980s to entertain linguistic and cultural heritages in the face of the global movement. multilingualism in ethiopia the history of nation-building has traditionally involved the promotion of an official language and the repression of others; even liberal states and governments have explicitly or implicitly assumed that the linguistic minorities should accommodate to the majority language (archibugi: 2005). nation building projects have gone with the myth that “national cohesion” is possible only through a single common language (spolsky & shohamy, 2000). this view is widespread in both western and eastern europe (michael, 2007; jong, 2011) and it was an idea shared by former ethiopian governments. consequently, the then national language, amharic, served as a platform for social solidarity until the coming of eprdf (ethiopian people's revolutionary democratic front) government in 1991 and the revised constitution of ethiopia declared amharic as the only national official language of the whole empire (constitution, 1955, article 125). the primary objective of having one national or official language was to secure national unity for the country. in this regard, cohen (2006) noted that the assumption of the imperial regime’s language policy was to produce national unity; it was necessary to have one language, an assumption that was widely shared at the time. moreover, it was impossible to try to develop all languages on equal footings due to lack of resources although there was no lack of political willingness on the part of the imperial regime. in the pursuit of having a common language for all its citizens, the linguistic rights of others were threatened and the imperial regimes failed to appreciate the immense potentials of indigenous languages. the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 5 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 with the overthrow of the imperial government of haile selassie and the advent of a marxist regime, ethiopia’s language policy underwent a radical change. along with the unesco declaration of primary education in mother tongue, the reinforcement of ethiopian indigenous languages use in school as the medium of instruction became more of a necessity rather than an option. since the mid twentieth-century, preserving cultural identity through indigenous language education had become an accepted fact. thus, the dergue regime gave the necessary recognition to the various indigenous knowledge systems, cultural heritages and the century’s old linguistic diversities. for the preservation of distinct cultures, endangered languages and identities, the dergue established the institute for the study of ethiopian nationalities (isen). the policy was to recognize the linguistic, cultural and social rights of all nationalities. article 5 of the 1974 national democratic revolution programme of socialist ethiopia stated that “each nationality has the right to determine its political, economic, and social life, and use its own language” (victoria, 2010). after the downfall of the dergue regime, the ethiopian people’s revolutionary democratic front (eprdf) established a federal structure in ethiopia. the country was divided into linguistic zones. the ‘eprdf’s constitution’ article 47 (1) classifies the member states of the ‘’federal democratic republic of ethiopia’’ into nine regional states. according to article 47, member states of the federal democratic republic are: 1) the state of tigray, 2) the state of afar, 3) the state of amhara, 4) the state of oromia, 5) the state of somalia, 6) the state of benshangul/gumuz, 7) the state of the southern nations, nationalities and peoples, 8) the state of the gambela peoples and 9) the state of the harari people. article 5(3) of the constitution states: “members of the federation may by law determine their respective working languages.” of all the indigenous languages, amharic and afan oromo are widely spoken; and for a substantial proportion of ethiopians, amharic is used as lingua franca. furthermore, in the school setting in the state of the southern nations, nationalities and peoples, in the state of oromia, amhara, benshangul and gambela, amharic is said to be given as a subject in primary education. because of the importance of mother tongue for the academic success of children, moe (1994) noted that primary education will be given in nationality languages for the sake of the pedagogical advantage of the child in learning in mother tongue and the rights of nationalities to promote the use of their languages. as a result of this policy position, all members of the federation except the southern nations, nationalities and peoples (snnp) adopted their own languages for school instruction. bekalu atnafu taye 6 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 clearly, ethiopia has too many indigenous languages but none of them has nationwide acceptance. amharic, which had previously been used by many people and was developed well enough to function as a language of wider communication was not accorded this status during the eprdf regime. although the constitution called amharic the “working language of the country” (article 5:2) and it is offered as a subject from grade 3, 4 or 5 and up (moe, 2002), its status is unclear, and its use in government is ultimately dependent on political will of those in government. thus, as noted by cohen (2010), ethiopia has no single official language; rather, several languages have official roles. amharic is recognized in the constitution as the working language of the state, but it has not been given the legal status of official national language. since the new curriculum became operational according to the 1994 policy, over 20 languages have become mediums of instruction for primary education up to grades 4, 6, or 8 depending on the real conditions in each region (moe, 2002). that is, local languages in their respective areas are used as mediums of instruction from grades 1 to 6 or 1 to 4, and thereafter english takes over up to the tertiary level. students in various regional states are confined to only their local languages and in spatial terms to a narrower identity. we contend that the post-1991 regime in ethiopia, despite its promise and claims to provide solutions, has been less successful than expected in managing ethnic tensions in the country, and has basically only ‘decentralised’ the problems (abbink 2006; young 1999; yohannes et al. 2005).the consequent increase in ethnocentrism would seem to have reduced the rate of assimilation; citizens have never been encouraged to learn the former official language, amharic, which officially is the country’s “working language”. due to the absence of a national unifying language, parents were concerned that the policy of ethnocentrism which encourages the use of only local language might negatively affect their children if they were unable to speak amharic or english, which might cause them to fail the grade 8 examinations (benson et al, 2012). even the researchers’ visits to rural schools in the regional state of oromia revealed that amharic is not well understood by many learners and by some not at all (see also benson et al, 2012). without a common lingua franca, each regional state has been allowed to use its own language. in the process, the unifying agent, a lingua franca, has been missing. thus, as these students advance along into higher learning institutions, they do not find a common language among themselves for communication. students could not learn and use amharic due to the ethnocentric language policy of the country. to worsen the matter, students’ command of the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 7 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 english has been extremely poor. the standard of competence in english is low among both teachers and students (bekalu, 2011; yonas, 2008). most graduates lack basic english communication skills and the quality of english use among the student population is poor. in the ethiopian context, few studies have been done in the area of language policy. cohen (2010) questioned the level of equity shown in the process of introducing different languages. daniel and abebayehu (2006) discussed language planning and changing whereas sophie (2014) analyzed language policy and social identity in the light of socio-political changes in ethiopia. none of these studies did empirical analysis of the language of instruction in ethiopia. so far, no study has been carried out to assess the challenges that university students face with regard to the non-use of a language of wider communication. studies have shown that non-amharic speaking students have hardly used amharic as a communication language up until obtaining admission to higher learning institutions despite the fact that amharic is given as a subject in primary schools in some linguistic zones in the country. this study therefore tries to fill this gap by reviewing the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education sector and the perceived consequences of students failing to learn a lingua franca. the study poses the following research questions:  what are the media of instruction in the ethiopian education system?  what are the perceived consequences of not using a lingua franca in the ethiopian higher learning institutions? methodology the target population for this study were students and teachers at kotebe metropolitan university, the workplace of the current researcher. to obtain the necessary data for the study, the researcher formed intense and close collaboration with the participants of the study. it is noted by dornyei (2007) that in qualitative research, the main goal of sampling is to find individuals who could provide rich and varied insights into the phenomenon under investigation so as to maximize what we could learn. this goal was best achieved by means of purposive and snowball sampling techniques. key respondents who were willing and co-operative were chosen. these chosen participants were asked to recruit further participants who would also be able to shed light on the issue being studied. in view of this, two focus groups, each having six students and six teachers, participated in focus group discussions; and ten informants, five teachers and five students, took part in the interviews. the bekalu atnafu taye 8 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 fgds and interviews were audio recorded and transcribed using digital audio-recorder. before the discussion, members were informed that they were being recorded. participants were also informed about the purpose of the recording. the qualitative data was transcribed and the verbatim accounts were thematically analyzed. in order to uncover the hidden/deeper meaning of the data, dornyei’s (2007) classification of data analysis was employed. these analytical processes were the following: transcribing the data, coding, categorizing, producing derived data (tentative interpretation) and interpreting the data. the researcher being influenced by creswell’s (2007) argument, eye-catching short quotations were used throughout the analysis. ethical research protocol was followed and all the participants willingly took part in the study. they were told that the researcher would mask their names from the analysis and from the data by assigning pseudonyms. in triangulation, corroborating evidence from different sources (from teachers and students) was used. in order to maintain the reliability of the data, the researcher used inter-coder agreements. a friend of the researcher and the researcher coded the transcribed data. in doing so, a high percentage of agreement upon codes was achieved. results and discussion 1. the medium of instruction in the ethiopian education system the findings obtained from the qualitative tools were classified according to the objectives of the study and they are presented below. a large proportion of students’ responses have had similar themes. the following representative excerpts exemplify the issue. alem in the interview session noted: we learnt every subject in our mother tongue; amharic and english were taught starting from grade five but we learnt those subjects with our local language, ‘oromiffa’ (student, int. 1.) aberash, a student, forwarded the following: although amharic language is introduced at grade five and english language at grade 1, we learnt all subjects in our local language oromiffa (student, int.2). abayneh in one of the fgd forwarded the following insights: the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 9 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 the medium of instruction is our first language and students give little value to amharic and english. even in amharic and english classes, the medium of instruction is our mother tongue, oromiffa (fgd, 1). an instructor, gebru, confirmed the response of the students: the medium of instruction is the first language of the students which is in line with the declaration of unesco but students, coming from the country side use the mother tongue even as a medium of instruction when they were taught other languages (teacher int. 1). tariku has the following to say: before they joined the universities, students learnt only using vernacular language in their primary and secondary schools (teacher int. 2). chichu, an instructor, in the fgd forwarded the following insights: after i taught students at kotebe metropolitan university for a semester, the students were requested to make performance evaluation. the evaluation form was prepared in amharic. most students coming from the countryside left the classroom without filling [them in] claiming that they could not read amharic (teacher int. 3). the findings of this study show that the medium of instruction in primary and secondary schools are the students’ mother tongue. this fits with the unesco declaration that proposed that education is best carried on through the mother tongue of a pupil and that the mother tongue plays a major role in the defining of culture, identity, and learning new knowledge (singh et al., 2012). unesco declaration along with ethiopia’s federal structure thus led to the strengthening of local indigenous languages. from the pedagogical perspective, learning is considered to be speeded up when students are able to associate the learning content with their home culture. moreover, students would not face a language gap between schools and homes when the home language(s) of children is/are the medium of learning in schools. although the medium of instruction in the primary schools is the mother tongue of the students, amharic has been taught as a subject in all regional states of ethiopia. despite this, students could not use the language for communication purpose due to the fact that they learn both ‘amharic and english’ subjects through their mother tongues. this means that issues in the classroom are presented in the target language but all discussions are made in the native language of the students. the responses of alem, aberash and abayneh verify this assertion. asking for the reasons that students fail to learn bekalu atnafu taye 10 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 amharic as lingua franca if amharic has been taught as a subject starting from grade five, the following responses were obtained. gemechu forwarded the following: i do not know the medium of instruction they had but now we hardly communicate with students coming from remote area using indigenous language because students develop antagonistic view[s] towards the language, amharic. due to the propaganda heard, we were made not to be united (teacher int. 4). ali’s response: students might learn using any one of the vernacular languages in their respective areas but when these students came to addis or when they have contact with their fellow ethiopians coming from other areas, they cannot communicate. we cannot stand as a nation. we are divided along linguistic lines. as ethiopians, we are more divided than united (teacher int. 5). eba has the following to say: since the introduction of ethnic federalism in ethiopia, amharic language has been regarded as a language of the former colonizer (fgd, teacher) haimanot added the points below: while amharic teacher came to class, we left the class. we developed prejudice to amharic language (fgd, student). birkie has the following to add, we did not attend amharic classes because of the political orientation and the feeling of aversion (student int.4). tafesse has the following to say: where amharic has been discarded as a language of former rulers, great disparities among ethnic groups are noticeably visible which downgrade the unity of the ethiopian nation (student int.5). the following segment of the discussion with senait also produced a similar point of view: researcher: why do the students fail to use amharic or english if they learn these subjects starting from grade five? the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 11 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 senait: students do not use english language because of the poor quality of education and they do not develop amharic either due to the negative attitude or the impression to amharic language they have. researcher: why negative attitude? senait: amharic is being considered as the language of the former rulers and this language is highly politicized. political leaders exacerbate the previous minor clashes or they create fictitious stories for their political advantages. students coming from regional states were coached with this sentiment (student int.3). students coming from remote areas of ethiopia, particularly, from ‘oromia’ and ‘snnp’ regional states have faced a communication challenge and are hardly able to communicate with other students with a lingua franca (common language). the continuing decline in the use of amharic as a lingua franca and the inadequate usage of english language create a gap in communication. the poor quality of education meant that students cannot understand english language when it is used as a medium of instruction in the classroom and even teachers hardly use english as medium of communication. acknowledging the general weakness in english language skills amongst teachers, the government of ethiopia established and strengthened ‘english language improvement centers’ in all universities that provide teacher education so that new teachers can develop the skills to teach english more effectively (moe, 2015). to make the lesson understood by the students, teachers could switch to amharic language, assuming that amharic is the working language of the country but students coming from the ‘oromia regional states’ are unable to follow the lesson due to language barrier. therefore, students who speak neither amharic nor english get embarrassed when they enter colleges and universities. during the imperial and the dergue regimes, amharic was the language of instruction throughout the elementary school level while english was taught as a foreign language from grade three in the elementary schools and became the medium of instruction in grade seven of the junior secondary school (ayalew, 1964). this continued until the coming of eprdf. in the foregoing two regimes, out of the school compound, amharic was used as lingua-franca or language of wider communication across the country. in those days, amharic served as an ideologically neutral unifying force for the multilingual societies of ethiopia. but, the language hegemony of amharic was not bekalu atnafu taye 12 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 welcomed by the eprdf government because the prevalence of amharic language as a medium of instruction in the education system was assumed to exemplify the exercise of power as well as economic and political domination. in criticizing the previous regimes, the current government (in the education and training policy and its implementation document) stated that amharic was deliberately imposed throughout the country as the official medium of instruction in all primary schools as a tool to deepen and broaden the pattern of ethnic domination (moe, 2002). owing to this assertion, eprdf passionately preached that amharic was the language of the former rulers. this is witnessed in the responses of research participant eba and tafesse who claimed that the language amharic was considered as the language of former rulers. this finding corroborates the findings of záhořík & wondwosen(2009) who noted that the language issue became a central point of political debates and amharic was presented as an imperial language. in a linguistic federalism in which diversity is exploited in serving and preserving differences, the amharic language, which had been a means of a wider communication before the coming into power of eprdf, has lost its ground. unfortunately, an absence of common language introduces challenges especially among the student population. students face serious communication barriers in their interactions within each other and with the entire community at large since there is a lack of a common language in use for wider communication. sophie (2014) indicates that there is a huge political drive behind ethiopians’ language policy as well as an increased sense of ethnic and cultural identity. despite its systematic recognition by the ruling body, the role of amharic as a working language in the process of nation building was not clearly seen; it was hampered by politically motivated intent. due to this, non-amhara students develop a negative impression towards the former lingua franca robbing them of any interest to learn that language while still in the elementary & secondary schools. but it is unfortunate to see members of many ethnic groups regret their inability to communicate in amharic when they go to large cities like addis ababa. people have been observed lamenting their failure to speak the language that serves as a bridge among the population of well over hundred million. the measures taken by the current government on language issues are often more informed by political and ideological considerations than strictly educational ones (ferguson, 2013; daniel & abebayehu, 2006). the government has tried to change every historical incidence including language use to satisfy its immediate political interests. the people of amhara in the real sense did not benefit from any the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 13 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 disproportionate socioeconomic and political advantage through the use of amhara as a working language. as noted by gebru, the peasants rebelled against the state not particularly because it was controlled and dominated by the shoan amhara, but primarily because it was oppressive (gebru, 1977). the prejudice against the amharic language is under scored by participants in this study. their responses indicate that the language policy is richly politicized and eprdf’s propaganda is responsible for the continuous marginalization of amharic. the responses of haile, birkie, gemechu and senait are a good testament to this claim. the rule of eprdf has produced poor inter-ethnic communication and as a result of this and other concomitant problems, the unity of the country has become more endangered than ever. for the last two decades, it is evident that tribalism and ethnic division have been wide spread in ethiopia’s higher education institutions. daniel and abebayehu (2006) added that the current instructional language policy in ethiopia is dictated by the ruling party in line with its political ideology rather than being in favour of the students’ learning. the current political orientation and increase ethnocentricity reduce the possibility of integration among the various ethnic/linguistic groups. hence, lingo-centric individuals will be reluctant to learn the language of “their linguistic rivals’’. cohen seems to be right to have stated that ethiopian languages are inherently in competition with one another and an alternative ideological stance would have been preferable to see the use of several languages as complementary rather than antagonistic (cohen, 2010). any linguistic attempt that unifies the country has not been encouraged. a case in point is the ethiopic script. the dergue regime decided to use ethiopic script for transcribing afaan oromo, sidama, wolayta and other languages because most of them were previously unwritten and the use of one script meant a united system of writing (záhořík & wondwosen, 2009). in contrast to this, the current regime have made afaan oromoo, the language of the oromo people, to be rendered in the latin alphabet when the ethiopic script has been proved to be suitable in the ethiopian context for thousands of years. the official prejudice against the ethiopic alphabet is believed to be due to the fact that it was the script of the amhara ethnic group whose influence had been felt in the country for a long period of time in history (záhořík & wondwosen, 2009). in view of the ethno-centric ideology of the government along with its indoctrination, students in higher education institutions largely form friendship based on their ethnic affiliation and contact across various linguistic groups have been minimal. ethiopian higher learning institutions in recent times have reported a number of ethnic-based bekalu atnafu taye 14 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 conflicts among students which are the results of ethnocentric mentality and poor inter group relationships (ehrc, 38th special issue, 159; voice of america: 20 december, 2017). adegbija (1994) cited in matsinhe (2013) noted that language attitudes are one of the main challenges facing the development, promotion and use of african languages, particularly in education. where the community has a broadly negative view of the target language and its speakers, or a negative view of its relation to them, learning is typically much more difficult. on the other hand, if the community has a positive view of that language, the learning process will be much easier (bialystock, 2001 cited in azmi, 2013). as seen in the earlier excerpts from research participants, absence of a common mode of communication creates hindrance for exchanging ideas in the classroom or campus. in a multilingual country like ethiopia, the nonexistence of language policy or lack of official/national language would produce such gap. although education in mother tongue has been the order of the day and was also proposed by international organizations, including unesco; unesco has at the same time also recommended the use of national and official languages of wider communication, along with some global languages, so that indigenous and marginal communities can be able to participate and contribute to large part of the society (unesco, 2003; singh et al., 2012). along with this international declaration, a number of multilingual countries have chosen one, two or three languages as languages of wider communication. for example, apart from giving constitutional recognition to the indigenous languages, article 6 of the compulsory education law of china further specifies that schools should endorse the use of mandarin as the common language in china; in a similar vein, india adopted a policy called the “three language formula” (tlf) in 1968, according to which hindi is the national language, english is the language for official businesses along with hindi and the third language a state-wise recognized language(singh et al., 2012). 2. the perceived consequences of the failure to learn a lingua franca in the ethiopian higher learning institutions from the responses that the subjects of the study gave, a number of consequences were mentioned for the failure to have a language of wider communication. ali, an instructor, in the interview session noted: the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 15 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 the students’ command of english is extremely poor. then, when you switch to amharic, students coming from oromia and the southern part of ethiopia would be out of the lesson (interview, teacher). derartu has the following to say: in most classes, we simply become idle and we ask our friends for help outside the classroom (fgd, student). tafesse forwarded the points below: we cannot follow the lesson since we have been unable to use the language of the wider communication (student int.5). sara added: since students missed the tool of communication, they are not comfortable in the classroom and they have had poor performance (fgd, teacher) chichu has the following to say: i could testify that most students coming from ‘oromia’ regional state fail to use ‘amharic’ for communication purpose. they were passive in the classroom because of communication problem (teacher int.3). bultie has forwarded the following: the problem, for example, becomes very serious when we are assigned in different groups to do activities. since our english is poor, we can’t communicate effectively; by the same token, we can’t speak amharic and cannot communicate with each other (fgd, student). alem stated: it is good to use our own language to communicate. however, since i can’t speak the amharic or other languages, i face problem to communicate with my classmates (student int.1). chala noted: during teaching, teachers use english language. if they think we didn’t understand the concept, they translate the ideas in amharic. the question is how many of us understand amharic? i can’t say that teachers do not know this, but they are compelled to do, no choice (fgd, student). bekalu atnafu taye 16 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 due to communication barrier, students became passive and the level of classroom participation among the student population was low. in the absence of a means of communication, students could not share information and the process of learning could not be enhanced. this could be witnessed from the responses of aklilu, derartu, bultie and chala. sharing the nepal experience, singhet etal. (2012) noted that a huge number of children drop out of school in nepal due to various factors, the language of instruction being the major one. active participation and high achievement are best fostered in a learning environment where students share a common language. better scholastic achievement, divergent thinking and cognitive flexibility would be possible when learners have developed multiple language proficiency. in this regard, odugu (2011) stated that multiple language competence disposes the individual to more advanced cognitive functioning measured by academic achievements. in today’s global society, the ability to speak more than one language is a valuable asset for job opportunity. in this regard, haile in the interview session stated: a brother of my wife graduated from one of the ethiopian universities and he came to addis in search of a job. he did not get a job due to communication problem. he stayed with us for some time and after] he developed a means of communication and later he secured a job (fgd, teacher). as can be seen from the excerpts above, career opportunities are tightly linked to using various languages. being sympathetic to ethiopian students, sophie (2014) stated that the students may suffer for the sake of political strategies, as they undoubtedly need a thorough knowledge of amharic for any kind of formal employment. knowledge of a common language is indispensable since it is used in administration and in most of the labor market. that is, mastery of many languages is an economic asset and provides access to important socio-economic positions. a survey by the american council on education (ace) realized that it is important to speak another language so as to compete successfully in the global economy (okal, 2014). okal (2014) further noted that besides academic and professional credentials, employers also look for fluency in the desired languages as an added advantage. therefore, being a multilingual is a plus to any job seeker in this millennium. the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 17 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 moreover, absence of a language of wider communication would let students be confined to their respective ethnic groups; they would not have an extended form of societal interaction with other students coming from other parts of the country. in this regard, tesfaye has the following to say, even outside the classroom, you could see students forming ethnic-based relationships. all these happened because language is politicized (fgd, teacher). tariku forwarded the following: students would find their ethnic members since they have a limited way of forming friendships (teacher int.2). as per the responses of the participants, the absence of a language of wider communication has produced constraints on the harmonious relationships that students could establish. as it can be seen from the response of tesfaye and tariku, students at kotebe metropolitan university have a tendency to form ethnic-based relationships and there is less contact among members of various ethnic groups. this supports sophie’s (2014) observation that people really do identify more with their own group after the introduction of the policy, but at the same time they refuse to identify with the amharicspeaking core (“habesha”). before the coming of eprdf, ethiopians did not see themselves in terms local ethnic terms. the historical associations of the speakers of the various ethnic groups, the broadbased unity, traditional organic relationships and ancestral linkages that promoted national integration have been eroded in ethiopia since the role of the language as an ethnic flag has been well disseminated since in the rule of the eprdf government. taking the challenges mentioned above into consideration, ethiopians need to have national language/s that promote/s tolerance and intercultural awareness. 3. the importance of having a lingua franca in ethiopian higher education institutions as discussed above, the use of the child’s mother tongue is advantageous to the child’s learning in the early stage of schooling, but excessive use of local languages could promote ethnic chauvinism at the expense of national integration as it is being observed in ethiopia. participants of the study underscored that there is a need to have a language of wider communication so that citizens could communicate with their fellow ethiopians by exchanging their feeling, concerns, and thoughts. in this regard, a research participant, bultie noted: in addition to using one’s nationality language, it is also equally important to be familiar with a common language so as to communicate with others (fgd, teacher). bekalu atnafu taye 18 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 birkie added: it is good to have a common language. for example, in our dormitory, the absence of a common language has prevented us from communicating with each other. it is good if everybody speaks all the languages spoken in the country. if not, one common language spoken by every citizen is essential. when we study together, we can exchange abundant ideas among themselves (student int. 4) mule noted: in the absence of lingua franca, i use a translator. for example; look now for the moment! i used translator, but i didn’t know how far my ideas are expressed (fgd, student). gebru, shared the above sentiments and offered the following: absence of a common medium of instruction in our schools put us in different compartments (teacher int. 1). almaz added the following point: to live together as a society, we need to share a lot of things of which language is the most important one. we need to have language/s that we all talk (fgd, teacher). the responses of the subjects advertise the need to learn a lingua franca in the education system of the multilingual nation. multilingualism practice in education should embrace the indigenous, national/official and foreign languages as equal partners in the language policy development and in education (okal, 2014). encouraging the use of indigenous languages in education besides the national and official languages enhances multilingualism. in the realm of multilingualism, the key forces driving the decisions on language choice have been the goal to maintain the rich linguistic diversity (local), the desire to vouch for national integration (national), and the significance of positioning the nation in the international arena (kioko,2013).in a similar manner, fishman (1971) cited in batibo (2013) calls for the three national aspirations, namely identity, unity and modernity. that is, local language is used for identity whereas national language is for unity and foreign language for modernity. without national or official languages, multilingualism is seen as a barrier to communication and it weakens national integration and increases the danger of separatist sentiments. mass mobilization and maximal participation of the people in national affairs can be realized when there is/are national language/s which is/are a key for unity. so it would be better the medium of instruction in ethiopian higher education institutions: kotebe metropolitan university case study 19 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 to balance the use of local languages and languages of wider communication as medium of instruction in primary education, dividing subjects between the languages in an appropriate manner (cohen, 2010). instead of being confined to ethnic boundaries and being monolingual, most or all ethiopians could be proficient in two or more languages if the country adopts two or more national or official languages. being bilingual or multilingual develops a sense of belongingness to the members of that language by enhancing group cohesiveness and team work. goodall and roberts (2003) as cited in thomas (2007) found that making honest attempts to speak the language of others on one’s team resulted in the development of trust between team members, thus improving the team’s quality of work. the adoption of official languages in a multilingual society promotes a common set of values based on trust and stability that enhances team creativity and performance. prejudice can be reduced and intergroup relations could be improved by encouraging more contact across group boundaries. kurpaska (2010) noted that a common language is supposed to become one of the pillars of unity of a country, the means of communication between the local languages and a means of controlling the inhabitants. more contact is possible while people share a common language of communication. otherwise, if people do not share their feelings, thoughts, emotions with their fellow ethiopians using national languages, citizens are becoming discrete groups of people living side by side, without true awareness of one another. having a common language of communication and forming more contact among members of various ethnic groups would reduce intergroup antipathy. national unity and ethnic-cultural identity are not necessarily incompatible educational goals but struggles for ethnic dominance and inequitable redistribution of economic resources can pit members of societies as polar opposites (odugu, 2011). the struggles for ethnic dominance deter ethiopians not to have a common linguistic basis which is indispensable for national unity. moreover, the eprdf government’s ethnic national boundaries create a set of mono-ethnic nations which weaken social cohesion. having a common language does not mean that students learn a lingua-franca at the cost of the mother tongue. rather students can develop two or more languages without detracting from the unity of the country which is one of ethiopia's most valuable historical legacies. but due to national level politicization of language policy, students develop prejudice against the language of others as politicians manipulate languages as tools for their political advantages. it is a sign of short-sightedness bekalu atnafu taye 20 ajote vol. 8 (2019), pp. 1 -24 to create a culture of antagonism that dismantles the unity of the country that would not benefit all regional states. conclusion the objective of this research is to assess the medium of instruction in ethiopia and to explore the perceived consequences of the failure to learn a lingua franca at kotebe metropolitan university. the findings of the study showed that more than twenty local languages are used as medium of instruction from grades 1– 4 and thereafter english takes over up to the tertiary level. although amharic language has been taught as a subject starting from grade four or five, students have failed to use the language for communication purpose due to the prejudice against the language. the language policy of the government seems to be committed to perpetuating ethnic and linguistic distinctiveness and there are no official languages yet in the country. and implementing the federal system of government on the idea of ling-centric, as shown in ethiopia, was found to widen the gap among the members of various ethnic/linguistic groups. for the establishment of more contact, people have to share their feelings, emotions, thoughts and ideas with common languages. to that end, the adoption of one, two or three languages as official or national languages like other countries is not an option but it is a necessity. choosing one or two languages from a range of indigenous languages as official language is not a difficult task since language choice is based on linguistic dominance. two or three languages, which are numerically and geographically more dominant than others, could be identified as national languages of the nation so that national cohesion and unity can be achieved. two or more languages can work in complementary relationship to each other, rather than in competition; for example, switzerland is known for its four lingua francas. in an 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(1999). along ethiopia’s western frontier: gambella and benishangul in transition. the journal of modern african studies, 37 (2), 321–346. záhořík, j. and wondwosen teshome (2009). debating language policy in ethiopia. asian and african studies, 18(1), 80-102 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9. no. 2 2020 pages 43-61 knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria benjamin omolayo1, michael auta1, elizabeth akinyemi2, uba dennis3 1. department of psychology, federal university, oye-ekiti, nigeria. 2. department of psychology & behavioural studies, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti, nigeria. 3 department of pure & applied psychology, adekunle ajasin university, akungba-akoko, nigeria. abstract this is an investigation of the knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among secondary school teachers in ekiti state, nigeria. it is a school-based cross-sectional study using a multi-stage sampling method to select local government areas, secondary schools, and participants for the study. a total of 107 teachers selected from 21 secondary schools in 2 local government areas participated in the study. a survey of knowledge of autism spectrum disorder (ask-asd) was used to assess knowledge while an ordinary awareness questionnaire was used to assess the teachers' awareness of the disorder. using pearson correlation coefficient and oneway analysis of variance to test five hypotheses, results showed no significant relationship between knowledge of autism spectrum disorder and participants having a family or friend with the disorder (r (105) = -.113 p>.05). finding also revealed a significant relationship between knowledge of autism and prior training on autism (r(107) = -.266 p<.05). age has a significant influence on knowledge of the disorder (f (2, 98) = 4.29 p<.05) but school type (f (2, 104) = 2.506 p>.05) and teaching experience (f (2,103) = 1.971 p>.05) do not have a significant influence on knowledge of autism. the result further shows that 96.2% of the participants were aware of the disorder while 3.8% were unaware of it. it was recommended that secondary school teachers be equipped with information about autism spectrum disorder through periodic seminars, workshops and conferences. keywords: knowledge, awareness, autism spectrum disorders, teachers knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 44 introduction research directed towards the understanding and management of autism spectrum disorder (asd) is at a critical juncture in africa (bakare, taiwo, bello-mojeed & munir, 2019). contemporary scientific literature has suggested that knowledge and enlightenment about the nature and management of autism spectrum disorder help to ameliorate the problems posed by the disorder (bakare, et al., 2019). an individual with autism demonstrates persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, including deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, non-verbal communicative behaviours used for social interaction, and deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships (american psychological association, 2013). autism spectrum disorder (asd) is called a spectrum or range disorder because people with the disorder can have a range of symptoms, from mild to severe, hence referred to as being in a spectrum (willsey & state, 2015). for example, people with asd might have difficulties talking with others, or maintain eye contact while talking (coury, swedo, & thurm, 2014), or have restricted interests and repetitive behaviours (american psychological association, 2013). the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder is on the increase on a global scale. when the dsm-v was published, the american psychiatric association (apa) reported that the frequencies had approached 1% of the population (american psychological association, 2013). in 2014, the american center for disease control and prevention (cdc) reported that one in 68 children had been identified as having a spectrum disorder, which is about 14.7 per 1,000(cdc, 2014). all groups of people are affected, regardless of culture. samadi, mahmoodizadeh, and mcconkey (2011) reported a rate of 6.26 per 10,000 in iran, 11.0 per 10,000 in china (zhang & ji, 2005), 7.9 per 10,000 in hong kong (wong & hui, 2008), 11.7 in indonesia (fombonne, 2005) and baird, simonoff, pickles, chandler, lucas, meldrum, & charman (2006) reported a rate of 116.1 per 10,000 in south thames, united kingdom. in sub-saharan africa, the population of children with an intellectual disability is on the upsurge (boyse, 2008; alharbi, alharbi, al-thunayyan, alsuhaibani, alsalameh, alhomaid, albahouth, & hamid, 2019), but the exact reasons for this are yet to be determined in scientific research. however, there are global indications of the proliferation of asd, including in africa (bakare, ebigbo & ubochi, 2012). despite the advancement in science, it is not clear whether autism is caused by rare gene mutations or by multi-gene interactions, and researchers have not been able to trace autism benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 45 to a single mutation or gene abnormality (abrahams & geschwind, 2008). the nature of what cause of autism is multifaceted, and this includes complex interactions between genes and the environment. while there is no consensus among researchers about the specific causes of autism, there is an unequivocal agreement that autism affects brain development (muller, 2007). knowledge and awareness among secondary schools teachers play a pivotal role in early identification and management of children with asd, but regrettably, developmental disorders in children are not considered a health priority in africa and most teachers, are not equipped with the ability to identify developmental disabilities (happe & frith, 2006). it is a logistical challenge for health personnel to screen and identify asd among millions of pupils and students; the people best suited for this onerous task are elementary school teachers as they interact with pupils and students daily and are more likely to identify and monitor subtle signs or symptoms (igwe, bakare, agomoh, onyeama, & okonkwo, 2010). lack of knowledge and awareness about childhood autism are severe obstacles in improving the health and wellbeing of children affected by autism in nigeria (akintunde, 2005).in an analysis of the relationship among teachers’ knowledge, exposure and attitudes to autism spectrum disorder, jones (2015) found that although special educators scored significantly higher on the measure of knowledge as compared to the perception of exposure and attitude in connection to autism spectrum disorder, general scores were low in terms of the participants’ knowledge about the disorder, suggesting a decreased level of teacher’s perception in terms of the interrelation of variables. she demonstrated that no connection was found between experience, training level, and perception of causality of asd. also, a study conducted by ling, mak, and cheng (2010) in which they surveyed workers in hong kong schools to determine staff’s knowledge, training, experience, and emotions related to autism showed that the level of special education training and the duration of time spent with children with autism were not significantly related to the staff’s knowledge. akogun, njobdi and adebukola (2018) in educational data, research & evaluation in nigeria (edoren) conducted a study on the management and implementation of the policy on special education needs and disability for improving access of person with disabilities to nigeria basic education. outcomes from the interview-based scoping study at the federal level showed that nigeria’s 2015 special needs and disability (sne) policy was lacking in capacity utilization, in data such as scopes and categories on sne-learners, in a well-designed curriculum, knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 46 and in proficiency for synchronizing among the relevant educational organizations, agencies, and parastatals within the nigerian states. the results from the scoping study triggered a more robust qualitative field study to modify the existing policy delivery, resource allocation, administration and implementation at the secondary and tertiary levels of governance. agunloye, pollingue, davou and osagie (2011) examined the policy and practice of special education in nigeria. the principal focus of their study was on children with noticeable physical or neurological learning disabilities. they reported limited numbers of evaluation specialists to determine the nature of the disability, learning needs of students, and eligibility for special education services. which serve as impediments to the understanding and management of autism spectrum disorder in the nigerian education system. in a study on the management and implementation of the policy on special education needs and disability for improving access of persons with disabilities to nigeria’s basic education in anambra state, njobdi and akogun (2018) found that children with special needs, especially those diagnosed with the autism spectrum disorder suffer stigmatization and neglect due to the low level of awareness in their teacher’s perception of asd. the study of alharbi, et al. (2019) on school’s teachers’ knowledge about autism revealed that school teachers showed a poor level of knowledge about asd,. while the study by ullah, aqdas, khan, nabi, and aziz (2015) at district lower dir, khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan to assess the knowledge and perceptions of 240 public and private schools teachers on autism showed that 47.5% (114) know about autism through print and electronic media while 8.75% (21) know of it through training. they concluded that there is a lack of awareness regarding autism among teachers from both the sectors, but public schools' teachers were better aware of autism than private schools’ teachers. the study conducted by geraldina (2015) on teachers’ knowledge and perceived challenges of teaching children with autism in tanzanian regular primary schools reveals that not only do teachers lack knowledge about asd, they also lack in-service training and seminar about asd which contributed to their poor knowledge about the disorder. in a study on the role of special educator’s knowledge and training on autism, shivarni and joyce (2017) found that the years of experience of teachers did not show a significant relationship with the knowledge of teachers on autism spectrum disorder. benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 47 statement of problem one of the most notable obstacles to the understanding and management of autism is the low level of awareness of autism in nigerian society. when considering the level of awareness in the medical community, the perception is quite significant in healthcare practice, especially, mental health settings (bakare, taiwo, bello-mojeed & munir, 2019). the prevalence of autism is evident in the academic setting because autism is often classified as a learning disorder, with several in-school children in nigeria exhibiting learning problems. the myth around autism has often led to the disorder been either not properly diagnosed or misdiagnosed coupled with the stigma attached to the disorder (odunsi, preece & garner, 2017). this stigma affects both the children and their families as they consider the public reaction to them as stereotypical and negative (gray, 1993). some people have even labelled children with asd as possessed, stubborn and ill-mannered; thus, they are often maltreated or neglected in schools. some schools cannot cope with their behaviours hence making their parents change school often for them while some are hidden at home by their parents because of shame, thus making them not to have a standard life (bakare, et al., 2012). socio-economic problems such as poverty, illiteracy and limited access to healthcare facilities contribute significantly to the lack of awareness perceived in the nigerian society (odunsi et al., 2017). recently, there has been an increase in the levels of awareness of autism disorder in subsaharan africa. this has drawn the attention of global scholars and stakeholders in the problems associated with the disorder in africa (centers for disease control and prevention cdc, 2009). however, apart from the efforts of a few individuals and non-governmental organization, only a few states in nigeria have embarked on the campaign for autism awareness. for example, the lagos state government has partnered with non-governmental organizations in helping to raise awareness and proffer research-proven solutions to the attendant problems associated with children with autism (urowayino, 2018). due to huge economic toll that autism disorder poses to the nigerian government, the increase in healthcare expenditure associated with this disorder takes a huge toll on families and relatives of those whose ward have autism spectrum disorder. the financial constrain to both the public and the government have led to practically less awareness or sensitization to recognize neuro-psychological disorders in pupils and students at any level of the country's educational system (bakare et al., 2012). poor public and government knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 48 funding has lowered the level of preparedness of our teachers to cater for the educational and social requirements of these special needs children (nsirimobu & gabriel-brisibe, 2014). the situation within the nigerian educational system is bewildering because it is expected that special needs school should cater for all children with disabilities, but such schools have inadequate facilities to cater for the physically challenged. as a result, several schools in nigeria are in deplorable conditions due to government’s neglect and poor administration of these facilities. for instance, the teacher-student ratio is very high of students to, with many students to one teacher in the classroom. there is also limited access to healthcare professionals, portable drinking water and instructional materials and these problems adversely affect the development and learning environment of children with special needs (nsirimobu & gabriel-brisibe, 2014). despite global concern and public clamor for understanding and management of the increasing incidences of autism in sub-saharan africa, a lot of attention from government and other concerned stakeholders needs to be channeled to address this disorder in nigeria, especially in the educational sector. however, some authors (bakare, et al., 2019) have demonstrated that the lack of knowledge and awareness amongst teachers, researchers and even some health personnel is a function of government negligence and lack of funding for autism. research objectives the objectives of the study are as follows: 1. to examine the relationship between teachers who have a friend or family with autism spectrum disorder (asd) and their knowledge of the disorder. 2. to determine the relationship between teachers’ prior training and their knowledge of asd. 3. to access the influence of teachers’ age on their knowledge about asd. 4. to evaluate the influence of school type on teachers’ knowledge of asd. 5. to find the degree to which teachers’ teaching experience will influence their knowledge about asd. hypotheses 1. there is a significant relationship between teachers who have a family or a friend with autism spectrum disorder and their knowledge of autism spectrum disorder. benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 49 2. there is a significant relationship between teachers who have prior training about autism spectrum disorder and their knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. 3. there is a significant influence of teacher’s age on knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. 4. school type has a significant influence on teacher’s knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. 5. teachers teaching experience have a significant influence on their knowledge about asd. method research design this study adopted a cross-sectional design to assess teacher’s knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder (asd) and data were obtained using validated psychological questionnaire for a subset of the total population of teachers in ekiti state. research setting the study was conducted in two local government areas of ekiti state, namely, ado local government and oye local government, which were purposively chosen due to the number of special needs school in these local government areas. research participants participants were made up of 107 teachers selected from 7 private and 14 public secondary schools in ado and oye local government areas of ekiti state, nigeria. they consisted of 31 males (28%) and 76 females (71%) with an age range of 25-60years. multi-stage sampling technique was used in this study namely; purposive sampling was used to select the 2 local government areas for the study, convenient sampling was employed to select 21 secondary schools from the two local government areas, and random sampling by balloting was used to select teachers from the schools. research instruments data for the study was obtained using a questionnaire to collect information from the participants. the questionnaire consisted of three sections. knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 50 section a consisted of items measuring socio-demographic information of the participants such as gender, age, religion, teaching experience, and school type. section b comprised ordinary questionnaire items that measured autism awareness. this was made up of five question items with a forced-choice response style of yes (a) or no (b), aimed at knowing if the participants were aware of autism spectrum disorder. sample questions include; have you heard of autism spectrum disorder (asd)? where did you first hear or read about asd? have you been trained to identify a child with asd? section c is items on a survey of knowledge of autism spectrum disorder (ask-asd) developed by hansen (2015) and consisted of 51 items of true or false questions, each of which fell into one of five homogenous item composites namely aetiology, epidemiology, symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis. these areas were chosen to ensure that the item pool adequately defined all aspects of asd. after indicating each statement as true or false, participants’ confidence is rated in each answer on a likert scale, 1-not at all confident, 2-confident, and 3very confident. true or false items are rated as 1-correct and 0-incorrect respectively. items include, if a teacher believes a student has asd/autism, he or she can give an initial diagnosis, a common initial concern of asd/autism is a failure to develop language, children with diets higher in sugars and processed foods show an increased risk of developing asd/autism. internal consistency of the scale was evaluated using cronbach’s alpha, and for actual knowledge, alpha scores ranged from .57 to .61 for the total scale and subscales. also, average measures iccs between the actual knowledge total scale and subscales were moderately reliable, ranging from .68 to .77, (p<.001). besides, bivariate correlations between total scales at time 1 and time 2 were significant at r(64) =.63, p< .001 and r(64) =.69, p<.001 respectively (hansen, 2015). procedures the questionnaire was administered to the participants in their offices after they consented to participate in the study. an ethical issue of assurance was given to participants based on confidentiality and discretion of the study. participants were assured of their safety and freedom to withdraw from the research at any point. the purpose of their participation was explained to them and the confidentiality of their responses was assured. questionnaires were distributed to the participants and collation of all questionnaires was made for coding, scoring and analysis. benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 51 statistical analysis data obtained were analyzed using the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) software package version 20. demographical variables of the participants were analyzed using descriptive statistics. hypotheses were tested using inferential statistics. hypotheses one and two were tested using pearson correlation while hypotheses three, four and five were tested using one-way analysis of variance (anova). the p-value of 0.05 was used for the test of statistical significance. results table 1: frequency table showing demographic characteristics of participants demographics variables frequency (n) percentage (%) age 25-35years 36-45years above 45years 47 30 24 43.9 28.0 22.4 gender male female 31 76 28.0 71.0 religion christianity islam other religion 102 4 0 95.3 3.7 0 teaching experience below 5years 5-15years above 15years 38 45 21 35.5 42.1 19.6 school type public private 72 35 67.3 28.0 knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 52 table 2: pearson correlation summary showing the relationship between teachers who have a family or a friend with asd and knowledge about asd. relationship with people with autism knowledge of autism spectrum disorder relationship with children with autism pearson correlation 1 sig. (2-tailed) n 105 105 knowledge of autism spectrum disorder pearson correlation -.113 1 sig. (2-tailed) .250 table 2 showed no significant relationship between knowledge of asd and participants’ having a relationship with family or a friend with autism spectrum disorder (r (105) = -.113 p>.05). table 3: pearson correlation summary table showing the relationship between prior training and knowledge of asd. knowledge of autism spectrum disorder prior training on autism knowledge of autism spectrum disorder pearson correlation 1 sig. (2-tailed) n 107 prior training on autism pearson correlation -.266** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .008 table 3 showed a significant relationship between knowledge of asd and prior training on autism (r(107) = -.266 p<.05). benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 53 table 4: one-way anova showing the influence of age on knowledge of asd sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 764.874 2 382.437 4.299 .016 within groups 8718.373 98 88.963 total 9483.248 100 as shown in table 4, age has a significant influence on knowledge of asd (f (2, 98) = 4.29 p <.05). table 5: one-way anova showing the influence of school type on asd sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 453.065 2 226.533 2.506 .087 within groups 9402.075 104 90.405 total 9855.140 106 as shown in table 5, school type does not have a significant influence on knowledge of asd f= (2, 104) = 2.506 p>.05). table 6: one-way anova showing the influence of teaching experience on knowledge on asd sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 363.332 2 181.666 1.971 .144 within groups 9491.272 103 92.148 total 9854.604 105 findings in table 6 revealed that teaching experience does not have a significant influence on knowledge of asd, f(2,103) = 1.971 p>.05). knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 54 table 7: demographic details showing the awareness about asd respondents frequency percentage (%) aware not-aware total 103 96.2 4 3.8 107 100 table 7 above shows that 96.2% of the participants were aware of asd while 3.8% were not aware. table 8: descriptive table showing participants approach to the channel of awareness of asd approach frequency (n) percentage (%) television and radio 30 28 newspaper 10 9 universities and colleges 58 54 journals 5 4.6 other channels 4 4.4 from table 8, the result indicated that 58 (54%) of the participants got the awareness of asd in universities and colleges while 5 (4.6%) got the awareness of asd from the journals. discussion this study investigated the knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among secondary school teachers in ekiti state. it was revealed in the study that a teacher’s knowledge of autism spectrum disorder has no significant relationship with him or her having a relationship with family or friend diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. this reveals that teachers, who have a relationship with an individual that has autism spectrum disorder, do not possess a significant amount of knowledge on asd. the plausible explanation of this finding is benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 55 that being close to someone with asd does not equip the teacher with the necessary information on autism. such a teacher will be more enmesh in solution-seeking than information-seeking. the current finding is consistent with the previous findings of ling, mak, and cheng (2010) in which they surveyed workers in hong kong schools to determine the staff’s knowledge, training, experience, and emotions related to autism. they found that the level of special education training and the duration of time spent with children with autism were not found to be significantly related to the staff’s knowledge. this finding also corroborates the previous finding of jones (2015) who, in her study on teachers' perceptions of autism spectrum disorder and analyzing the relationship among teachers' knowledge, exposure, and attitudes, found low scores in terms of respondents’ knowledge about the disorder, suggesting a decreased level of teacher’s perception in terms of the interrelation of the variables. this study shows a significant relationship between knowledge of asd and prior training on autism. this indicates that teachers who have prior training and experience with autism know about asd. this finding suggests the importance of training of teachers, especially in the enlightenment and dissemination of information on asd. training is aimed at seeking for knowledge, thus showing the validity of the prior training the teachers had which has contributed to their knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. however, the previous finding of geraldina (2015) that teachers lack knowledge of asd is an indication that there is a need to educate and train teachers to identify and manage students with autism spectrum disorder. lack of training such as in-service training, seminars, and workshops on asd has contributed to the perceived challenges of teaching children with autism. jones (2015) found no connection between training level and perception of causality of autism spectrum disorder, but her suggestion supports this finding that school psychologists, educational administrators and other relevant stakeholders in the education industry should collaborate to create a curriculum that would integrate psychological principles in the training and management of teachers to reduce and eliminate the lack of knowledge in asd and help aid in the development of psycho-socio based interventions. age was found to have a significant influence on teacher’s knowledge of autism spectrum disorder. this indicates that as the teachers are growing in age, maturity sets in, and they tend to acquire more knowledge and more awareness that are beneficial to them and their students, and also be aware of behaviours and attitudes exhibited by themselves and their knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 56 students, thus revealing the contribution and importance of age of teachers to their knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. age is synonymous to maturity, and the more teachers advance in age, the more experience they garner and the more information they acquired. this finding was in consonant with njobdi and akogun (2018) previous finding that a significant association exist between teacher’s knowledge and level of awareness, and that as a person is growing, there is a certain knowledge that is acquired during the process; thus teachers age contributed to their knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. furthermore, findings show that school type has no significant influence on the teacher’s knowledge about asd. most of the secondary schools focus more on academic curriculum which could make their students succeed, and since asd is not part of schools’ curricula, acquiring knowledge by the teachers about it may be difficult. the study conducted by alharbi, et al. (2019) on school teachers’ knowledge about autism using public and private schools revealed that school teachers showed a poor level of knowledge about autism spectrum disorder. this supports the finding of the present study and shows that type of school does not bring about the knowledge of asd. in the same vein, the teaching experience of teachers does not have a significant influence on their knowledge of asd. this was corroborated by the previous finding of jones (2015) who revealed no relationship between the teaching experience of teachers and their knowledge of asd. also, the previous finding of shivarni and joyce (2017) was in consonant with the present finding when they found that years of experience of teachers did not show a significant relationship with the knowledge of teachers on autism spectrum disorder. this study also revealed that 96.2% of the participants were aware of asd while 3.8% of them were not aware of autism spectrum disorder. this indicates that most of the secondary school teachers that participated in this study were aware of asd. this supports the previous findings that public school teachers showed more awareness of the autism spectrum disorder when compared to their counterparts in private schools (alharbi, et al., 2019; ullah, et al., 2015). this could be a result of public enlightenment about asd on electronic and print media, seminars and workshops, and information from friends, colleagues and family on autism. in this present study, universities and colleges were found to be the highest channels of asd awareness (58:54%) while the media (electronic and print) was the second-highest channel of asd benjamin omolayo, michael auta, elizabeth akinyemi, & uba dennis ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 43-61 57 awareness (40:37%). this, however, was contrary to ullah, et al., (2015) who in their study of 240 primary school teachers in pakistan found that 47.5% (114) of the teachers know about autism through print and electronic media while 8.75% (21) were aware of it through training. odunsi, preece, and garner (2017) found a relatively low awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in nigeria but was not in agreement with the present study. conclusion the results of the study demonstrate that there was no significant relationship between teachers who know someone with asd and their knowledge of asd. prior training on asd has a significant relationship with teachers knowledge about asd. also, teachers’ age has a significant influence on their knowledge about asd. school type does not have a significant influence on teachers knowledge about asd. teaching experience of teachers does not have a significant influence on their knowledge about asd. it was therefore concluded that 96.2% of the participants were aware of asd while 3.8% were not aware. implication of findings it is appropriate for teachers to know information about asd as this will eliminate a lot of misconceptions and stigmatization of certain students who are considered to be dull or possessed by demons. the role of school psychologists should not be downplayed in secondary schools, as they are trained in the psychological principles and management of asd. school psychologists can disperse knowledge about asd quickly and efficiently by organizing training and seminars for teachers in secondary schools on the handling and management of asd. they can organize a quarterly workshop which staff and parents could be invited to rub minds with each other while gaining important information about how to help the students. recommendations the most important finding of the study is the need to educate and train secondary school teachers to identify and manage students with asd. therefore, more emphasis should be placed on organizing periodic seminars, workshops and conferences to equip secondary school teachers about the nature of asd which include the aetiology, epidemiology, symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis. this could be organized by school management, ministry of education, nongovernmental agencies, and other stakeholders. knowledge and awareness of autism spectrum disorder among teachers in ekiti state, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 43-61 58 furthermore, a standard curriculum that would eliminate the lack of knowledge in asd and help in the administration of psychological interventions should be created. finally, psychological principles should be integrated and inculcated into secondary school teachers in the handling and management of students with asd. references abrahams, b. s., & geschwind, d. h. 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(2008). epidemiological study of autism spectrum disorder in china. journal of child neurology, 23(1), 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073807308702 zhang, x., & ji, c. y. (2005). autism and mental retardation of young children in china. biomedical and environmental sciences, 18(5), 334–340. https://doi.org/10.5463/dcid.v28i3.637 https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_133_17 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2014.10.015 https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073807308702 preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue alina amukushu-niipare university of pretoria abstract scholars of language teaching agree that the development of initial literacy is best achieved when taught in the mother tongue. namibia’s language policy for schools prescribes teaching using mother tongue or the predominant local language as a medium of instruction during the first three years of schooling. this study reports on a study of how namibian lecturers prepare student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue (oshikwanyama and oshindonga) dialects of oshiwambo language. data were collected through classroom observations, semi-structured interviews and document analysis. content analysis was used to analyse the data. the main findings are that most of the lecturers were proficient in the languages in question and they fluently explained the literacy content in oshikwanyama and oshindonga. however, the preparation was constrained by a lack of prescribed books in the african languages. the study aims at filling a gap in the literature on how namibian student teachers are prepared to teach literacy in mother tongue grounded within a sociocultural perspective. keywords: mother tongue, first language, literacy teaching, teacher preparation, student teacher, oshikwanyama, oshindonga, oshiwambo, namibia. introduction there has been a strong advocacy for the use of the mother tongue language in the early grades, based on the argument that children who receive schooling in their mother tongue in these grades acquire better literacy levels. using the mother tongue or the first language of the learners enable learners to use the knowledge and skills acquired as a bridge to the acquisition of a new language (ball, 2010; african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 25-52 alina amukushu-niipare 26 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 petal, 2012).the overall argument for mother tongue education in early learning as mentioned by prominent scholars is based on cognitive, emotional, psychological, sociological and cultural aspects as well as pedagogical advantages (ouane & glanz, 2005; rodseth, 2002). while research acknowledges the value of mother tongue-based education in children’s learning, it has been observed that the success of mother tongue education depends on the recruitment of teachers who can not only speak the language of the community but who also can read, write, and use that language in an academic context (dutcher, 2003; lewin, 2004). this needs training because even if teachers speak the local language, it does not mean that they can read, write and teach using the same (dutcher, 2003). gacheche, (2010) findings indicate that teachers who speak a child’s mother tongue (l1) can also teach in it. it is however idealistic to expect that teachers who are involved in the development and teaching of mother tongue programme would possess diverse language proficiency and teaching experiences (purdie, et al., 2008). there is therefore a need for teachers to be adequately prepared to teach literacy in mother tongue as a medium of instruction in schools. the literature on mother tongue teacher preparation argues that teachers who are well prepared to teach literacy in mother tongue make a positive impact on their learners’ learning outcomes (karan & morren, 2013; amissah, 2001; benson & plüddemann, 2010). they need to show adequate knowledge, skills and competencies of the language used as a medium of instruction in schools (karan & morren, 2013). however, there is limited research on how pre-service teachers in namibia and elsewhere are prepared to teach literacy in mother tongue. extant studies conducted on mother tongue teachers’ preparation are largely on developed countries and have focused mainly on only reading and writing (perry, 212; king, 2003). this paper forms part of the phd study undertaken at the university of namibia (unam). it examined the extent to which the initial teacher education programme in namibia prepares student teachers to teach literacy in the mother tongue language in the junior primary grades (grades 1-3) of the namibian schooling system. the main study strove to answer the following question: how are student teachers prepared to teach literacy in the mother tongue (oshindonga and oshikwanyama). therefore, the purpose of this paper is mainly to give detail explanations of how teachers were prepared to teach literacy in mother tongue (oshindonga and oshikwanyama). preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 27 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 teacher training in namibia the responsibility for teacher education in namibia was shared between the colleges of education and the university of namibia. the three types of education programmes were developed after independence including, namely, the basic education teacher diploma (betd), which was a threeyear course aimed at preparing teachers for basic education (grades 1–10); the senior secondary school teacher qualification which was offered by the university of namibia; and finally the technical and vocational education instructor qualification which prepared teachers for instruction in pre-vocational skills in vocational and other technical institutions (angula, 1993). the betd was offered in the four colleges of education (rundu college, caprivi college, ongwediva college and windhoek college). in 2010, the four college of education merged with the university of namibia and became unam campuses. the university has since begun to offer teacher education programmes for junior primary school teachers. the merger of the colleges of education and the university of namibia meant that the university has had to adapt different methodologies in order to prepare teachers for all the school phases adequately. accordingly, in 2011, the university introduced a four-year bachelor of education (pre-primary and lower primary) for junior primary teachers and aimed at preparing teachers to be competent to teach in english and a namibian language and also to be able successfully to effect the transition from a namibian language as the medium of instruction to english (language policy for schools (1992). theoretical framework the main study drew on two dominant views underlying literacy learning: sociocultural and cognitive perspectives. the sociocultural perspective a sociocultural is based on vygotsky’s ideas, which propose that all human activities taking place within a cultural context are mediated by language and other symbols, and can be understood in the context of their historical development perspective (davidson, 2010). the above perspective requires finding out how children interpret their relations with others and how they learn the process of interpreting and encoding the world around them (perez, 2004 in hossain, alina amukushu-niipare 28 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 2013). learning is mediated ‘through language, in this context learners’ first language, facilitated by drawing on the contexts familiar to the learners so that meaning making is prioritized’ (westbrook et al., 2013, p.10). learning to teach is a sociocultural and a mediated process that involves interactions between individuals such as peers, learners, teachers and mentors (hammond & bransford, 2005). the interaction requires supervision and coaching to enable student teachers apply different kinds of knowledge in the classroom (hammond & bransford, 2005). the process is influenced by beliefs, attitudes, and prior experiences about teaching that may cause tension between student teachers’ beliefs and what they learn in their initial teacher education courses (nomlomo & desai, 2014). therefore, it is useful that teacher educations takes cognisance of this development and ensure that teachers are trained in such a way that they acknowledge their learners’ cultural experiences. a sociocultural theory of literacy development and practice is relevant to this study as it aims to ascertain how well student teachers are prepared to teach literacy in mother tongue in namibia and gauge their familiarity with the interactions and engagements that must occur for literacy teaching and learning. this study attempts to apply the sociocultural theory to mother tongue literacy teaching in namibia. it seeks to establish the relevance of the sociocultural theories to developing countries like namibia. the cognitive perspective the cognitive approach is referred to as bottom-up approach because it focuses on understanding the text by combining the smallest units of the whole (gains, 2010). in other words, the process starts with letter knowledge; moving on to consonants and blending them into syllables to form words and finally sentences (davidson, 2010). it is assumed that children learn and progress in a similar way, and the skills are to be taught in isolation and in sequence. the role of the teacher in the cognitive approach is to ensure that each learner develops phonic and decoding skills and constructs meaning from the text read. this study thus drew on the two perspectives. the cognitive approach guides instructional activities in the classroom and could explain the difficulties that learners may experience with acquiring literacy, whereas a socio-cultural approach offers some explanations regarding the broader literacy learning context. the two perspectives, therefore, complement each other (davidson, 2010). preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 29 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 the context the study was conducted at the university of namibia’s campuses that train lower primary school teachers to teach in mother tongue instruction in schools. out of the university’s four campuses, two were purposefully selected for this study; one in the central part of the country that offered languages such as khoekhoegowab, afrikaans, otjiherero oshindonga oahikwanyama and english and the second in the northern part of the country offered oshindonga, oshikwanyama and english. these campuses were chosen since they train student teachers in the oshindonga and oshikwanyama, the dialects of oshiwambo language that are used as mediums of instruction in the relevant schools. the campuses where the interviews and observations were conducted are indicated as pseudonyms campus a and campus b. the research method the study used a qualitative case study methodology to enable the researcher gain an in-depth understanding of the views and experiences of the lecturers on how they prepared pre-primary and lower primary bed student teachers to teach literacy through mother tongue-based instruction. the methods of data collection utilized included semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. the face-to-face, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the four lecturers of oshindonga and oshikwanyama on the two campuses mentioned above. the aim of the interview was to ascertain the lecturer’s views on how they were preparing future teachers to teach mother tongue literacy; on their perceptions and understanding of mother tongue teaching; and whether their teaching support the policy of mother tongue teaching in schools. lecturers were also asked how the student teachers’ sociocultural characteristics were acknowledged and how student teachers were assisted to link what they knew already with what they were learning (see the questions appendix 1). classroom observations were also carried out on the four lecturers teaching oshindonga and oshikwanyama to second and third year student teachers. it was planned that the lecturers would be observed teaching the fourth year students. however, the modular approach used by the university prevented this as the listening and speaking module was offered only in the second year of training while the reading and writing module came up in the third year. accordingly, the researcher was forced to observe lecturers presenting mother tongue literacy content to the second and third-year students rather than the fourth-year students previously arranged for. alina amukushu-niipare 30 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 the classroom observations at the two campuses focused on observing lecturers training student teachers on how to teacher literacy in mother tongue (oshindonga and oshikwanyama), how they assess the approaches employed to measure the mastery of the literacy content in terms of how mother tongue literacy was learned and managed, and in terms of conceiving classroom interactions as a social practice. the observations also focused on the way in which the student teachers’ own personal and socio-cultural experiences were used. overall, 28 classroom observations were carried out in the four classes during the oshindonga and oshikwanyama periods, focusing on literacy teaching (listening, speaking, reading and writing). nadia, grace and saara (pseudonyms) offered eight (8) lessons each, and maria six (6). the data from the observations and the interviews was compared to establish relationship between what participants had said in the interviews and what they did in practice in order to determine whether people did what they said or not and behaved in the ways they claimed to behave (benson, 2010; cohen et al., 2013). participants there were four (female) lecturers taught oshindonga and oshikwanyama in the two campuses. all four lecturers agreed to participate and were all interviewed as well as observed teaching. campus a had one lecturer only who was responsible for teaching the above dialects of the oshiwambo language. this lecturer taught all the levels, namely, first, second, third and fourth year students in both oshindonga and oshikwanyama, while campus b has three teacher educators, one responsible for oshikwanyama and the other two for the oshindonga dialects of the oshiwambo language. at the time of the study, 75 fourth year student teachers were enrolled for oshindonga and oshikwanyama from the two selected campuses. out of the mentioned number, 30 student teachers were selected to be interviewed and were agreed to participate in the study. ten (10) of these 30 student teachers were observed teaching mother tongue literacy in schools during the school based studies/teaching practice. it was stipulated in the university admission requirements (prospectus (2016) that student teachers who wished to specialise in pre-primary and lower primary educations were required to pass both english and an african language and, therefore, they should study english language education and a namibian language. preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 31 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 data analysis firstly, all the transcripts were carefully transcribed and the field notes expanded upon immediately after each observation. once the expanded notes for each lesson observed had been transcribed, files for both the interviews and the classroom observation were created on the computer in which these notes were stored. i studied the data acquired several times in order to obtain a sense of both the field notes and interview transcripts. i had written notes in the margins of the field notes and transcripts and these helped greatly in the process of exploring the database (creswell, 2013) and attaching meaning to the pieces of data (lofland, snow, anderson & lofland, 2006). those labels enabled me to summarise data, identify patterns and pull together themes. ethical consideration written permission was obtained from the faculty of education at the university of pretoria. the study-involved interaction with lecturers and student teachers during which their personal views about literacy were solicited and the information they supplied used as data. accordingly, appropriate and required ethical protocol underpinned the carrying out of the study. the identities of the campuses as well as the lecturers are protected using pseudonyms. therefore, the particular campuses are masked and the lecturers’ names used in this paper are not their real names. findings and discussions lecturer’s background information it must be remembered that this study was seeking to answer the question as to how the lecturers were preparing future student teachers to teach literacy using the mother tongue of the learners as the medium of instruction in schools. in order to acquire a clear understanding of how student teacher were being prepared to teach literacy in oshindonga and oshikwanyama, i was interested to learn more about the lecturers’ profile and also their teaching preparation experiences in order to ascertain whether these had an impact on mother tongue literacy teaching preparation. studies of primary teacher education have indicated that lecturers do not generally have much professional experience of primary classroom teaching (mulkeen, 2010; akyeampong, et al, 2011). this is generally true of some of the lecturers in this study who were neither trained to teach at lower alina amukushu-niipare 32 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 grades nor to teach mother tongue literacy. the findings of this study indicate that the majority of the lecturers had not been trained either to teach the lower grades or to teach mother tongue literacy, but they were rather trained as specialist language teachers. the training and teaching experiences of the lecturers who participated in this study are discussed below: nadia had studied for a senior secondary diploma first and subsequently for a degree. her first years of teaching were at the junior secondary level, the next four years at the senior secondary level after which she was appointed to teach at the teachers’ training college, which provided training for primary school student teachers. grace had qualified to teach grades 5 to 7 (senior primary) and grades 8 to 10 (junior secondary). during her training, oshikwanyama was taught in english. maria had qualified to teach at primary school level, secondary school level as well as at teacher training institutions. during her primary school teacher training, maria studied oshindonga as a subject as well as the method of language teaching. however, both her secondary education and her higher education diploma did not include a record of oshindonga although they included english as a language. although sara was fortunate to have been trained to teach in mother tongue, this training had not included practical teaching. it was focused more on the theory and the structure of mother tongue as a language. sara commented: my first qualification was in primary … i was prepared to teach in mother tongue … but in the 1990s … we were taught in oshindonga but it wasn’t much on how we had to teach … it wasn’t connected much to the practical part of teaching but they taught us the content or the structure of the language. it was thus clear from the lecturers’ experiences discussed above that the majority of the lecturers who trained teachers to teach literacy in oshindonga and oshikwanyama had not had any training in junior primary teaching nor had they ever taught the junior primary phase. instead, they had been trained to teach preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 33 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 senior primary and senior secondary. in other words, their training and experience in respect of teaching young children appeared to be minimal. in view of the fact that the majority of the lecturers observed had not been trained to teach the junior primary phase, i was interested to ascertain the extent of the lecturers’ experience in preparing student teachers for mother tongue literacy in the early grades. the discussion with the lecturers revealed that at first, they had been anxious because they had not known much about the training of teachers for this phase. for example, nadia stated that at first she was clueless but only later realised the importance of junior primary training and that one had to make a difference. she further explained that her involvement in the preparation of pre and lower primary future teachers had been a revelation for her because she had so enjoyed creating and telling stories and singing and rhyming with the students. however, in order for lecturers to start with the preparation of the mother tongue literacy teachers, they had to go through different capacity building experiences and attend workshops and trainings sessions. in addition, officials in the pre-and lower primary departments who had experience in literacy teaching supported them. for example, the head of department (hod) had greatly supported them and given them a crash course in a one-day workshop on what lower primary is all about, the philosophy of teaching young children, and teaching through songs and handwriting. nadia also mentioned that they used to have co-teaching where those who were more experienced taught others who observed them. lecturers perceptions of the mother tongue literacy-teaching policy the critical question during the interviews requires lecturers’ to tell their personal philosophies of mother tongue teaching. it was clearly observed that the lecturers regarded mother tongue teaching as important in children’s learning. they maintained that when the language used at home is the same as the language used at school the mother tongue links both home and the school together. they further argued that, by mastering their first language, learners would be able to use the skills acquired to learn a second language. for example, nadia, a lecturer from campus a, explained: when learning in the mother tongue, especially in the first year, it connects and builds up the foundation for the second language … it links with the research finding that those children whose oral language is good in their mother tongue also benefit in relation to the acquisition of reading as well as numeracy skills. alina amukushu-niipare 34 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 however, the lecturers voiced their concerns about the lack of understanding on the part of the student teachers, community members, and parents who regarded mother tongue teaching unfavourably as having no economic value. mother tongue literacy practice in order to obtain data on the way in which the student teachers were trained to teach literacy in the mother tongue, classroom observations of four lecturers teaching literacy in oshindonga and oshikwanyama were carried out. the purpose of these observations was to obtain an understanding of the methods, approaches and strategies which the lecturers in oshindonga and oshikwanyama used to prepare student teachers to teach literacy when these two languages were used as the medium of instruction in schools. the classroom observations criteria included: 1. teaching methods 2. literacy methods and strategies used to prepare students to teach mother tongue literacy, i.e. the way in which literacy is taught and managed 3. the approaches to assessment used 4. the availability of mother tongue teaching resources 5. classroom interaction by way of a social practice 6. type of literacy skills being taught 7. connection between previous experiences and new information 8. the language proficiency of the lecturers. presentation/teaching methods the mother tongue literacy content in most cases was implemented using a face-to-face method and was delivered in oshikwanyama and oshindonga to a large number of students. all the lecturers i observed used powerpoint presentations to communicate literacy content to student teachers in oshindonga and oshikwanyama. most of the lecturers’ teaching was observed taking place in the lecturer rooms. some lecture rooms were not suitable for training student teachers who will teach pre and lower primary grades because they do not share any characteristics of a lower primary classroom. preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 35 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 below are some descriptions of the teaching methods which the lecturers used to teach mother tongue literacy. lecture method in the oshindonga and oshikwanyama classrooms i observed, the method used and that dominated the content delivery was lecture method. for example, nadia presented a literacy content lesson that was on how to teach literacy using stories, poems, songs, rhymes and games. she read out the notes on prelistening, pre-reading and pre-writing. she stood in front of the class explaining the notes that were on the screen. as a result of lecturing, the student teachers’ engagement during the lesson was limited. each lecturer found it difficult to get the attention of all the student teachers. the interaction and communication between the lecturers and the student teachers was minimal because only the students that sat in front of the class followed and participated in the discussion. students that sat at the back of the class were just making noise and busy operating their cell phones, while some were busy on their laptops. in most of the lessons i observed, lecturers did little to engage or actively involve all student teachers in the teaching and learning activities, and thus, student teachers looked passive and disconnected, which may have hindered effective mother tongue literacy learning. although the lecturers all allowed the student teachers to answer questions or explain things to show understanding, little was done to put them in pairs or groups to discuss or to share their views and opinions with the rest of the class in a plenary session. during the lesson presentations according to the observation criteria, there was no evidence that student teachers were being evaluated or assessed; instead, the lecturers asked questions that few student teachers could answer. it was observed that some lecturers failed to encourage the student teachers to expand their responses by asking for additional thoughts from others (means & nails, 2004). it was however, noted that these lecturers still did not have sufficient skills on lecturing methods. it could be argued here that when one talks of teaching methods it does not necessarily mean telling or giving the information, but rather including strategies that can help student teachers connect their experiences to the new knowledge (means & nails, 2004). however, lecturing method does not encourage students’ initiative as it makes them passive listeners (umar, 2016). hence, this method has been criticised for not promoting higher order thinking skills such as conceptual understanding, independent learning and problem solving abilities (kimmel, alina amukushu-niipare 36 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 1992; puett and braunstein, 1991 in saroyan and nell, 1997). nevertheless, on a positive note, most of the lecturers were proficient in the languages in question and displayed a strong subject content knowledge on the area of literacy and they fluently explained the literacy content in oshikwanyama and oshindonga. lecture-discussion method by using the discussion method, lecturers started with the presentation, spoke for few minutes and then asked students to discuss key points in her/his presentation (kaur, 2011). it was observed in some lessons that lecturers showed some characteristics of student-centered teaching. they connected their teaching to the student teachers’ experiences by inviting them to get involved and sharing their cultural experiences. for example, lecturer grace presented a listening and speaking activity to second year student teachers where she linked her presentation to student teachers’ cultural experiences to extend their understanding. her presentation focused on listening and speaking as well as the use of songs to develop listening and speaking skills. during her presentation she explained the use of play and songs with children in their classrooms and encouraged the student teachers to do this with the children. based on the classroom observation criteria, the classroom interaction was good because the student teachers were free and participated actively. the student teachers were given freedom to socialize and share the cultural songs with the lecturers and with others in the class. during the discussion, the lecturers offered clarifications between student comments (kaur, 2011). here, grace appeared to understand that ‘learning occurred as learners are actively involved in a learning process of meaning and knowledge construction’ (bhattacharjee, 2015 p.67). in conclusion, grace was aware that literacy is acquired through social interaction and display sufficient subject knowledge through her explanation. therefore, she located her teaching in a sociocultural perspective when she linked her lesson to the student teachers’ cultural experiences. lecture-demonstration method on a similar note, lecturer marias’ vast language teaching experiences made her actively teach in any phase using different teaching and learning styles. the fact that she linked her previous lesson to the one she presented that day when i observed allows student to reflect on what they leaned and logically sequence their learning. on the day of the observation, maria asked student teachers to plan a listening preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 37 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 activity using stories. it is worth mentioning that in the lesson that i observed, maria encouraged group work and allowed verbal participation whereby student teachers were involved in more than listening. student teachers worked in groups to plan lessons in oshindonga; they debated on the format in their groups, learned and clarified things to others in their groups, maria moved around the class to explain more and made sure everyone got the instructions, and guided student teachers to new discoveries. according to vygotsky, students perform better with teacher’s guidance or working in groups than working individually (see e.g.chatry-komarek, 2003). there was evidence of a collaborative learning situation whereby the lecturer guided and supported student teachers while they engaged in the activity and that demonstrated some excellent teaching skills. collaborative learning is the most effective form of learning in which learners participate actively and share their opinions without reserve (chatry-komarek, 2003). it is therefore worth mentioning that maria's lesson proved an interactive one where student teachers participated freely, contributed generously, and produced lesson that showed that they were learner centred. maria demonstrated that she was able to convey content and appeared to grasp the subject matter well. however, although maria displayed positive features of teaching, she seems to lack knowledge and skills on the aspects of learners’ prior learning: how student teachers could consider linking to learners’ experience in their planning was not observed during this lesson. lecturemodelling method another powerful method used occasionally was modelling. modelling is one of the methods that is regarded to scaffold learning because it shows rather than merely tell (kosnik & beck, 2008). according to beck, modelling is ‘important for social constructivism because it is a manifestation of holism and integration: it link how we live and what we say’ (2008 p.45). lecturer nadia used modelling method when she used resources such as big books to model good reading habits and the alphabet chart for the students to practice letter sounding. my observation was that lecturer nadia modelled good practices of teaching. she was observed to scaffold the student teachers’ learning process. she guided the student teachers’ understandings of how to use the big books to read stories to children in the classroom and at the same time modelling how she expects student teachers to show young learners how to handle the books when reading. she started the process and allowed student teachers to take over with her guidance. it is also worth mentioning that nadia linked the book handling skills to the content of the school syllabus, which says, alina amukushu-niipare 38 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 follow words from left-to-right, topto-bottom, and page-by-page; demonstrate the proper way to handle books, e.g. hold book upright, recognise front and back cover, turn pages carefully (namibia ministry of education, arts and culture, 2016, p. 18). in summary, in all the lessons observed, the national language policy was supported because the mother tongue literacy content was presented in oshindonga and oshikwanyama. lecturers used various teaching methods to teach mother tongue literacy in their classrooms. the methods used included the lecture/teacher talk method, lecture-discussion, and lecture-demonstration and modelled methods. some lecturers link their teaching to student teachers’ cultural experiences and, thus showed some learner-centered characteristics. however, although the lecturers demonstrated different presentation methods, when delivered the content of mother tongue literacy, their teaching methods were still dominated by lecturing. literacy strategies and approaches the student teachers were exposed to different types of literacy teaching approaches. these approaches were: a) phonics: which teaches learners the relationship between the letters of written language and individual sounds of a spoken language, b) look and say method: which teaches learners to recognise whole words or sentences rather than individual letters, and, c) language experience approaches: that promote reading and writing through the use of personal experiences and oral language. it was interesting to note that although all four lecturers exposed student teachers to different types of literacy teaching strategies, they had different views about these strategies or approaches. two lecturers strongly considered the phonics method as the best approach in approaching the teaching literacy, and this came out clearly from my interviews with them. for example, nadia said, “for oshiwambo that is oshikwanyama and oshindonga and for most bantu languages as they say in theory, the phonic method is the best one, because actually reading strategies depend on the structure of the language” (lecturer nadia). nadia continued by saying that our language if you look at the structure of oshikwanyama or oshindonga it is actually a bottom-up language where you start with the small chunks like the single sounds, the a, b, t and so on, and you put the consonants and the vowels together to make a syllable. that means that the orthography of these languages is specific to them. preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 39 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 nadia’s view is in line with findings of akyeampong et al.(2011) that suggest that in african classrooms, phonics instruction is regarded as an important strategy in teaching literacy acquisition in the early years when the regularity of phoneme-grapheme correspondence helps the reader to recognize or decode new words such as in bantu languages (lunganda and kiswahili). however, linguistic scholars have questioned this assumption, noting that bantu languages are uniquely designed with the key morpheme (unit of meaning) in the middle and affixes at the beginning and end of the word (e.g. schroeder, 2013). this is probably the reason why nadia continued that “our languages are really not complex at all like english… but we just have to start with the phonics with a lot of storytelling, songs and oral” (lecturer nadia). here, nadia confirms that the teaching of phonics needs to contextualise. she brought empty containers to the class that had labels on them written in oshindonga and oshikwanyama (oshikandelaoshiwambo name for sour-milk) this extended student teachers skills on how to use the context base to build on learners’ prior experiences in the same vein, grace supports the use of phonics when she says that the “phonic method is the best one because the child would learn how to decode and give sounds to different letters, even if they or the child did not know the word before” (lecturer grace). while lecturers nadia and grace preferred the use of the phonics method in the teaching of reading, maria and sara however believed that lecturers need to introduce student teachers to a variety of teaching methods in order to be able to assist all learners in their classes. to this effect, lecturer maria postulated that “it all depend on the environment, the person, the context and on the learners who are in that class” (lecturer maria). she stressed that learners have different learning style, they learn differently and the community and environment learners live in are different. therefore, lecturer maria suggested that student teachers need to have an understanding of all the above mentioned methods and approaches in order to meet the learner’s literacy learning needs. in agreement with maria, lecturer sara maintained, i am personally convinced that any method could be suitable to effective teaching, not only how clever the teacher is but sometimes it depends on the environment in which those learners live, the school, and sometimes it depends on the programme the person is using (lecturer sara). alina amukushu-niipare 40 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 however, lectures’ differing views likely influenced the way they teach and may influence the teaching of the student teachers’ literacy teaching in schools. as mentioned above, lecturers nadia and grace seem to favour the phonics method even though they introduced other reading methods to their student teachers. lecturers nadia and grace views are in line with the debate in the literature, specifically as chatry-komarek (2003) stated, that many teachers believe that children can acquire the basic knowledge of reading by first learning the alphabet, then syllables by associating consonants and vowels, then words and sentences. this is to say, many teachers are convinced that this is the best method of starting from simple and moving to complex. nadia and grace’s views can be located in this side of the debate, which would be in line with the cognitive perspective which believes learning how to read can happen through following a rigid order, moving from one stage to another. maria and sara’s views, however, are more in line with the other side of the debate whereby as stated by snoek et al. (2011) there is no one approach that will meet the needs of all the learners. this is because children learn differently, depending on their personality, skills and experiences (chatrykomarek, 2003). in concurrence with chatry-komarek, smith (2009, p. 45) advised that it is important to remember that children are individuals and cannot be made to fit into a mould of how they supposed to act. leaving room for teachers to choose the methods that suit their learners’ needs and their environment, as decided by maria and sara, would offer a broader literacy learning context and more opportunities to draw on things familiar to the learners in order to make meaning of what is taught (westbrook et al., 2013). in general, it was evident that the lecturers regard the teaching of phonological awareness as important in learners learning literacy especially when teaching listening and speaking. thus, the lecturers emphasised the teaching of literacy using songs, stories, rhymes, and games and they explained this during their teaching. however, in almost all the lecturers’ lessons that i observed, there was no attempt made to demonstrate in detail how to teach phonological/phonemic awareness to learners, which is considered to be very important in the earliest stage in the teaching of the sound system of learning to read. as suggested in the integrated manual of grades 1-3, student teachers supposed to be given the chance to practice and develop phonemic awareness first before they learn and use phonics. they should: preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 41 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 1. hear rhyme and alliteration (identify sounds and words that rhyme or recognize words that start with the same sound) 2. do oddity tasks (identify the ‘odd one out’ in a list of rhyming words or words with the same beginning/median/ending sound) 3. orally blend words (hear separate syllables, onset/rime or letter sounds and blend then together to make a word) 4. orally segment words (orally break words into their syllables, onset/rime or letter sounds) 5. do phonemic manipulation tasks (be able to substitute and delete initial/final/vowel sounds (ministry of education, arts and culture, 2016 p.102) the student teachers have to understand that, “before a child learns to read print, they need to become aware of how the sounds in words work”(armbruster, 2010). the main approach to teaching reading that i observed started with phonics. this seems to be the case with at least two lecturers, nadia and grace, and thus many student teachers of this study. overall, the views given by the lecturers regarding the literacy teaching methods, especially the teaching of reading, were split. these roughly correspond to having an autonomous view of literacy, in the former case, and a sociocultural view of literacy in the latter. the theories that offered the explanations of the teaching of phonics are exactly what is criticised by scholars such as street (2006) and gillon (2004). such theories imply that literacy is an autonomous technical skill that can be acquired through following a certain order with no attention to the sociocultural context. in this case, lecturers grace and nadia explained that when teaching phonics, student teachers should first start with letter sounds, names, syllables, then words and sentences. the lecturers explained that “language experience approach” builds on what the learners already know and extends to new knowledge and most lecturers as well explain that student teachers should start their teaching with either a story, song or with a rhyme. however, these lecturers failed to practically demonstrate to the student teachers how they could teach using the above-mentioned methods to the learners in the class; student teachers were not given enough chances to practice the method through demonstration. teaching using demonstration methods would contribute to student alina amukushu-niipare 42 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 teachers’ professional development, allowing them to not only hear and read about teaching, but also experience it (snoek, swennen, & van der klink, 2011). drawn from the classroom observations, it was clear that the three of four lecturers who i observed teaching listening and speaking explained that learners need to be taught how to speak and listen in order for them to understand what was conveyed and be good listeners. these lecturers emphasised that the best way to teach literacy is to teach phonological/phonemic awareness by using stories, poems, songs, rhymes, and games in developing listening and speaking skills. however, only grace practically linked her literacy lesson to the student teachers’ cultural experiences by allowing them to discuss in their groups how traditional festivals are celebrated and which songs sung and the games played. the training did expose the student teachers to various methods of teaching mother tongue literacy, especially in respect of reading methods such as phonics; look and say methods, whole language, and the language experience approach. however, the findings revealed that these methods were not being practically demonstrated to show how the student teachers would implement them in practices them in classrooms. with the exception of one lecturer who modelled reading using the big book, the majority of the lecturers did not present either literacy lessons or modelled lessons. in addition, the lecturers also explained and discussed different strategies to the teaching of literacy such as modelled, shared, guided and independent reading and writing. with shared reading, sara continued by saying that the student teachers should guide the learners to the shared reading by starting a sentence and then asking the learners to complete it. she told the students to use words from the stories to form sentences. she explained in detail the planning of guided reading or writing. she also emphasized that the planning should include differentiated activities and that the reading could either out loud or silent reading. sara explained what independent reading is and explained to the student teachers that the learners should be asked to go to the reading corner and pick the books they want to read. it is important to encourage the learners to read the books they choose although the student teacher should always check whether these books are appropriate to the learner’s age. although strategies such as modelled, guided, shared and independent reading and writing were comprehensively taught, the student teachers were not given an opportunity to practise and internalise these strategies during their presentation. there seems to lack pedagogical knowledge among some preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 43 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 lecturers. this was confirmed by nadia when she elaborated that: i think literacy is not easy to teach … and i realised that this is the most difficult module for me to teach… (nadia, a lecturer). the data from the study revealed that some of the lecturers appear to have limited knowledge and skills in engaging all the student teachers in the lesson discussions as they clearly found it difficult to gain and hold the attention of all the student teachers. teaching materials or resources while studies (amissah 2001, unesco (paris) 2000, kosonen et al. 2006 and benson 2004) advised that mother tongue literacy teaching would be successful if the materials in the local languages are available and used appropriately, the findings of the case study revealed that there was little or no evidence of mother tongue resources or materials to support the lecturers’ teaching and student teachers learning. the study established that there is a lack of teaching and learning materials or resources that are written in oshindonga or oshikwanyama in the university library. nadia, a lecturer, indicated that, although there are books such as grammar and sound system books on which they rely heavily, these represent just the bare minimum. nadia commented as follow: … we have grammar books which also cover the sound system – we rely on that a lot and sentence analysis, but pure academic knowledge about the oshikwanyama and oshindonga languages and how they are acquired, we do not have anything. nadia further commented regarding the content delivery when they taught purely academic knowledge and the theories and principles of literacy in mother tongue, that they did not have books in oshindonga and/or oshikwanyama and that this was a worrying situation. grace explained that it became a problem when student teachers request sources and they are provided with sources that are always in english. grace further commented: … most of the time we have to search for information, like on the internet, and most information is in english … when translating you came across some words that you can’t find the meaning of in oshikwanyama ... sometimes we just translate according to our own understanding and interpretations (grace, a lecturer). it is therefore clear that, although the ideology of the policy of mother tongue teaching is good, materials supporting the implementation of the policy are not available and that is impacting adversely alina amukushu-niipare 44 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 on the proper preparation of the mother tongue literacy teachers. thus, it hinders the proper implementation of the language policy not only for the teachers of the two identified dialects of oshiwambo language but for the schools where they will eventually have to teach in these two dialects as well. however, despite the teaching materials or resources challenges, it was observed that the lecturers tried their best to equip their student teachers with the knowledge on how to develop teaching and learning materials in oshindonga and oshikwanyama to help them teach literacy in schools. for example, nadia together with the students created big books, which she used when she was modelling good reading habit to students. this practice is supported by the available literature; it is suggested that trainers should encourage their student teachers to learn how to use graded materials effectively and to create their own instructional materials (dennis & malone, 2011). practical activities and microteaching according to the unam prospectus for 2016, the practical course “aims to provide student teachers with skills to compile and present various school subjects plan and develop instructional materials that support learner’s engagement” (p 34). the programme requires student teachers to carry out practical activities through class presentations and microteaching. hence, during the practical lessons, some groups just explained the steps one has to follow when teaching a particular topic or concept, while some groups did microteaching having been given the opportunity to plan and present activities and demonstrate how to teach specific mother tongue literacy content as if they were with learners in a real class. the lecturers assessed the knowledge and skills portrayed and sometimes assessed with the specific intention to give marks or assess the student teachers’ knowledge and skills. they recorded what needed to be corrected and after the presentation made the corrections. for example, lecturer saara attested that we have allocated time for practical, every second week we have two hours for practical. for example, if we have covered how shared reading is taught, that is the theory; we give tasks to students to practice what they learned during the theory time. the students are place in the slots who to be evaluated”. preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 45 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 my findings also show that because the literacy content was often presented without proper demonstrations in most cases of how it could be practically applied, some student teachers struggled to practice their assigned tasks. it was observed that some student teachers did not rehearse before making their presentations, which if they did might have helped them to convey correct information and have eye contact with the imaginary learners. during the practical lessons, the lecturers also gave a chance to student teachers to present and practice all the environmental studies and mathematics contents that they learned in english. nadia pointed out that they were to articulate mathematical concepts in oshindonga and oshikwanyama. unfortunately, they ran out of time during the practical lesson. conclusions this study examined how student teachers are prepared to teach literacy in oshindonga and oshikwanyama languages looking at the content taught and the methods and strategies used. classroom observations revealed that lecturers were proficient in the language in questions and they explained the literacy content in oshindonga and oshikwanyama. the main teaching method used was the teachertalk teaching method, which was dominated by the teacher just presenting the content using the power point, thus limiting the student teachers’ in-depth understanding of the subject content. although some of the lessons observed did provide evidence of good literacy practices with the lecturers presenting and discussing with the student teachers and also demonstrating and modelling to the student teachers how things should be done, it was observed that in the four lecturers’ lessons, teacher-talk methods dominated the mother tongue literacy content delivery. it was also noted that all the lecturers emphasised the importance and value of stories, songs, rhymes, and games in the teaching of literacy skills to young learners. it was also evident that the lecturers tried to expose the student teachers to the different methods and approaches in respect of mother tongue literacy teaching and, especially, reading methods such as phonics, look and say methods, whole word study, and the language experience approach. it was also observed that literacy teaching strategies such as modelled, guided, shared and independent reading and writing were comprehensively explained. however, the student teachers were not given an opportunity to practise and internalise these strategies that they learned during the lesson. despite the fact that the student teachers’ cultural experiences were utilised in some lessons, it is worth mentioning that in the majority of the lessons observed, the student teachers’ cultural experiences were alina amukushu-niipare 46 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 not used to teach literacy. the study established that there is a lack of teaching and learning materials/resources that are written in oshindonga or oshikwanyama in the university library. references akyeampong, k., pryor, j., westbrook, j., & lussier, k. (2011). teacher preparation and continuing professional development in africa: learning to teach early reading and mathematics.online]www.sussex.ac.uk/cie/documents/tpa-synthesis-report-july2011.pdf, amineh, r., & asl, h. (2015). review of constructivism and social constructivism. journal of social sciences, literature and languages, 1(1), 9-16. amissah, p. (2001). transformation of bilingual teacher training: learning how to teach in the first language. improving educational quality (ieq): the university of pittsburgh. american institutes for research armbruster, b. b. (2010). put reading first: the research building blocks for teaching children to read: kindergarten through grade 3 diane publishing. angula, n. (1993). towards education for all: a development brief for education, culture, and training. windhoek: gamsberg macmillan. bausch, l. s., & voorhees, s. c. (2008). retrospective discourse discussions: how teacher talk enables one novice literacy teacher to make sense of complex teaching problems. the teacher educator, 43(2), 109-133. bell, j. (2005). doing your research project:a guide for first-time researchers in education. health and social science-4/e. open university press. mcgraw-hill benson, c., & plüddemann, p. (2010). empowerment of bilingual education professionals: the training of trainers programme for educators in multilingual settings in southern africa (totsa) 2002–2005. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 13(3), 371-394. bhattacharjee, j. (2015). constructivist approach to learning–an effective approach of teaching learning. international research journal of interdisciplinary & multidisciplinary studies, 1(4) http://www.sussex.ac.uk/cie/documents/tpa-synthesis-report-july2011.pdf preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 47 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 bloch, c. (2005). enabling effective literacy learning in multilingual south african early childhood classrooms praesa. chall, j. s. (1983). stages of reading development. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. chatry-komarek, m. (2003). literacy at stake: teaching reading and writing in african achoola. namibia: gamsberg macmillan publishers. cresswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). lincoln. sage. cummins, j. (2001). bilingual children’s mother tongue: why is it important for education? sprogforum, 19, 15-20. darling-hammond, l., & bransford, j. (2007a). preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do john wiley & sons. davidson, k. (2010). the integration of cognitive and sociocultural theories of literacy development: why? how? alberta journal of educational research, 56(3) dutcher, n. (2003). promise and perils of mother tongue education. retrieved november, 28, 2009. gacheche, k. (2010). challenges in implementing a mother tongue-based language-in-education policy: policy and practice in kenya. polis journal, 4, 1-45. gain, p. (2004). learning about literacy: teachers' conceptualisation and enactments of early pedagogies in south african grade one classroom. a thesis submitted to the faculty of humanities, university of the witwatersrand. johannesburg gillon, g. t. (2004). phonological awareness: from research to practice guilford press. hammond, l. d., & bransford, j. d. (2005). preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do jossey-bass. heredia, b. a. (2011). preparing teachers for effective literacy instruction in the elementary grades: two-year teacher preparation programs in ontario, honan, e., exley, b., kervin, l., simpson, a., & wells, m. (2013). rethinking the literacy capabilities of pre-service primary teachers in testing times. australian journal of teacher education, 38(10), 48-63. alina amukushu-niipare 48 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 hossain, t. (2o13). literacy as social practice. educational studies. international christian university, 51, 125-132. hudson, s., dossel, k., & hudson, p. (2009). reading squadron: crossing borders in literacy experiences for preservice teachers. brisbane. queensland university karan, e., & morren, d. (2013). teacher education curriculum supplement for pre-service teacher candidates expecting to work in mother tongue-based multilingual education (mtb-mle) programs, sil international. kaur, g. (2011). study and analysis of lecture model of teaching. int j educational planning admin, 1(1), 9-13. kosnik, c., & beck, c. (2008). we taught them about literacy but what did they learn? the impact of a pre-service teacher education program on the practices of beginning teachers. studying teacher education, 4(2), 115-128. lewin, k. m. (2004). the pre-service training of teachers–does it meet its objectives and how can it be improved. global monitoring report or to unesco.“paper commissioned for the efa global monitoring report .the quality imperative” retrieved from efareport@ unesco.org, matthew b.. miles, huberman, a. m., & saldaña, j. (2014). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook sage. mosley, m. (2010). becoming a literacy teacher: approximations in critical literacy teaching. teaching education, 21(4), 403-426. mulkeen, a. (2010). teachers in anglophone africa issues in teacher supply. training and management, washington, world bank, mulkeen, a., & crowe-taft, n. (2010). teacher attrition in sub-saharan africa: the neglected dimension of the teacher supply challenge. a review of literature, namibia ministry of education, arts and culture (meac). (2016). the national curriculum for basic education. nied. unpublished manuscript. ng, p. f., & yeo, k. j. (2013). emergent literacy in a printrich multilingual home environment. internal journal of humanities and social science, 3(13), 146-155. preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 49 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 nomlomo, v., & desai, z. (2014). reflections on the development of a pre-service language curriculum for the bed (foundation phase). south african journal of childhood education, 4(3), 87-102. pang, e. s., muaka, a., bernhardt, e. b., & kamil, m. l. (2003). teaching reading international academy of education brussels, belgium. papatheodorou, t. (2007). supporting the mother tongue: pedagogical approaches. early child development and care, 177(6-7), 751-765. patton, m. q. (2005). qualitative research wiley online library. purcell-gates, v. (2004). family literacy as the site for emerging knowledge of written language. handbook of family literacy, , 101-116. purcell-gates, v., degener, s., jacobson, e., & soler, m. (2001). taking literacy skills home. focus on basics, 4, 1-7. rai, v., rai, m., phyak, p., & rai, n. (2011). multilingual education in nepal: hearsay and reality. a report. unesco, nepal smith, k. (2009). transnational teaching experiences: an under‐explored territory for transformative professional development. international journal for academic development, 14(2), 111-122. snoek, m., swennen, a., & van der klink, m. (2011). the quality of teacher educators in the european policy debate: actions and measures to improve the professionalism of teacher educators. professional development in education, 37(5), 651-664. stone, r. p. (2012). a professional development program for the mother tongue-based teacher: addressing teacher knowledge and attitudes about mtbmle, street, b. (2003). what’s “new” in new literacy studies? critical approaches to literacy in theory and practice. current issues in comparative education, 5(2), 77-91. street, b. v. (2006). autonomous and ideological models of literacy: approaches from new literacy studies. media anthropology network, 17 swennen, a., & van der klink, m. (2009). epilogue: enhancing the profession of teacher educators. becoming a teacher educator.theory and practice for teacher educators, , 219-227. alina amukushu-niipare 50 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 vygotsky, l. s. (1989). concrete human psychology. soviet psychology, 27(2), 53-77. westbrook, j., durrani, n., brown, r., orr, d., pryor, j., boddy, j., et al. (2013). pedagogy, curriculum, teaching practices and teacher education in developing countries. fnal report. education rigorous literature review. department for international development. university of sussex appendix a: interview schedule for lecturers the purpose of this guide is to elicit teacher educators’ views of their experiences of teaching students how to teach their mother tongue. name: ------------------------------------------------------ language: ------------------------------------------------------ professional qualification: ------------------------------------------------------ unam campus: ------------------------------------------------------ date: ------------------------------------------------------ 1. how long have you been a junior primary lecturer? 2. what have been your most memorable experiences of being a junior primary lecturer? 3. what are your understandings of the language policy for schools? please explain. 4. how is language policy integrated into the curriculum? please explain. 5. what language do you use when teaching student teachers? why? 6. what are your views on mother tongue teaching? 7. what are the advantages and disadvantages of mother tongue teaching? 8. have you been trained to teach in the mother tongue? how? was the training effective? 9. what literacy skills do you teach? preparing namibian student teachers to teach literacy in mother tongue 51 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp.25 -52 10. what strategies do you use to teach literacy skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in the mother tongue? 10.1how do you teach listening skills? 10.2how do you teach speaking skills? 10.3how do you teach reading skills? 10.4 how do you teach writing skills? 11. what do you think are the best strategies for teaching literacy skills? 12. what challenges have you experienced when teaching literacy (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in the mother tongue? 13. why do you consider these to have been the challenges? 14. how do you overcome these challenges? 15. why do you think it is important to teach in the mother tongue in the junior primary phase (pre-primary to grade 3)? 16. do you have a specific programme that you follow when teaching mother tongue literacy? please explain. 17. are there materials available in the language that is used as the medium of instruction? 18. are they adequate? if not, how could they be improved? 19. do you have any other concluding comments? alina amukushu-niipare 52 ajote vol 8 (2019), pp. 25 -52 appendix e: classroom observation guide for teacher educators the purpose of this guide is to obtain first-hand data on what lecturers practise in the classroom when preparing future teachers to teach mother tongue literacy. unam campus: --------------------------------------------------------- lecturer: ---------------------------------------------------------- language: ---------------------------------------------------------- date of visit: ---------------------------------------------------------- topic: ---------------------------------------------------------- no. of students: ---------------------------------------------------------- date: ---------------------------------------------------------- 1. how does the lecturer interact with the student teachers by way of a social practice? 2. how does the lecturer assist student teachers to translate the mother tongue policy into practice? 3. what are the literacy skills that are being taught? 4. what teaching strategies does the lecturer use to enhance mother tongue literacy? 5. what strategies and materials does the lecturer use to support the student teachers’ understanding of the content of literacy skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in the mother tongue? 6. how does the lecturer assist the student teachers to connect what they already know with the new information they receive? 7. what teaching materials and resources does the lecturer use to support literacy learning in the mother tongue? 8. how does the lecturer assess the student teachers’ literacy learning? 9. is the lecturer proficient in the language used as the medium of instruction? 10. anything striking about the lesson? 11. strengths and/or weaknesses of the lesson physical education students perception of their teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania stephen mabagala university of dar es salaam, tanzania abstract the nature of physical education (pe) is grounded in movements, games and sports; this lends itself to a high rate of interaction between pe teachers and students. as such, pe teachers need to be aware and comply with their professional code of ethics and conduct (pcec) in their relationship with students during theory and practical lessons as well as during interschool competitions and outside school contexts. the idea of pe teachers' compliance with pcec in tanzania has not been widely investigated, so this study is rare and important to the field. the purpose of the study was to determine the perception of students on pe teachers' compliance with pcec in tanzania. the study utilized descriptive survey design and was conducted in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges that had pe and sport programs. purposive sampling was adopted to select pe students and data were collected through a questionnaire. participants were 720 students who were either studying pe or participating in school sports. it was concluded that pe students perceive their teachers as having a high level of compliance with the pcec and their perception is influenced by their level of education. it was recommended that there is a need to improve and sustain pe programs in schools and colleges, emphasize training in the codes for teachers, and moral education for students. there is also a need to improve teacher-student-relationship and school-community partnerships through sports. further study should be conducted to determine unethical behavior in teacher-student relationships in the context of school sport. keywords: ethics perception, pe students, pe teachers, professional code of ethics compliance, teachers professional code of conduct, tanzania education introduction the nature of physical education (pe) is grounded in movements, games and sports, which lends itself to a high rate of teacher-student interactions. the nature of these interactions may be a leading factor in students’ perceptions of pe teachers. for example, during instruction, there is physical handling of the learners and shouting especially when demonstrating and assessing a skill. moreover, other than being classroom teachers, pe teachers, most often double as the 2 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) sports coaches. this aspect compels them to travel outside school with their students. this creates the teacher (coach/trainer)-learner relationship which most often is a multidimensional and continual relationship that flourishes within and outside the school. bennell and akyeampong (2007) observed that teacher’s professional behaviors inside and outside the classroom have far reaching impacts on their behavior and their overall performance and thus the learning outcomes. consequently, teachers need to be aware of their responsibilities and vulnerabilities in their interactions and relationships with students. anangisye and barrett (2005) maintain that approaches to advance ethical standards must be adhered on an understanding of the positive professional models to which educators aspire. in support of anangisye and barrett’s idea, hinds (2005) maintains that a code of ethics makes room for moral principles that emphasize obedience to rules and authority and the primacy of duty in the professional setting. fredriksson (2004) concludes that codes of ethics or conduct are established in order to contribute and ensure the prestige of the profession and the exercise of professional duties in accordance with the agreed principles. since the idea of compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct (pcec) within the teacher-student relationship in the context of pe has not been widely investigated in tanzania, further research was warranted. an inquiry into students’ perceptions of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec would provide a richer description of the thoughts and feelings of students in regard to teachers’ ethical conduct and provide useful findings for pe teachers, parents, school administrators, employers, government and other educational stakeholders with interest in this topic. similarly, examining how students perceive pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec adds value in interpersonal interactions between teachers and students since these relationships play an integral role in the educational process. it is generally thought that compliance with the pcec can positively impact students’ school experience. given that pe provides inherent opportunities for teachers to exhibit ethical behaviors towards their students, a study seeking to explore such behaviors would prove beneficial to those involved in the field. exploring the perceptions that students have on teachers regarding compliance with the pcec can also add the voices of students about their teachers’ behavior and make pe teachers behave in a manner that provides a positive influence on students’ physical education and sport experiences. students’ perceptions, thoughts and expressions can help teachers become aware of their ethical boundaries when dealing with students. purpose of the study the main purpose of the study was to gain insights on students’ perceptions of pe teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania. specifically, the study addressed the following objectives.  determine the perception of students on their pe teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania.  examine whether students’ demographic variables (educational level and gender) influence their perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania.  determine whether institutional variables (of location, ownership and type) influence students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania. stephen mabagala 3 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) research hypothesis ho1: there would be no significant difference in the perception of students on their pe teachers’ compliance with professional code of ethics and conduct on the basis of their demographic variables. ho2: there would be no significant difference in the perception of pe students on their pe teachers’ compliance with professional code of ethics and conduct on the basis of their institutional variables. theoretical framework this article was guided by the kantian ethic theory, which in part theorizes that certain types of actions, like murder or theft that directly endanger others, were absolutely prohibited, even in cases where the action would bring about more happiness than the alternative. kantian theory is framed by two primary questions that an individual must ask their self whenever deciding to act. these questions are of equal weight, posed as: can i rationally will that everyone act as i propose to act? if the answer is no, then we must not perform the action; and does my action respect the goals of human beings rather than merely using them for my own purposes? again, if the answer is no, then we must not perform the action. with this theoretical framework in mind the following methodology was implemented and the results analyzed. method descriptive survey research design was used to gather data and give a picture on the perception of students about physical education teachers’ compliance with professional code of ethics and conduct in tanzania. in this study, the dependent variables were ethical factors that included professionalism such as character, commitment, subject knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and responsibility. other dependent variables included care and respect, as well as integrity and honesty of pe teachers. the independent variables were gender and educational level of students. other independent variables were institutional variables of location, ownership and type. the study was carried out in tanzania in secondary schools and teachers’ colleges that had physical education and sport programs. data were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) program, version 19. descriptively, the data obtained were calculated in percentages, means and standard deviations for easy interpretation of the information. inferentially, independent t-test and oneway analysis of variance (anova) were used to test significant mean differences between variables at 0.05 level of significance. tukey post hoc test was employed to further explain significance mean differences. participants a sample of 720 respondents participated in this study, and it comprised 419 male and 301 female students selected from secondary schools and teachers’ colleges. respondents were selected purposively based on their involvement in pe lessons and school/college sports. instruments 4 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the instruments used for data collection were closed-ended questionnaires. the questionnaire items required participants to evaluate physical education (pe) teachers’ compliance with the professional codes of ethics and conduct on a 5 point likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5), agree (4), no opinion (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1). after administering the questionnaires, during coding and data entry the measures of choice were arranged as full compliance (5), high compliance (4), moderate compliance (3), little compliance (2) and noncompliance (1) as the level of following the code of ethics and conduct were evaluated (ozbeck, 2007). the questionnaires for this study were developed by the researcher on the basis of literature and tanzania’s public service regulations. the test-retest method was employed to determine the reliability of the questionnaire within an interval of two weeks. the pearson correlation was then computed and the reliability index of 0.89 was found. results perception of students on pe teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct (pcec). in addressing this objective, data were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics. pe students were asked to evaluate how they perceived their pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimensions of professionalism, responsibility, integrity and honesty; as well as care and respect. generally, results showed that students perceived their pe teachers complied with the pcec at high levels (m = 4.01, sd = .54). pe teachers’ compliance with pcec in the dimension of professionalism. students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimension of professionalism was evaluated by 10 items which were based on subject knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, character, work relations, community service, commitment to change and continuous improvement as shown in table 1. table 1. descriptive data for pe teachers’ compliance with pcec in professionalism items on pcec in the dimension of professionalism: m sd pe teachers display good behavior towards students. 4.34 .79 pe teachers prefer discipline to winning during inter-school competitions. 4.11 .98 pe teachers dress in a manner consistent with the dignity and norms of sport and the teaching profession. 4.48 .69 pe teachers possess considerable content knowledge in pe and are knowledgeable in all areas of curriculum. 4.01 .99 pe teachers are precautious when they prepare for lessons and competitions and they normally use various teaching methods. 3.89 1.08 pe teachers establish and maintain a supportive teaching and learning environment. 3.85 1.08 pe teachers strive to be current with relevant knowledge and curriculum practices in pe. 4.08 .93 pe teachers reflect and evaluate the choices and actions of learners to improve instruction. 3.65 1.13 pe teachers collaborate and cooperate with their fellow teachers, staff, administration, and community members. 4.12 .94 pe teachers demonstrate a high moral standard in the classroom and in 4.07 1.00 stephen mabagala 5 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) their personal lives. total 4.06 .59 from table 1, it is clear that students perceived their pe teachers in tanzania comply with the pcec at high levels in the dimension of professionalism (m = 4.06, sd = .59). this study is in line with several other studies like that of harris (2002), sace (2002) campbell (2004), roffey (2004), hind and palmer (2007), and capel (2002). for example, studies such as that of harris (2002), sace (2002), and roffey (2004) indicate that commitment to student learning is the key determinant of teacher professionalism. hind and palmer (2007) noted that alongside developing positive learning environment, it is important for a good pe teacher to adopt a range of teaching styles. in addition, capel (2002) insists that assessment in pe lies at the heart of effective teaching and learning. therefore, it is the responsibility of teachers to ensure that the forms of assessment used are appropriate to the level of the learner. the findings also indicate that pe teachers comply with the dress code. the respondents felt that a presentable dress code that is consistent with the dignity and norms of sport and the teaching profession was important. mpahla (2009) argues that it is important for pe teachers to present their professionalism even in outlook as they are the role models of society. moreover, the study revealed that pe teachers comply with the code requiring them to collaborate and cooperate with parents, community and fellow teachers in their relationships. saha and dworkin (2009) argue that school, family and community partnerships are a reform strategy that promotes collaboration among families, communities, and educators to facilitate student success. for successful overlap to occur, schools must create systematic structures and channels of communication that promote and sustain collaborative action. pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimension of responsibility. results of the responses of pe students on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimension of responsibility are presented in table 2. table 2. descriptive data on pe teachers’ compliance with pcec in responsibility items on pcec in the dimension of responsibility: pe teachers m sd pe teachers develop and praise proper behavior of the students. 4.32 .78 pe teachers place value to student health and safety. 4.00 1.11 pe teachers see pe lessons as inseparable and complementary part of general education. 4.31 .85 pe teachers observe general rules and terms of employment as set by the state. 4.07 .94 pe teachers strive to establish and maintain supportive school community partnership. 3.80 1.23 pe teachers place high value in developing student to his/her full potentials. 3.87 1.19 pe teachers try continuously to improve their standard of work and ability. 3.90 1.01 total 4.04 .65 6 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the findings in table 2 reveal that pe teachers in tanzania have high level of compliance in the dimension of responsibility. the results have revealed that pe teachers were committed to student learning in the codes requiring them to develop and praise proper behavior of the students, to place more value to health and safety of students and to develop students to their full potentials. additionally, pe teachers complied with the code that requires them to observe general rules and terms of employment as set by the state in their relationship with their employer. as for the relationship with their community, pe teachers complied with the code requiring them to strive to establish and maintain supportive school-community partnership. it is worthy to note that despite high compliance in many aspects of their responsibilities, respondents reported moderate compliance between school –community partnerships (m =3.87, sd =.91). moderate compliance perhaps could be explained by the way the tanzanian society as whole looks at pe and sport. shehu (2009), for example, notes the way pe is viewed as a nonintellectual and non-academic subject because its pedagogies embody physical activities and outdoor pursuit. this could make pe teachers’ role to the community to be seen as periphery. additionally, lack of effective pe and sport programs in schools and colleges could result into ineffective partnerships between the school/college and community. pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimension of care and respect. data on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimension of care and respect are presented in table 3. table 3. descriptive data on pets’ compliance with pcec in care and respect items on pcec in the dimension of care and respect m sd pe teachers normally consider student’s interest in the choice of sporting activity 3.55 1.36 pe teachers are not involved in giving humiliating speeches during training/lesson 3.94 1.11 pe teachers are not involved in inciting violence against the opposing school. 4.12 1.07 pe teachers recognize and respect the rights of students. 3.98 1.04 pe teachers strive to protect students' rights to privacy and confidentiality. 3.93 1.01 pe teachers recognize and respect parents' cultural background and socio-economic diversity 3.59 2.30 pe teachers recognize and respect diversity and inclusiveness among students. 3.96 1.02 pe teachers place high value on choices that affect students' opportunity to learn 3.48 1.25 pe teachers provide opportunities for development of student's self worth and pride. 3.82 1.10 pe teachers show concern and care for the injured and disabled students. 3.99 1.07 total 3.84 .69 stephen mabagala 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) as for care and respect, table 3 reveals that students felt generally that their pe teachers complied at moderate level. of all the items measuring care and respect, it was only one code related to not involving in inciting violence against the opposing school that was ranked as high compliance. students’ moderate ranking could have been contributed by lack of effective implementation of pe and sport programs in schools and colleges hence giving them little opportunity to learn. respect is a basic requirement for nurturing friendship, teamwork, and for the synergy it promotes and sustains. respect involves recognizing and accepting the existence of other persons as human beings, respecting others’ ideas, words and actions and showing goodwill on others, loving them and allowing them to grow (naagarazan, 2006). noddings (2001) asserts that caring teachers listen to students, respect their legitimate interests and share their wisdom with their students. he further emphasizes that the cared for must recognize the care given in order for the relationship to be considered a caring one. hansen (2001) describing the caring perspective as one of the five virtues of teachers, he emphasized on the need for truth in their interaction, demonstration of courage in inducing learners to learn, showing high levels of concern and fairness in the process of developing students morally and intellectually. mahony (2009) contends that teachers as professionals are expected to uphold a duty of care, acting in the best interests of their students. this study has revealed that pe teachers comply at moderate level in the dimension of care and respect. in situations where pe and sport programs are not effectively implemented in schools and colleges, it becomes difficult for students to evaluate whether really their pe teachers care for them. moreover, the curriculum orientation in tanzania gives little room for students to choose the sporting activity of their interest. it is the teachers who are supposed to plan what students should learn or not. such practice can lead students to think that they are not cared for. perhaps this calls for the need for the ministry of education and school/college administrators to effectively implement pe and sport in schools and college. pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in the dimension of integrity and honesty. table 4 shows that generally all respondents reported that pe teachers had high level of compliance with pcec in the dimension of integrity and honesty (m =4.09, sd = .57). table 4. descriptive data on the pe teachers’ compliance with pcec in integrity and honesty items on pcec in the dimension of integrity and honesty m sd pe teachers are sensitive not to allow test, measurements or training which could harm the student's health 4.13 .93 pe teachers do not involve in any illegal activities such as corruption, drug abuse, and sex with students. 3.80 1.15 pe teachers treat everyone equally regardless of gender, religion, political affiliation, or ability. 4.25 .94 pe teachers promote positive aspects of pe and sport like sportsmanship, fair play, team cohesion and spirit. 4.33 .76 pe teachers avoid statements that are untrue or misleading. 4.24 .83 pe teachers communicate and cooperate with students’ parents/guardians 3.32 1.25 pe teachers perform their duties diligently and in a disciplined manner. 4.09 .92 pe teachers encourage students to be disciplined and honest. 4.44 .69 8 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) pe teachers treat students and teachers within and outside the school/college community with respect. 4.20 .82 total 4.09 .57 regarding integrity and honesty, the findings have indicated that respondents had the common perception concerning with the behaviors which make one to be trustful and honesty. results from respondents indicated that pe teachers fulfilled these social functions. respondents believed that pe teachers were fair in assessing students during examinations and training, treated all students equally and promoted positive aspects of pe and sports. moreover, students felt that pe teachers were trustful, diligent, well-disciplined and they encouraged students to emulate their examples in being disciplined and honest. however, students thought that pe teachers complied at moderate levels in the codes related to involvement in illegal activities and communication and cooperation with parents. moderate compliance in the codes related to communication and cooperation with parents could be explained by lack of sporting activities between the schools/colleges and communities in tanzania. but, moderate compliance in the codes related to involvement in illegal activities needs explanation. one reason might be the view that some teachers may be involved in illegal activities such as sexual relationships with students. however, further studies need to be done to determine the kinds of illegal activities that teachers are engaged. students’ perceptions on pe teachers’ compliance with the professional code of ethics and conduct (pcec) across demographic variables the research objective was intended to find out the relationship between demographic variables and students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in tanzania. it was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences in students’ perceptions on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in relation to their demographic characteristics. the hypothesis was further split into two sub-hypotheses that captured students’ demographic variables of education level and gender. the analysis of the results was based on t-test and analysis of variance. independent t-test was used to determine whether there were significant differences between two means derived from the samples or groups at a specified probability level (mugenda & mugenda, 2003; jackson, 2009). independent t-test was used to test whether there was significance difference between dependent variable (compliance level with the pcec) and the independent variables of gender. anova was used to test significance differences between the effects of independent variables of educational level on the dependent variable of compliance with the pcec. students’ educational level and their perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance the analysis for level of education, as shown in table 5, shows mean differences in the perception of students on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec. table 5. students’ perceptions on pe teachers’ pced compliance aligned to education level level of education n m sd form one -two 70 3.90 .38 form three-four 42 3.71 .44 form five-six 7 2.79 .29 stephen mabagala 9 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) certificate 268 4.02 .50 diploma 333 4.08 .58 total 720 4.01 .54 table 5 shows that students in ordinary level (form one to four) perceived that pe teachers complied with the pcec at moderate level where as students in advanced level (form five and six) perceived that pe teachers complied with the pcec at low level. in contrast, students of certificate and diploma in education had the opinion that pe teachers complied with the pcec at high level. these mean differences imply that students’ perception of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec differed in relation to their levels of education. to determine whether the mean differences were significant or not, a one-way anova was computed. results are shown in table 6. table 6. one-way anova statistical significance difference between means of students’ perceptions on pe teachers’ pcec compliance aligned to education level sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 16.446 4 4.112 14.915 .000 within groups 197.105 715 .276 total 213.552 719 * p < .05 results in table 6 show that there were significant differences [(f (2, 715) = 14.915, p < .001)]. therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the perception of students on their pe teachers’ compliance with pcec on the basis of their educational level was rejected. significant differences were observed in which certificate and diploma students differed significantly with the other three levels of education. while certificate and diploma students perceived pe teachers complied with the pcec at high levels, o’ level students (form one to four) perceived they complied at moderate levels and advanced level (form five and six) perceived they complied at low level. the results indicate that advanced level (form five –six) students differed significantly with other students. they were the only group that perceived pe teachers to comply with pcec at low level. this might have been caused by the negative experiences they had with pe as they were not majoring pe in their subject combination and lack of effective pe programs in schools could have contributed negative evaluation of pe teachers. students’ gender and their perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance. the analysis for gender on students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec is presented in table 7. table 7. means, standard deviations and t-test for students’ perceptions on pe teachers’ pcec compliance aligned to gender gender n m sd df t p-value male 419 4.00 .56 718 -.159 .874 female 301 4.01 .52 10 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) total 720 4.00 .54 * p < .05 table 7 indicates that the mean difference in the perception of students on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec between male and female students was very minimal. to determine whether the observed difference was not significant, an independent t-test was computed. results showed that there was no significant difference [t(718) = -.159, p = .874] in students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec between male students (m = 4.00, sd = .56) and female students (m = 4.01, sd = .52). therefore, the hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the perception of students on their pe teachers’ compliance with pcec on the basis of their gender was not rejected. these findings suggest that both male and female students perceived their pe teachers as having the same level of compliance with the pcec. the results are in contrast with those of mooij (2010) who conducted a study on disciplinary behavior among secondary school teachers and found that secondary school female students ranked their teachers higher than male students on the disciplinary items that expressed social partnerships or collaboration between teachers. students’ perceptions on pe teachers’ pcec compliance across institutional variables another research objective was intended to find out the relationship between institutional variables and students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in tanzania. it was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences in students’ perception on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec in relation to their institutional characteristics. the hypothesis was further split into three sub-hypotheses that captured students’ institutional variables of location, ownership, and type. the findings were analyzed based on t-test and analysis of variance. students’ institutional location and their perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance. it was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference in students’ perception on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec across institutional location. findings are presented in table 8. table 8. means, standard deviations and independent t-test for students’ perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance aligned to institutional location location n mean sd df t p-value urban 529 4.05 .55 718 3.541 .000 rural 191 3.89 .53 total 720 4.01 .54 * p < .05 table 8 indicates that urban students perceived their pe teachers complied with the pcec at high level (m = 4.05, sd = .55) where as rural students perceived their pe teachers complied at moderate level (m = 3.89, sd = .53). to determine whether the mean difference was significant or not, a t-test was computed. results revealed that there was significant difference [t (718) = 3.541, p = .000] in students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec between urban students (m = 4.05, sd = .55) and rural students (m = 3.89, sd = .53). therefore, the stephen mabagala 11 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the perception of students on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with pcec on the basis of their location was rejected. the perception of students about pe teachers’ compliance level between students whose institutions were located in urban areas differed significantly with that of students whose institutions were located in rural areas: students in urban institutions reported high compliance whilst students in rural areas reported moderate compliance. the findings are in contrast with those of shahri (1999), who in his study on the levels and sources of job satisfaction among teachers in malaysia found that rural teachers received cordial working relations among colleagues as one of the contributing factors to their career satisfaction. that is, there is more collegiality in rural areas than in urban areas. in contrast, in tanzania reports indicate that teachers in rural areas are less motivated, work in difficult conditions, their salaries are not paid in time and their living conditions are difficult (sumra & rajani, 2010). all these could cause students perception of their teachers in rural areas to be negative. students’ institutional ownership and perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance. the hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference in students’ perception on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec across institutional ownership. descriptive results are presented in table 9. table 9. means and standard deviations for students’ perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance aligned to institutional ownership ownership n means sd government 637 4.02 .56 private 14 3.60 .83 military 42 3.75 .09 religious 27 4.27 .15 total 720 4.01 .54 results in table 9 show that there were marked differences among the four different categories of school ownership. out of the four groups of ownership, students in religious (m= 4.27, sd = .15) and government (m = 4.02, sd = .56) institutions reported high compliance of pe teachers on the pcec. students in the military (m = 3.75, sd = .09) and private (3.60, sd = .83) institutions reported moderate compliance. a one-way anova was used to test for significant differences in compliance with the pcec among the four groups, as shown in table 10. table 10. one-way anova statistical significance difference between means of students’ perceptions on pe teachers’ pcec compliance aligned to institutional ownership sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 6.953 3 2.318 8.032 .000 within groups 206.599 716 .289 total 213.552 719 * p < .05 12 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) the findings in table 10 show that students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec differed significantly across the four groups of institutional ownership [f (3, 716) = 8.032, p = .000)]. based on the above findings, therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in students’ perception on pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec across institutional ownership was rejected. the findings of this study are in line with those of anangisye’s (2010) study, on promoting teacher ethics in colleges of teacher education in tanzania focusing on practices and challenges, who found that: “although private and public colleges of teacher education have many things in common regarding professional regulations, the gravity attached to these regulations when it comes to enforcing vary considerably. private colleges, especially those owned by or affiliated to religious organizations had religious provisions in their regulations” p.70. students’ institutional type and their perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance. the hypothesis stated that would be no significant difference in students’ perception on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec across institutional type. table 11 presents the analysis for type of institution as independent variable. table 11. means, standard deviations and independent t-test for students’ perception on pe teachers’ pcec compliance by type of institution type of institution means sd df t p-value secondary school 3.77 .47 718 -5.275 .000 teachers’ college 4.05 .55 total 4.01 .51 * p < .05 as mean scores indicate, students in teachers’ colleges had higher mean score than students in secondary schools. this difference was statistically significant. therefore, the hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in students’ perception on the extent of pe teachers’ compliance with the pcec across institutional type was rejected. these findings suggest that students in teachers’ colleges perceived their pe teachers complied more with the pcec than those in secondary schools. the findings in this study concur with those of anangisye (2010) who found that all teachers’ colleges had regulation document on promoting professional teacher attitudes and ethics, which were posted on all notice boards. having such regulations posted everywhere reminds even both students and pe teachers to behave accordingly. additionally, the fact that secondary school teachers do not teach ethics could make them have less compliance compared to their counterparts and therefore make their students evaluate them negatively. conclusions and recommendations the findings of the current study have indicated that students in tanzania perceive their pe teachers comply with the pcec at high levels. however, students’ perceptions differ depending on their level of education, institutional location, ownership and type. the results call for stephen mabagala 13 ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) improvement and sustenance of pe programs in schools and colleges. additionally, there is a need to emphasize the training of teachers in the codes and the teaching of moral education in secondary schools. furthermore, there is a need to improve student-teacher cooperation and school-community partnerships through sports. further study should be conducted to determine unethical behavior in teacher-student relationships in the context of school sport. references anangisye, w. a. l. (2010). promoting teacher ethics in colleges of teacher education in tanzania: practices and challenges. african journal of teacher education, 1(1), 64-77. anangisye, w. a. l. & barrett, a. (2005). professional identity and misconduct: perspectives of tanzanian teachers’. southern african review of education (sare) with education with production (ewp), 11, 5-22. bennell, p. & akyeampong, k. (2007). teacher motivation in sub-saharan africa and south asia. london: department of international development. campbell, a. (2004). practitioner research and professional development in education. london: paul chapman publishing. capel, s. (2002). learning to teach physical education in the secondary school a companion to school experience learning to teach subjects in the secondary school series. london: routledge. fredriksson, u. (2004). quality education: the teachers’ key role. in education international working papers no.14. brussels, belgium: education international. hansen, d. (2001). teaching as a moral activity. in v.richardson (ed.). handbook of research in teaching, (4 th ed.). (pp 826-857). washington, dc: american research association. harris, a. (2002). school improvement. routledge. london. hind, e. & palmer, c. (2007) a critical evaluation of the roles and responsibilities of the physical education teacher – perspectives of a student training to teach p.e. in primary schools. journal of qualitative research in sports studies, 1, pp.1-9. hinds, h. (2005). oecs generic teachers’ code of ethics. castries, st. lucia: oecs education reform unit/education, training, technology and management consulting (tecsult). ishumi, a. g. (2011). teacher authority and accountability: towards improving the teaching profession for quality education. retrieved on 27 th june 2011 from http://www.tenmet.org/public_html/qec2011/ishumi.pdf jackson, s. l. (2009). research methods and statistics: a critical thinking approach (3 rd ed.). wadsworth: cengage learning. http://www.tenmet.org/public_html/qec2011/ishumi.pdf 14 students’ perceptions on physical education teachers’ compliance with the professional ______________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) mahony, p. (2009). should ought be taught? teaching and teacher education, 25(1), 983-989. mooij, t. (2010). secondary school teachers’ personal and school characteristics, experience of violence and perceived violence motives. nijmegen, the netherlands: radboud university. mpahla, n. e. (2009). an investigation of teachers’ perceptions of their professionalism: a case study of three schools in the butterworth district, eastern cape. unpulished ma thesis. mugenda, o. m. & mugenda, a. g. (2003). research methods: quantitative and qualitative approaches. nairobi: acts press. naagarazan, r. s. (2006). professional ethics and human values. new-delhi: new age international publishers. noddings, n. (2001). the caring teacher. in v.richardson (ed.). handbook of research in teaching, (4 th ed.). (pp 99-105). washington, dc: american research association. ozbek, o. (2007). the levels of compliance of physical education teachers with professional ethics codes. retrieved on 12 th august 2009 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed494885.pdf roffey, s. (2004). the new teacher’s survival guide to behavior. london paul chapman publishing. sace. (2002). code of professional ethics. durban: unilever ethics centre. saha, l. & dworkin, a. g. (2009). international handbook of research on teachers and teaching. washington, dc: american educational research association. shahiri, a. r. (1999). levels and sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction among teachers in the state of sarawak, malaysia, in both primary and secondary school. unpublished phd thesis. shehu, j. (2009). professional development experiences of physical education teachers in botswana: epistemological implications. teacher development, 13(3), 267-283. sumra, s. & rajani, r. (2006). secondary education in tanzania: key policy changes. dsm: hakielimu. http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed494885.pdf microsoft word 5135-26492-1-5-original african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 69-85 core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison aheisibwe irene bishop stuart university mbarara, uganda & loyce kiiza kobusingye makerere university, kampala, uganda abstract the study examined the core self-evaluations of prisoners on formal and vocational education in luzira prison in uganda. a cross-sectional survey design using a quantitative approach with.800 participants selected purposively was used. core self-evaluations were measured using judge, erez, bono and thoresen’s scale, while data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (anova) and post hoc test. the study yielded statistically significant variations among education levels, (f [4, 795] =3.18, p <.05) where a post hoc test revealed significant difference between degree holders (m = 2.86, sd = .27), on the one hand, and o’level (m = 3.00, sd = .29), a ‘level (m = 3.039, sd = .32) and diploma (m = 3.00, sd = .29) level students, on the other. the study demonstrates the significance of core self-evaluation to the life prospects of the prison inmate and recommends that prisoners' core self-evaluations be nurtured. it supports studies that correlate core self-evaluations to ultimate reduction in prison congestion and government expenditure. key words. core self-evaluations, formal and vocational training, prison inmates, prison education, correctional education, luzira, uganda introduction the rate at which the ugandan prison's population is increasing has raised concern (uganda prison services, 2011). in 2012, there were 34,940 prisoners (ubos, 2007). by october 2017, the prison core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison 70 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. population in the country was 54,059 (world prison brief data, 2017). the annual prisoner turnover is estimated at 100,000 prisoners with a growth rate of 10% each year (ubos, 2018). the uganda bureau of statistics reported that in 2018 alone, the prisoner population increased by 12.3%. these figures are significantly above the country’s population growth rate, which has been constant at an average of 3.2% per annum (ubos, 2018). the prisoners' population increase has been attributed to lack of education, unemployment, and lack of skills, poverty, debt, substance abuse, and the absence of a social network. in response to this concern, the government of uganda introduced formal and vocational training as a major strategy for prisoners rehabilitation. criminals are sent to prisons in order to protect society from harm. however, if there is nothing done to address the root cause of criminal behavior, prisoners may return to communities with the same or worse behavior (aalai, 2014). the uganda human rights commission (2015) states that prisoners suffer cumulative social and economic disadvantages, low education levels, higher rates of mental illness and greater rates of unemployment. davis, bozick, steele, saunders and miles (2013) indicate that some prisoners who have difficulty adapting to the pains of imprisonment like boredom are likely to resort to serious prison misbehavior and violence. if however, prisoners are given meaningful activities to do and are equipped with skills they need to support themselves upon release, society becomes safer and the rate of re-offending decreases (dissel, 2008). participation in education during incarceration can play an important role in the daily life of many prisoners and has significant consequences for resettlement on release (carson & sabol, 2012). from a socio-economic point of view, low educational attainment, which is a common trait among prisoners, results in fewer opportunities in the labor market (cohen, 2016). prisoners who participate in education reduce the risk of recidivism and education increases their post-release employment opportunities irwin (2008). in any case, access to education is a fundamental human right and prisoners should not be denied the chance to exercise this right (european convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, 2012). however, a successful prison educational programme depends on the critical role of prisoners core self-evaluations. core self-evaluations are fundamental assessments that people make about their worthiness, competence and capabilities. individuals with positive core self-evaluations can deal with various stressors, are active, satisfied and have less quitting intentions (karatepe, haktanir, & yorganci, 2010). people with high core self-evaluations have an ability to cope, perform aheisibwe irene & loyce kiiza kobusingye 71 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. well in class, are secure and steady in learning. however, individuals with low core self-evaluations believe that they are unable to have control over the environment and events, have low motivation levels and participate poorly in educational activities. however, there is limited empirical evidence regarding core self-evaluations as a predictor of prisoners’ participation in formal and vocational training in uganda prison. this study seeks to fill this gap. literature review the earliest prison education programmes in the united states were often referred to as sabbath school with the purpose of teaching inmates how to read the bible. bhosale (2014) calculates that it took nearly one hundred years for the concept of educating prisoners to receive any appreciable support from the public, lawmakers, and from the prisoners themselves. the 1900s brought to the united states the industrial revolution and its consequent demand for workers. both politicians and prison personnel soon adopted a philosophy that inmates could be educated to support the industrial sector (carson & sabol, 2012). in australia, the government adopted a national strategy for prisoner’s vocational education and training to contain recidivism (callan & gardner, 2007). in africa, prison education with the purpose of preparing prisoners for integration into society is more pronounced in southern, western and eastern africa (dissel, 2008). emphasis is placed on providing education and skills that promote self-sufficiency after release (asokhia & agbonluae, 2013). in response to the united nations standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners, uganda enacted the prisons act 2006 as a step to ensure prisons play a rehabilitative role (uganda prison services, 2011). this act, recommends that academic and vocational training be offered to convicted prisoners to facilitate their rehabilitation and reintegration into the local communities (uganda prison services, 2010). prisoners are to be provided with an opportunity to advance in education and to acquire vocational skills for use upon release. education is also meant to help in improving the core self-evaluations of prisoners and substantially reduce their risk of reoffending. this would ultimately reduce prison crowding and the expenditure involved in the maintenance of prisons. however, a study by the uganda human rights commission (2015) established that 90% of all prisoners in uganda do not have a diploma in education and 85% had no vocational skills. in the same study, recidivism rates of prisoners who do not participate in formal and vocational education was between 65-75% compared to those who participate which was 10-15%. for academic and core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison 72 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. vocational training to register achievements, there is a need for an understanding of ugandan prisoners’ core self-evaluations (bidwell, 2013). purpose of education in prisons to decrease the number of prisoners, it is important for prisons to be prepared with the necessary tools for successful reintegration into society. the fundamental purpose of education in prisons is to enhance and build the cognitive skills of the prisoners that participate in the program so they can become functional and productive members of society (rand corporation. 2013). prison educational programs in luzira prison uganda consists of academic orientation programs; primary, university, and vocational education programs that train inmates in carpentry, tailoring, operating of saloon, building and construction. such education programs in prison are critical in offering inmates relief from the pain of imprisonment and helping them to appreciate and adopt pro-social norms. a study conducted by vasiliki, evaggelos and dimitris (2016) on correctional education in greece assessing education as a rehabilitation strategy for prisoners found out that prisoners who participated in education had significantly lower arrest rates in the twenty-four months following release from prison than those who did not attend programs, and concluded that vocational education programs are effective in reducing recidivism. similarly, helen (2015) suggests that participation in education leads to high levels of motivation amongst many prisoners who engage in education and prisoners recognize that education more particularly gaining qualifications is necessary to do well in life. in the same study, 70 % of prisoners reported that they were motivated to participate in education, not only to gain qualifications and improve their prospects, but also to occupy their time and improve their core self-evaluations. for example, taylor (2014) states that 80% of prisoners participating in formal and vocational training in america had improved their core self-evaluations. kouimtzi (2011) suggests that prison education creates an environment that enables positive change and human capacity for those who are detained. educational programs in prisons draw the citizens’ support, due to the fact that education itself is positively valued by society. these educational and vocational programs focus on developing prisoners’ practical skills and help them to realize that they remain members of the wider community. they are thereby reminded that they will still be members of the society after their release. by acquiring skills and redefining their position in society, those individuals may become active members in their local economies and communities and overcome the stigma of their criminal involvement. aheisibwe irene & loyce kiiza kobusingye 73 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. research by the rand corporation (2013) suggests that education and vocational training in prisons supports the development of social capital. when prisoners participate in educational programs, it boosts their self-confidence, improves their social skills and they feel satisfied. there is also a positive correlation between correctional education and employment after release. for the us, john and sons (2009) report that post-release employment was 13% higher among prisoners who participated in either academic or vocational education programs than those who did not. davis, bozick, steele, saunders and miles (2013) indicate that some prisoners who have difficulty adapting to the pains of imprisonment like boredom are likely to resort to serious prison misbehaviour and violence. participation in formal and vocational training in prisons reduces the sense of boredom and loneliness. if prisoners are given meaningful activities to do and are equipped with skills they need to support themselves upon release, society becomes safer and the rate of re-offending decreases. a study conducted by eikeland (2009) states that prisons in denmark, finland, iceland, sweden and norway, who participated in educational programs, spend their time doing something useful and sensible. in the same study, prisoners pointed out that they felt less discriminated against. their participation in educational programs gave them optimism, awakened them and boosted their creativity. studies carried out by the reentry policy council (2007) regarding the usefulness of in prison education shows that prisoners who participate in education formed better character, gained self-respect and new prospects in life with a new orientation, obtained new interests and got work credentials in the business market. papathanassiou (2010) in his study concluded that prisoners who took part in education programs in prison had lower recidivism rates. in a study conducted among 15 us states, it was concluded that recidivism rates for those who took part in voluntary educational programs were lower (iowa department of corrections, 2011). in a 2013 meta-analysis conducted by rand corporation on fifty studies published between 1980 and 2011 to establish the effectiveness of correctional education on the reduction of recidivism rates in american prisons, the findings revealed that recidivism reduced by 85-88%. the concept of core self-evaluations core self-evaluation is a conceptual idea that stands for the essential appraisals that persons make about themselves and their operating conditions (boyar & mosley, 2007). they are a major determinant of an individual’s confidence in their abilities, opinions, future goals and aspirations core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison 74 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. (judge, 2007). it represents how individuals feel about themselves and has implications for achievement and well-being (judge, 2009). core self-evaluations form the basis for interaction between personality and the environment that influences human behavior (judge, 2009). core self evaluation determines how individuals react to challenges in life (judge, 2007). studies by eikeland, manger & asbjornsen (2009) in nordic prisons show that the experience of imprisonment impairs prisoners’ core self-evaluation. judge (2007) indicates that individuals with high core selfevaluations view situations more positively, see themselves as more worthy of the advantages conferred by these situations and will work harder to extract the benefits which eventually influence participation in learning. there is limited research on how core self-evaluations affect learning across various levels of education among prisoners. a study among a selected group of prisoners in norway revealed a significant difference between core self-evaluations across different education levels: prisoners in lower classes reported significantly lower levels of core self-evaluation compared to prisoners in upper classes (eikeland, manger & asbjornsen, 2009). in the same study, college students did not experience any shift in the level of general core self-evaluations. a study by ross (2009) on the effect of correctional education on core self-evaluations of prisoners among six selected in-prison college programs in new york revealed statistically significant differences where learners in secondary education had lower core self-evaluations compared to learners enrolled in post-secondary programs. aalai (2014) states that most prisoners generally have a history of failure in school. this history typically leads to the assumption that they will not succeed in their present schooling puts a limit on their ability to learn and ruins their core self-evaluations. studies on how core selfevaluations affect prisoners' participation in correctional education are limited. available literature mainly focuses on the general population rather than specifically prisoners. judge and hurst (2007) conducted a longitudinal study to determine the extent to which core self-evaluations would predict perseverance in education. they found that learners with high core self-evaluations had 80% retention rate in schools than learners with low core self-evaluations. in a study on quantifying the effects of a socialization project for prisoners in australia shows significant differences were between core self-evaluations across different levels of education (callan & gardner, 2007). inmates who were in upper classes had higher core self-evaluations than those who were in lower levels of aheisibwe irene & loyce kiiza kobusingye 75 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. education. the higher the learner progressed academically, the higher their core self-evaluations. in the same study, inmates in upper classes reported more self-esteem, higher self-efficacy and higher conviction of internal control as well as higher emotional stability. negative effects of imprisonment on the self-concept did not occur among inmates on correctional education. thus, individuals with high core self-evaluations are better suited to the contemporary academic and career landscapes than those who have low core self-evaluations (boyar & mosley, 2007). ahmad, saleem and shahid (2012) also observed that persons with high core self-evaluations are more sensitive to positive stimuli and less on negative stimuli, whereas persons with low core self-evaluations are more sensitive to negative stimuli and less sensitive to positive stimuli. other studies by judge record that learners in higher levels of learning tend to be more predictive of the outcomes of the learning situation which leads to high core self-evaluations and that high core self-evaluations is strongly associated with higher levels of learning (2007 & 2009). other studies also have shown that there is a relationship between core self-evaluations and education levels. rosopa and schroeder (2009) suggest that learners in advanced classes have high core self-evaluations, are able to fulfil their task and also help individuals promote their institution in a positive way compared to learners in lower classes. further studies by judge (2009) in michigan indicate that learners in candidate classes have positive core self-evaluations, are more effective in overcoming barriers and are better in solving problems. however, kammeyer-mueller, judge and scott (2009) suggest that learners in advanced classes usually have low core self-evaluations, tend to be slower when it comes to finishing their educational tasks and are more stubborn, which ultimately interferes with their studies. other studies by kleumper (2008) show that learners in lower classes have high expectation, are explorative in nature and have high core self-evaluations compared to learners in advanced classes. such contradicting positions require further study especially in a different learning environment such as a prison. in a study assessing inmates’ proneness to shame and guilt in portugal, the findings reveal a link between shame-proneness and all manner of psychological symptoms, including low selfesteem, depression, anxiety, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideation, and substance dependence (buss, 2010). in the same study, prisoners in lower levels of education were more prone to shame and guilt compared to prisoners in higher levels of education. similarly, the more prone a prisoner was to shame and guilt the lower the core self-evaluations and the vice. core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison 76 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. tsaousis, nikolaou, serdaris and judge (2007) state that core self-evaluations are significantly influenced by the age of the learner. young people tend to have high core selfevaluations compared to old people, view a challenging academic task as a deserved opportunity which they can master and benefit from. old people have low core self-evaluations and are more likely to view education as an opportunity for embarrassment. biological theorists also state gender differences as determinates of core self-evaluations in an educational setting whereby males show high core self-evaluations in mathematics and science-based subjects compared to females (kleumper, 2008). methodology research design and methods this study adopted a cross-sectional survey design because it provides a description of trends and attitudes or opinions of a population, allows generalisation from a sample to a population so that inferences can be made about some characteristics, attitude or behaviour of that population (tashakkori& creswell, 2007). a mainly quantitative approach was used to collect data, analyse and present the findings. this approach was chosen because it allows generalizations about the phenomenon, involves many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability (creswell & plano, 2007). study population in this study, the population was adult male and female prisoners enrolled in luzira prison uganda who are participating in formal and vocational training. this consisted by class distribution, 161 students in ordinary level, 244 students enrolled in a certificate in business management, 188 in advanced level, 168 enrolled in diploma in laws and 39 students enrolled in degree in laws sampling strategies the study adopted purposive sampling strategies, with non-probability samples selected based on characteristics of the population and the objective of the study (creswell & plano, 2007). this sampling strategy was chosen because it is economical, allows proper representation, prevents unnecessary and irrelevant items entering into the sample perchance, ensures intensive study of the selected items and gives accurate results. aheisibwe irene & loyce kiiza kobusingye 77 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. sample size to increase the chances of maximum prison inmate participation, a total of 800 prisoners on formal and vocational education were involved in the study. the criteria for inclusion in the study were adult male or female prisoner who was enrolled in both formal and vocational training above primary 7. creswell (2007) suggests that there are no specific rules when determining the sample size of census studies. sample size in such cases is best determined by the time allotted, resources available and study objectives. instruments/ measures the core self-evaluations scale developed by judge, erez, bono and thoresen was used in this study to assess prisoners’ core self-evaluations (boyar & mosley, 2007). this is a standardized five-point likert scale containing twelve items which range from strongly disagree to strongly agree, half of which are scored in reverse. previous studies by judge (2009) established the psychometric properties of this scale as α=.84. procedure approval and clearances were obtained from my supervisors and the department of educational foundations and psychology mbarara university of science and technology (must), and from must research ethical review committee (reference no: murec1/7). permission was also sought from the uganda national council for science and technology (reference no: ss5es) which legitimizes all research projects carried out in the country. equally, clearance was also sought from the commissioner general of prisons in uganda (reference no: adm/143/219/01). at the luzira the purpose of the study was clearly explained to the officer in charge of luzira prison and the warden in charge of welfare and education and appointments for data collection scheduled. study participants were briefed on the purpose of the study and were asked to sign consent forms. they were informed that participation was voluntary and withdrawal at any point was accepted without any reprimand. however, all prisoners were willing to participate. the next step was data collection where prisoners were requested to fill questionnaires on study variables. the prisoners would submit the filled questionnaires to the inmate head teachers who then handed the questionnaire to the government posted head teacher. the researcher would pick the questionnaires from the government posted head teacher on a weekly basis. after data collection, the participants were debriefed. core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison 78 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. data management thecompletely filled instruments were screened, coded and entered into thestatistical package for social scientists (spss) version 20. each itemof the core self-evaluations scale was scored as follows; even items(2,4,6,8,10,12) were scored as 1 point if a prisoner circled 5, 2 pointsif the prisoners circled 4, 3 points if the prisoners circled 3, 4points if the prisoners circled 2 and 5 points if the prisoners circled1. odd items (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11) were scored as 5 points if aprisoner circled 5, 4 points if the prisoners circled 4, 3 points if theprisoners circled 3, 2 points if the prisoners circled 2, 1 point ifthe prisoners circled 1. the itemscores were summed and the upper limit for high core selfevaluationsin this case (37-60) and lower limit (12-36) for low coreself-evaluations were used. data analysis one-way analysis of variance (anova) and post hoc test using turkey’s least significant differences were computed ethical considerations theidentities of the respondents were kept confidential throughout thestudy since they did not have to put their names on any of the tools ofdata collection. after filling the tools, they were kept confidential, only accessible to the researcher and the advisors/supervisors. findings anova comparisons of learning strategies across education variations sum of squares df mean square f p between groups 1.26 4 .32 3.18 .008 within groups 71.22 795 .09 total 72.78 799 analysis of variance on core self-evaluation scores yielded statistically significant variations among education levels, (f [4, 795] =3.18, p <.05). a post hoc test using least significant differences (lsd) was conducted in order to ascertain where the difference in education levels of prisoners existed as seen in table 10 below. aheisibwe irene & loyce kiiza kobusingye 79 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. post-hoc comparisons of core self-evaluations across education levels of prisoners tukey lsd comparisons education background n m sd 1 2 3 4 1.o'level 161 3.00 .29 2.certificate 244 2.95 .30 .11 3.a'level 188 3.03 .32 .34 .006 4. diploma 168 2.98 .30 .502 .368 .098 5. degree 39 2.86 .27 .012** .101 .002** .036* *p<.05. **p<.01. n=800 the results of a post hoc test revealed that degree holders (m = 2.86, sd = .27) significantly differ from those of o’level (m = 3.00, sd = .29), a ‘level (m = 3.039, sd = .32) and diploma (m = 3.00, sd = .29). however, mean scores of cse among prisoners enrolled on different certificate programmes (carpentry, building and construction, tailoring and business management) did not differ from other education background (p > .05). discussion analysis of variance on core self-evaluation scores yielded statistically significant variations among education levels. the results of a post hoc test revealed that degree holders significantly differ. this finding concurs with a study by judge (2009) indicating that learners in higher levels of learning tend to be more predictive of the outcomes of the learning situation which leads to high core selfevaluations. results from a study by scott and judge (2009) also indicated that high core selfevaluations are strongly associated with higher levels of learning. judge, hurst and simon (2009) theorized that individuals who persist to higher educational levels tend to have high core selfevaluations compared to their counterparts. this finding is also supported by rosopa and schroeder (2009) who suggests that learners in advanced classes have high core self-evaluations, are able to fulfil their task and also help individuals promote the institution in a positive way compared to leaners in lower classes. further studies by judge (2009) indicate that leaners in candidate classes have positive core self-evaluations, are more effective in overcoming barriers, and are better in problem solving. core self-evaluations among prisoners on formal and vocational training in uganda’s luzira prison 80 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 69-85. conclusion and recommendations from the study, core self-evaluations affect prisoners’ participation in education. the more the prisoners participate in higher education levels, the more they are likely to improve their core evaluations which shall ultimately reduce prison congestion and government expenditure. core selfevaluation has a significant impact on almost everything a learner does e.g. ways of engages in activities, dealing with challenges, and interaction with others. it also can have a marked impact on academic performance. the literature is replete with how teachers can nurture high core selfevaluations among prisoners, some of which we now list. the teacher should praise the student in a specific and genuine way. students are experts at distinguishing genuine feedback from empty compliments. they learn to dismiss vague words of praise as insincere, and perhaps even phoney. comments that suggest thoughtful appreciation of their work, on the other hand, are meaningful to them. toward that end, students should know in specific terms what the teacher likes about their work or behavior. if the learner is progressing slowly, praise her/him for small steps forward. if you sense that some students feel uncomfortable being praised in front of classmates, tell them in private or in a note. instructors should show the student tangible evidence of progress. expressing confidence in a student's ability is important; talks alone might not be enough. help the students appreciate their own improvement by pointing to concrete signs of growth e.g by taping an oral reading at the beginning of the year and comparing it to a later performance, by showing papers from earlier in the year and contrasting them with later papers, or by demonstrating that solving the math problems they struggled with during the first marking period now come easily. they should also showcase students’ accomplishments, for example, by reading one of the student's compositions to the class, displaying their artwork on a bulletin board, having them demonstrate how to do a math problem, or by inviting a student to speak in front of the class. overall, in different creative ways, teachers should help the student feel important in class. references aalai, a. 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(2013). human rights in offender rehabilitation. european journal of probation, 6(1), 42–56. world prison brief data (2017) retrieved from http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/uganda are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? views of teachers kwame b. asare university of cape coast, ghana abstract transformational leadership practice is associated with improved school functioning and quality education delivery through teacher commitment and willingness to exceed targets or educational benchmarks (balyer, 2012; nedelcu, 2013). the establishment of the leadership for learning (lfl) program in ghana in 2009 aimed at improving the effectiveness of basic school head teachers to better lead schools to promote student learning. in this study, the perceptions of basic school teachers as to the transformational leadership conduct of head teachers who had received training under the lfl model were collected and reviewed. the purpose of this qualitative inquiry was to determine from teachers’ perceptions how the conduct of head teachers related to transformational leadership. from the study results, the findings indicated that while teachers largely perceived their head teachers as transformational leaders, more than the influence of head teachers is required to motivate teachers to give of themselves to improve education outcomes. recommendations and implications of the study for practice and research were considered. keywords: ghana basic schools, education leadership, education, ghana head teachers, transformational leadership. introduction all organizations, no matter their focus, formation, or nature, benefit from effective leadership (morris & austin, 2014). leaders are individuals entrusted with the responsibility of making sure that things are accomplished according to plan. since leaders lead others, they do not usually perform the specific activities meant to achieve stated objectives alone or on their own. instead they work through other people – who are variously called followers, employees, or subordinates – to achieve set objectives. therefore, leadership pertains to what leaders do to influence followers to act or perform activities in ways necessary for improving performance to support the achievement of set objectives (juntrasook, 2014). in ghana, head teachers are appointed to lead formal education delivery efforts in k-9 schools, i.e., kindergarten to junior high school. what the head teachers do and how effectively they 2 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) perform their role expectations hold implications for the extent to which teaching and learning activities occur in the schools and influence the quality of education delivery and outcomes. leadership for learning principles including focus on learning, creating environment conducive for learning, dialoguing, shared leadership, and shared responsibility are vital to guide head teachers to play their roles effectively (macbeath & dempster, 2008). with increased responsibilities, demands for accountability, and rapid changes in education in response to changes in society, head teachers are expected to go the extra mile to be effective. since they cannot undertake the numerous school activities all by themselves, head teachers necessarily need to work in partnership with teachers, parents, community members, and education authorities for improved education delivery and student learning (nedelcu, 2013). in fact, leaders of educational institutions must show exemplary leadership through what they do as collaborators, effective and open communicators, critical thinkers, problem solvers, and change agents to bring about desired changes, which are qualities that transformational leaders exhibit (hauserman & stick, 2013; lowrey, 2014; nash & bangert, 2014). transformational leaders explore new ways of doing things and look for opportunities to change the status quo to bring about needed improvements at the workplace. instead of being people who merely respond to circumstantial demands, transformational leaders take the initiative to cause change, shape the resulting situations, and create better circumstances to drive organizational interests (chi, lan, & dorjgotov, 2012; onorato, 2013). as they take the bold initiative to bring about needed changes in how things are accomplished, transformational leaders are able to influence followers who also aspire to be change agents. hence, transformational leadership relates to the ability of leaders to get followers to learn from their leaders, to identify what has to change, and then willingly act to exceed their expectations to bring about needed changes (mccleskey, 2014; washington, sutton, & saucer, 2014). to make it easier for followers to support the chosen path and for them to become willing change agents, transformational leaders exemplify proper ways of doing things. they value followers as important members of the organization whose contributions are vital to improving organizational performance. thus, these leaders make the effort to identify and satisfy the needs of followers, and as well, solicit and incorporate employee opinions into making workplace decisions (nash & bangert, 2014; washington et al., 2014). through such means, the leader may win the commitment of employees, improve their capacity, and increase their willingness to put in sufficient effort to bring about institutional improvement (lowrey, 2014; nedelcu, 2013). specifically, transformational leaders pursue four main dimensions of transformational leadership. dubbed the “four i’s” of transformational leadership, these dimensions include: idealized influence; individualized consideration; inspirational motivation; and intellectual stimulation (chi, lan, & dorjgotov, 2012; onorato, 2013; mccleskey, 2014). through these dimensions, school leaders who practice transformational leadership are able to exert both direct and indirect influences on the attitude and behavior of teachers so that they (i.e., teachers) willingly do things to improve school performance and education outcomes (lowrey, 2014; nedelcu, 2013). for example, transformational leadership results in consensus building, teacher recognition, improved teacher morale and commitment, effective communication, and supportive and healthy school climate that make it possible for teachers to perform activities and behave in ways that exceed their own expectations (chi, lan, & dorjgotov, 2012; nedelcu, 2013). kwame b. asare 3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) noteworthy are the key tenets of transformational leadership that include:  transformational leaders become a source of inspiration to others through their commitment to those who work with them, their perseverance to a mission, their willingness to take risks, and their strong desire to achieve.  transformational leaders diagnose, meet, and elevate the needs of each of their associates through individualized consideration. they believe in promoting continuous people improvement.  transformational leaders stimulate their associates to view the world from new perspectives, angles, and informational sources. they question even the most successful strategies to improve them over time.  associates trust their transformational leaders to overcome any obstacle, because of their hard work, their willingness to sacrifice their self-interest, and their prior successes. (avolio & bass, 2004 cited in onorato, 2013, p. 40) it is decipherable from the above exposition that transformational school leaders need to walk their talk to be able to exert positive influence on teachers for them to offer willing support and conduct themselves in ways that would advance institutional agenda. this requires that the attitude of transformational leaders must directly relate to their behavior. also, in the spirit of leadership being an interaction between head teachers and teachers to assure that teacher conduct drives change efforts, there is the need for head teachers to forge strong collaboration and collegial work ethics with teachers to engender communal contribution to advancing student performance and school effectiveness (yukl, 2005). in this regard, head teachers would need to focus on sharpening their own leadership knowledge and experiences as well as building the capacity of teachers to improve their skills and ability to bring about the transformed school they desire (nedelcu, 2013). this necessitates that transformational school leaders must build and communicate a school vision that aligns with set goals, mentally stimulate teachers, identify needs and interests of teachers, and provide support that meets their individual needs and circumstances (leithwood & jantzi, 2000; macbeath & dempster, 2008). also, head teachers must model best practices and school values by exemplifying the proper ways of doing things, together with teachers setting high but attainable educational standards, promoting a healthy school climate and organizational culture, as well as involving teachers and other partners in decision making (leithwood & jantzi, 2000). therefore, it seems suggestible that to assure that their schools achieve improved student performance and school effectiveness, the leadership behaviors of head teachers of basic schools in ghana must be geared towards transforming school functioning by empowering teachers, promoting active teacher participation in school decisions, and modeling proper ways of advancing institutional agenda (chi, lan, & dorjgotov, 2012; leithwood & jantzi, 2000; nedelcu, 2013). through leadership for learning workshops and conferences, basic school head teachers dubbed school transformational leaders, discussed ways by which they could lead schools to become transformed and effective. how head teachers implement the knowledge and skills they have gained from the lfl program, it can be argued, would impact on the attitude and actions of teachers in the schools (macbeath & dempster, 2008). 4 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) statement of the problem what school leaders do and how they conduct themselves in the schools they lead influence teacher attitude and behavior that impact on the teaching and learning enterprise (hauserman & stick, 2013). to improve upon the effectiveness of basic school head teachers in ghana so as to achieve a strong connection between leadership and learning, the leadership for learning network of the university of cambridge, united kingdom, with sponsorship from the center for commonwealth education, partnered with the institute for educational planning and administration of the university of cape coast and the ghana education service to roll out a head teacher leadership capacity building program under the leadership for learning (lfl) framework. the selected head teachers identified themselves as school transformational leaders (stls) at the 2009 initial lfl training session at ajumako, central region, ghana. how the stls are leading basic schools to promote student learning following the initial and subsequent training sessions is worth investigating. hence, the problem investigated in this study was how the stls led their schools and to what degree they exhibited transformational leadership behaviors in the schools. specifically, the study focused on teachers’ perceptions on the stls’ transformational leadership practices. the purpose of the study was to examine stls leadership behaviors and to identify the extent to which they modeled transformational leadership characteristics. additionally, the study was designed to determine measures that are necessary to assure that basic school head teachers in ghana actually lead or are able to lead basic schools to bring about desired changes. the research method to gain in-depth knowledge and contextual insights into the experiences of basic school teachers regarding their perceptions of the leadership behaviors of their head teachers, the researcher adopted a qualitative research methodology design for the study. in qualitative studies, researchers gather data from identified persons on a phenomenon of interest. qualitative research involves data collection on the attitude, feelings, and thoughts of individuals that cannot be observed or obtained through quantitative means (creswell, 2014). in this study, data collection, description, analysis, and interpretation were based on the observed shared patterns in teacher perceptions and beliefs as conveyed in their narrated stories. the study site was the brong ahafo region of ghana. selected basic school head teachers in the brong ahafo region had the opportunity to participate in different lfl workshops at ajumako in august and september of 2009, in sunyani in july 2011, and in tamale in november of 2011. it could be expected that teachers who worked with these school leaders would have over the years observed, experienced, and formed their subjective opinions on the leadership behaviors of the head teachers and thus could give first-hand accounts of their head teachers’ leadership practices. participants participants for the study were all basic school teachers whose head teachers had participated in the lfl workshops. at a british council sponsored workshop on lfl for head teachers and other education officers facilitated by the author and another expert from the university of cape coast in july 2011, some of the head teachers who attended were also part of the initial lfl kwame b. asare 5 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) program held at ajumako in 2009. based on the narrated experiences and discussions with these head teachers, the author suggested to the head teachers that he would visit them to observe any lfl program impact. based on verbal discussions and phone conversations with the head teachers, six of them agreed to a request to visit their schools. hence, the author visited the six schools in may 2012 to find out how the head teachers have been working with teachers to transform the schools. during the visit, the author indicated to the head teachers that he would like to have independent views of the teachers about how the head teachers were leading the schools. after consenting to this request, the researcher, with permission from the head teachers, met with all the teachers in each school and briefed them about the proposed study and subsequently invited them to participate in it. at the time of data collection in july 2012, after informing the teachers of their right to freely participate in the study or to withdraw from it at will, 30 teachers provided data for the study. the composition of the participants for the study is presented in table 1.1. table 1.1composition of participants school label (n=6) type of school number of teachers teachers who provided data for the study % of teachers involved in the study a primary 8 5 62.5 b primary 6 3 50.0 c primary 6 6 100.0 d primary 8 6 75.0 e junior high 14 6 42.9 f junior high 10 4 40.0 total 52 30 57.7 source: field data (july 2012). instrumentation the researcher gathered data for the study using a semi-structured interview protocol in july 2012. the interview guide was informed by the researcher’s interactions with teachers in the schools as well as review of literature on transformational leadership. following a review of literature on the four primary dimensions of transformational leadership, consultations with the teachers, and discussions with other faculty members of the university of cape coast, the interview guide centered around the following items: how does your head teacher conduct himself/herself to:  influence your attitude and behavior?  show that s/he is interested in your personal and professional development?  motivate you to give your best to improve your school?  challenge your beliefs, interests, and values to bring about school improvement? the researcher personally collected the study data. it involved face-to-face interviewing of participants. prior to data collection, the researcher sought permission from gatekeepers, that is the six head teachers or stls of the schools in may 2011 at sunyani and in november 2011 at tamale. in order that the head teachers would not know which teachers participated in the study, the researcher consented to a location proposed by each participant. before conducting each 6 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) interview, he briefed the teachers on the purpose and processes of the study, sought their consent, and assured them of their anonymity and the confidentiality of their information. with participant permission, each interview lasted approximately one hour and was electronically recorded. following the interviews, in line with the suggestion by moustakas (1994) and van manen (2014), the researcher manually transcribed the recorded data to be immersed in the data and to facilitate data analysis and reporting of the study results. data analysis data analysis consisted of content analysis. it involved analyzing data based on the similarity of participants’ responses (creswell, 2014). to do this the investigator first organized the collected data after he had read all the transcribed data multiple times and grouped similar responses together. following a constant comparative approach (glaser, 1992; moustakas, 1994; van manen, 2014), the researcher undertook a continual analysis that involved constant crosschecking of categories with participant responses to ensure that descriptions of the themes accurately reflected data provided by participants. credibility and validity the instrument and the purpose of the study were reviewed by a professor of educational leadership at the university of cape coast, ghana whose research activities involve qualitative methodologies. specifically, the professor made suggestions to simplify the form and content of the items to make them easy to understand and to properly align them with the problem and purpose statements. through this expert opinion, the author established both face and content validity of the instrument. also, the researcher piloted (jacob & ferguson, 2012) the instrument with seven teachers from the berekum district (at the time of the study this district was part of the brong ahafo region). it shares similar cultural and geographical characteristics with the rest of the brong ahafo. those seven teachers were not included in the main study. the purpose of the field test was to ensure that the participants would understand the items. the similarity of the responses of the seven field experts indicated that the items were easy to understand and could be used to obtain consistent results. additionally, the researcher adopted member checking (harvey, 2015) by sending the transcribed data to the participants for them to verify and validate the content. further, he requested the services of a colleague faculty member (whose doctoral research involved qualitative investigation) to serve as a secondary reader following which he discussed the secondary reader’s observations with her to make sure that the description and presentation of the study results aligned with participants’ narratives. the researcher also sought participants’ informed consent before undertaking each interview. he used coined identities (pseudonyms) in place of the real identities of the research participants as a means to maintain the anonymity of the participants as well as the schools where they worked. validity concerns some issues hold implications for the generalizability of the study results. one, the study sample might not be representative of all head teachers and teachers due to differences in school and geographical contexts. two, the opinions of the small number of teachers (n=30) involved in the kwame b. asare 7 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) study might not be representative of all teachers whose head teachers had received training in the lfl program in the study site. also, the fact that the stl head teachers were informed of the study could influence the teachers to report on half-true facts. the research methodology could be improved by the researcher if multiple means for collecting data were adopted for the purpose of triangulation. by assuring the anonymity of the participants and using pseudonyms to deidentify them from their responses (as presented in the results), the researcher sought to ensure that the findings are a true reflection of the participant perspectives. another issue related to the researcher as an instrument of data analysis. the description and interpretation of the results of the study were facilitated by the researcher’s knowledge about and familiarity with basic school leadership in ghana, the lfl program, and the social dynamics of the study site. while the researcher as an instrument of data analysis could result in rich descriptions that would enrich the study, the danger is that if such knowledge and familiarity are not bracketed, they could bias the study and affect the objectivity of the results (moustakas, 1994). to handle this situation and to reduce the effect of researcher knowledge and experiences on the results, the investigator included direct quotations of participants’ responses in the presentation and discussion of the results as means of improving the reliability of the findings (creswell, 2014; moustakas; patton, 2002; van manen, 2014). results and findings the effect of the transformational leadership practices on the attitude and actions of teachers as employees is widely acknowledged. for example, nedelcu (2013) reported that the transformational leadership behaviors of school leaders improved teacher commitment, teacher performance, and school culture and education outcomes. therefore, this study was set out with the purpose of finding out what teachers consider as the transformational leadership behaviors that stls head teachers, who underwent the lfl training program, exhibit as they lead their schools. despite the briefings and explanation of the study, some teachers asked questions to be clear on what they were expected to say. for example, one teacher asked, “do you want me to indicate whether my head teacher is good or bad?” (p7). another teacher retorted, “hmm! this depends on how i see her, right?” (p12). the researcher used the concerns of these teachers as basis to further clarify the intent for embarking on the study. this was a first-hand observation that the offering of explanations on a study to permit participants to provide responses that align with the study focus must be an on-going process (shamim & qureshi, 2013). for example, if i assumed that the first briefing session was adequate because the teachers appropriately could tell what the items meant, their responses would or could have differed from those reported on in this study if further explanations were not given. the study involved data collection from six schools. four were k-6 primary schools, while the remaining two were grades 7 9 junior high schools. there were 30 data producing participants for the study comprising 16 female and 14 male teachers. at the time of the study, 20 of the teachers taught in primary schools and 10 taught in junior high schools as reflected in table 1.1 above. in the study the researcher adopted a unique descriptor for assuring the anonymity of participating teachers. primary school teachers are designated as p1 to p20 while junior high school teachers are referred to as j1 to j10. in the sections that follow the results and findings of 8 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) the study are presented under the four dimensions of transformational leadership namely idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation. drawing from the four themes or four i’s, this study focused attention on lessons learned from the views expressed by the teachers. in line with the perspective of tunheim and mclean (2014), the lessons are briefly but clearly reported with sample participant quotes to illustrate the teachers’ self-reported data. since the instrument was a semi-structured interview guide, the study results include details of the interviews that extend beyond the items of the instrument. idealized influence behaviors displayed by basic school head teachers under the dimension of idealized influence, transformational leaders act in ways that help others to see them as persons who have their interest at heart (mccleskey, 2014; nedelcu, 2013). thus, transformational leaders consult with their followers, identify their needs, try to help them deal with challenges, use their position to benefit the institution, and assign followers roles to play (mccleskey; nash & bangert, 2014). through such approach and conduct, followers develop trust and respect for their leaders and emulate their behaviors in what they do. this makes it less difficult for the followers to commit to their institutions and work harder to exceed their expectations (mccleskey; nash & bangert; nedelcu). teachers in this study appeared to appreciate what their head teachers did and agreed that the head teachers exerted meaningful influence on them. in this connection, one teacher stated: my head teacher is polite. he is respectful. if he sees any issue you are involved with, he calls you and talk it out with you at the office. nobody gets to know what transpired between us. (j4) for participant p20, his head teacher is the epitome of leadership by example. he stated: i wish all head teachers behaved as my head. while some women leaders are seen as bossy and arrogant, my head teacher is down to earth. she is not an office madam. she walks around the school, checks on teachers in the classroom, solicits opinions from teachers and include those in school decisions. when i see that my suggestion is applied, and other teachers indicate that that was my idea at work, i become happy and willing to do as my head teacher does. (p20) as supported by earlier studies (nedelcu, 2013; nash & bangert, 2014; onorato, 2013), communication is a sine qua non in the practice of transformational leadership. in this vein, one teacher’s comment was insightful: communication matters. my head teacher communicates with us often by passing on information from the office to us and by seeking information from us. if he doesn’t get feedback on time, he calls or texts to remind you. on one day he texted me that i know you are busy with your work that is why i have not received feedback from you yet. however, kindly find time and let me know your opinion please. i was elated and felt humbled. it is something i am already practicing in my personal life. (j1) kwame b. asare 9 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) referencing what transpired between the head teacher and teachers of her school as basis for giving her response, one teacher had this to say: the next monday after my head teacher returned from the lfl workshop, he called a meeting and briefed us about how things are going to be now. i couldn’t imagine him doing this at earlier times when he either gave us his notes or asked us to read the workshop letter and that’s all. now though, my head teacher is shaping us by the proposed school vision, team approach to dealing with issues, and assigning teachers to other teachers to meet and discuss issues and present our thoughts to him. (j10) another teacher from the same school as teacher j10 indicated that the school climate is a different kind of feeling. he stated that: if i report personal problems to my head teacher, he invites and discusses them with me and offers alternative approaches i could pursue. this makes me feel as human. his approach to doing things now has shaped the way we relate among ourselves in the school. and, everyone seems to be working and not sitting on the fence. even the community members have noticed that. personally, it has affected how i deal with my family members and others. i thank my head teacher. (j9) this other teacher was more specific. accordingly, he stated: my head teacher believes in everybody and tells us we can succeed despite challenges. before long, he will call you and discuss progress and obstacles with you. that makes me think that he has my interest at heart and genuinely wants teachers to improve school standards. (p18) from a similar but a bit detailed perspective, another teacher commented: my head teacher is the epitome of what democracy means. he proposes high standards to be achieved to improve students’ performance and invites views from us as to how that can be achieved. while we raise problems that wouldn’t make it possible to achieve his standards, he offers to help and provide needed resources. on one occasion, he taught me a whole lesson at his office so i could teach it to students with confidence and promised that it should be a matter just for the two of us. i trust and respect my head for his efforts at helping teachers to develop a can-do spirit to improve student learning and to advance the effectiveness of our school (j4). one teacher expressed, “the fact that there are no quarrels among us and everyone does what he or she is supposed to do means that she is leading well, i guess” (p11). although this viewpoint lacks much detail, it portrays a fact of leadership that leaders must ensure that things are performed the way they are supposed to be in the school (nedelcu, 2013). as such it is 10 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) gratifying to observe that teachers are doing what they are supposed to in these schools. this is an indication that the head teacher of the school is modeling good leadership. however, one teacher’s comments gave different perception of idealized influence. it appears that the connotation of idealized influence assumes a voluntary-compulsion dimension, as stated by this teacher: well, there actually is no choice. i have to do as my head requests or risk being punished. since i am not prepared to leave now, i have to behave as if i am following his lead. in reality though i have my reservations. i wish i have a levelplaying field to air my sentiments or an open-minded person to discuss any differences with. now though i am afraid that any attempt to advance my different views would lead to my transfer. (p19) from the comments above, it is observed that basic school head teachers exhibit different behaviors that influence the attitude and behaviors of the teachers in their school. the attitudes and behaviors head teachers exhibit are associated with what they do to identify with and show consideration for the needs of teachers, respect teachers, model proper ways of doing things, make resources available for use, help teachers to solve problems, and communicate freely with teachers. following from this, it is noted that the teachers trust and respect the head teachers and apply their suggestions. however, not all the teachers were satisfied with the leadership behaviors of stls as one teacher lamented that teachers have had to pretend that things are well to protect their jobs. this observation is worrying. this is because any observed gains achieved from coercing people to do things are transient in nature and wane over time (mccleskey, 2014). hence, it is important that attempts are made to allow teachers to freely, but respectfully and professionally advance their divergent opinions in order to identify the most effective way to address teacher concerns and to advance school effectiveness. individualized consideration behaviors of basic school head teachers the transformational leadership dimension of individualized consideration relates to what transformational leaders do to regard but importantly treat each employee as an important person who has contributions to make to advance institutional interests (mccleskey, 2014). this requires transformational leaders to identify the needs and interests of the followers as well as their challenges with the purpose of helping them to overcome any difficulties they might have and to satisfy their interest (mccleskey, 2014; nedelcu, 2013). also, the transformational leader attempts to do things that would enable the followers to develop their potentials so that they can make improved contributions to support institutional efforts. hence, the leader becomes a coach and a mentor so as to encourage and help followers to recognize and polish their potentials for improved performance to reach their own expectations and to attain organizational goals (mccleskey, 2014; washington, sutton, & saucer, 2014). as to whether basic school head teachers behaved in conformity with the aforementioned points to boost teacher morale and improve teachers’ competency, one participant had this to say: kwame b. asare 11 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) my head teacher is encouraging. she gives commendation and when you seem not to be doing your work as expected, she would call you to the office and privately discuss issues with you. by that means, i am able to tell her what might be wrong with me and she offers guidance as to how best to handle matters. (j8) in line with previous research outcomes (chi et. al., 2012), the teachers in this study agreed that transformational leaders support their teachers to enable them to develop their potentials to be able to play roles that advance institutional agenda. this role expectation is connected to the diligence of head teachers, as the comments of the following teachers revealed: my head teacher works very hard to apply rules by the books. so he is supportive to make sure that we the teachers do things according to ges requirements so that when the circuit supervisor or other officers visit the school, no teacher will be found wanting. (p14) for participant j5, his head teacher taught him what real teaching involves. in his words, he said: i learned principles of teaching and did teaching practice while in training. however, my head teacher is the one who has helped me to find joy in teaching and to teach students to love learning. whenever students misbehaved or performed poorly in tests, i would be downhearted. my head teacher noticed this and came to my aid. he would give scenarios of teaching episodes and how different teachers would respond and discuss how i would have responded with me. his suggestions and private tutoring in the office have enabled me to become a competent teacher. i am grateful to him for the personal interest he has shown in me. however, i am a privileged teacher due to the fact that he does not always have the time to do with other teachers as he does to me. perhaps it is because i am newly qualified teacher and the other teachers do not need as much help as i do. (j5) another teacher simply remarked that, “my head teacher is a mentor as she does things i’d love doing if i were the head teacher. it is like being my secret admirer” (p12). it is implied from this teacher’s comment that the head teacher does not know the impact she is making on her teachers by modeling proper ways of doing things and doing them right. another teacher’s comments reveal another perspective of the import of being a living example as a transformational leader. accordingly, this teacher commented: my head teacher models how to do things right in the school. he walks his talks. he knows what it means by if the prince does not fight the war, then the slaves will run away. he is punctual and regular at school, he identifies exemplary teachers and give them prizes, and also finds out from teachers who fail to do things right so as to be able to help them. i know he had issues with some teachers because they would not do what we have agreed upon at staff meetings neither would they explain their stance. appropriately, in my opinion, he had to request for those teachers to leave the school. other than that incident, my six years of 12 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) working with him has been cordial, supportive, and professionally enlightening. i wish i can be like him if i become a head teacher in future. (j9) additionally, the comment by one teacher is insightful. this teacher explained: being a responsible leader, my head teacher wants to know what goes on in the classrooms. he is visible and friendly. he interacts with teachers before the morning assembly and with students as well. he asks questions to understand why we do what we do and asks thought-provoking questions to make us think about how we can do things in different ways to improve on what we do. after that he follows up on us to see if the outcomes are different or the same. and because he is lively and collegial, even though teachers may be doing things wrong, we never feel that he is a faultfinder. he rather helps us to look at ways to improve what we do. with so much work to do in attending to teacher issues, students’ academics, and external pressures, i sometimes wonder how he is able to do all these effectively with all teachers. (p13) from the participant narratives presented above, it is noted that the head teachers of the schools the study participants work in show personal interest in the teachers. also, they were able to identify things that might not go right with the teachers and take the initiative to invite and discuss how they can better handle their challenges. the observation is that those head teachers conduct themselves as leaders who demonstrate the individualized consideration of transformational leadership. they do not focus only on paper work and other administrative duties but show interest in what the teachers do. it seems suggestible that the focus of the head teachers, according to the participants, is to help their teachers to teach well to improve the schools’ effectiveness and student learning by helping the teachers, “to find joy in teaching and to teach students to love learning” (j5) and to support teacher professional development. therefore, as supported by earlier studies (balyer, 2012; lowrey, 2014), basic school head teachers strived to identify the needs and interests of their teachers. however, their heavy workload limited the extent to which they could help teachers. inspirational motivation behaviors of basic school head teachers under inspirational motivation, transformational leaders strive to encourage and inspire their followers to commit to organizational ideals. they do this by communicating very high expectations to followers, involving them in devising effective ways of doing things to advance organizational interests, and through team approach to undertaking activities (balyer, 2012; onorato, 2013). eighteen of the 30 teachers commented at length about what basic school head teachers do to demonstrate inspirational motivation. the teachers described what their head teachers did to maintain teacher commitment in advancing school interests, as observed from one teacher’s comment, “my head teacher verbally encourages us and inspires us to do everything possible to achieve the targets we set for ourselves” (p17). another teacher remarked: our head teacher tries to get us to do things through committees. so there are committees for sport, environment, student and discipline, and examinations among others. these committees meet and report to the entire teachers for further kwame b. asare 13 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) deliberations or questioning. by this means i guess teachers feel empowered and try and do things that align with agreed upon targets. (p16) participant j2 recollected what her head teacher did after he returned from the lfl workshop as follows: my head teacher met the staff. he spelt out plans to advance the way things are done in the school. this means we must know what we want to achieve and then plan to achieve it. my head teacher indicated that the first thing is for us to create a vision and work towards it. collectively, we formed teams to work on how to improve particular facets of the school. in fact, everybody was brought on board and we worked as never before. we critiqued group reports and offered suggestions for improvement. as our head teacher indicated, we became critical friends to each other. (j2) for another teacher, there is an active support from his head teacher. however, in this teacher’s words, more is required beyond head teacher’s support. he said that: my head teacher has been imploring all teachers to actively support school activities. the problem however is that my head teacher wants us to work but there is no incentive package. and, you know, talks alone do not motivate enough. teachers expect to receive financial rewards for putting in extra efforts. you see, in other organizations, people attend meetings and take sitting allowance. why not the teacher? because there is no monetary reward, teachers do not have the interest to exert themselves too much for nothing. hence, the plan to involve all teachers to help improve school functioning has not worked as was expected. (j1) it is noted from the comments by teacher participants that basic school head teachers are making efforts to inspire teachers to commit to school improvement drives by four principal means. these are involvement of teachers in decision making processes, the adoption of team approach to getting teachers to debate and strategize how to improve school functioning, the development and implementation of school vision, and communicating with teachers on what must be accomplished. however, it is implied from these interviews that the issue of inspiring teachers goes beyond what head teachers can do. it involves a broader issue of compensation. thus, despite head teachers’ efforts to encourage teachers to give of their best, their best intentions can be described as not enough as, according to participant j1, “teacher enthusiasm wanes when they do not anticipate immediate monetary rewards.” intellectual stimulation behaviors of basic school head teachers the transformational leader pursues intellectual stimulation by what s/he does to make followers be creative and innovative in what they do. this leader helps followers to challenge their own beliefs, interests, and values and those of the leader to ensure that they do things differently to bring about needed changes in the organization (onorato, 2013; washington et al., 2014). the transformational leader uses questions to help followers to evaluate the rationale for doing things, to stimulate reflective practices, and to solve problems to improve individual and 14 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) organizational performance. s/he also makes needed resources available for employee use, supports them, and works in collaboration with them to make sure that they are resourced and have the morale to work at extending institutional effectiveness (balyer, 2012; onorato, 2013). in this current study, the head teachers were perceived by many teachers as leaders who adopt different approaches to apply the intellectual stimulation dimension of transformational leadership. commenting on what head teachers do to encourage intellectual stimulation, the view of one teacher encapsulated participants’ opinions. he stated: my head teacher does not simply say well done when you have completed a task and reported to him. after carefully considering the report, she would ask, why did you do this or that but not another. to challenge teachers, she would usually come out with a problem and solicit different approaches to addressing it. (p16) the comment by another teacher is intriguing and stimulates reflective practice. he said, “there is nothing more satisfying than a sense of self-accomplishment” (j4). to this teacher, intrinsic motivation constitutes an indispensable part of any attempt to stimulate teachers to be creative and innovative. participant j4 added that: my head teacher tells us that we must exercise self-initiative and try and solve problems as and when we encounter them. so the first question she asks when you present an issue to her is what did you do about it? when we are unable to solve a problem, my head teacher requires that we contact our immediate team leader. all of these are attempts to make us creative and innovative teachers and problem solvers. (j4) another teacher described the problem-solving approach adopted by head teachers, “my head teacher is a problem solver. he is observant and takes the initiative to identify challenges teachers might be grappling with and offers suggestions for dealing with them even though teachers might not have approached him for help” (p6). p6 further described his head teacher as: she is a learner herself. she goes to teachers to teach her how to do things so she could do them on her own. for example, she does not feel shy to ask teachers to teach her how to use the computer to do something. her mantra is be a servant to learn how to do things so that you can later become the boss of the knowledge you gain. by this attitude, my head teacher expects us as teachers to consult with other teachers in thinking about and finding innovative ways of dealing with challenges. (p6) from the opinions of the participants, as reflected by the quotes above, the finding is that the behavior of head teachers as learners, as model problem solvers, and as people who require teachers to problem solve challenges in the classroom instills in teachers the need to be reflective practitioners, innovators, and creative problem solvers in advancing institutional interests. it is observed that teachers perceived basic school head who they work with as open to a variety of ways to do things. also, the head teachers encouraged teachers to take the initiative to personally attend to issues or team up with colleagues for that purpose. additionally, to stimulate teachers kwame b. asare 15 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) to be reflective practitioners, basic school head teachers created mock problems and solicited input from teachers as to how best to solve them. discussion the purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the perceptions of school teachers regarding the transformational leadership behaviors of basic school head teachers in the brong ahafo region of ghana. this purpose stems from the fact that transformational leadership practices are known to influence teachers to want to willingly work to change organizational functioning and improve institutional performance towards achieving institutional effectiveness (balyer, 2012; hauserman & stick, 2013; lowrey, 2014; nash & bangert, 2014; nedelcu, 2013). from the results of the study, several findings were identified. first, under the dimension of idealized influence, basic school head teachers lead by example. for example, they are punctual and regular at school and interacted with teachers and students as to how best to improve school effectiveness. in addition, the head teachers showed interest in the personal and professional needs of their teachers. also, from the narratives by teachers, it was implied that there exists mutual respect between teachers and head teachers. this observation is healthy because transformational leadership thrives on respect and trust that engenders in followers the need to work to exceed their personal expectations to advance institutional interests (mccleskey, 2014). thus, it can be expected that teachers whose head teachers have received training in the lfl program would collaborate with their head teachers to improve teaching and overall functioning of the schools to improve school performance. one core responsibility that leaders of educational institutions have is to ensure that teachers, students, and others contribute to enriching educational experiences to assure quality education delivery (sime & sheridan, 2014). this requires that head teachers influence what is done in the education enterprise. in transformational leadership, one of the qualities that head teachers must pursue is the ability to motivate or inspire teachers to willingly exert consistent effort to improve education delivery (balyer, 2012; hauserman & stick, 2013). in this study, it was observed that teachers perceive their school heads as making efforts to motivate them to work hard to improve education outcomes. however, the efforts by the head teachers were viewed as inadequate to motivate teachers to fully commit to and work tirelessly to exceed expectations. teachers expect to receive monetary incentives for any extra efforts they might have to put into improving school functioning and education outcomes. the importance of individual differences to the personal and professional learning, growth of workers, and improvements in individual performance and organizational functioning cannot be over-emphasized (chi et al., 2012; mccleskey, 2014; nedelcu, 2013). the concept of individual differences relates to the uniqueness of people. this implies that what is implemented to address the individual needs of teachers must directly be based on their unique interests and circumstances (hauserman & stick, 2013). from the findings of this study, head teachers of basic schools catered to the individual needs of teachers. they engage in open communication with teachers to identify challenges to their effectiveness and discuss how teachers can deal with them. they also suggested steps teachers 16 are basic school head teachers transformational leaders? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) might take to overcome their difficulties and to become competent teachers. head teachers’ adoption of management by walking about to not find fault, but to see what support is necessary and how best to assist teachers to effectively overcome barriers that threaten their competencies was noteworthy. this is because the first-hand information they gathered enabled them to determine the most effective strategy as well as how to proceed to reap optimal results (hauserman & stick, 2013; lowrey, 2014). problems unsolved threaten institutional success. this is because unresolved problems prevent effective implementation of planned activities and require that time and other resources that could be used to advance institutional interests be channeled to dealing with them (mccleskey, 2014; washington et al., 2014). therefore, it is imperative that workers are able to identify and swiftly address workplace problems. the intellectual stimulation dimension of transformational leadership is meant to help employees to be creative, innovative problem solvers (chi et al., 2012; mccleskey). in this study, it was observed that basic school head teachers influenced their teachers to creatively solve problems by showing a desire to learn, posed mock problems to teachers to try to come out with effective ways of addressing them, and modeled problem-solving strategies. also, the head teachers questioned the reasons for teachers’ adoption of particular approaches to addressing challenges. all of these prompts instilled in teachers the need to be creative and to find innovative ways to dealing with school-related challenges. however, the observation that teachers must compulsorily do as requested by their head teachers does not support transformational leadership tenets. this is because, in transformational leadership, the positive and collaborative leadership approach results in the willingness of followers to work to exceed their expectations to advance institutional interests (chi et al., 2012; mccleskey, 2014). it therefore behooves education authorities and the organizers of the leadership for learning program to pursue measures to properly educate head teachers to focus on relationship and consensus building as means to winning over dissenting voices rather than adopting voluntary yet compulsory means to make them do as head teachers say. this assertion is vital because forced submission is known to at best result in transient gains, but followed by follower resentment and waned employee commitment to organizational ideals (mccleskey). further, some teachers reported similar leadership behaviors that their head teachers exhibited under different transformational leadership dimensions. for example, the issue of management by walking around, asking questions to understand teachers and to be able to help them, and modeling proper ways to do things were given by different teachers under different dimensions in this study. this observation appears to agree with critics who argue that one criticism against transformational leadership is the lack of clear-cut distinction between or overlap of the various dimensions of the theory of transformational leadership (mccleskey, 2014; washington et al., 2014). conclusions and recommendations the observed influence of transformational leadership practices on teacher commitment, performance, and school functioning impact education outcomes. four transformational leadership dimensions were examined. they are idealized influence, individualized kwame b. asare 17 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 5, no. 1 (2016 edition) consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation. specifically, how teachers perceived the transformational leadership behaviors of head teachers who had attended the leadership for learning workshop in the sunyani metropolis of ghana were explored. from the views expressed by the research participants, it was concluded that basic school teachers in the sunyani metropolis have positive perceptions of the transformational leadership behaviors of their head teachers. however, there were some observations that were not very pleasant. one comment alleged that the leadership behaviors of the head teachers were more of voluntarycompulsion as dissenting views could result in expulsion from the school. as such teachers had no choice, but to do as the head teachers demands. another observation was that whereas head teachers try to motivate their teachers to give their best, teachers are seeking monetary rewards as basis to inspire them to go the extra mile to improve education outcomes. perhaps the time is ripe for education authorities to debate and pursue measures for running schools as business entities whereby calls for accountability are met with financial rewards. the payment of bonuses and sitting allowances could arguably motivate teachers to rise to the occasion or face the reality of being fired in the face of poor performance. future research the present study underscores the need for collaborative efforts between head teachers and teachers to improve school functioning and education outcomes. however, how the perceived collaboration translates to actual school improvement merits investigation. this would provide first-hand data as to the impact of the leadership for learning program in transforming leadership practices in the study site and elsewhere. the qualifications of the head teachers were not sought in this study. it will be interesting to find out how the academic and professional qualifications of basic school head teachers influence their transformational leadership behaviors. finally, attempts to investigate how to deal with the overlaps observed in the transformational leadership dimensions would be laudable to provide insights on the clarity and distinctiveness of the dimensions and to forestall any confusions emanating from the observed overlaps. references balyer, a. 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(9th ed.). englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15363759.2014.904654 http://www.na-businesspress.com/jlaeopen.html school information and communication technology in developing countries: essential considerations for improvement maduakolam ireh winston-salem state university, usa abstract in developing nations, such as many in africa, providing teachers, students and other sc hool personnel with adequate access to information and communications technology (ict) remains a daunting task for schools and education supervising/controlling agencies, such as school boards, school districts, ministries of education. ict funding is difficult to find and prevailing budget practices in developing countries make necessary changes even more difficult to accomplish. finding innovative ways to plan, budget, and fund new and existing ict infrastructure or redirect existing funds into new endeavors remain a daunting challenge to school personnel, especially at a time when new resources for schools appear to be limited. this article discusses considerations teachers and other school personnel, especially in developing nations such as those in africa, should make regarding planning, budgeting and funding ict in order to improve teaching and learning in the 21 st century environment. keywords: school, information, communication, technology, budgeting, planning, funding. introduction in developing nations, such as many in africa, providing teachers, students and other school personnel with adequate access to information and communications technology (ict) remains a daunting task for schools and education supervising and controlling agencies, such as school boards, school districts, and ministries of education. ict is relatively small portion of total school funding, so ict money is difficult to find (kaestner, 2007). in addition prevailing budget practices in developing countries make necessary changes even more difficult to fund and accomplish. this makes proper planning and budgeting of financial resources with which to purchase information communication hardware and software, other devices, and training of personnel very essential. for any effective and efficient school, ict is costly and requires the purchase of expensive equipment and infrastructure, mostly computers and related peripherals, as well as continued expenditures for maintenance and staff training. computers and other peripherals require large expenditures every three to five years, a time frame not usually 2 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) considered in educational planning as few school districts or local education agencies budgetsystems can accommodate such expenditures (schaffhauser, 2012). finding innovative ways to plan, budget, and fund new and existing ict infrastructure or redirect existing funds into new endeavors remain daunting challenges to school personnel, especially at a time when new resources for schools appear to be limited. there is evidence that improved teaching and learning leads to higher quality education for the masses. as such providing quality education helps improve a nation’s level of economic and technological development (abram, 2014; ngware, ciera, musyoka, & oketch, 2015; morton, 1996). this article discusses considerations that teachers and other school personnel, especially in developing nations such as those in africa, should make regarding planning, budgeting and funding ict in order to improve teaching and learning in the 21 st century environment. throughout this discussion, the term “school district” means the local education authority (leas), i.e. school district, school board, ministry of education, etc., that is responsible for education within its jurisdiction. planning considerations to many teachers, school administrators, and school business officials, getting a grip on the complexities of ict administration can be an enormous challenge. this is so because ict systems are unlike most other familiar areas; the topics are very technical and the pieces to the puzzle are obscure. while the specifics of carrying out ict plans may vary widely across schools, the planning process entails several general steps: evaluate the situation; articulate a vision; decide on a mission statement; develop goals; develop a strategic implementation plan, including short and medium-range plans; and set up a procedure for assessment and periodic revision of the plan (bielefeldt, 1997; kaestner, 2007; ritzhaupt, hohlfeld, barron & kemker, 2008; schaffhauser, 2012). the level of detail needed to make good decisions about an ict budget requires business officials to be savvy in their approach to planning, procurement and project management. ritzhaupt et al (2008) and wodarz (1998) outlined key factors that many, including the author, have found very helpful when planning and budgeting technology resources and programs for schools. these are (a) developing a clear ict plan and a structure for decision making, (b) defining roles and responsibilities, (c) understanding technical requirements, (d) acquiring and maintaining proper technology system, (e) providing and managing adequate staff to support the system, (f) overcoming fear, communicating, and connecting technology to the instructional and learning, and (g) evaluating the use of ict. clear technology plan and structure for decision making the first component for success is the development of a clear ict plan, which must set forth the vision for technology use in the school district by defining the current status of ict. it should also include a needs assessment that includes all the areas where ict will be used. the plan should be flexible enough to encompass change as new technologies emerge. a thoughtful plan will provide the structure for decision making throughout the implementation process; squabbles regarding software or hardware will be minimized if the plan is adhered to. this will help ensure that all systems will support one another and share information; and it will also help minimize the isolation of systems across the school district. being able to share information is a valuable asset for teachers and administrators. there is a negative impact on systems that do not work together, i.e., cost increases and problems in efficiency and accuracy. it is also important to purchase scalable systems that will grow with the district's needs and with technological advancement. maduakolam ireh 3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) once a technology plan is in place, then a decision making structure should be established and incorporated it into the plan. it is helpful if the decision makers are experts in their particular areas, e.g. network technicians probably should not choose educational software and teachers should not be making infrastructure decisions. however, the groups should work together because the types of instructional activities to be performed will require specific infrastructure components. one useful method is to convene a standards committee. this committee's responsibility would be to work as a team to develop network, hardware, software, and training or professional development standards. the committee, for example, might determine that all software purchased in the district must run on the windows platform, that all hardware purchased must have a minimum of four to five years warranty, and/or that all computers (servers, desktops, & laptops) must be made with intel or amd processors and from one or two specific manufacturer(s). by developing standards and streamlining the decision-making process, fewer purchasing errors will be made. define roles and responsibilities when it comes to technology purchasing, there are numerous stakeholders whose duties and responsibilities may blur and overlap. defining who is responsible for the various areas of technology purchasing can alleviate much stress and strain during the implementation process. it is important to formally define these areas of responsibilities. before the planning and/or purchasing process begins, be sure to include school board members, curriculum and technology staff, administrators, teachers, contractors and community members. many times we forget to allow these people to play out their roles and to positively reinforce their involvement. success is dependent upon the complete cooperation of those involved. one of school administrators’ responsibilities is to make the participation in ict projects rewarding to shareholders, as well as to value the team's efforts. understand technical requirements because it is very difficult, if not impossible, for even the most adept school administrator to know all about the pieces and parts of complicated network and hardware systems, the purchase of ict systems can be confusing. as we become increasingly dependent upon our technology systems, we cannot afford to choose the wrong system or suffer due to lack of technical support from a company. school administrators or leaders, with the assistance of competent ict personnel, must ensure that the technical requirements for all systems are aligned with both the instructional and administrative systems. the systems must be compatible and support the outcomes for both sides of the educational house. when choosing hardware, specific technical requirements should take into consideration the future ability to upgrade the systems as well as the availability of long-term warranties and support services (vanderlinde & van braak, 2013). the task of choosing new software is also complex. one solution to this problem is to consider purchasing integrated software packages designed to work with one another. even then, data transfer is less than flawless, but it is still better than can be expected from independent packages. it is always a good idea to thoroughly test all new hardware and software systems in the school’s environment, not somewhere else. always remember to ask your technical personnel or advisors "does it really work?". acquire and maintain proper technology systems 4 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) after a thorough understanding of the technical requirements, it is time to determine what funds will be allocated to those purchases. many school districts and/or education-supervising agencies view technology as a capital purchase, much the same as purchasing school buses or classroom furniture. it is common to find that these agencies pay for technology with burrowed or bond monies over a long period of time (sundeen & sundeen, 2013). however, unlike other capital items, technology becomes obsolete in a very short time, yet everyone is still paying for it years after its usefulness has elapsed. it is more fiscally prudent to treat ict as an operating expense. leasing systems may be a viable option for many schools. others may be able to build replacement lines into their operating budgets to avoid lapses in current technology. it is also a good rule of thumb to ensure that the systems purchased today will be adequate in three to five years, with only minor enhancements. one rule of thumb is to always purchase hardware with at least four to five years replacement warranty coverage. consider purchasing standard systems from reputable vendors who will still be in business after the warranties run out. provide and manage adequate staff to support the system after purchasing and installing the new system, maintenance becomes the primary focus. to do this effectively, there must be enough technical staff available to keep the systems functional. finding adequate staff in the current marketplace is very difficult. few schools can offer competitive salaries for technicians, and even fewer can retain the technical staff they do hire. besides less than competitive salaries, technical staff leave schools because they do not receive on-going training or competitive compensation (sundeen & sundeen, 2013). knowing that their skills need to remain current, they move to other organizations that compensate them better and provide on-going technical training. in addition to hiring fulltime technical staff, take creative approaches to staffing such as hiring secondary or technical school graduates and training and retaining them on a part-time basis. many schools think the only way they can maintain their computer systems is to hire their own staff (levin & schrum, 2014). this can prove to be the most costly and inefficient means of keeping the school’s ict functional. consider service options, some of them are quite useful. for example, use the warranties that come with the systems, especially if the purchase is from a reputable manufacturer. there is a small amount of paperwork required, but it will provide years of service that will serve as the first line of defense when the systems go awry. the second option is to consider working with contracted services. an increasingly large number of companies are beginning to offer maintenance contracts to schools and/or government agencies that have control over school ict (scigliano & hundley, 2012). they are sensitive to the unique needs of schools and will work with the school system to create a maintenance profile that will fit your needs. even with the appropriate staff and technology, it is still necessary to manage the installation of the systems and their upkeep. it is helpful to have regular meetings with the people involved in the project, to assign tasks and to follow up on their completion. one project management technique used in other areas but relevant here is to set critical benchmarks and track progress until everything is completed. as part of the planning process, be sure to allocate human and financial resources carefully and allow for adequate (ranging from a few months to a year) system testing and training for all the users. maduakolam ireh 5 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) overcome fear, communicate and connect technology to instruction and learning fear is one of the greatest impediments to ict implementation. users are afraid that the new system will negatively affect their ability to do their jobs. many are concerned that the technology will replace them, while others are fearful that it will take them too long to learn to use the new system. the most effective way to overcome these fears is to offer comprehensive training programs. if the staff is knowledgeable regarding the implementation process and is comfortable using the new technology, their fears will be minimized dramatically. communication is usually the key factor in the success or failure of every endeavor. ict implementation is no different. the ict plan should define specific avenues for both internal and external communications. when the key stakeholders are aware of the decision-making process and the progress of the project, they are much more likely to be supportive. as technology is purchased to be used as instructional tool, school administrators need to be certain it supports the designated learning outcomes for students. anything short of that will be counter-productive and unacceptable by the stakeholders. children come to school to learn a wide variety of skills and concepts. it is our job as educational leaders to provide the tools for them to be successful. the most important aspect of infusing ict into the instructional program is training teachers to be effective users of the available systems. if instructional specialists are not using the current systems to their maximum potential, there is little likelihood that funding agencies will continue to invest in new technologies. it is everyone's responsibility to ensure that any technology used in the school can be justified by the positive impact it has on students’ achievements. evaluate the use of technology the people who most actively support public education are most interested in what technology can do for their children and how it is being used in the classrooms to help their children improve and become the best they can be. therefore, be careful to explain how the technology that was purchased will impact the education their children receive. the effects of technology on learning and teaching are not necessarily quantitative in nature. budget considerations cost considerations. many ict advocates have long argued for a standing appropriation for ict in school budgets. various proportions have been suggested, from 2 percent of per-pupil expenditure to about 15 percent of per-pupil expenditures (johnson, 2012; keltner & ross, 1996; morton, 1996; ritzhaupt et al, 2008; thornburg, 1994). the exact amount will vary with the state, community and school, but the argument is that technology requires an ongoing investment (johnson, 2012). school personnel responsible for making ict budget decisions should estimate the total cost involved when purchasing technology and computers, wiring the school, connecting classrooms and/or the entire school to the internet, etc—a concept known in the business world as total cost of ownership (tco). tco assessment helps organizations make intelligent purchasing decisions for products that require installation, training and support (picus, 1998; schaffhauser, 2012). it includes all costs involved in operating and maintaining all technology equipment and resources, including network systems. it is traditionally used by businesses to help control costs and make strategic decisions. for schools, as is true for businesses, calculating and assessing tco should become an important 6 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) part of ongoing school technology budget planning. the analysis will assist in factoring in the major decisions and expenses required to prepare for beyond the cost of the hardware. total cost of ownership (tco) analysis support costs. has the district adequately budgeted for staff to maintain the network and other hardware and to help others solve software and hardware problems? one of the thorniest issues schools face is how to provide adequate support for their networks and technology equipment and resources scattered all over the buildings in the school system. this generally concerns staff and tools to keep computers, networks, and other technology devices and resources operating efficiently and effectively. it also involves additional dedicated staff to help teachers and other school personnel learn how to integrate technology in the classroom and support-service offices. professional development costs. has the school district budgeted adequate amount (derived from tco) for staff training, including the cost of trainers, materials and substitutes if training is conducted during school hours? the budget item that arguably is most critical to a school system’s ability to achieve its ict goals is staff development (johnson, 2012; schaffhauser, 2012). if teachers and other staff members do not understand how to use new technologies and incorporate them into the classroom or office/service functions, a school’s ict investment will not achieve its desired results. inadequate staff training will lead to under-utilization of computers and technology resources—and a loss of return on a district’s investment in technology. software costs. has the school or controlling state agency adequately budgeted for network management software, computer-based curriculum materials, applications and productivity software, and the software needed to adapt technology to the special needs of users? many calculations of the costs of networking schools provide only for basic application software and not the costs of software that could be considered purely instructional or part of the budget for curriculum materials (hawkes, 1998). the shift to digital learning requires schools to be committed to true integration and creating new learning models to improve academic performance (schaffhauser, 2012). requisite for that shift is an inventory of digital content clearly linked to specific performance standards and a well-managed deployment of software across the school system. replacement costs. has the school adequately budgeted to cover the costs of replacing computers and other peripherals? when installing dozens of new multimedia computers or a robust network, it’s easy to forget that the day will come when hardware will need to be replaced. computers, servers, networking equipment, software, and peripherals have a life cycle of three to five years, depending on the equipment or software and how it is used (ramaswami, 2008). planning for these life cycles should begin with the initial purchase and installation. connectivity costs. has the school, district or state agency adequately budgeted to cover costs involved with connecting schools to each other and to the internet? schools may decide they can afford to purchase only a certain level of connectivity. however, there will be a tradeoff in terms of the speed with which students and staff can communicate, connect to the internet, and download graphic and video-intensive files. this, in turn, could have an impact on how staff members and students spend their available time. maduakolam ireh 7 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) retrofitting costs. when the district is ready to build a network, has it adequately budgeted to upgrade electrical capacity; improve heating, cooling and ventilation systems; beef up security systems; and remove asbestos and lead found in older buildings? it is hard to predict a formula to help determine how much you will have to spend to wire existing buildings. the best time to wire a school is obviously when it is under construction, or in the case of an existing building, when it is being renovated or expanded. retrofitting is not traditionally part of total cost of ownership (tco) analysis, but it is a cost that schools frequently face and sometimes fail to anticipate (mcintire, 2004). calculating technology cost regardless of the role ict plays in a school system, appropriate school personnel should know the costs associated with ict, understand the consequences of technology purchases and be able to measure the benefits of ict so they can make more informed decisions. however, determining costs and benefits of current technology or proposed projects is difficult because the value of ict for education is viewed differently than for businesses. for example, businesses use processes like return on investment and net present value to project costs and benefits of proposed projects with an eye to increasing bottom-line or top-line dollars. in contrast, educators focus on addressing non-monetary goals and mandates such as improved student performance, equity and 21st century skills (ritzhaup et al, 2008). and unlike businesses in the corporate world, rural school districts must answer to constituent concerns over expenditures. school district personnel can better understand current ict costs and more easily determine the value of proposed projects using a couple of valuable tools: total cost of ownership (tco) and value of investment (vi). total cost of ownership for technology is a method for determining all of the costs associated with implementing and maintaining computers and networks (mcintire, 2004). once tco is determined, teachers and/or school personnel will be in a better position to make decisions concerning overall efficiency and plans for the future. the tco methodology examines three major cost categories: annualized technology costs, direct labor, and indirect labor: annualized technology costs are the amortized costs of client desktop/laptop computers and devices, network equipment, servers, software, printers, supplies and external service providers. direct labor costs are the district's burdened costs for all personnel who have responsibility for buying, implementing, maintaining and managing the technology infrastructure. those with parttime responsibility are counted for the portion of their time assigned. teachers and other school staff who provide technical support as well as any outsourced services should also be included. indirect labor costs reflect the time users spend in training and dealing with system and application issues that affect productivity. while indirect labor is not a line item in the budget, loss of productivity represents a real cost to the school system. resulting tco metrics such as per client-computer costs, number of computers per support staff and number of students per available computer also can help measure and allocate resources for improved efficiency, improve the budgeting process and make more informed decisions concerning planned ict initiatives (mcintire, 2004). 8 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) total cost of ownership answers the question, what is my ict infrastructure costing me, while value of investment answers the question, which way should we go (kaestner, 2007). while there is no one “right” set of numbers for tco, the tco tool allows a district to evaluate its own decisions over time. it took many years for businesses to learn the language of total cost of ownership; now school administrators have the opportunity to build on that experience to suit the requirements of their own environment. once school administrators better understand the true costs associated with ict, they will be better equipped to protect their district’s significant investment in ict, as well as be better able to evaluate whether ict is truly serving the district’s educational goals. tco analysis resource there are several organizations that serve as tco analysts. one of these is gartner and the consortium for school networking (cosn), a non-profit organization that serves in education technology leadership, provides a web-based tco tool designed to help schools and school districts make sound budgetary decisions, conduct technology planning in an organized way, establish a baseline for future analysis and maximize benefits from their investments in technology. this smart budgeting tool, funded by the u.s. department of education and sponsored by the north central regional technology in education consortium (ncrtec, 1996) at the north central regional educational laboratory (ncrel), presents a framework for looking at tco issues in the school setting. for developing countries, they will want to invest access to similar analysts and cost analysis software. unesco may provide updated information on such resources. the online tool is a vendor-neutral, free resource available to help schools and districts manage their computer networks in a cost-effective way. another factor to consider in budgeting is the time required to implement systemic change. simply installing technology, for example wiring a school or installing smart board in all classrooms, can be accomplished in a short period. actually integrating that technology in instruction will take years—perhaps three to five. this has implications for the length of financial commitment as well as for evaluation. teachers and students will need time to incorporate the new technology tools into school activities, especially instruction and learning. funding considerations categorical funds. schools tend to fund technology purchases through non-regular revenue sources including categorical program funds or grants (lovitt, 2004; ramaswami, 2008). categorical funds are often problematic for schools to finance ict because they usually come with restrictions on their use, specify which students receive the benefit, focus specifically on the acquisition of technology, and usually don't provide funds for maintenance and operation of the equipment or resource once it is in place. additionally, these programs often provide one-time funding, leaving schools to find their own financial resources to pay for replacement when the equipment resource wears out. while categorical funds are welcomed and remain one reliable funding source, schools would be better served if they found other ways to budget for routine replacement of computers, peripherals and other infrastructure needs on a regular basis. two approaches for doing this seem helpful, although not widely used by schools. the first is the creation of a "revolving fund" for such purchases and the second is closer articulation between administrative and instructional computing systems (tetreault & lanich, 2007). maduakolam ireh 9 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) revolving funds. the average computer purchased for use in a school probably has a useful life of three to five years. budget procedures in many school districts do not reward schools for saving resources in one year to make large purchases in the next year. as a result, schools often are unable to make a large coordinated purchase of computers and associated equipment at one time, i.e., replacing a computer lab once it has become old or obsolete. the revolving fund concept makes great sense, especially for large purchases, such as computers, that occur on a regular but non-annual basis. for example, consider a school system or school district with eight elementary schools that wants to support a computer lab of 25 stations in each school. it estimates that each lab's computers need to be replaced once every four to five years. the school district will have to establish a revolving fund of say the equivalent of $140,000 a year. this fund would then be used to completely replace the labs in two schools each year, thus establishing a 4-year replacement cycle and ensuring that each school's computing facility is filled with similar hardware, software, peripherals, etc. the labs would function more smoothly with fewer problems related to the difficulties of networking different computers with different capabilities. schools would know exactly when the computers in their labs are to be replaced. although capital spending across the eight schools would not be equitable on a year-to-year basis, equity over the lifetime of the computers in the labs would be maintained. this revolving fund approach could also be applied to the provision of professional development services and other school technology reform efforts that require one-time or non-annual expenditures. linking administrative and instructional technologies. another approach is to provide a closer link between instructional and administrative uses of technology resources. for example, at the new american schools project in los angeles, each teacher has been given a "creation station." the creation station is a laptop computer that has a number of instructional and instruction authoring programs to help teachers improve their day-to-day teaching and help them integrate technology into the curriculum (espey, 2000; johnson, 2012). the creation stations also contain student management software that teachers use to monitor student performance and attendance. each station is linked to a central network in the school where the teacher uploads the routine student management information required by the school and district administration. by linking all of a teacher's responsibilities to the one computer, it is possible to keep track of teacher work, student progress and other matters related to district management. annual operating expenses another, and often overlooked, consideration in budgeting for technology is finding the funds and resources for the annual operating expenses of the systems that will be or have been put in place. expenditures in this category include personnel to manage the technology system and repair the equipment, staff development, new software acquisition and updating, equipment replacement and parts for repair, potential costs for an internet service provider, among others. to sustain these operating expenditures, the school district must have the ability to generate large amounts of new revenue on a continuing basis. one solution is to train and equip one or more teachers to assume the management and upkeep responsibilities. such teachers will have, as part of their incentive, limited teaching loads or responsibilities compared to regular teachers. they are encouraged to attend conferences and workshops to continuously update their knowledge and skills and be current with trends in technology, their uses and integration into school activities, and effective models for planning and 10 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) implementing technology professional development. such teachers in turn plan and implement necessary technology professional development for other teachers and administrators on the use and integration of technology in various aspects of school activities. to support these responsibilities, administrators may need to adjust school schedules, teacher assignments, budget priorities, and substitute policies. however, in schools where the number of teaching personnel is determined by the pupil-toteacher ratio, using teachers for ict functions outside of the regular classroom has direct implications for everyone in the school, possibly leading to larger average class size. consequently, it is important that school decision makers believe and convey to other members of staff that the benefits of a new technology and such arrangement outweigh the costs of larger classes for other teachers. cost-saving solutions one cost-effective solution is the adoption of "webware"—a term that describes a broad range of bundled products and services that are provided over the internet, such as online banking, e-mail, school web site management, electronic forms, online purchasing, virtual learning environments, parent-teacher conference scheduling, etc. webware eliminates overhead cost and frees technology staff to focus on mission-critical systems and on the all-important human side: directly supporting teaching and learning (doe, 2007; raymond, 2010). it helps streamline common information management tasks, such as handling school forms. its form builders enable nontechnical staff to put forms online in a way that eliminates paper, photocopying, printing, postage costs, envelopes, mailings and data entry by staff thereby resulting immediate and potentially significant cost savings. several of these webware tools offer schools a way to realize immediate returns on this investment. another means for schools to prudently save on technology funds is to take advantage of the range of free, open-source technology options available. for example, in a 32,000-student forsyth county schools in cumming, georgia, usa, the district's chief of technology and information, saved $300,000 by replacing microsoft office with open office, free software available online that does much the same thing. the district also reviewed its software subscriptions to see whether some were duplicative or not being used. by doing this, a middle school math-simulation program that contained many of the same tools as a k-12 math program the district already had was let go, saving $55,000. there is also virtualization. virtualization saves on equipment purchases and is very energy-efficient (raymond, 2010). a typical pc requires 110 watts of electricity, while virtual computer can draw as little as a single watt. with virtual computers, it may cost less to heat computer labs since the machines don't run hot. today’s improved and more powerful virtual pcs, readily available virtualization software, and falling technology prices have allowed even rural and smaller schools to tap in to powerful technology equipment. sourcing technology funds no funding organization wants to give away money to an institution with no vision (lovitt, 2004). thus, the only way to successfully and deservingly secure outside funding for ict is through a clear vision of how those educational technologies will be used within classrooms and how those funds will jump-start and support school improvement initiatives (abram, 2014). the first step is to establish an advisory group to develop a long-term technology plan. the group should be diverse, including administrators, teachers, parents, community members, students, and representatives from local businesses and colleges. this diversity creates an open forum for maduakolam ireh 11 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) sharing ideas and establishes a network to find out about funding opportunities. the next step is for the advisory group to develop a technology plan that will serve as a road map, establishing needs and setting parameters. an effective plan should cover a period of two to five years and include such components as infrastructure, hardware, networks, curriculum-related software, and student information systems, as well as technology training, service, and maintenance. the plan should focus on desired outcomes and the applications needed to achieve them, not on the technology itself. ict goals should relate to student achievement and include an evaluation component to show a return on the investment. matching needs to funding sources finding ict funding begins with a review of the ict plan to determine specific needs. the advisory group should generate and prioritize a list of needs related to student achievement before seeking input for possible solutions. with clearly defined needs and well-researched solutions, the advisory group is prepared to look for funding sources to match their needs. it is also helpful to prepare a funding profile of the school that includes the number of students, student characteristics (i.e., ethnic mix, number of students receiving free or reduced-cost lunches), and a description of the school's facilities and educational programs. ict funding is available from two basic sources: reoccurring and non-reoccurring funding. reoccurring funding includes local and state taxes, bonds, or levies; school operating budgets; capital outlay for equipment or renovations; legislative formulas, such as title i; instructional textbook funds earmarked for software or online content subscriptions; and district monies for maintenance and repairs. non-reoccurring funding includes competitive grants and special funding opportunities, especially as they relate to school reform, innovative programs, and staff development; business and community partnerships; university, state, and private agencies; and parent and business donations. the power of research the group should begin the search for funding by tracking international, federal, state, local, and private funding sources. utilize resources that monitor education legislation and identify government agencies, foundations, and other organizations (international and/or local) that make technology grants to elementary, middle, and high/secondary schools. the u.s. department education’s web site, www.ed.gov, is an excellent source for ict funding information, although most of it is targeted for u.s. schools. unesco’s communication and information sector, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/about-us/ provides information on strategies for government allocation of funding and international partners (non-profits and communication technology companies) who work to assist developing countries improve the ict infrastructures. here are some tips that can help to find private sector funding: ask staff, board members, and parents if they know foundation or corporate representatives personally; contact past donors in your school district; obtain access to the state foundation directory; and research the purposes and funding patterns of area foundations and corporations. finally, consider submitting a grant application to a foundation after you receive federal and/or state funding to supplement your program. this will help strengthen the match opportunity and improve your opportunities for more technology funding. schools should also consider the following avenues for external funding and support for school technology: technology levies, technology fees, and community groups and partnership donations. javascript:%20void%200; http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/about-us/ 12 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) technology levies. although levies allocated specifically for technology do provide other avenues for support beyond grants and bonds, they also carry the same major drawback--they are one-time allocations for technology, regardless of the number of years they may span. if planned well, these funds can jump-start technology-based school improvement efforts and initiatives. without long-range planning, however, they allow the district to put off determining how they will fund those initiatives beyond the scope and timeline of the levy. technology fees. an increasing number of school districts are charging technology fee during enrollment or within specific courses that heavily utilize technology to help support the growing cost of maintenance and related consumables. these fees may vary tremendously depending on what they are designed to support. community, group, and partnership donations. creating a greater sense of community can have its advantages, such as community, group, and partnership donations. many of these groups hold fundraising activities throughout the academic year and are willing to support school improvement efforts. most support the vision and benefits of educational technologies, and simply want to know their donations will go to a good cause. donations can be anything from monetary hardware to professional development, depending upon the donor. managing technology funds develop local solutions and strategies for addressing critical areas within funding technologybased projects. these should be established early within the planning and development stages so that the information can be incorporated into the actual application of grants, bonds, and other funding opportunities. the solutions and strategies should cover hardware, software, infrastructure, maintenance and support services, and professional development. typically, hardware is the main focus of technology funding, and includes computer workstations and peripherals such as scanners and printers. in many cases it also includes fileservers, backup systems, and other behind-the-scenes equipment. though they can vary tremendously within projects and among school districts, hardware costs usually make up approximately 50 percent of the overall technology expenditures (johnson, 2012). software most often includes packages at the workstation level, but should also include those at the server level, like networking software and backup software. traditionally, for every $10 spent on hardware, $3 or about 15 percent of the total budget will be spent on software for that hardware. infrastructure can be wiring (network and electrical) and/or networking components (such as switches, hubs, and routers). when a bond, grant, levy, or any referendum funds new building projects or additions, it is important to include the cost of technology infrastructure in the overall cost of the project. it should be assessed within any outstanding project, as major classroom alterations may be in order. a reasonable plan is to allow $1 (or possibly more, depending on the structure and age of your buildings) per square foot for technology infrastructure (doe, 2007; raymond, 2010). this will usually cover the cost of wiring, switches, and routers, although careful inspection and attention to details is critical. because infrastructure costs are so maduakolam ireh 13 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) dependent on the current state and condition of the building, electrical status, composition of internal walls and ceilings, and many other factors, technology infrastructure is often set aside from the overall model of funding for technology. maintenance and support services must be included because of the fact that technology in schools is often outdated the very moment it is installed. what's worse, ict will inevitably break down and need repairs. as such, maintenance and support services can be described as the repairs, upgrades, and services required to keep existing technologies in proper working condition throughout a reasonable lifespan. for every $10 spent on hardware, expect to spend an additional $2 on maintenance and support services, or roughly 10 percent of the overall total budget allocated for technology funding. ict-based professional development funding should be tied to the overall professional development program, but should not be bound by it. it is also a critical component of the overall funding process, as it is most often overlooked or underestimated by schools and districts. more projects are apt to fail and the blame aced on the technology itself, when the actual culprit is poor or inattentive planning. for every $10 typically spent on hardware, expect to spend another $5 on professional development for the hardware and software, accounting for up to 25 percent of the total budget allocated for technology funding. conclusion although gains have been made in the improvement of ict resources in many school districts in africa, the full impact of such gains has only been seen in a small portion of classrooms. this is due in part to administrative and organization factors at the district-level. understanding the full range of costs associated with technology investments will assist school leaders in planning for the future. a number of guides to the technology planning process exist to help with these district-level decisions. an ict planning committee should begin by identifying the school’s or district's vision for learning, and then determine how technology can support that vision. after this, the committee should begin the process of needs assessment, goal setting, and action planning. the ict plan should not focus only on hardware acquisition, resembling a shopping list of the latest fads, without apparent thought to integration into teaching and learning. above all, curriculum and pedagogy must drive the technology plan and its uses in order to ensure that purchases will have long-term value in the face of constant price/performance improvements. as schools procure ict equipment and network them together, totaling the amount spent on hardware is merely the beginning of the total dollars needed for the effective use of the technology purchases. such procurement cost is but one small part of the expenses schools can expect in subsequent years if they are going to effectively use those technology-based resources. providing computers and software only through occasional bond measures leaves the technology vulnerable to breakdowns, obsolescence from lack of maintenance, and disuse from lack of staff training. it is important that school administrators, especially in rural school systems, should view ict funding as a process rather than an event; utilize their technology plan as a road map; and use the power of research to match their needs with funding sources. references 14 school information and communication technology in developing countries _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) abram, s. (2014). preparing our schools for the byod world. internet@schools, 21(2), 10-12. bielefeldt, t. (1997). systemic planning for technology. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 402686) doe, c. (march/april 2007, 2007). a look at…secondary-level software and webware. multimedia & internet@schools, 14(2), 21-25. espey, l. (2000). technology planning and technology integration: a case study. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 444467) hawkes, m. (1998). funding a technology network in your school. schools in the middle, 7(5), 24-28. johnson, d. (january, 2012). stretching your technology dollar. educational leadership, 30-33. kaestner, r. (2007, may). gauging technology: costs and benefits. school administrator, 64(5), 28-33. keltner, b., & ross, r. l. (1996). the cost of school-based educational technology programs. santa monica, ca: the rand corporation, critical technologies institute. levin, b. b., & schrum, l. (2014). lessons learned from secondary schools using technology for school improvement. journal of school leadership, 24(4), 640-665. lovitt, j. w. (january, 2004). successful strategies for saving & securing technology funding. t h e journal, 31(6), 38-41. mcintire, t. (april, 2004). enough to go around? budget and tco tool kit. technology & learning, 24(9), 32-37. morton, c. (1996). the modern land of laputa: where computers are used in education. phi delta kappan, 77(5), 416-419. ngware, m. w., ciera, j., musyoka, p. k., & oketch, m. (2015). quality of teaching mathematics and learning achievement gains: evidence from primary schools in kenya. educational studies in mathematics, 89(1), 111-131. north central regional technology in education consortium. (1996). guiding questions for technology planning. oak brook, il: north central regional educational laboratory (ncrel). picus, l. o. (1998, october). budgeting for technology in schools. school business affairs, 1828. ramaswami, r. (2008). a tight squeeze. the journal, 35(10), 31-36. javascript:__dolinkpostback('','mdb~~eft%7c%7cjdb~~eftjnh%7c%7css~~jn%20%22internet%40schools%22%7c%7csl~~jh',''); javascript:__dolinkpostback('','ss~~au%20%22levin%2c%20barbara%20b.%22%7c%7csl~~rl',''); javascript:__dolinkpostback('','ss~~au%20%22schrum%2c%20lynne%22%7c%7csl~~rl',''); javascript:__dolinkpostback('','mdb~~eft%7c%7cjdb~~eftjnh%7c%7css~~jn%20%22journal%20of%20school%20leadership%22%7c%7csl~~jh',''); maduakolam ireh 15 _____________________________________________________________________________________ ajote vol. 4, no. 2 part ii (fall 2014/spring 2015) raymond, j. (september, 2010). supporting technology in an era of budget cuts. school administrator, 67(8), 48-49. ritzhaupt, a. d., hohlfeld, t. n., barron, a. e., kemker, k. (december, 2008). trends in technology planning and funding in florida k-12 public schools. international journal of education policy & leadership, 3(8), 1-17. schaffhauser, d. (february/march, 2012). ease the budget burden. the journal, 29-34. scigliano, m., & hundley, p. (nov/dec. 2012). consider this: making smart tech funding decisions. leadership, 42(2), 20-21. sundeen, t. h., & sundeen, d. m. (2013). instructional technology for rural schools: access and acquisition. rural special education quarterly, 32(2), 8-14. tetreault, d. r., & lanich, j. s. (2007). technology for learning: regional inventory analysis 1996-07. los angeles, ca: los angeles county office of education. thornburg, d. (1994). education in the communication age. san carlos, ca: starsong publications. vanderlinde, r., & van braak, j. (2013). technology planning in schools: an integrated research-based model. british journal of educational technology, 44(1), 14-18. wodarz, n. (1998, january). avoiding a technology disaster: the dirty dozen. school business affairs, 61-63. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9. no. 2 2020 pages 62-89 personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedback oyebode stephen oyetoro,†1bosede abimbola adesina & tolulope segun eyebiokin department of arts and social science education, faculty of education, awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria abstract this study investigated how epistemic and learning approaches of pre-service teachers (presets) in obafemi awolowo university, southwestern nigeria, predict their use of strategies to counteract cognitive dissonance arising from incongruent feedback from supervisors. the study adopted the descriptive survey research design. the population comprised 192 presets in the third and fourth year of their teacher training. findings revealed that the presets possessed sophisticated personal epistemic approaches and utilised the deep approach to learning more than the surface approach. it was also revealed that the presets are likely to utilise multiple strategies to counteract cognitive dissonance that may arise from conflicting feedback from university assigned supervisors during teaching practice. findings revealed a function with coefficients as follows: deep approach (0.78), simple knowledge (0.21), surface approach (0.22), innate ability (-0.015), quick learning (-0.09), omniscient authority (0.17) and certain knowledge (0.24). the structure was maximised for 77% of presets with high use of strategies to counteract dissonance arising from incongruent supervisors’ feedback; 36.7% and 67.6% of presets with moderate and low dissonance reduction strategy users respectively. the conclusion reached was that teacher educators and other stakeholders should be made aware of these findings. also, these findings should be incorporated in the implementation of course contents on sources of cognitive dissonances during teaching practice and how to counter them. †oyetoro oyebode stephen (corresponding author) e-mail: soyetoro@oauife.edu.ng orcid: 0000-0002-7515-6806 mailto:soyetoro@oauife.edu.ng personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 63 keywords: cognitive dissonance, epistemological beliefs, learning approaches, pre-service teachers, personal epistemic approaches, teaching practice. introduction the importance of teaching practice exercise to the professional identity, competence, teaching beliefs and attitude of pre-service teachers (presets) has been indicated in teacher education research (hollingsworth, 1989; adeleke, adesina, salami & adebayo, 2011; jaimes, 2013; zhao & zhang, 2017). teaching practice is an integral component of initial teacher education that exposes presets to the cognitive overload they would often experience as teachers. one of the goals of the teaching practice exercise is, therefore, the alignment of presets’ teaching and learning beliefs with best practices in pedagogy. another goal which is accomplishable through an organised supervision process is the counteraction of misrepresentations that may occur between supervisors’ feedback and presets’ cognition, attitude and beliefs. the organisation and implementation of the teaching practice is, however, fraught with a lot of challenges. recent research findings conclude that the teaching practice exercise is insufficient in building the bridge between theory and practice and in meeting teacher trainees’ expectations about teaching and the teaching profession (gursoy, 2013; akyeampong, ampiah, fletcher, kutor, & sokpe, 2000). the challenges of the teaching practice programme are related to factors like inadequate planning and implementation time vis-à-vis considerations for the teaching schedules of cognate units and departments, inadequate funding for the payment of emoluments to university supervisors and teacher collaborators at the local schools, apathy of teacher trainees and trainers, the use of non-specialist university supervisors in the supervision of teacher trainees, and the neglect of local school teachers who collaborated to supervise the trainees (onyebukwa-nwanoro, 2017). other challenges are related to teachers at the schools who assist with the supervision who are not trained to support and guide students (sethusha, 2014; onyebukwa-nwanoro, 2017) or else there was ambivalence in the role expected of them, and teacher trainees often lacked real avenues to recount and reflect on their experiences for the improvement of the teaching practice programme (gursoy, 2013). sometimes the challenge was in the inappropriate and stale assessment formats used (smith, 2010 in chimhenga, 2017). all these challenges influence how oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 64 teacher trainees perceive the teaching profession and the performance of their future roles as teachers. however, a significant number of problems in the implementation of teaching practice are attributed to supervisors (gursoy, 2013; sethusha, 2014; chimhenga, 2017). university assigned supervisors are expected to provide regular on-site observations of student teachers’ teaching performance and help student teachers to develop lesson plans which encourage an activity-based approach (tessa, n.d.). they are also expected to assess the student teacher’s performance based on pre-established teacher performance standards, interact with student teachers about their teaching experience and their progress, analyse the student teacher’s logbook/diary, conduct seminar classes to prepare student teachers for the teaching practice exercise and evaluate the success of their teaching during the exercise. the poor performance of these roles by supervisors most especially in sub-saharan african countries seems to account for the growing number of literature on the need for, and how to use clinical supervision and communication approaches that are collaborative and non-directive in teaching practice in these countries (centre for teaching, n.d.; strieker, adams, cone, hubbard & lim, 2016). the primary task expected of supervisors is the generation of feedback to the teaching practice committee, other supervisors and the pre-service teachers themselves. the feedback is to be used to improve deficiencies in presets learning outcomes. in other words, these stakeholders want to know the extent to which the presets have been able to meet prior determined expectations. however, studies have revealed that the feedback received by presets are insufficient and sometimes negate the principles and practice of effective teaching that they have learnt in teaching methodology classes. spear, lock and mcculloch’s (1997) exploratory study established that mentors rarely reflect on the purpose of feedback and often fail to tailor the nature of the feedback to the needs of the student teachers. in the same vein, brett, fitzallen, kilpatrick and reynolds (2018) recently observed incoherence in the style of reporting the performances of presets by assigned teacher educators and absence of links between feedback and learning outcomes expected of the teaching of presets. they concluded that this lack of coherence in the style of reporting and learning outcomes expected of teachers are capable of undermining the gains of teaching practice. the experiences of the researchers as tutors in the field of pedagogy include presets in nigeria reporting to them the incongruence between what personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 65 they were taught in pedagogy/teaching methodology classes and the feedback given by their assigned supervisors. for instance, informal feedback from presets revealed that presets who have been taught to generally use reinforcements such as clapping to motivate students in methods classes will consider incongruent, feedback from a supervisor to the effect that clapping should be used sparingly in a class comprising adolescents. this incongruent feedback needs to be countered with the explanation that clapping as reinforcement does not work well with students of this group and if used frequently, may become monotonous and cease to be a motivator. until these corrective counter narratives are provided, the incongruent feedback would continue to destabilise the knowledge the presets learned in the methods class. also, presets who have been using the verb ‘familiar’ in the construction of their students’ entry behaviour/previous knowledge which has gone uncorrected by previous supervisors do consider incongruent feedback from a supervisor who informs them that ‘familiar’ is a verb that is rather ambiguous for the sake of crafting specific and measurable entry behaviour/previous knowledge (oyetoro, 2020). the incongruent feedback received from university assigned supervisors creates dissonance in the cognitive processes of the presets. how much dissonance is generated by the influx of incongruent feedback depends on the strength of the cognition held and whether the feedback is consistent with presets generative cognition which is the most resistant to change (e. harmon-jones, c. harmon-jones & levy, 2015). clearly put, generative cognition refers to the one cognitive element against which everything is determined to be consonant or dissonant (stone, 1998). it is the cognition a person holds that is most resistant to being changed and could be an attitude or future commitment (e. harmon-jones, et al., 2015). in this instance, the generative cognition is the prior lessons and instructions that presets had received in teaching methodology courses. it also includes feedback from prior teaching practice exercises (for those who are in their third year of training and those who had undergone the national certificate in education programme) before the commencement of their present teaching practice. it is important that the generative cognition should be appropriate cognitive inputs. the cognitive dissonance theory explains that when two or more elements of cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are relevant to each other but inconsistent with one another are held by an individual (harmon-jones, 2012), that individual would seek to counteract the dissonance through a variety of behaviours. oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 66 unresolved cognitive dissonance has negative effects on the attitude and disposition of presets towards teaching as a profession and on their development of teacher agency. however, its timely resolution could initiate meaningful learning experiences for presets on their journey to becoming professional teachers (hansen, 2001). when cognitive dissonance is triggered by the incongruent feedback from assigned supervisors, a dissonance counteracting process by presets via the use of a variety of techniques should follow. one of these techniques includes the application of the principles of clinical supervision which requires that presets first discuss the dissonant feedback with their assigned supervisors. unfortunately, in nigeria this does not usually happen due to factors like high presets/supervisor ratio, assigned supervisors and supervisees’ limited knowledge of the clinical supervision process, and socio-cultural inhibitions that considers presets querying of supervisors’ feedback to be disrespectful. rather than consult with supervisors who are the source of this form of cognitive dissonance, presets fear that supervisors’ reaction might result in lowered grade outcome often made them overlook supervisor-induced dissonance. the findings of a pilot study by oyetoro and eyebiokin (2018) indicated that presets chose alternative dissonance resolution techniques, including discussing the conflict with other presets; discussing with faculty members other than the assigned supervisors; reading articles, journals and other texts on the area of dissonance, etc. it was also observed that some presets rationalised the dissonant feedback and accommodated them into their cognitive schemata (oyetoro, 2020). yet, some presets use a combination of the aforementioned techniques during the dissonance resolution process, a scenario that makes it possible for presets’ use of a technique to be divided into units of measure along a highmedium-low strategies use continuum (oyetoro & eyebiokin, 2018). the strategies presets use to counteract cognitive dissonance arising from discordant feedback from supervisors could also be influenced by factors related to beliefs about cognitive processes. abby and lynch’s three assumptions about how people interact with religion via their belief systems as highlighted by bae (2016) are good examples: 1. all people have some form of [religious or] existential belief system which forms a central reference point for their lives and beliefs can be universally found in all human cultures. 2. religious belief exists as cognitive, creedal propositions, in relation to which people orient their identities and practices in a direct and generally consistent way. personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 67 3. a person’s religious beliefs or spirituality, can be explicitly stated as a set of propositions and are, therefore, open to the gaze of the researcher through methods such as surveys (which measure degrees of assent to creedal propositions) and the research interview (which allows for a more open-ended explication of an individual’s “beliefs”). these beliefs and how they influence decision making during the presentation of dissonant supervisor feedback to presets should be identified through research. this might enable teacher educators and other stakeholders develop instructional programmes and such other interventions that are targeted towards helping presets deal with dissonant feedback with the right mental disposition. two of the factors that are presently hypothesised to influence the use of strategies to counteract dissonant feedback from supervisors by presets are epistemic stance/approaches and learning approaches. this conjecture is consistent with the postulation of chai, khine and teo (2006) that highlighted that one’s stance to the nature and source of knowledge has been thought to influence one’s cognitive and metacognitive operations in a significant way. epistemic stance/approach as used in this study refers to what a person/individual agrees on as the meaning of knowledge, its characteristics (fluidity or rigidity, complexity, etc.) and source. different perspectives have been brought forward by scholars on the variants of human knowledge and knowledge structure and how they could be identified and developed in individuals. perry (1970) hypothesised that students go through nine fixed stages of development in their intellectual positions (these stages have been summarised into four) namely: dualism, multiplism, relativism and commitment. belenkey, clinchy, goodberger and tarule (1986) espoused the dimensions of knowing (among women) : silenced knowing, received knowing, subjective knowing, procedural knowing and constructed knowing. schommer (1990) proposed five independent beliefs based on the work of perry (1970) viz.: the beliefs that pertain to certain knowledge (i.e., absolute knowledge exists and will eventually be known), simple knowledge (i.e., knowledge consists of discrete facts), omniscient authority (i.e., authorities have access to otherwise inaccessible knowledge), quick learning (i.e., learning occurs in a quick or not-at-all fashion), and innate ability (i.e., the ability to acquire knowledge is endowed at birth). king and kitchener (1994) identified three dimensions of epistemological beliefs namely; pre-reflective thinking, quasi-reflective thinking and reflective thinking. while the nuances of these models are beyond the scope of this study and could be found in other works such as hettich (1997), they oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 68 have been chronologically outlined here to provide a glance at the progression in their development through the years. similarities could be observed in their classification albeit differences in their foci. the similarity lies in students’ progression through stages where they experience more and more uncertainty, and simultaneously, their way of acquiring knowledge changes from being passive to being more active and constructive (kalman, sobhanzadeh, thompson, ibrahim & wang, 2015). it is worthy of note that recent scholars in this field such as schommer, schraw and associates, etc. have adopted the word beliefs to mean individual’s approach to knowledge and its structure. in the words of schommer (1990), epistemic beliefs refer to individuals’ subjective beliefs on what knowledge is and how knowing and learning take place. literature places these beliefs about a specific facet of knowledge such as certainty, complexity, or the source of knowledge and knowing along a spectrum (schraw & olafson, 2008). schommer’s (1990) taxonomy of the nature and sources of knowledge have been adopted for use in this study as it is considered appropriate for how knowledge about teaching is perceived to be acquired within the nigerian teacher education context. it is thought that epistemic beliefs are related to a variety of factors in the teaching and learning process. hence, many studies have been conducted to determine the nature of this relationship. lee, roh and lee (2010) reported that gender and academic domains are significant factors in the determination of epistemological beliefs. the study also reported that age, grade level, prior teaching experiences in schools, completion of school practicum, intention to pursue a teaching career were not statistically significant in the determination of epistemological beliefs. on the other hand, abedalaziz, leng, dameaty and orleans (2017) in their study indicated that there are no gender-related differences in certain knowledge, quick learning, structure of knowledge and innate ability of their subject of study, whereas gender-related differences exist in the belief about the source of knowledge. they also showed that epistemic beliefs are directly proportional to academic level; epistemological beliefs are related to socio-economic status; and significant relationship exists between epistemological beliefs and cumulative grade point average (cgpa) with certain knowledge and innate ability as significant predictors of cgpa. leng, abedalaziz, orleans, naimie and islam (2018) investigated how the beliefs of science teachers in malaysia about intelligence and their beliefs about knowing and knowledge acquisition influence their teaching practices. they reported that the teachers hold more eclectic beliefs in which they personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 69 view teaching as a combination of student-directed and some teacher-centred learning. findings of the study also revealed that the teachers hold sophisticated epistemological beliefs and are incremental theorists who believe that ability can be developed and improved upon and are thereby more likely to adopt student-centred practices; and teachers’ teaching practices are antecedents of epistemic beliefs and implicit intelligence beliefs variables. within the ambit of their study, each dimension of epistemological beliefs could either be naïve or sophisticated depending on the responses of the respondents. for instance, believing that knowledge is simple is considered naïve while believing that knowledge is complex is considered sophisticated. also, implicit intelligence refers to an individual’s beliefs about their own intelligence. leng, et al adopted dweck’s (2006) classification that students who hold an implicit belief that ability is a fixed state are entity theorists and those who implicitly believed that ability is malleable are incremental theorists. the studies on the influence of epistemological beliefs on cognitive processes even as demonstrated in the brief review have depicted that results obtained are diverse, unpredictable and thus should be construed within context. the adoption of strategies to counteract cognitive dissonance that could arise as a result of differing feedback from supervisors is a cognitive operation. in the absence of known studies in the nigerian context that explore how presets respond to dissonance arising from incongruent supervisor feedback and how this response could be affected by the epistemic beliefs of these presets, this research seeks to bridge this knowledge gap. the role of learning or study approaches, viz. deep approach and surface approach in presets use of strategies to counter dissonance due to incongruent supervisor feedback are also considered in this study. studies by poh (1999); fox, mcmanus & winder (2001); smith (2005); phan & deo (2007); mogre & amalba (2014); and martinelli & raykov (2017) affirmed the presence of the deep and surface approaches for diverse population, including pre-service teachers. deep approach entails learner’s concentration on the meaning of what is learnt while surface learning approaches are characterised by learners’ attempts to capture material in total rather than understand it (jackson, 2012). a deep learner may concentrate on testing the material against general knowledge, everyday experience and knowledge from other fields or courses with the aim of obtaining principles to be used to organize information while a surface learner emphasises sign rather than significancea focus on copying down diagram without listening to oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 70 the explanation of it (jackson, 2012). deep approach learner therefore carries out learning activities that are characterised by higher order verbs such as construct, analyse, create, etc. surface approach learners on the other hand are content with carrying out learning activities defined by lower order verbs such as list, enumerate, state, etc. biggs et al (2002) highlighted that teachers’ use of surface approach to teaching is often as a result of the non-alignment of teaching and assessment methods to the overall aims of teaching the subject. learners who use the achieving approach tend to focus on obtaining grades in their study. also, the prevalent approach is indicative of the quality of the learning environment. cetin and onsekiz(2016) and herrmann, mccune, and bager-elsborg, (2017) reported a positive significant relationship between academic performance and the deep approach and a negative relationship between academic performance and surface approach. this study hypothesised that presets use of strategies to counter dissonance arising from incongruent supervisor feedback could be linked to their use of deep approach rather than surface approach to learning. recent studies have also shown that there exists a relationship between epistemic beliefs and learning approaches of students and, ultimately, their educational achievement (tanriverdi, 2012). sheppard and gilbert (1991) asserted that the development of students’ epistemology is influenced by teachers’ theories of teaching and learners’ perceptions of the learning approaches. chan and elliot (2004) also reported that there is influence of epistemological beliefs dimensions on the conceptions about learning. tanriverdi (2012), in a study that explored the beliefs pre-service teachers hold about knowledge and learning and the ways they approach their learning, reported that students who believe that learning depends on innate ability were likely to be surface-motivated and utilise a surface strategy in their studying. meanwhile, those who believe in learning being effort-dependent were deep-motivated and adopt a deep study strategy. establishing how these learning approaches combine to predict presets use of dissonance counteracting strategies is one of the goals of this study. the studies reviewed showed that individual epistemology dimensions behave differently in relation with other cognitive variables. how learning approaches of presets predict their use of strategies to counter dissonance in supervisor feedback is yet an unexplored area that this study seeks to explore. personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 71 purpose of the study the purpose of the study is to determine how epistemological beliefs and learning approaches predict the use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback among 192 pre-service teachers (presets). understanding how these variables could be used to classify presets’ response behaviour to dissonance triggered by supervisors’ feedback could help teacher educators and other stakeholders in teacher education such as policy makers, cooperating teachers and school management take definitive actions on how to intervene in order to counteract these dissonances. the presets themselves could obtain valuable information on which psychological traits or epistemological stance and learning approaches could impact their dissonance resolution behaviours. the specific objectives of the study were, therefore, to: (i) determine pre-service teachers’ epistemic approaches, learning approaches and level of use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback; and (ii) assess how epistemic approaches and learning approaches predict the use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback among the preservice teachers. research questions two research questions were asked from the objectives raised for the study. they are: 1. what are pre-service teachers’ epistemic approaches, learning approaches and level of use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback? 2. how do the predictor variables of epistemic approaches and learning approaches predict pre-service teachers’ use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback? methods the study utilised the descriptive research design. population, sample and sampling technique oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 72 the population comprised 902 pre-service teacher candidates who registered and sat for examinations in an intermediate teaching methodology course (ase 202 curriculum and instruction) during the 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 sessions at the faculty of education, obafemi awolowo university, nigeria and participated in the 2016/2017 teaching practice exercise. the sample for the study comprised 200 pre-service teachers in the penultimate and final years of their teacher education programmes and were selected using the simple random sampling technique. the sample profile is: 85 males, 107 females. ninety-nine (99) were in a penultimate class (3rd year) while 93 were in final class (4th year). one hundred and forty-three (143) were from the department of arts and social science, 33 from the department of science and technology and 16 from the department of kinesiology, health education & recreation. the average age of the respondents is 22.73± 3.32. instrumentation three instruments were used for the collection of data used for the study. these instruments are: epistemic beliefs inventory (ebi), the revised two-factor study process questionnaire (r-spq2f) and strategies used for reducing supervisor-induced dissonance questionnaire (srsdq). epistemic beliefs inventory (ebi) the epistemic beliefs inventory developed by schraw, bendixen and dunkle (2002) was used for the study. the ebi is a 28-item 5-point likert scale questionnaire that uses the five factors proposed by schommer (1990). these factors are simple knowledge (7 items), certain knowledge (5 items), omniscient authority (5 items), innate ability (6 items), and quick learning (5 items). pre-service teachers responded to the items with 1 corresponding to “strongly disagree” and 5 corresponding to “strongly agree”. the responses for items 2, 6, 19, 24 and 28 were reversed for the purpose of data analysis as they are negatively worded. the items of this inventory have been reported to yield cronbach alpha values that ranged from 0.58 to 0.68. schraw et al. (2002) correlated the overall epistemological belief score with a reading comprehension test to evaluate the ebi’s predictive validity. so, lee, roh and lee (2010) reported reliability indices of -0.15 for simple knowledge, 0.47 for certain knowledge, 0.53 for quick learning, 0.72 for innate ability and 0.24 for omniscient authority. an overall cronbach alpha value of 0.83 was obtained for the present study. personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 73 strategies used for reducing supervisor-induced dissonance questionnaire (srsdq) srsdq was developed by the researchers. it comprised 14 items on the alternative course of actions pre-service teachers may take when they are given feedback that are incongruent with what they have learnt in teaching methodology classes. the items were pooled from the researchers’ interactions with pre-service teachers, from a pilot study on the strategies used to resolve cognitive dissonances caused by discordant supervisor feedback, and from personal reflections of the researchers on their teaching practices as trainee teachers and from literature on cognitive dissonance. the pre-service teachers responded to the items on a continuum that ranged from 0 (not likely) to 5 (most likely). sample items from the questionnaire include: “try to see how different facts and ideas fit together” and “discuss the area of conflict with an expert in the field of teacher education.” a cronbach alpha value of 0.85 was obtained for the present study. this was considered appropriate for the present study. the revised two-factor study process questionnaire (r-spq-2f) the r-spq-2f was developed by biggs, kember and leung (2001) to enable teachers evaluate their own teaching and the learning approaches of their students. the instrument assesses deep and surface approaches to learning only. it included the deep and surface motive and strategy scales each with 5 items, 10 items per approach scale. the unidimensionality of the items for each of the four subscales was established through confirmatory fit index (cfi) and standardised root mean squared residual (srmr). cronbach alpha values of 0.73 and 0.64 were obtained for the deep and surface approaches respectively in a sample of 495 undergraduate students from a variety of departments in a university in hong kong. cronbach alpha values of 0.86 and 0.76 for deep and surface approaches respectively were established for this study. procedure for data collection data were collected from the pre-service teachers during the 2016/2017 six-week teaching practice period, via the three quantitative instruments described in the preceding section. the preservice teachers were approached during school hours. the purpose of the study was explained to them and the instruments were administered to those who volunteered to take part in the study. the participants were encouraged to ask questions where there were grey areas about the oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 74 instructions for filling the questionnaire. they were assured of the confidentiality of their responses. results research questions research question one: what are pre-service teachers’ epistemic approaches, learning approaches and level of use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback? in order to answer this question, the mean and standard deviation of the variables of interest were obtained. the results obtained are presented in table 1. personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 75 table 1: descriptive statistics of epistemic approaches, learning approaches and use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback variables sub-scales n mean adjuste d mean* s.d. skewnes s minimu m score obtained maximu m score obtained maximu m score obtainab le epistemic approaches quick learning 192 20.1 7 80.68 4.58 0.34 9 35 35 certain knowledge 192 14.6 1 81.82 2.57 -0.03 7 22 25 omniscient authority 192 16.2 5 91.00 2.91 -0.32 6 24 25 innate ability 192 18.7 8 87.64 3.42 -0.43 5 28 30 simple knowledge 192 16.6 6 93.30 3.71 -0.45 2 25 25 learning approaches deep approach 192 32.3 8 32.38 8.13 0.12 12 50 50 surface approach 192 29.1 0 29.10 7.32 0.27 13 50 50 use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by supervisors’ feedback high 35 59.9 4 59.94 3.55 0.52 55 68 70 moderate 123 42.9 8 42.98 6.52 0.10 32 54 70 low 36 25.4 4 25.44 4.48 -1.31 11 31 70 total 192 42.8 3 42.83 12.0 0 -0.075 11 68 70 * adjusted mean was calculated for the epistemic approaches subscales as the items are not evenly distributed. the calculation was done as follows: initial mean of the sub-scale/maximum score obtainable on the sub-scale * maximum score obtainable from the whole scale table 1 shows that the mean values of pre-service teachers’ epistemic approaches are above average for all the categories of epistemic approaches. the adjusted mean values, however, reveal that, in decreasing order of magnitude, pre-service teachers’ epistemic approaches: simple knowledge (93.30), omniscient authority (91.00), innate ability (87.64), certain knowledge (81.82) and quick learning (80.64). the table shows that the mean score of the presets on the deep approach is 32.38 while that for the surface approach is 29.10. this depicts that the presets use deep approach more than the surface approach. the mean difference of the two approaches is 3.28. further analysis using paired sample t-test statistics reveal that the mean difference is significant at 0.05 significance level (t=5.82, p=0.000, df =191). lastly, the table indicates that using the mean ± one standard deviation criterion, that 35 presets with 59.94 mean score on use of dissonance reduction strategies, 123 with 42.98 mean and 36 with 25.44 mean were classified as high, moderate and low users of dissonance reduction strategies respectively. research question two: how do the predictor variables of epistemic approaches and learning approaches beliefs predict pre-service teachers’ use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback? table 2: eigen value of discriminant function eigen values function eigen value % of variance cumulative % canonical correlation 1 .324a 90.0 90.0 .495 2 .036a 10.0 100.0 .186 first 1 canonical discriminant functions were used in the analysis table 2 above depicts two functions; the first yielding an eigen value of 0.324indicates a moderate proportion of variance. the canonical correlation coefficient of 0.495 depicts a positive and moderate relationship among the variables in the function. the combination of the factors presented by the first discriminant function equation is 0.25 (about 25%) (obtained by calculating personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 77 the square of 0.495). the second function shows an eigen value of 0.036, indicating a small variance and therefore a weak one. though the canonical correlation coefficient of the second function is positive, it is weak. the combination of the factors presented by this second discriminant function accounts for about 3.5% (obtained by calculating the square of 0.186) proportion of variance in the dependent variable. the first function, therefore, appears to maximise pre-service teachers’ use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance arising from incongruent supervisors’ feedback. table 3: wilks’ lambda coefficient of the discriminant functions wilks’ lambda test of function(s) wilks’ lambda chi-square df sig. 1 through 2 .729 58.792 14 .000 2 .965 6.567 6 .363 wilks’ lambda value for function 1 is 0.729 and for function 2 is 0.965. these values are the proportion of the total variance in the discriminant scores not explained by differences among groups. the value is significant for function 1 (p<0.05) and not for function 2 (p>0.05). function 1, therefore, maximises the predictor variables of epistemic approaches and learning approaches for the use of strategies to counter dissonance arising from incongruent supervisors’ feedback among the presets. oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 78 table 4: standardised discriminant function coefficients and structure coefficients standardised discriminant canonical function coefficients function function 1 2 deep approach .776 -.610 surface approach .217 -.295 quick learning -.090 .407 certain knowledge .241 .333 omniscient authority .172 .438 innate ability -.015 .641 simple knowledge .210 -.045 structure matrix function function 1 2 deep approach .926* -.205 simple knowledge .564* .350 surface approach .536* -.142 innate ability .516* .507 quick learning .467* .446 omniscient authority .475 .574* certain knowledge .060 .272* * largest absolute correlation between each variable and any discriminant function personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 79 from table 4, the standardised discriminant coefficients of the predictor variables for function 1 reveal the values of 0.776 for deep learning, 0.217 for surface learning, -0.090 for quick learning, 0.241for certain knowledge, 0.172 for omniscient authority, -0.015 for innate ability and 0.210 for simple knowledge. the standardised discriminant coefficients of the predictor variables for function 2 depict the values of -0.610 for deep learning, -0.295 for surface learning, 0.407 for quick learning, 0.333 for certain knowledge, 0.438 for omniscient authority, 0.641 for innate ability and -0.045 for simple knowledge. the functions that can be derived from table 4 and which can be used to calculate a score for each subject for the discriminant function are: dda+ score from function 1= 0.776 deep approach + 0.210 simple knowledge + 0.217 surface approach -0.015 innate ability -0.090 quick learning + 0.172 omniscient authority + 0.241 certain knowledge dda+ score from function 2= 0.438 omniscient authority + 0.641innate ability + 0.407 quick learning -0.045 simple knowledge + 0.333 certain knowledge -0.295 surface approach -0.610 deep approach + descriptive discriminant score function 1 shows that for every 1 standard deviation increase in deep approach scores, pre-service teachers’ dda score is predicted to increase by 0.776 if all other variables are held constant. the function also reveals that for every 1 standard deviation decrease in innate ability, pre-service teachers’ dda score is predicted to also decrease by 0.015 if all other variables are held constant. this explanation is applicable to the other coefficients in the function. function 2 reveals that for every 1 standard deviation increase in each of the variables of omniscient authority, innate ability, quick learning and certain knowledge, the pre-service teachers’ dda scores for the use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback increase by 0.438, 0.641, 0.407 and 0.333 respectively. however, for every 1 standard deviation decrease in simple knowledge, surface approach and deep approach, the pre-service teachers’ dda scores for the use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback decreases by 0.045, 0.295 and 0.610 respectively. oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 80 table 5: functions at group centroids functions at group centroids classification of strategies use function function 1 2 high 1.025 205 moderate -.050 .145 low -.808 -.275 unstandardised canonical discriminant functions evaluated at group means the average discriminant score for subjects in the three groups are presented in table 5. it shows that when the variable means are entered into the discriminant function 1, the discriminant score will be 1.025 for those who are classified as high users of dissonance reduction strategies, -0.050 for those who are classified as moderate users of dissonance reduction strategies and -0.808 for those with low users of dissonance reduction strategies. for discriminant function 2, the discriminant scores will be -0.205, 0.145 and -0.275 respectively for pre-service teachers with high, moderate and low use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback. table 6: prediction of group membership based on the use of dissonance reduction strategies using descriptive discriminant function 1 classification results classification of strategies use predicted group membership total high moderate low count high 27 6 2 35 moderate 33 44 43 120 low 3 9 25 37 percentage high 77.1 17.1 5.7 100.0 moderate 27.5 36.7 35.8 100.0 low 8.1 24.3 67.6 100.0 a. 50.0% of original grouped cases correctly classified. personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 81 table 6 shows that 27 presets (77.1%) with high use of strategies to counteract dissonance induced by incongruent supervisors’ feedback are correctly classified by the function. also, 44 presets (36.7%) with moderate use of strategies are correctly classified while 25 presets (67.6%) with low use of strategies are correctly classified. discussion of findings the findings of this study revealed that the epistemological beliefs of the presets are eclectic as combinations of the beliefs are used and they are sophisticated because their use of each of the beliefs is high. the present findings corroborate previous findings of leng, abedalaziz, orleans, naimie, & islam (2018) which established that teachers hold eclectic and sophisticated beliefs about intelligence. the findings indicate that the presets might have been aware of the need for the combination of these beliefs for success in their studies as teachers. findings of this present study also revealed that the presets use both the deep and surface approaches; with more of the deep than the surface approach. the present finding reveals the versatility of the presets in adopting the approach that is suitable for the objectives, contents, assessment format, interaction patterns and the overall environment of particular courses as was been corroborated by biggs et al. (2001). the classification of the presets into high, moderate and low users of strategies to counteract dissonance in supervisors’ feedback reveals a normal distribution curve with most presets classified as moderate users of dissonance reduction strategies. the present findings may be related to the overall negative attitude of presets to teaching practice exercises and to the teaching profession, a situation which has been confirmed by adeleke, adesina, salami and adebayo (2011). hence, the moderate use of strategies to counter dissonance from incongruent supervisor feedback could mean that the presets utilize minimal efforts that could make them acquire good grades in the teaching practice exercise and not efforts that could make them internalise the lessons from the exercise. the moderate use of strategies could also be hinged on the relative non-utilization of clinically-oriented supervision by the supervisors and collaborative teachers during the teaching practice which would provide presets with result-oriented guidance. the findings of the present study revealed that each of the learning approaches—the deep and surface approaches—contributed to the prediction of presets use of strategies to oyebode stephen oyetoro, bosede abimbola adesina, & tolulope segun eyebiokin ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 82 counter incongruent feedback from supervisors. the deep approach, however, contributed more to the prediction than the surface approach. the present findings support the literature indicating the alternate use of both approaches depending on circumstances (biggs, et al, 2001). our finding that surface learning also contributes to the prediction of the use of strategies to counter dissonance from supervisor feedback points to the need not to jettison surface learning altogether in presets learning outcomes. surface learning approach might provide presets the needed cognitive buffer to deal with emanating dissonance from incongruent feedback pending the availability of time to engage in deep learning. the study findings also revealed that only three out of the five epistemic approaches contributed positively to the prediction of the use of cognitive dissonance reduction strategies among the presets. these three epistemic approaches to knowledge are simple knowledge, omniscient authority, and certain knowledge. innate ability and quick learning did not contribute to the prediction. the present finding is not surprising as debacker, crowson, beesley, thoma and hestevold (2008) had reported higher correlations among these three beliefs about knowledge (that is, knowledge is simple, knowledge is certain and knowledge is gained from omniscient authorities). a similar study confirmed three epistemological beliefs of certain knowledge, quick learning and innate ability with korean presets (so, lee, roh & lee, 2010). out of these three beliefs identified by so et. al., only certain knowledge has a positive coefficient yet non-significant value in this present study. the dynamics of disparities in how these knowledge beliefs influence cognitive processes and decision-making lies in the contextualization of the findings with respect to the dependent variables and the population involved. this finding in our study of the lack of impact of innate ability on the use of strategies to counteract cognitive dissonance arising from incongruent supervisor feedback speaks to the question of the relative importance of training and education of teachers versus their innate abilities. the education and training of teachers should be carried on with adequate cognisance of the pertinent knowledge areas and skills. this pertinent knowledge area includes sources of dissonances, effects of dissonances and how to counter them. this education and training should also be for a relatively long period of time since, in this case, quick learning seem to not contribute to the use of cognitive dissonance reduction strategies. the present finding is not considered consistent with the prevalent beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing and practices in initial teacher education in nigeria where many yet personal epistemic and learning approaches as predictors of pre-service teachers use of strategies to counter cognitive dissonance from supervisor feedbacks ajote vol. 9.2 (2020), 62-89 83 believe that formal training is least needed in order to become a teacher in as much as one is trained and competent in the teaching subject discipline. hence, presets’ use of strategies targeted at counteracting cognitive dissonance arising from inconsistencies in the feedback given by university assigned supervisors is dependent on their development of sophisticated beliefs about personal epistemology. conclusion the findings of this study indicated that the sampled presets utilised sophisticated approaches to personal epistemology and utilise the deep learning approach more than the surface learning approach. the findings also indicated that presets are likely to utilise diverse strategies to counteract cognitive dissonance that may arise from conflicting feedback from university assigned supervisors during teaching practice exercise. these complex characteristics demonstrated by the presets are the much-needed bases for the induction of course contents into teacher education curriculum on the nature of cognitive dissonances that may arise from incongruent feedback given by assigned supervisors of presets. the understanding of these complex characteristics are also needed in order to inform how to teach the nature of the cognitive dissonances and epistemic factors that influence them to presets by educators and specialists of pedagogy. the present study, however, does not provide evidence of the interaction of the learning approaches and epistemic approaches on the propensity of the presets to utilise the strategies. given the limitation of this study to how two cognitive-related variables could predict the 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(2017). the influence of field teaching practice on pre-service teachers’ professional identity: a mixed methods study. frontiers in psychology doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01264 ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 67 90 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 2 2018 pp. 67-90 accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools joseph tufuor kwarteng dept. of business & social sciences education university of cape coast ghana abstract the purpose of this study was to gauge the quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools using concerns-based adoption model level of use as a proxy. using an equivalent status sequential mixed methods design, 155 out of a population of 402 senior high school accounting teachers were selected at random to participate in the study. both levels of use questionnaire and interview guides were used to collect data. all the teachers responded to the questionnaire. out of the 155, only 30 of them were selected on purpose to participate in the interview. data was analysed with help of frequencies, percentages, and themes. the study found that even though most teachers implemented the accounting curriculum sustainably, others’ use of the curriculum was mediocre. the quality of use of the curriculum was shaped by teachers’ perceived relevance of the curriculum, level of difficulty of topics, availability of teaching aids, interest of the teacher, availability of curriculum materials, and freedom offered teachers to implement the curriculum. keywords: accounting teachers, accounting curriculum, levels of use, cbam, accounting education introduction quality education thrives on conscious planning, great effort, huge expenditure, and commitment of stakeholders. central to these requirements for successful education enterprise is planning. there is a myriad of plans to consider in education; a key one being the curriculum plan. each school system has an approach to curriculum planning and implementation. in centralised school systems as practised in ghana, curriculum is centrally planned and delivered primarily by fidelity of implementation. according to kwarteng joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 68 (2013), this is, among other reasons, to achieve uniformity in content taught and learnt, and to facilitate the transferability of students from one school to the other. fidelity of curriculum implementation is adhered to when the school curriculum is implemented in the exact manner the programme designers have provided guidance for it. it does not tolerate any deviation from the guidance given because the outcome of the curriculum must reflect the original design to provided evidence of effectiveness (snyder, bolin & zumwalt, 1992). the nature of the accounting discipline provides for universal recognition and treatment of similar transactions in the same manner to ensure uniformity in practice. therefore, fidelity of implementation of the accounting curriculum presents itself as the only approach that could deliver the content of the subject to minimize any undesirable unplanned learning outcomes. the nature of accounting calls for minimum deviation from the standard procedures that are established to guide practice. students must develop the required skills and habit of mastering reporting principles and standards and conform to the common conventions that guide the practice of accounting. this uniformity enhances standardization in financial reporting which in turn creates a wider market appeal for accounting graduates. to continually uphold this uniformity, teachers must ensure strict adherence to the principles, standards, and conventions of the discipline. this, more or less, implies indoctrination and thus does not give room for creativity. hence a realist accounting curriculum is often created where students are made to memorize and reproduce concepts without having to question what they learn. this results in teacher-centred lessons where the teacher is presented as a know-it-all. the duty of the teacher is to train students through discipline of the mind to expose them to the onerous wisdom that the teacher possesses. therefore, by design, the traditional accounting curriculum aims at nothing but the creation of technical accounting experts. however, several factors including the diversity of student body, technological and economic change and external pressures from employers no longer support, if not militate against, the training of students in this manner. therefore, the education system should pursue quality of use of the accounting curriculum but not fidelity of its implementation. quality of use measures the extent to which teachers’ conduct in classroom seeks beneficial interest of students even if that means deviating from the official plan. accordingly, the quality of use is circumstantial. therefore, it is increasingly needful and possible that accounting teachers modify the use of the accounting curriculum to appeal to students’ needs. accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 69 an earlier study conducted by kwarteng (2009) to assess the concerns of accounting teachers in implementing school accounting curriculum in ghana revealed that most accounting teachers were in the category of non-users of the curriculum. using concerns-based adoption model (cbam) this study, therefore, sought to examine accounting teachers’ quality of use of the (ghana) ministry of education supplied accounting curriculum. the question that guided this research was: what are accounting teachers’ quality of use of pretertiary accounting curriculum? approaches to curriculum implementation successful delivery of curriculum requires its thorough implementation in all the areas its target for coverage. curriculum implementation is the final open use of the curriculum within its catchment area (fullan 1991). several dissemination strategies such as translocation, communication, animation, and re-education are used to smoothen the implementation process. however, irrespective of these strategies, one of three main approaches, fidelity, mutual adaptation, and enactment, is adopted to implement school curriculum, depending on the education system in practice (snyder, et al. 1992). prospects and challenges of fidelity of implementation fidelity of implementation operates on the assumption that a lack of standardization within and between programme providers inflates error variance and decreases power (moncher & prinz, 1991). therefore, teachers are requested to implement the curriculum in the same way all over the schools covered by that education system under whose authority they fall. such uniformity of programme and its implementation ensure that students go through the same learning experiences. the result of standardization in implementation is the ease with which evaluation can be done to see how different sites of programme implementation compare. fidelity of curriculum implementation helps to understand how the degree of programme implementation can affect the achievement of goals and how implementation can be improved when the programme needs to be scaled up. for instance, the advent of the curriculum necessitates that facilitators and supervisors are trained to be in tune with the programme dictates (moncher & prinz, 1991). this kind of training is provided to all teachers and supervisors who will be engaged in the delivery of the change to ensure its successful implementation. on the other hand, fidelity fails to recognize that some unplanned learning outcomes occur that are desirable in the learning process. it thus only offers what taba (1962) describes joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 70 as a limited concept of school learning, a parochial view of education. bondi and wiles (1979) contend that fidelity could not be considered as a sacrosanct guide to practice. fidelity can only be a matter of degree rather than an absolute phenomenon. achieving the exact outcomes of the programme is therefore not always possible. this implies a possibility that teachers might not faithfully implement the curriculum. failure to use the curriculum documents with the necessary guidelines as intended will distort the outcome of the curriculum and thereby harm the planned learning. hence a modified use or none use of the curriculum may militate against the effectiveness of the curriculum and its success. according to hall, dirkson and george (2013), research has downplayed the importance of studying the extent of implementation of curriculum at individual levels. therefore, the level of use offers a better, more critical mechanism to gauge the degree of quality of implementation of the accounting curriculum. adaptation of curriculum in flexible education system barnes (2005) observed that teachers acknowledge the existence of what is required of them in curriculum implementation but in practice they often fail to comply. hence, teachers tend to manipulate a centrally planned curriculum. that is why in flexible school systems, teachers are given the liberty to adapt the change to obtain the highest possible result. teachers alter the curriculum to suit their peculiar school or classroom situation; after all, the curriculum is considered a guide to practice. the lack of uniformity in conditions across schools triggers some belief in teachers that curriculum implementation is context-specific (paris, 1989). curriculum adaptation is not exclusive to only geographical area, but it can be done to meet individual students with intellectual disability needs (lee, amos, gragoudas, lee, shogren, theoharis, and wehmeyer, 2006). teachers achieve maximum curriculum returns by manipulating the conventional curriculum to meet their local needs. the curriculum students actually receive is influenced by what teachers believe, by what peers believe and do, and by cultural issues (barnes, 2005). to satisfy diversity in culture, there is need for “adaptations” of the regular curriculum. the effects of this exercise may involve organisational modifications in its goals and contents, methodologies, didactical organisation, and temporality and in the evaluation philosophy and strategies. the aim is to make it possible to meet everyone’s educational needs in the creation of knowledge. additionally, comparing the results of one implementation site with another will not yield any practically useful evidence for decision making because the conditions in the accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 71 different sites are usually not the same. hence they cannot serve as the basis for meaningful comparison. the practical impossibility of making school conditions uniform dictates that a centrally developed curriculum does not have to be implemented as planned because contextual factors chiefly affect the extent or degree to which actual implementation will approximate the planned curricula. enactment of curriculum in decentralised education system in decentralised school systems, it has been the norm to leave the development and implementation of school curricula in the hands of various school districts or schools in the locale. uniform answers to educational problems are practically not feasible because problems are situationally determined and complex (may 1991). school curricula are tailormade to suit conditions in each locale as opposed to the centrally developed one operational in both the centralised and flexible school systems. notwithstanding, the local school curricula are derived from the national philosophy of education. this opportunity enables teachers to develop effective pedagogies that ensure sustainability, citizenship, enterprise, and globalisation of learning experiences to meet the needs of the different areas. paris described teachers in this approach as explorers who constantly strive for perfection through continuous practice (1989). in this approach the involvement of teachers ranges from the production of new syllabuses and curriculum guides at all stages, as syllabuswriters, as members of advisory committees to the syllabus-writers, and as participants in school-based trials of syllabuses and curriculum materials. the advantage of their participation is the opportunity it gave them in promulgating their interest and advancing their views on how the curriculum should be. according to martin (in handal & herrington, 2003), curriculum implementation approaches that do not consider teachers’ beliefs have a temporary life. incorporating teacher beliefs is a sure way of inspiring teachers’ enthusiasm and winning their trust for the curriculum adoption. notwithstanding, granting unwarranted liberty to teachers without any control measure may lead to an abuse of freedom. monitoring tools and processes of curriculum implementation after the curriculum has been implemented, it is prudent to develop measures to monitor its progress. there are several methods, approaches or theories of monitoring the extent of curriculum diffusion or implementation. these approaches focus on either the group or individual teachers involved in the implementation process. the most popular models include action research, curriculum alignment, comprehensive school reform programmes, and joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 72 cbam. while these approaches have their strengths and weaknesses, the choice model adopted for this study is cbam. action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organisational change (reason & bradbury, 2001). it involves reflective problem solving techniques which enable the researcher to perform a task over and over to achieve the desired state of affairs. action research aims at bridging the gap between theory and practice. it makes use of various theories resulting from basic research, applying them to concrete situations to evaluate the impact or potency. in the classroom, it allows teachers to have a practical feel of specific context-bound factors and affords them opportunity to operate without any restriction. action research proceeds in a spiral of steps each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action. this basic principle of a spiral of steps lives on in the design of many action-research studies but marsh and willis (2003) question whether such steps are in themselves sufficient unless teachers’ intentions complement them. this involves conceiving an idea about what needs to be done, executing tasks as planned, determining the extent of task achievement, and looking for alternative means of doing it better. the major limitation of this approach is the fear that school principals may have following teacher empowerment. this may generate internal problems with possible undermining of the smooth operation of the process. curriculum alignment is another approach used to ensure a fit between the ideal of the curriculum plan and its implementation. according to marsh and willis (2003) curriculum alignment involves teachers making efforts to approximate planned curriculum through extensive testing of what is taught. basically, it is students who are tested, yet teachers’ performance is measured indirectly in terms of how well students perform in standardised tests. although teachers are not the sole determinants of students’ success or failure, they play a key role in ensuring that the right learnable bits are imparted. such experiences must necessarily stem from the planned curriculum. myers and myers (1995) opine, in the context of the us, that incentives for teachers are tied to school-wide student performance. teachers are rewarded according as they perform in aiding students pass examinations. thus teachers’ salaries are adjusted as they put up a remarkable performance. continuous monitoring of teachers to ensure that they instruct students based on the plan will help increase the degree of fidelity of implementation. accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 73 curriculum alignment also requires that the material taught in the school matches the standards and assessments set by the state or district for specific grade levels. it is a way of mapping the curriculum onto the standards to be sure that the school is teaching the content that is expected. in states that use tests to assess student mastery, schools may also align their curriculum with the content of the test to assure that students have studied the required content before taking the tests. it should be noted that curriculum alignment lends its application to flexible school systems where school curriculum is adapted. therefore, it cannot be applied to monitor the progress of curriculum implementation in ghana where curriculum implementation is by fidelity. a further tool for monitoring curriculum implementation is the comprehensive school reform programme (csrp) originally developed in the where? uk???] to help lowperforming schools overcome some of the most common obstacles to effective school reform. the csrp requires that schools focus their reform efforts on the entire school, rather than implementing isolated piecemeal programmes. csrp also requires that schools use comprehensive school improvement models that are proven effective by scientifically-based research. a csrp requires that these models provide schools with support and training for all stakeholders, including teachers, administrators, parents, and school staff. there are series of csrp that low-achieving schools can use to improve upon their performance. the choice of programme is dictated by the needs of the school. however, no single csrp can provide solutions to all the problems of a school. the unwieldy ?? need to use multiple programmes to address every bit of the host of problems that confront a school discommend this approach. theoretical basis of the study the cbam was employed to measure the quality of use of the accounting curriculum because focuses on exactly what teachers do. this provides clearer picture of the extent of curriculum implementation by obtaining first hand data from the main implementers of the school curriculum. cbam is a complex multi-dimensional model that tracks the progress of innovation implementation with a focus on the implementers. it comprises the “level of use” (lou), “innovation configuration” (ic) and “stages of concern” (soc). both soc and lou are concerned with the personal attitude, perception and activities individual teachers have or undertake in the light of implementing an innovation. on the other hand, the ic concentrates on the attributes of the innovation that enable it to succeed. joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 74 ic is committed to making sure that the components of the curriculum are made clear. once teachers become aware of the main tenets of the innovation their efforts will be channelled towards that common good. innovation configuration recognizes the merit of specifying parts of the change, and providing trainers with hands-on tools, called practice profiles, for making those identifications (horsley and loucks-horsley, 1998). the practice profile requires change leaders to formerly define how the change should look when implemented. the profile first includes a precise description of the resources and conditions necessary to implement the programme. then perhaps six to eight critical components of a programme are identified, along with sets of descriptive examples of what each component looks like when used appropriately. teachers would be enabled to determine whether they are on the right track once they clearly know what is expected of them. stressing the essentials does not really mean that all teachers will perceive that as such. accordingly, marsh and willis (2003, p. 257) comment that: the ic does not ensure that everyone will agree on what is essential, but it helps everyone clearly identify differences between the planned curriculum and the enacted curriculum, and when disputes arise (about, for instance, fidelity of use versus mutual adaptation), it provides a basis for informed discussion about differences and for possible adjustments in the curriculum. ic is highly operational in the centralised and flexile systems of education with varying degree of applicability. the intent of its use is to identify how differently various teachers are implementing the same curriculum as planned. this will help bring worthy modifications into the curriculum to help elicit desired outcomes. figure 1 illustrates that soc defines teachers’ learning and development as going through seven stages in implementing school curriculum. accordingly, implementers’ focus or concern of the curriculum being implemented shifts in rather predictable ways (sweeny, 2003). awareness as the first stage describes the extent to which people know of the existence of the innovation. ordinarily, teachers will have to become aware of an innovation before they will have the desire to know how it really works. there is always the tendency that they will consider the relative advantage that is associated with the innovation. this may not necessarily be any extrinsic reward but may also include the satisfaction of accomplishing a challenging task. once they know the reward associated with the successful delivery of the innovation, teachers will master the skill that is required by the change to implement it as intended. after some time, they evaluate their effectiveness to see how well they have accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 75 performed. they will collaborate with others to build teams or consult each other to see how synergy can help fine-tune their skills and understanding. figure 1: stages of concern (cbam) source: after sweeny (2003) finally, teachers evaluate the innovation and begin to search for new and groundbreaking ways to achieve a better result. possibly, this stage is where they have exhausted all the perceived benefits of the innovation. from the foregoing it is evident that the seven stages are developmental, starting with “awareness” and ending with “refocusing”. thus the satisfaction of each stage triggers the concerns of the next. to track what teachers do during curriculum implementation, hall, wallace and dossett (1973) used the lou (marsh & willis, 2003). the lou focuses on teachers’ skills and perception and subsequent use of an innovation. it describes the behavioural dimension of change focusing on what teachers actually do in the classroom when making the transition from teaching one way to teaching differently (hall and hord 1987). to a large extent the lou determines the extent to which planned curriculum is put to actual open use throughout the system. based on hall and hord (1987) description, horsley and loucks-horsley (1998) provided a simplified version of the lou, defining the characteristic behaviour of each level as shown in table 1. joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 76 table 1: theoretical definitions of levels of use level description definition 0 nonuse state in which the user has little or no knowledge of the innovation, has no involvement with the innovation, and is doing nothing toward becoming involved. i orientation state in which the user has acquired or is acquiring information about the innovation and/or has explored or is exploring its value orientation and its demands upon the user and the user system. ii preparation state in which the user is preparing for first use of the innovation. iii mechanical state in which the user focuses most effort on the short-term, day-today use of the innovation with little time for reflection. changes in use are made more to meet user needs than client needs. the user is primarily engaged in a stepwise attempt to master the tasks required to use the innovation, often resulting in disjointed and superficial use. iva routine use of the innovation is stabilized. few if any changes are being made in ongoing use. little preparation or thought is being given to improving innovation use or its consequences. ivb refinement state in which the user varies the use of the innovation to increase the impact on clients within immediate sphere of influence. variations are based on knowledge of both shortand long-term consequences for clients. v integration state in which the user is combining own efforts to use the innovation with the related activities of colleagues to achieve a collective effect on clients within their common sphere of influence. vi renewal state in which the user reevaluates the quality of use of the innovation, seeks major modifications or alternatives to present innovation to achieve increased impact on clients, examines new developments in the field, and explores new goals for self and the system. adopted from hall, dirksen and george (2013) accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 77 hall and hord (1987) identified five distinct levels of use among users and three levels of use that define nonusers of a programme. this is reflected in their work as summarized into eight levels above. the levels “non-use”, “orientation” and “preparation” do not involve any attempt of use. teachers’ conduct at these levels range from absence of intention to use to making plans to put the change to use. the last five levels involve some extent of use. horsley and loucks-horsley (1998) suggest that these are significantly different levels of proficiency. however, once people decide to use a new practice and receive training in its use, they establish a suitable routine quickly. quality of accounting education through level of accounting curriculum use a higher rate of accounting curriculum usage is likely to promote higher quality in accounting education and vice versa. this is not just about the rate of usage of the accounting curriculum. it implies how accounting teachers make productive use of the curriculum to bring about both planned and unplanned learning. hall, dirksen and george (2013) stress that several implications for curriculum implementation evaluation centre on teachers’ levels of use of the curriculum. studies on first-time users of any curriculum consistently show that most first time users will be at lou iii mechanical use. they stressed further that teachers at lou iii mechanical use are disjointed in their use of the curriculum; they have a short-term focus to their planning and cannot predict the typical mistakes that their students will make. therefore, only higher levels of use should be included to determine the quality of the implementation. this presupposes that the first four levels of use, degree of quality of implementation, are not significant. thus, nonuse, orientation, preparation and mechanical user statuses do not have the desirable level of curriculum implementation quality. lou quality criteria needed to evaluate the level of quality of high school accounting education was developed based on hall, dirksen and george’s (2013). the summary of the criteria is presented in table 2. the table provides judgement of the extent of quality in accounting education that reflects a user category of the accounting curriculum. joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 78 table 2: quality criteria reflecting levels of use usage status quality description definition 0 nonuse poor measure of quality is undesirably insignificant. i orientation ii preparation iii mechanical turbulence series of experimentation of what works in the classroom makes quality unstable but expect improvement with time. iva routine good for the occasion stability in quality education but robs students of future opportunities because quality is episodically myopic. ivbrefinement sustainable enduring, forward-looking and ever-relevant quality of education. v integration vi renewal empirical studies on teachers’ level of use of school curriculum a number of studies (dirksen, 2002; graber, 2005; prugh, 2004; yarberry, 2004) that reported on first-time users of educational innovations found that more than 50% of teachers were at lou iii mechanical use and that movement to higher lou requires time, resources, leadership, and training. but wang’s (2013) study found teachers to be mainly mechanical and routine users of the new curriculum. he attributed the reported levels of use to teachers’ uncertainty about the innovation, lack of the requisite training, and inadequate teaching time. even where implementation of innovation is mandated, there is a fair degree of variation in lou and how an innovation is implemented (gwele, 1996). in many cases the innovation seemed to have been redefined by the participants following individual evaluation. a number of teachers adjust the innovation to better meet their needs, the teaching situation, or their students’ needs (dirksen, 2000; gwele, 1996). this causes major problems when a school or district is working to implement an innovation where a high degree of fidelity to the innovation’s critical attributes is necessary to maximize impact on student learning (hall, dirkson & george, 2013). accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 79 uncertainty about the innovation follows from the judgement teachers may have passed on it. teachers often judge the relevance of the innovation before they make decision to adopt and use it. hall, alquist, hendrickson, george, johnson, thornton, and uchiyama (1999) noted that teachers pass a judgement of the worth of the innovation before they commit to it. accordingly, teachers need freedom to do their own assessment of the innovation and should not be cajoled to commit to the implementation. hope (1995) found that a supportive, nonpunitive environment with no pressure on teachers to become users of technology promoted teacher use of technology. the correlational study involving a sample of 23 science teachers that falkenberg (2002) conducted concluded that lou and teacher creativity differentiated teachers’ skills. this confirmed the findings of hall et al. (1999) that the skills of the teacher are essential to facilitate change. once they commit to the innovation, teachers will engage the store of their skillset to implement the innovation. but where they lack the required skill, attempts should be made to capacitate them to increase their levels of use of the innovation. evidence to this effect could be found in a study by krasner (1999) which revealed that teachers with higher lou had extensive knowledge and expertise, had a greater sense of responsibility for student success, integrated planning and assessment, evaluated learning materials, and expressed a greater need to teach students. to capacitate teachers in this manner, sound leadership is integral to ensure success of teachers’ development. the commitment of the leadership can boost the morale of teachers to commit to the development. school leadership has been found to play a central role in teachers’ levels of use of school curriculum. a study conducted by geijsel, van den berg, and sleegers (1999) concluded that schools that more readily adopted an innovation had a common vision, with good leadership to facilitate achievement of objectives through collaboration, enthusiasm and dedication to teachers’ welfare. these transformational leaders facilitated teacher participation in decision making and fostered teachers’ growth through capacity building programmes. hall et al. (1999) found strong strategic leadership, together with skilled change facilitators, a worthwhile innovation, and systematic data gathering about implementation to be the key factors that support systemic change. schiller’s (2000) study corroborated the use of school leadership in promoting teachers’ levels of use. similarly, tunks and weller (2009) noticed that with continued support, most of the participating teachers could achieve routine levels of use, which they could sustain beyond the implementation of the curriculum. joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 80 unfortunately, there seems to have been no study conducted on lou in ghana. in general, available studies of lou seem to have concentrated on its application to assessing the extent of the implementation of school curriculum or other programmes. none, however, has covered the lou of high school accounting curriculum and neither has any attempted to use the lou as a proxy for gauging the quality of accounting education. the current research fills this gap. methodology equivalent status sequential mixed method research design was adopted for this study. both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection were used in the survey of accounting teachers who participated in the research. the mixing was done at three stages; the sampling, instrumentation and analysis stages. whilst respondents were selected at random to participate in the completion of the questionnaire, those who were interviewed were recruited on purpose. at the instrumentation stage, the mixing took the form of the use of the interviews and questionnaires to gather data. the mixing at the data analysis stage involved the use of percentages and frequencies and themes to analyse the data generated. the main quest for mixing the methods was to obtain corroborative evidence to triangulate the results. in all, 155 out of a population of 402 pre-tertiary accounting teachers were selected to participate in the study. they were selected randomly from 68 public senior high schools that offer accounting across ghana. guest, bunce, and johnson (2006) advise that a minimum of 15 participants should be engaged for qualitative studies. for this study, the researcher selected 30 out of the 155 participants for the interview. the lou questionnaire and interview guide were used in gathering data from the respondents. the questionnaire was made up of eight statements, each reflecting a lou. accounting teachers were to select any one of the statements that reflected their level of use of the accounting curriculum. similarly, the interview items were formulated in line with the levels in the lou. however, it provided the opportunity to probe responses given to fully interrogate a matter. the questionnaire was piloted and yielded a cronbach alpha of 0.78. also, a researcher colleague validated the face and content validity of the interview guide. after the interview data was generated and transcribed, it was member-checked to further ensure its validity. the questionnaire was administered before the interview was conducted. the sequence was to allow the researcher to identify typical users and non-users of the curriculum accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 81 for a follow-up interview. interview schedules were arranged to suit the interviewees. the average duration for each interview was 40 minutes. interview transcripts generated were given back to the respondents to member-check to ensure validity and data credibility. quantitative data yielded by the questionnaire were analysed using frequencies and percentages. the interview transcripts were analysed under the following themes to ensure succinctness and readability: sustainable quality of use of accounting curriculum; turbulent quality of use of accounting curriculum; and poor quality of use of accounting curriculum. these themes reflect the quality descriptions shown in table 2. each of the three diagnostic dimensions of cbam (ic, soc, and lou) has a designated method and an instrument to collect and present appropriate data associated with it. each of them requires the researcher to be immersed within the scene of the innovation and to continually refine judgments associated with the diagnostic dimensions (newhouse, 2001). even though each of the dimensions of the cbam can function independently, using all the three in an analysis will give a better result. therefore, singling out the lou without complementing it with the ic and soc may have a detrimental effect on the validity of the findings, albeit trivial. results teachers’ level of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum: descriptive evidence the results of the quantitative data gathered on accounting teachers’ levels of use of the accounting curriculum are displayed in table 3 which shows both absolute and relative numbers of accounting teachers operating at each level of use of the accounting curriculum. less than half (n=43 out of 155; 27.8%) of the accounting teachers went beyond the routine of using the accounting curriculum by assessing the impact of their efforts and making changes to increase that impact. only a few (n=6 out of 155; 3.9%) of the accounting teachers had made the decision to adopt the new practice. accordingly, such teachers were actively preparing to implement the curriculum. however, quite a sizeable number (n=23 out of 155; 14.8%) of the accounting teachers surveyed took no action with regard to the implementation of the curriculum. joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 82 table 3: accounting teachers’ adoption of the accounting curriculum level of use frequency percentage level 0, nonuse 23 14.8 level i, orientation 11 7.1 level ii, preparation 6 3.9 level iii, mechanical 9 5.8 level iva, routine 14 9 level ivb, refinement 43 27.8 level v, integration 25 16.1 level vi, renewal 24 15.5 total 155 100 in spite of the apparent inaction of some of them, other (n=25 out of 155; 16.1%) accounting teachers were actively coordinating with other colleagues to use the curriculum. in addition, 24 (15.5%) out of 155 accounting teachers surveyed sought more effective alternatives to the established use of the curriculum. even as some (n=24; 155%) accounting teachers were essentially beginning a new cycle of levels of use, others (n=11 out of 155; 7.1%) were seeking information about the new accounting curriculum in use. another usage cohort (n=9 out of 155; 5.8%) were making attempts to use new strategies, techniques and materials for the delivery of the accounting curriculum. this is the point in the use of the curriculum at which teachers may often feel inadequate and awkward. at best, they felt as though they were preparing a new recipe for the first time, constantly referring to the cookbook for guidance and reassurance. in this turbulence, however, some (n=14 out of 155; 9%) of the accounting teachers had established a satisfactory pattern of implementing the curriculum to make it succeed. accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 83 quality of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum use using mainly the quantitative data, the summary of the results on the quality of senior high school accounting curriculum use was obtained and presented in table 4. frequency counts and percentages used in presenting the results made it clearer to gauge the number of teachers who depicted a particular level of use. following from the quality criteria described in table 2, all the accounting teachers at lou 0, i and ii were categorised in poor quality of use description; those with lou iii were classified into turbulent quality of use description; those with lou iva were captured as teachers in the good for the occasion quality of use criteria; and those in the lou ivb, v and vi were pooled as having used the curriculum sustainably. a teacher could depict only one of the quality criteria as shown in the underlying levels of use results in table 3. table 4: quality of use of high school accounting curriculum quality description frequency percentage poor 40 25.8 turbulent 9 5.8 good for the occasion 14 9 sustainable 92 59.4 total 155 100 as could be seen from table 4, the bulk of the teachers (n=92; 59.4%) peaked at sustainable use. therefore, most of the teachers approximated the quality of use criteria which espoused the quest to achieving enduring, forward-looking and promoting ever-relevant quality of accounting education at the senior high school. however, because fidelity is implied in the implementation, it is appropriate to report on the total quality of the implementation, not just the majority of the cases. accordingly, the results show that the remaining teachers (n=63; 40.6%) quality of use was not encouraging. typically, almost 66% (i.e. 40 out of 63 of the teachers) of this category of teachers’ quality of use of the curriculum indicated that the measure of that joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 84 quality was undesirably insignificant. nine (5.8%) other teachers were still experimenting with the curriculum to see what worked in the classroom. they had no established pattern of implementation. there were 14 (9%) other teachers whose level of use showed some episodic stability in quality education but failed to make provisions for future improvements. to complement the data from the quantitative results, qualitative evidence was gathered to facilitate a deep understanding of teachers’ quality of use of the accounting curriculum. the accounting teachers, it should be noted, limited the definition of the curriculum to the syllabus. almost all the teachers studied indicated some level of use of the accounting curriculum but, the rate and extent of usage varied greatly among the teachers. sustainable quality of use of accounting curriculum evidence available suggested that accounting teachers were ensuring sustainability in the implementation of the high school curriculum. for instance, it was intimated; i used it, this is because it serves as a guide on how to plan my lesson. it helps me to select topics which are to be taught. it also helps me to select topics which meet the standards of the final examination at the senior high school level. the syllabus also serves as a guide on the right method to be used in a particular teaching and learning situation. [a financial accounting teacher] a cross section of accounting teachers believed that the new accounting curriculum should offer them comparative benefits over the old one, failing which its value cannot felt. it was found that teachers evaluate the curriculum on a number of factors some of which were captured as, a. relevance – the relevance of the topics in the syllabus to the learners in future life; b. difficulty/ease of the topics in the syllabus; c. familiarity of the topics in the syllabus; d. availability of teaching aids in the school for the topics in the syllabus; and e. personal interest of the teacher. [views of a section of accounting teacher] these were the working criteria accounting teachers adopted to evaluate the curriculum. nevertheless, even those accounting teachers who had the new curriculum intimated they had not totally discarded the old syllabus because, “if, however, there are limitations on some aspects of the new syllabus, one may refer to the old one.” [a cost accounting teacher] accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 85 turbulent quality of use of accounting curriculum the accounting curriculum documents (mainly, accounting syllabus) were in short supply. some of the accounting teachers did not have the accounting syllabus they were to use for instructional guidance. but some tutors do not have copies of the new syllabus, probably, it is not given to them by their school or heads of departments. specifically speaking, i don’t have. i mostly rely on the old syllabus, i only research on the topics which have been added in the new one and omitted from the old syllabus. [a financial accounting teacher] some of the accounting teachers with access to the curriculum were still familiarizing themselves with it after nearly seven years of its introduction. some did not understand the contents of all the topics in totality. a teacher confessed that, there are few new topics added such as value added tax and payroll accounting so i must be careful in making reference. cash flow statement is no longer in financial accounting, but many books maintain it. yet, the delivery of the curriculum as is required in a centralized school system demands meticulous faithfulness to the contents of the centrally planned accounting curriculum. poor quality of use of accounting curriculum some among the accounting teachers never saw the curriculum as an appropriate guide but rather used it because they were asked to. several such teachers espoused their blatant disregard for the intrinsic value of the curriculum. a cost accounting teacher declared noncommittally that, “it is compulsory and mandatory for teachers to use the new syllabus”, implying that was why this teacher used it., another respondent, a cost accounting teacher, said, “a teacher has no option not to use the new syllabus as questions are asked based on the new one.” discussion even though some teachers indicated some quality of use of the accounting curriculum, the fact that others failed to implement the curriculum above iva routine use limits the quality of implementation. to the best of the knowledge of some teachers and as far as available resources could permit, they were engaged in the delivery of the curriculum at some level. whilst some accounting teachers were developmentally progressing in the quality of use, others were involved in sustainable quality of use level of the accounting curriculum. the joseph tufuor kwarteng ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 86 former group of accounting teachers should seek more effective alternatives to the established use of the curriculum. in addition, they are expected to actively coordinate with others to develop a sustainable quality of use of the curriculum because continued support helped most of the participating teachers to achieve routine levels of use which they sustained beyond the implementation of the curriculum (tunks and weller 2009). however, some of the teachers used the curriculum primarily because it was mandatory. yet hope (1995) found that a supportive, nonpunitive environment with no pressure on teachers to become users of technology promoted teacher use of technology. therefore, the compulsion that teachers felt in implementing the curriculum might have led them to express their blatant disregard for the intrinsic value of the accounting curriculum. even though the accounting curriculum enjoyed some level of patronage, the fact that a significant number of accounting teachers had reservations about using it or failed to use it raises concern about the quality of its implementation. owino’s (2013) research confirms that negative attitude of teachers towards the curriculum is detrimental to the success of its implementation. partial adoption is capable of militating against the core of the curriculum rationale and thereby defeat its purpose. this behavior of accounting teachers was noted by kiplagat (2012) as the key among other factors influencing implementation of curriculum change. the lack of fidelity of implementation of the accounting curriculum implies disloyalty to the curriculum dictates; a situation that is injurious to the success of pre-tertiary accounting education in ghana. some of the teachers failed to attain higher quality of use because the supply and dissemination of the curriculum materials were bedeviled with problems. dirksen (2002), graber (2005), prugh (2004) and yarberry (2004) all stress that resource availability heightens levels of use. some accounting teachers who have copies of the new curriculum continue to refer to the old curriculum possibly because the new one was not as familiar to them as the old one. since the new accounting curriculum was replacing an existing one, it should have a comparative advantage to ensure its successful adoption. indeed, some accounting teachers accepted the curriculum for use only after they did their own evaluation of it. this confirms hall et al.’s (1999) observation that teachers pass a judgement on the worth of the innovation been proposed before they commit to it. if teachers’ background knowledge failed to support them to deliver the curriculum change, it could be conceived that there has been no related accounting teachers’ quality of use of pre-tertiary accounting curriculum in ghana’s secondary schools ajote vol. 7. no. 2 (2018), 6790 87 capacity building programme. if, however, there was one, then it failed in its impact wang (2013) found that teachers’ training had a profound effect on their levels of use. implications and recommendations although fidelity is not absolute, the quest for quality accounting education cannot be compromised. this study has revealed that most ghanaian accounting teachers have adopted and are implementing the accounting curriculum with some sustained quality. however, some are not able to generate the required standard of implementation and need attention. the following recommendations are offered to enhance implementation: • on factors that may facilitate or militate against the quality of use of the accounting curriculum, this study recommends that curriculum leaders, instructional supervisors, school heads and the ghana education service should make it their duty to provide appropriate interventions to address them. for instance, curriculum leaders should consider making the content of the accounting curriculum motivating enough to elicit compliance rather than compulsion. • the solution to the problem of teachers not using the accounting curriculum is first to conduct a proper diagnosis that allows for determining whether/what appropriate capacity building programmes were lacking and should be organized to empower them. • on the other hand, it might be that school heads and administrators need to inspire enthusiasm and show commitment to the delivery of the curriculum by granting necessary logistical and human support that teachers require to support programme implementation. school administrators must ensure that there is adequate supply of the curriculum documents. finally, the heads of accounting or business departments should strengthen instructional supervision in schools after which feedback should be communicated to the accounting teachers to facilitate reflective practice. references barnes, r. 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(2003). the cbam: a model of the people development process. retrieved from http://www.mentoring-association.org taba, h (1962). curriculum development: theory and practice. new york: harcourt brace and world inc. tunks, j. & weller, k. (2009) changing practice, changing minds, from arithmetical to algebraic thinking: an application of the concerns-based adoption model (cbam). educational studies math, 72, 161–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-009-9189-x wang, w. (2013). teachers' stages of concern and levels of use of a curriculum innovation in china: a case study. international journal of english language teaching, 1(1), 2231. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijelt.v1n1p22 yarberry, p. (2004). an evaluation, colorado teacher quality study: providing special education students support in the general education classroom. lakewood, co: jefferson county school district. http://www/iste.org http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/55939 http://www.mentoring-association.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-009-9189-x https://doi.org/10.5430/ijelt.v1n1p22 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe rachel angela ayieko gibbs kanyongo and bryan nelson duquesne university, pittsburgh, us. abstract students should begin to engage in problem-solving and higher order thinking skills in mathematics in the early years of school in preparation for 21st-century technology and problem-solving competencies. using the southern and eastern africa consortium for monitoring educational quality (sacmeq), this study examines the distribution of significant teacher quality factors related to sixth-grade students’ mathematics competencies across the regions of kenya and zimbabwe. the mathematics competencies range from pre-numeracy to abstract problem solving level. first, we use a multilevel regression model to analyze the relationships between teacher quality and students’ mathematics competencies to find out which teacher quality variables are important for the improvement in students’ mathema t ics competencies in the participating countries. we then illustrate the distributions of the teacher quality factors within the regions in kenya and zimbabwe. from the multilevel model analysis, the teacher quality factors related to students’ increase in mathematics competencies were teaching experience, mathematics competencies, and teachers’ academic qualifications. we observe that students taught by permanently employed teachers had lower math competencies and that the days spent by the teachers in professional development influence students’ mathematics competencies negatively. the distributions of these teacher quality factors that matter in sub-sahara africa are concentrated in the capital cities and particular regions in kenya and zimbabwe. implications for policy and practice are discussed. keywords: teacher quality; mathematics learning; primary education; large scale studies african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol.7 no. 1 2018 pp. 66 94 understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 67 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 introduction the need for quality education for all students is one of the millennia development goals the united nations propose for sustainable development. in developing nations, this goal includes equality of educational opportunities, increased student enrollment in school, more resources for learning, reduction of students’ dropout rates, and recruiting more qualified teachers (ministry of devolut io n and planning, 2013; ministry of economic planning and investment promotion, 2012; national economic and social council of kenya, 2014). one of the pressing issues in educational development is the need to strengthen mathematics development among the graduating high school students and beyond (international mathematics union [imu], 2009). particularly, the weakness in the teaching of mathematics in the primary schools and lack of qualified teachers in secondary schools have been a source of concern among the mathematics educators’ community in africa (imu, 2009). further, to be competitive in the 21st-century technology advancement and to be at par with the problem-solving competency for the present economic development in the african continent, there is a need for students to develop problem-solving and reasoning skills in their initial years of learning mathematics. for the successful transition to higherlevel mathematics and familiarity with higher level thinking such as critical thinking and abstract reasoning in mathematics, african students need to be more grounded in these “21st-century skills” (national research council [nrc] 2013, 1). consequently, these skills enable more students to join professions that require competence in reasoning and problem solving. one of the factors that can significantly influence the achievement of students is access to qualified teachers. teacher quality includes years of teaching experience, subject matter preparation, professional development attendance, certification status, and educational level (akiba, letendre, & scribner, 2007; goe, 2007). previous studies done mostly in the united states indicate that teacher quality has an influence on students’ academic achievement (clotfelter, ladd, and vidor, 2010; darling-hammond, 2000; goldhaber and anthony (2007); nrc, 2010; wayne & youngs, 2003; wilson, floden, & ferrini-mundy, 2002). however, teacher quality is low in some african countries (e.g., kisirkoi & kadenyi, 2012) and influences students’ learning (kisirkoi and kadenyi, 2012). a growing body of research on teacher quality in africa considers it as a quality assurance measure. the general studies provide descriptions on teacher quality between and within countries rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 68 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 (hunt, 2015; makuwa 2011). for instance, teacher quality in subsaharan africa differs significa nt ly between countries (bonnet, 2008; carnoy & arends; makuwa, 2011). some research indicates that kenyan elementary teachers are amongst the most qualified in sub-sahara africa but do not have high academic qualifications when compared to teachers in developed nations (bonnet, 2008), yet more than 95% of their teachers had the highest mathematics competencies. kenya and zimbabwe made improving education part of their millennium and “vision 2030” goals and students’ mathematics achievement in both countries was above sacmeq average (wasanga, ogle & wambua, 2011). however, within these countries, the students’ mathema t ics achievement varies across the regions (chitiga & chinooga, 2011; wasanga et al., 2011). notwithstanding, studies on the link between teacher quality and students’ learning is scant in the literature on mathematics education in these countries. the purpose of this study, therefore, is to identify the significant teacher quality factors that influence sixth-grade students’ mathematics competencies and to compare the distribution of these factors within, kenya, and zimbabwe. the sixth-grade students’ mathematics competencies provide information about their level of foundational mathematics competency levels that is essential for success in learning more advanced mathematics. this study contributes information on possible teacher quality factors that contribute to students’ success, or lack thereof, of higher order mathema t ics competencies. kenya and zimbabwe were among the countries whose students and teachers participated in the sacmeq survey. the ministries of education in these two countries have made significant efforts to improve the teaching and learning of mathematics. these countries, therefore, provide vital information on the differences and similarities in policy and practice that guide the teaching and learning of mathematics in southern and eastern africa. teacher quality is one of the factors that relates to students’ learning. it influences instructio na l approaches, curriculum use, and student achievement. this study draws on the teacher quality framework and cites literature on teacher quality research across and within nations. the summary of the research begins with teacher quality defined in a general sense by identifying factors indicative of high-quality teachers. next, specific studies on teacher quality across different nations are summarized. included are studies comparing national education policies from around the world, smaller se ttings such as selected states in america, turkey, and different contexts in sub-sahara africa. finally, we understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 69 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 provide a summary of several policy reviews on student achievement in kenya and zimbabwe are presented. theoretical framework defining teacher quality teacher quality or teacher characteristics include teaching experience, subject matter preparation, professional development attendance, certification status, and educational level (akiba, letendre, & scribner, 2007; goe, 2007). in this paper, we discuss these characteristics as markers of teacher quality. teachers’ years of experience is further categorized into “novice” or “experienced teacher”. specifically, a “novice teacher” is defined as one who has two years of teaching experience or less, while an “experienced teacher has a minimum of ten years of experience (e.g., goldhaber, lavery, & theobald, 2015). test scores for certified teachers have been used to define teacher quality in individual states in america. for example, in washington state, goldhaber, and colleagues (2015) classified teachers whose scores from the washington educator skills test-basic (west-b) standardized test fall in the lowest 10% to be of poor quality and those in the top 10% to be of the best quality. included in the teacher quality definition is evidence of teachers’ continued learning through workshops, professional development, or any forms of training related to the improvement of teacher practices (goe, 2007). in sum, teacher quality is the resource necessary for teaching that teachers bring to the classrooms. kennedy (2010) admitted that the measurement of teacher quality could be based on characteristics such as experience and test scores but argued about the underestimation of adjustments that need to be made for situational factors when considering the quality of teachers. kennedy d identified numerous external factors that contribute to an altered perception of teacher quality such as the shape of the room, allotted time for teaching, availability of classroom materials, and additiona l work assignments beyond teaching. additionally, contextual constraints such as lack of preparation time, participation in other non-related teaching activities, students’ absenteeism, and selection of inappropriate curriculum materials for instruction can reduce the perceived quality of a teacher (kennedy, 2010). therefore, the certification process in countries such as the united states, in which teachers reflect on their instructional practices and then have chances to adjust their thinking during rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 70 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 their portfolio development process is influenced by these contextual factors (sato, wei, & darling hammond, 2008). in this study, we focus on teacher quality considering it as a useful resource for teaching. however, we realize that although teachers may have these qualities, the context and conditions in the schools they teach may constrain how they use the resources they bring to the classroom. nonetheless, a first step towards the improvement of teaching mathematics is to consider the teachers’ quality and students’ access to qualified teachers. studies on teacher quality cross-nationally, there has been an increased focus on teacher qualit y. studies on teacher quality include discussions on the differences and similarities in teacher quality across contexts, the effects of teacher quality on students’ achievement, and distributions of teacher quality. other studies document the process of improving teacher quality. in this section, we first present research on the differe nces and similarities of teacher quality across contexts. we then discuss the literature on the distributions of teacher quality. this discussion is followed by some studies on the relationships between teacher quality and student achievement. we conclude this section with studies on the improvement of teacher quality. there are similarities in teacher quality cross-nationally, but with differences within some countries. it is, therefore, possible to study teacher quality using the characteristics borrowed from studies done cross-nationally, because of the similarities in teacher quality measures across contexts . for example, akiba, letendre, and scribner (2007) reported that the average eighthgrade teacher quality in the united states was similar to the other 45 countries that participated in the trends in international mathematics and science study (timss). however, when considering certification as a teacher quality measure, differences are found within countries. across the united states, certifica t io n process obtained through the praxis exam differs across the years, grade levels, pass rates, and teacher specializations. between the 1990s and the early 2000s, the passing rate on the exam dropped (gitomer, 2007). gitomer contended that this is likely resulting from different states implementing higher standards and stricter requirements for attaining a passing score because the overall quality of test takers improved during this period. despite the drop in passing rates of secondary and elementary level understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 71 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 specializations, teachers’ average scholastic assessment test math scores rose twenty points, indicating the tougher standards for certification in the 2000s. although all students should have equal access to qualified teachers, the literature indicates an uneven distribution of teacher quality across countries. akiba, letendre, and scribner (2007) reported a large opportunity gap regarding which students had access to higher quality teachers that is explained by socioeconomic status in the united states. similarly, goldhaber and anthony (2007) found that non-white, poor, and underperforming students were more likely to be taught by lower quality teachers in north carolina. likewise, a focus on teacher quality with respect to experience, licensure score and overall effectiveness revealed the unequal distribution of teacher quality throughout the state of washington (goldhaber, lavery, and theobald, 2015). particularly, areas higher in poverty with a larger proportion of minority students are not as enticing to high-quality teachers, meaning they must settle for more teachers of lower quality, further expanding the teaching gap. similarly, ozel and ozel (2013) found that students in turkey from a low socio–economic status provenance (ses) were much less likely to have a teacher with at least three years of experience than students with a high ses and were also less likely to have a teacher with a mathematics or mathematics education degree. as such, offering teachers incentives for continuing to teach in a disadvantaged school could be a step in leveling the playing field and narrowing the teacher quality gap students with highly qualified teachers have higher achievement scores (darling-hammo nd, 2000; national research council [nrc], 2010; wayne & youngs, 2003; wilson, floden, & ferrinimundy, 2002). similarly, a study of teacher quality in north carolina among four cohorts of sophomores between 1999-00 and 2002-03 documented differences between student achieveme nts based on their teacher’s quality. notably, students who had teachers with more experience tended to perform better up until the teachers’ fifth year (clotfelter, ladd, and vidor, 2010). additiona l ly, students taught by teachers with master’s degrees had a significant improvement at the end of course scores. clotfelter, ladd, and vidor (2010) found a statistically significant positive linear relations hip between teachers’ scores on certification exams such as the praxis ii exam and their students’ achievement on the end of semester examination. however, teachers with a lateral entry license, whic h allows college graduates with only a bachelor’s degree to teach while completing their certifica t io n over the next three years, were slightly less effective than those with regular licenses. further, third and fourth grade national board-certified teachers had the largest effects of the on students’ rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 72 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 achievement in mathematics (clotfelter et al., 2010). in sum, teacher quality is a significant factor in students’ performance, considering the context, certification, and students’ grade levels related to the learning outcomes. teacher quality is among the factors that several countries have focused on in their quest for the improvement of mathematics learning outcomes. hunt (2015) selected 40 countries located in latin america, the caribbean, sub-sahara africa, and three regions of asia and analyzed how each country planned to improve teacher quality and learning outcomes in their national education policy. with regards to improving teacher quality, hunt found that less than half of the educational plans included provisions to improve the quality of teacher education programs and only seven proposed increasing the standards for teacher qualifications. although 80% of the plans called for greater accountability for improving teacher quality, there was a difference of opinion as to who should be held responsible, ranging from teachers, head teachers, and the school. similarly, teachers’ subject matter qualifications differ across the african countries. bonnet (2008) observed that among the participating countries, the kenyan students had teachers with the highest qualification in mathematics. further, over 95% of teachers in kenya reached mathema t ics competencies1 level of eight of the scale measurement of mathematics competencies, indicating that they could identify “the nature of an unstated mathematical problem” and turn it into a “symbolic, algebraic, or equation form” to solve the problem (wasanga et al., 2011, p.98). in comparison, only two other countries (uganda and the seychelles) had 50% of its teachers attaining competency level of eight. carnoy and arends (2012) reported that teacher quality and teacher knowledge are related. focusing on students in south africa and botswana, carnoy and arends (2012) found that very few teachers in south africa had “universitylevel training,” compared to nearly half in botswana. moreover, teachers in south africa with university level training had a lower level of mathemat ica l knowledge than botswana teachers with coursework from a teacher training college. indeed, these findings further confirm that subject matter qualifications and teacher knowledge should be further investigated and the relationships with students’ mathematics competencies explored. comparing teacher quality across selected anglophone countries in sub-sahara africa reveals teacher quality is dissimilar. both kenya and zimbabwe had high percentages of their teachers with at 1 mathematics competency is measured in eight different levels with 1 representing the lowest level (pre -numeracy) and 8 representing the highest level (abstract problem solving skills). understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 73 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 least a secondary education, coming in at 97.8% and 94.8% respectively. one significant differ ence between teachers’ backgrounds was on the number of years of teacher training (makuwa, 2011). whereas zimbabwean teachers were above average at 3.1 years, kenyan teachers had a below average amount of training at 2.0 years. however, kenyan teachers had more years of teaching experience on average at 13.3 years compared to 11.5 years in zimbabwe. teachers in kenya scored well above average on the reading achievement test in both 2000 and 2007 with their scores coming in second only to the seychelles in 2000 and third after seychelles and zimbabwe in 2007. these differences in teacher quality call for more in-depth studies on the influence in students learning within and across countries. students’ mathematics achievement in subsahara africa students’ mathematics achievement in sub-sahara africa is available through crossnational studies such as timss, program for international student assessment (pisa), unesco, and sacmeq. three countries from sub-sahara africa consistently participate in timss: botswana, ghana, and south africa. algeria was the only country in africa that took part in pisa. hence, the sacmeq data provides more information on the quality of education in sub-sahara africa. studies that have used the sacmeq data to analyze students’ mathematics achievement have focused on the trends over the years and achievement in particular countries in each year the sacmeq survey cycles. a policy brief of 2011 documented that in 2000 and 2007, there was a decrease in students’ mathematics scores from 563 to 557 in the sacmeq achievement test. (wasanga, ogle, & wambua, 2011). nonetheless, these scores were above the sacmeq means of 500 and 510, respectively. abuya and colleagues (2015) suggested that the free primary education policy in sub saharan africa led to increased school enrollment and shortages of teachers in public schools, causing some lag in students’ learning. in-country comparisons of kenya and zimbabwe indicate there are mathematics achieve me nt disparities across the regions and consistently low levels of mathematics competencies among the students. in kenya, the sixth-grade students across all the regions displayed similar to or greater than the average2 mathematics scores in the last saqmec assessment (wasanga et al., 2011). however, in zimbabwe students in half of the regions had lower than the average saqmec score (chitiga & chinooga, 2011). also, between 2000 and 2007, most of the students’ mathematics competencies were 2 the average sacmeq achievement score was 500. rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 74 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 consistently at the lower levels in kenya (hungi &thuku, 2010; wasanga et al., 2011). the students’ average mathematics competencies in zimbabwe are similar to the sixth-grade students’ in kenya with more than 80% of the students having scored at level 5 competencies or lower out of 8. in both countries, the differences in mathematics competencies indicate [that] more students with higher ses and from urban regions had higher mathematics competencies when compared to those from lower ses backgrounds and the rural areas (hungi et al., 2010). the studies using sacmeq data focus more on the achievement and students’ mathema t ics competency levels across regions in specific countries. unfortunately, these univariate measures do not provide sufficient information to explain the low mathematics performance levels of sixth-grade students within the sub-sahara countries. further, there is a paucity of predictive studies on teacher quality and students’ mathematics competencies in the literature on education in the african context. the integration of teachers’ mathematics competencies with teacher quality could provide more information on specific teacher qualities that matter. therefore, expanding on these init ial findings through the inclusion of teacher mathematics competencies and relational studies provides valuable information for policy and practice and will also help to identify geographical patterns in the countries selected for study. our study examines the relationship between sixth-grade students’ mathema t ics competencies and teacher quality across the countries in the 2007-2011 sacmeq study and the distribution of teacher quality factors in kenya and zimbabwe. the questions guiding the study are: (a) what is the relationship between the teacher quality and students’ mathema t ics competencies across the countries that participated in the sacmeq study, controlling for gender and socioeconomic status? (b) what are the differences in the significant teacher quality factors across the regions in kenya and zimbabwe? methods in this study, we use the southern and eastern african consortium for monitoring educational quality (sacmeq) 2007-2011 data set [sacmeq iii]. the data was collected by the national centers of the participating countries and organized by the sacmeq coordinating center. a representative sample of teachers, students, and principals in fifteen countries in sub-sahara africa were the respondents in this study. sacmeq aims to monitor the educational quality across countries in sub-sahara africa understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 75 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 and provides information for policy and practice. the students and teachers were sampled using disproportionate sampling, and the data then organized with weighting information to allow for crosscountry analysis. in sum, the data is appropriate for exploring the teacher quality and student achievement between and within the participating countries. variables of the study the dependent variables selected for this study are the students’ mathematics competency levels. the competency levels are set on an ordinal scale indicating the students’ proficiency level. the sacmeq data provides the students’ and teachers’ competency levels. the teacher quality variables in the study are the academic qualification, the number of years of professional training, years spent teaching, the number of professional development courses attended, days spent on in-service courses, effective professional development (teachers’ perceptions), and subject matter preparation. table a1 presents a summary description of the variables used in the study. table 1 summary description of variables variables variable names scale description dependent variables mathematics competency ordinal 1-pre-numeracy; 2-emergent numeracy; 3-basic numeracy; 4-beginning numeracy; 5-competent numeracy; 6mathematically skilled; 7-concrete problem-solving; 8abstract problem solving independent variables teacher quality variables academic qualification ordinal responses include “primary education, junior secondary, senior secondary, alevel but no degree, and tertiary education” number of years of professional training ordinal responses include “no training, less than one year, one year, two years, three years, and more than three years of training”. years spent teaching continuous total number of years the teacher has rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 76 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 spent teaching. number of professional development courses attended continuous total number of professiona l development courses attended over the past three years days spent on inservice training continuous total number of days spent in in-service training effective professiona l development ordinal responses include “no attendance, not effective, reasonably effective, effective, and very effective” permanent employment categorical responses include permanent governme nt employed, permanent non-governme nt employed, temporary governme nt employed, and temporary nongovernment employed. analysis to address the research questions, a predictive analysis using a multi-level model was used to compare the relationships between teacher quality measures and students’ mathematics competencies across the countries in the sacmeq study. this was followed by a descriptive analysis of the significant teacher quality factors in kenya and zimbabwe. the teacher quality distributions across the regions within the two countries highlight the differences and similarities between and within the two countries. this analytical method for the relational analysis was selected because it takes the clustering of students in classes and schools into consideration and allows for the inclusion of weights that then provide the corrected standard errors. notably, the analysis considers the differences that exist between the teachers in the different schools. the equations of the multilevel models are provided. level 1 (student level variables) (math proficiency)ij = β0j + β1j (gender)ij + β2j (socioeconomic status)ij + rij (1) equation (1) represents the sixth-grade student i in class j. β0j represents the average mathema t ics proficiency, whereas the other beta coefficients, the slopes of the equations, represent the change in understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 77 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 mathematics proficiency for every unit change in the predictors for the continuous variables or the difference in mathematics competencies for the categorical variables. at level 1, the variables are mean centered covariates of the background variables. level 2 (teacher level variables) (math proficiency)0j = υ00 + υ01 (permanent employment)j + υ02 (years of professional training)j + υ03 (days spent in professional development )j + υ04 (effective professional development)j + υ05 (academic qualification )j + υ06 (years of teaching experience)j + υ07 (number of in-service courses taken)j +υ07 (teachers’ mathematics competencies)j + μ0j (2) the coefficients represent the information on the relationships between the teacher quality variables and the mathematics proficiency between the students’ teachers, and are grand mean centered . 𝛾00 is the value of the grand mean of mathematics proficiency considering all the students at the country level. results the results are organized by first presenting the relationships between the teachers’ quality measures and students’ mathematics competencies. next, we compare the distributions of the significant teacher quality factors within the two countries. the findings illustrate the relationships among pre-service preparation of the teachers in the countries, continued professional development, and students’ mathematics competencies. relationships between teacher quality and students’ mathematics competencies the patterns of relationships between the teacher quality measures and students’ mathema t ics competencies across all the participating countries, controlling for students’ gender and socioeconomic status are illustrated using a multilevel regression model. a summary of the unconditional and the multilevel relationships are presented and include information on the coefficients of the relations hips between the variables and standard errors. table 2 presents the unconditional models including the variance components. the intra class correlations (𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝜏00/(𝜏00 + 𝜎 2) values (icc=40%) is above 10% and therefore a multilevel model is allowed (raykov & marcoulides, 2012). in particular, 40% of the students’ mathematics competency is between the schools in the participating sacmeq countries and 60% of the variation in students’ mathematics competency is between students. rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 78 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 table 2 unconditional model of students’ mathematics competencies across the participating countries variable coefficient intercept 3.15*** (.02) variance components intercept, µ0 .72 level-1, r 1.07 icc ,40 *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 the models of the relationships between teacher quality and students’ mathematics competencies are presented on table 3. the dependent variable in the multilevel model is the students’ mathema t ics competency level. the model includes two level 1 covariates: gender and socioeconomic status (ses). the average sixth grade students’ mathematics competency in the participating co untries in sub saharan africa was 3.15, which is above basic numeracy but below the level of beginning numeracy. further, there was a significant gender difference in students’ mathematics competencies; boys had significantly higher scores when compared to their female counterparts. in addition, the ses was a significant predictor of students’ mathematics competency. the model shows that some teacher quality measures were positively related to students’ mathematics competencies, while others were] negatively related in particular, teachers academic qualification (= .15, p< .001), years of teaching experiences (=.01, p<.001), and mathema t ics competencies (=.22, p<.001) were significant positive predictors of students’ mathema t ics competencies. however, permanent employment status (=-.20, p< .01) and number of days spent in in-service training (=-.001 .p< .01) were negative predictors of students’ mathematics competencies. while teachers’ professional training and attendance of professional development were perceived as effective for building teaching proficiencies, these measure showed positive correlations with students’ mathematics competencies, but were not significant. also, the number of in-service courses taken showed a negative relationship with students’ mathematics competencies. a summary of the relationships in the multilevel model is presented in table 3. understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 79 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 table 3 relationships between teacher quality and students mathematics competencies variable coefficient intercept 3.17*** (.02) level 1 (student level) students’ gender (boys) .10*** (0.01) students’ socioeconomic status .003*** (.0001) level 2 (teacher quality) permanent employment -.20** (.06) educational background .15*** (.02) professional training .02 (.02) years of teaching experience .01*** (.002) number of in-service courses taken -.001 (.01) number of days spent on in-service training -.001** (.0003) mathematics competency .22*** (.02) effective professional development .01 (.01) variance components intercept, µ0 .62 level-1, r 1.02 *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 teacher quality in kenya and zimbabwe. the multilevel regression analysis indicates that in sub-sahara africa, teachers’ academic qualification, their years of teaching experience, and mathematics competencies are significant teacher quality factors that matter in students’ mathematics competencies. therefore, a further analysis of the distributions of these teacher quality factors provides a direction on where these essential qualities are lacking in kenya and zimbabwe. similarly, a look at the distribution of the teacher quality factors that were negatively related to students’ mathematics competencies (permanent employment and number rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 80 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 of days spent in in-service training) provides further elaborations of the scenarios within the countries. in this section, we first present the distributions of the teacher quality measures that were positive ly related to students’ mathematics competencies. we then discuss the distributions of the teacher quality factors that were negatively related to students’ mathematics competencies, namely permanent employment status and number of days spent on in-service training. educational background (teacher qualifications). in general, teachers in zimbabwe have slightly higher educational backgrounds than their counterparts in kenya. there is little difference among the least qualified teachers in the two countries with 6.7% of teachers in kenya and 5.2% of teachers in zimbabwe attaining either a primary or junior secondary education. there is greater disparity in the attainment of higher levels of education. the senior secondary is the highest level attained by 63% of teachers in kenya compared to only 43% in zimbabwe. although the a-level education levels are similar (26% in kenya vs. 24% in zimbabwe), the rate at which teachers attain a first degree, the highest level of education, is seven times higher in zimbabwe. over one-quarter of zimbabwean teachers have the first degree education while less than 4% in kenya have achieved the same level of education. within kenya, the coastal province had the least number of teachers with an a-level educational background. also, the northeastern and western regions had no teachers with the first-degree level of education. in zimbabwe, harare and bulawayo provinces had the highest percentage of teachers with first degrees. masvingo province had the lowest number of teachers with a first degree. a summary of the distribution is presented in figure 1. understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 81 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 figure 1. bar graphs comparing the highest level of education attained by teachers in across the provinces in kenya and zimbabwe teaching experience. the regions in kenya where teachers tended to have the most experience were in nairobi, nyanza, and the central region. the median number of years teaching in the central region is just under 20, while a quarter of teachers in nairobi and nyanza had 20 years or more of experience. the northeastern area of kenya employed teachers with the least amount of experience; a half had six years or less of teaching experience and one-quarter had three years or less. in zimbabwe, the most experienced teachers were in bulawayo and harare where the median was above 15 years and a quarter of the teachers ha d taught for more than two decades. the region with the least experienced teachers was matabeleland south where the median years of experience were four and one-quarter of teachers had been teaching for two years or less. there tended to be more variability in the median number of years teaching across kenyan regions than in the regions of zimbabwe. the distribution of the teachers’ years of teaching experience is presented on figure 2. 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 c e n tr a l c o a s t e a s te rn n a ir o b i n o rt h e a s te rn n y a n z a r if t v a ll e y w e s te rn b u la w a y o h a ra re m a s h o n a la n d c e n tr a l m a s h o n a la n d e a s t m a s h o n a la n d w e s t m id la n d s m a n ic a la n d m a ta b e le la n d n o rt h m a ta b e le la n d s o u th m a s v in g o kenya zimbabwe primary junior secondary senior secondary a-level first degree p e rc e n ta g e graphs by country id rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 82 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 figure 2. side-by-side boxplots of the number of years of teaching experience by teachers in kenya and zimbabwe displayed by region. teachers’ mathematics competencies. with regards to teacher competency, teachers in kenya consistently reached the highest level of competency, abstract problem solving. teachers in the northeast region performed the best with over 95% reaching the highest level and the teachers in the other areas achieving the second highest competency level, concrete problem solving. only the central and nyanza regions failed to have at least 80% of their teachers at this level. all teachers in kenya reached the fifth level, concrete numeracy, but less than 1% overall were below the concrete problem solving level. competency levels in zimbabwe were lower overall than those in kenya. whereas all regions in kenya had most of their teachers attaining the abstract problem solving level, zimbabwean teacher competencies differ more between the regions. mashonaland west had the best overall teacher competency results with about 80% of teachers reaching the abstract problem solving level and the rest at the concrete problem-solving level, a trait shared with only mashonaland central, and midland for the regions in zimbabwe. however, several areas had teachers whose competencies were subpar. teachers in harare had lower mathematics competencies with over 20% of teachers at the mathematically skilled level. 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 c e n tr a l c o a s t e a s te rn n a ir o b i n o rt h e a s te rn n y a n z a r if t v a lle y w e s te rn b u la w a y o h a ra re m a s h o n a la n d c e n tr a l m a s h o n a la n d e a s t m a s h o n a la n d w e s t m id la n d s m a n ic a la n d m a ta b e le la n d n o rt h m a ta b e le la n d s o u th m a s v in g o kenya zimbabwe y e a rs o f t e a c h in g e x p e ri e n c e graphs by country id years of teaching experience across provinces understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 83 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 in fact, about 4% of teachers in harare only displayed competencies at level four, beginning numeracy. figure 3 shows the distribution of the sixth-grade teachers’ mathematics competencies. figure 3. stacked bar graphs of percentage of teachers at different mathematics competency levels by region and country. kenya is displayed on the left and zimbabwe is displayed on the right. teachers’ employment status in both countries, most of the sixth-grade teachers have permanent employment. more teachers in zimbabwe (above 80%) have permanent government appointed status compared to those in kenya. the coastal (90.67%) and western (86.97%) regions had the highest permanent government employed teachers whereas north eastern (69.34%)regions had the lowest percentage of permanent governme nt hired teachers in kenya. besides, north eastern and eastern central, nyanza and the rift valley regions had between 15-25% of the sixth-grade teachers on temporary non-government appointme nt. in contrast, the few teachers in zimbabwe without permanent government employment status were on temporary government appointment, with the highest percentage found in mashonaland central (16.38%). the teachers’ employment statuses across the regions are presented in figure 4. 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 c e n tr a l c o a s t e a s te rn n a ir o b i n o rt h e a s te rn n y a n z a r if t v a ll e y w e s te rn b u la w a y o h a ra re m a s h o n a la n d c e n tr a l m a s h o n a la n d e a s t m a s h o n a la n d w e s t m id la n d m a n ic a la n d m a ta b e le la n d n o rt h m a ta b e le la n d s o u th m a s v in g o kenya zimbabwe beginning numeracy competent numeracy mathmatically skilled concrete problem solving abstract problem solving p e rc e n ta g e rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 84 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 figure 4. a distribution of the teachers’ employment status across the regions in kenya and zimbabwe. number of days spent on in-service training. in both countries the number of days the sixth-grade teachers spent on in-service training taken was low. more teachers spent time on in-service training in kenya than in zimbabwe. however, most of the teachers in both countries had not spent time on in-service training figure 5 is an illustra t io n summarizing the distribution of teachers that spent time on in-service training in kenya and zimbabwe. 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 c e n tr a l c o a s t e a s te rn n a ir o b i n o rt h e a s te rn n y a n z a r if t v a ll e y w e s te rn b u la w a y o h a ra re m a s h o n a la n d c e n tr a l m a s h o n a la n d e a s t m a s h o n a la n d w e s t m id la n d s m a n ic a la n d m a ta b e le la n d n o rt h m a ta b e le la n d s o u th m a s v in g o kenya zimbabwe permanent (govt) permanent (non-govt) temporary (govt) temporary (non-govt) p e rc e n ta g e graphs by country id understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 85 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 figure 5. histogram showing the distribution of days sixth-grade teachers spent in in-service training in kenya and zimbabwe discussion this study aimed to identify teacher quality factors that contribute to students’ development of higher level mathematical skills. the findings focus on the relationships between teacher quality and the students’ mathematics competencies in the participating sacmeq countries. the influence of these measures on students’ learning builds understanding on focal areas related to teacher quality that could be contributing to students’ lack of problem-solving skills within kenya and zimbabwe. teacher qualification is one of the teacher quality factors that developing countries should focus on to improve student learning. the minimum qualification of primary school teachers in sub-sahara africa is upper secondary school without any prospect that this will change in the nearest future (lauwerier & akkari, 2005). in this study, we found that teacher qualification is a significant predictor of students’ mathematics competency. a look at the two countries that are the focus of this study shows that the sixthgrade teachers in zimbabwe had higher educational qualifications when compared to the 0 5 0 1 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800 kenya zimbabwe p e rc e n ta g e rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 86 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 teachers in kenya. also, harare had the highest percentage (40%) of the sixth-grade teachers with firstdegree qualifications. in kenya, the region with the highest percentage of teachers with a first degree was nairobi at about 10%. notably, there were some areas in both countries that had teachers who did not meet the minimum qualification. in kenya, the central, eastern, nyanza, and rift valley regions had about 10% of the teachers having lower than the minimum required teaching qualification. in zimbabwe, the mashonaland east and matabeleland north had about 10% of the teachers not meeting the minimum educational qualification. in sum, the distribution of teachers with high educational qualifications is not equal across the regions in kenya and zimbabwe. similar to other nations (e.g., goldhaber et al., 2015), there is an opportunity gap in students’ access to teachers with higher educational qualifications. the sixth-grade teachers’ years of experience were significant predictors of student mathematics competencies. the teachers in the participating sacmeq countries seemed to have been more successful in learning pedagogical practices for improving students’ achievement indicating the successful development of the wisdom of practice (shulman & hutchings, 2004). a study from a different context shows support for these findings: teachers learn on the job to be more efficient in developing student learning (harris& sass, 2011). in the two focus countries, certain regions have teachers with fewer years of teaching experience. for example, in kenya, the median years of teaching experience of the teachers in the north-eastern region was the lowest at about five, but in the central province, the median years of teaching experience was at about 20. in zimbabwe, the sixth-grade teachers in mashonaland east and matabeleland south had five years as the median years of teaching experience; the least across the regions. however, harare and bulawayo had teachers with about median15 years of teaching experience. the findings indicate that perhaps there is a higher turnover of teachers in the north-eastern province in kenya, and mashonaland east and matabeleland south in zimbabwe. perhaps the situational factors such as the location of the school, access to adequate teaching resources, and student populations could be contributing to the high turnover of teachers in these regions. the fact that the teachers’ teaching experience is an important factor for students’ development of higher mathematics competencies points to the need for policies focused on incent ives offered to retain teachers in these regions. similarly, the unesco report (2006) emphasized the need for incentives to keep best teachers in disadvantaged regions. understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 87 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 the correlations between the teachers’ and students’ mathematics competencies indicate that higher teachers’ mathematics knowledge is beneficial for students’ development of higher mathema t ics competencies. however, the average students’ mathematics competencies across the sacmeq countries were between basic numeracy and beginning numeracy. such findings suggest that the pedagogical content knowledge the teachers have is insufficient for teaching high-level mathemat ics. also, it is possible that contextual factors may influence the learning of mathematics across the two countries. such factors could include the information available in the curriculum materials, the policies related to grade-level expectations, and other situational factors within the schools and countries (hiebert & grouws, 2007). hiebert and grouws (2007) suggested that teachers might have challenges “enacting complex skills even when known by the teachers (p.393)”. indeed, pedagogical knowledge is a challenge in botswana and south africa. (sapire & sorto, 2012). therefore, although these teachers seem to have the content knowledge on higher order skills, they need pre-service and in-service programs that emphasize the teaching of higher order skills in the elementary grades. an interesting facet of the analysis was the negative relationship between students’ competency levels and their teachers’ attendance of professional development. similarly, harris and sass (2011) found that in-service professional development for teachers in florida did not help to improve students’ mathematics achievement. they pointed to lack of resources and need for more pedagogical training in the professional development provided. in the kenyan and zimbabwean context, it is possible the content provided is not teacher-directed or does not relate to the needs of the teachers. the fact that the teachers’ professional development attendance was negatively related to the students’ mathema t ics competencies supports the notion that discussions of topics on pedagogy could be lacking in these forums as suggested by harris and sass (2011). lack of teacher input could lead to the adoption of inappropriate policies for professional development and could also be demoralizing to the teachers (unesco, 2006). as such, teachers are likely not to use the knowledge gathered from the professiona l development forums if the content is not relevant. additionally, the personnel providing these forums should ensure equitable access to these inservice needs across the regions in the two countries. although the findings on the relations hips between professional development and students’ mathematics competencies were negative ly significant in the model, the teachers in kenya seemed to have more professional development opportunities than the teachers in zimbabwe. the reports from the teachers from northeastern, eastern rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 88 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 and nyanza regions in kenya and mashonaland central and matabeleland south in zimbabwe indicate they hardly had in-service courses. therefore, most of the teachers in these provinces have missed opportunities for continued self-development, yet studies on teacher quality document that teacher education programs curriculum could be lacking in supporting teachers to learn skills that can improve students’ achievement (e.g. harris & sass, 2011). as such, the teachers’ lack of participation in professional development suggests that the gaps they bring to their classrooms after graduating from their teacher preparation programs are still present. teachers’ permanent employment status was negatively related to students’ mathema t ics competencies. perhaps teachers who have job security put less effort in supporting their students to develop higher order skills. indeed, other situational factors that might include, but are not limited to access to teaching materials, school policies or student populations could be a contributing factor to permanent status being a factor that does not improve students’ mathematics competencies. perhaps the introduction of school-based in-service courses for the permanent government employed teachers would be a step towards improving students learning of higher order skills in mathematics (unesco, 2006). additionally, the unesco report (2006) points to having policies for professional development for teachers with permanent government employment status so that they all meet the minimum teacher qualification requirements. overall, students and teachers in kenya had higher mathematics competencies than their counterparts in zimbabwe. kenya’s education system has been rapidly developing through the support of agencies such as the japan international cooperation agency (jica), which was present in kenya between 1998-2013. jica supports in-service primary and secondary teacher professiona l development in mathematics and science and was divided into three phases to support teachers (ishihara, 2012; jica 2013). the first phase, strengthening of mathematics and science in secondary education (smasse) focused on nine districts and the second phase expanded to all districts within kenya and 11 african countries. notably, zimbabwe joined the center for mathematics science and technology education in africa (cemastea) in 2003. professional development was expanded to include the primary school in the third phase of the project from 2009 and 27-member countries in africa (ishihara, 2012; jica 2013). the establishment of the cemastea in kenya presently serves as the central institute for training for the member countries. understanding the relationships between teacher quality and sixth grade students’ mathematics competencies in kenya and zimbabwe 89 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 the jica project in kenya has introduced newer ways of teaching mathematics. although elementary school students have not reached the levels they should, there is evidence that the new jica teaching policies have some positive effects. the recent teacher graduates experienced new pedagogies learned from their high school teachers. for example, in the north-eastern province of kenya almost 100% of the sixth-grade teachers had the highest mathematics competencies, abstract problem solving, and the median years of teaching experience at about 5. although the mathema t ics competency levels are still low among the sixth-grade kenyan students, the ripple effect of particular interventions from this initiative suggests kenya is working to improve on students’ math skills. however, in zimbabwe, the results indicate that there are pockets of teachers with specific skills that could contribute to students’ mathematics competencies, but these qualities are not widespread throughout the country. conclusion although there have been noticeable improvements in students’ mathematics competency in kenya and zimbabwe in recent years, steps can still be taken to further mathematics education. there shou ld be an analysis of the curriculum offered to future teachers in the teacher preparation programs and the elementary mathematics taught in school in the two countries to improve on elementary teachers’ training. such an analysis could identify the strengths and weaknesses of the programs for improve me nt in educational policy and practice. zimbabwe, for instance, could adopt curriculum content and practices from kenya to fill the possible mathematics content knowledge gaps among their teachers. the fact that teachers in zimbabwe spend more years in their teacher preparation, but have lower mathematics competencies indicates the quality of the program should be more the focus of attention than the time spent. the teacher retention policies in both countries affect teachers differently, considering that the teachers’ years of teaching experience is useful for improving students’ mathematics competencies in sub-sahara africa. some regions in kenya (north eastern, nyanza, and western) and zimbabwe (mashonaland east, mashonaland west, matabeleland north, and matabeleland south) had teachers with fewer years of teaching experience when compared to other regions. these findings on the high turnover of teachers in specific areas call for a re-evaluation of the teacher retention policies in both countries. rachel angela ayieko, gibbs kanyongo, bryan nelson 90 ajote vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 66 -94 although the teachers in both countries had higher order skills, their students did not attain these skills. it is possible that the mathematics teaching/classroom practices in kenya and zimbabwe are different and do not lead to students having higher order skills in mathematics. specifically, the last available sacmeq study findings showed that more than 80% of the students in kenya and zimbabwe had competent numeracy skills or lower (hungi &thuku, 2010; wasanga et al., 2011). these findings indicate that there is a need to study the classroom practices across the two countries. perhaps, the regions most affected by teacher flight would be the best starting point. further, investigating how classroom practices influence students’ mathematics learning would explain the weak correlations between the students’ and the teachers’ mathematics competencies. continued professional development of teachers in both countries is very low, especially in the eastern, north eastern, and nyanza provinces in kenya and most regions in zimbabwe. therefore, an increase in professional development or introductions to more in-service courses are needed in these countries. notably, professional development focused on developing students’ higher order mathematics skills in elementary schools is key. also, ongoing professional development sessions embedded in practice as opposed to one shot, as is usually the case, could support teachers ’ instructional practices classroom practices. the in-service courses introduced to teachers through cemastea are a step towards improving teachers’ instructional practices. however, a study of how these sessions influence teachers in the different regions in the participating countries is an agenda for research. not only should professional development be provided across the regions in kenya and zimbabwe but also spaces should be opened up for practicing teachers to contribute to the policies and practices related to their career needs is key. references abuya, b. a., admassu, k., ngware, m., onsomu, e. o., & oketch, m. 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(2002). teacher preparation research: an insider’s view from the outside. journal of teacher education, 53(3), 190–204. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053003002 book review munsaka, e., & kalinde, b. (2017) laying the foundation for optimal outcomes in early childhood, university of zambia press, lusaka, 172 pp. (a5), $12.00 (paperback), isbn 978-9982-02-099-1 lthough the necessity for the provision of quality early childhood education has been acknowledged in the local and international development literature, there are currently few books written on early childhood education in zambia. the need for such resources is justified by the fact that 68% of zambian children are not accessing pre-primary education relative to primary education in this country (mccoy, zuilkowski, yoshikawa& fink, 2017), resulting in poor cognitive performance (hsiao, richter, makusha, matafwali, van heerden& mabaso, 2017). while previous studies report the benefits of quality early childhood education in zambia, including early school enrolment (zuilkowski, fink, moucheraud & matafwali, 2012), acquisition of minimum skills for active and meaningful citizenship (nsamenang cited in serpell,1992 :468), and cognitive, fine motor and task performance skills (mccoy, zuilkowski, yoshikawa& fink, 2017), some studies have concluded that zambia is not ready for early childhood education due to its impoverished primary school sector which suffers from classroom shortages, unavailability of textbooks to students, and poor quality of teaching (ministry of general education, 2019). this 172-page book is among the first attempts to provide a teaching resource to the zambian readers, co-authored by ecloss munsaka and bibian kalinde, who are both experienced and accomplished authors in child development, teaching and learning in early childhood care, development and education. the bright, creative illustrations on the cover page are an outstanding exhibition for of what the bookstands for. the authors a african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 254-260 . book review ajote vol. 8 (2019), 254-260 255 identify problems in the current zambian early childhood education programme such as poor teaching methods, use of inappropriate teaching methods, and use of unfamiliar language and the absence of parent-teacher collaboration. the authors suggest practical solutions to address these challenges using locally available resources. the book has seven chapters which vary in content and depth. while the first chapter charts the local and international processes that explain the development of early childhood education in zambia, the second to the fourth chapter detail human developmental domains including physical, cognitive and socio-emotional developmental milestones and their accompanying theories. research on physical development in zambia is well described in the chapters that follow. the cognitive and socio-emotional benefits of play in children are empirically and theoretically supported. negative effects of excessive television exposure on children and relevant examples from the zambian early childhood curriculum of how play can be maximized in the teaching and learning context are discussed (p.85). detailed descriptions of zambian games and songs that promote cognitive development make this book exceptional (p.63). chapters four to six discuss the role of language in early childhood education in zambia. the book’s appalling observation that more than 700 zambian early childhood centres across the country use english as a language of instruction even though learners are not familiar with it is a source of concern (p.93). the authors provide convincing evidence on the advantages of using the mother tongue in preschool (ohannessian & kashoki, 2017; mwanza-kabaghe, 2015; tambulukani & bus, 2011; heugh, 2005; mbewe, matafwali & mwanza-kabaghe, 2016). finally, effective strategies of involving parents in the education of their children are discussed in chapters 5 and 6. the book makes a unique contribution to the field of early childhood education. first, the suggestion of play-based pedagogy involving songs, and games in teaching is provided, consistent with evidence on effective pedagogical practices in low resource settings (adams-ojugbele & moletsane, 2019). second, the book proposes time out and other behaviour modification techniques as measures for pupil misconduct (gershoff & bitensky, 2007). third, the authors confirm evidence-based practical book review ajote vol. 8 (2019), 254-260 256 strategies for addressing maladaptive behaviour in childhood in zambia (mwanzakabaghe, 2015). lastly, the authors suggest that physical-cognitive development are best achieved by using song, play, dance and story-telling. the strengths of the book are apparent. the book highlights three essential characteristics of an effective early childhood education programme in zambia, which include quality of instruction that incorporates play and a familiar language, emotional support to learners by teachers and active parental involvement in the education of their children for better learning outcomes. second, a description of play and how it can be effectively used to foster holistic physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development is clearly illustrated by local examples from the zambian setting, consistent with evidence (kelly, dissanayake, ihsen & hammond, 2011). third, the book provides a strong theoretical framework to support early childhood care and education. however, explaining socio-emotional development using both erik erikson and the attachment theory developed by john bowlby (bowlby, 2008) would have provided more insight on the role of attachment in predicting optimal development and academic achievement (bergin & bergin, 2009). as with other good studies, this book also has weaknesses. first, one of the childhood problems identified by the book is obesity. this may not be a practical challenge in contemporary zambia due to the reported high malnourishment and stunted growth (mccoy, zuilkowski, yoshikawa & fink, 2017). second, the absence of a glossary in the book to provide detailed explanations of the meaning of complex terms is inexcusable and yet the authors promised the readers that complex words would be explained (see preface). this omission makes it difficult for readers to fully benefit from the book. third, while the authors agree with prevailing evidence (ojanen et al., 2015; ohannessian & kashoki, 2017; mwanzakabaghe, 2015;tambulukani& bus, 2011; heugh, 2005; mbewe, matafwali & mwanza-kabaghe, 1996; serpell, 1992) that reading acquisition in the mother tongue (initial socialization) is the direction to follow for the promotion of “pedagogical efficacy and cultural continuity between home and school” (serpell, 1992: 468), their observation that some zambian children’s mother tongue is english (p.144) would have benefitted from evidential support. book review ajote vol. 8 (2019), 254-260 257 fourth, the book’s observation that insufficient and unmotivated preschool teachers (ojanen et al., 2015) might harm zambia’s early childhood education sector needs to be extended to suggestions of how the government can effectively train community school teachers (who cater for massive preschool enrolments in zambia and yet remain isolated from the public preschools). fifth, given that most zambian parents now spend less time with their children, the authors are right to lay emphasis on healthy teacher-parent collaboration in early childhood instruction for effective teaching and learning (chansa-kabali &westerholm, 2014; miedel & reynolds, 1999). they are also right to emphasize the need for parents to support and supervise their children’s homework and together with them to get involved in co-curricular activities so as to restrain pupils’ excessive television viewing at home and to otherwise fill their time with constructive activities (p.135-136). however, the authors fail to highlight recent research on how parents neglect adversely affect cognitive development. all these parent and teacher strategies are mere suggestions if they are not supported by evidence. finally, one would have wished that the reference literature meets or even exceeds standard expectation from the scientific community. for instance, out of 121 reference sources (p. 147-157), only 43 references (less than half) were published in the last 10 years (2008-2017). this is not a good indication for a book that promotes current best practices in the field that is in its infancy in zambia. a few typographic errors have also been noted on a number of pages (p.10, 11, 24, 29,53,67,80 and 100) and one judgmental statement: “we need to treat children the way jesus christ treats us, he hates the sin, but unconditionally loves the sinner” (p.122). such a statement suggests a problematic religious (clearly christian) bias in a book that targets all readers regardless of religion. in conclusion, the book is suitable for all teachers regardless of the qualification and specialization, and institutional setting— whether university or college. it is suitable for literate parents and for the sunday school teacher as it encourages a child perspective in dealing with children’s issues. while highlighting major early childhood education problems including poor pedagogical practices and the absence of parent-teacher collaboration, the book suggests best book review ajote vol. 8 (2019), 254-260 258 practices in early childhood education in zambia. this resource is evidence-based, practical, and engaging; qualities that make it a unique contribution to early childhood education, care and development in zambia. gabriel walubita, educational psychology, sociology and special education department, school of education, university of zambia, box 32379, lusaka, zambia. references adams-ojugbele, r. o., &moletsane, r. 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(2007). the case against corporal punishment of children: converging evidence from social science research and international human rights law and implications for us public policy. psychology, public policy, and law, 13(4), 231. heugh, k. (2005) mother-tongue education is best. <i>hsrc review</i>. 3(3):6-7. retrieved from http://ecommons.hsrc.ac.za/handle/2 0.500.11910/7095 hsiao, c., richter, l., makusha, t., matafwali, b., van heerden, a., & mabaso, m. (2017). use of the ages and stages questionnaire adapted for south africa and zambia. child: http://ecommons.hsrc.ac.za/handle/20.500.11910/7095 http://ecommons.hsrc.ac.za/handle/20.500.11910/7095 http://ecommons.hsrc.ac.za/handle/20.500.11910/7095 http://ecommons.hsrc.ac.za/handle/20.500.11910/7095 book review ajote vol. 8 (2019), 254-260 259 care, health and development, 43(1), 59-66. kelly, r., dissanayake, c., ihsen, e., & hammond, s. (2011). the relationship between symbolic play and executive function in young children. australasian journal of early childhood, 36(2), 21-27. linehan, s. (2005). language of instruction and the quality of basic education in zambia. paper commissioned for the efa global monitoring report. mbewe, e. g., matafwali, b., &kabaghe, s. m. (1996). teachers’, pupils’ and parents’ perceptions on the use of chinyanja as a medium of instruction in selected lower primary schools in lusaka district, zambia. education, 30. mccoy, d. c., zuilkowski, s. s., yoshikawa, h., & fink, g. (2017). early childhood care and education and school readiness in zambia. journal of research on educational effectiveness, 10(3), 482-506. miedel, w. t., & reynolds, a. j. (1999). parent involvement in early intervention for disadvantaged children: does it matter?. journal of school psychology, 37(4), 379-402. ministry of general education (2019). zambia education enhancement project. retrieved from ministry of general education website: https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambiaeducation-enhancement-projectzeep-brief/zambia education enhancement mwanza-kabaghe, s. (2015). preschool, executive functions and oral language as predictors of literacy and numeracy skills in first grade (doctoral dissertation, university of zambia). retrieved from http://lollenautafoundation.eu/upload s/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_513809989.pdf ohannessian, s., & kashoki, m. e. (2017). language in zambia. routledge. ojanen, e., kujala, j., richardson, u., & lyytinen, h. (2013). technologyenhanced literacy learning in zambia: observations from a multilingual literacy environment. insights on learning https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambia-education-enhancement-project-zeep-brief/ https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambia-education-enhancement-project-zeep-brief/ https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambia-education-enhancement-project-zeep-brief/ https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambia-education-enhancement-project-zeep-brief/ https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambia-education-enhancement-project-zeep-brief/ https://www.moge.gov.zm/zambia-education-enhancement-project-zeep-brief/ http://lollenautafoundation.eu/uploads/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_-513809989.pdf http://lollenautafoundation.eu/uploads/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_-513809989.pdf http://lollenautafoundation.eu/uploads/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_-513809989.pdf http://lollenautafoundation.eu/uploads/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_-513809989.pdf http://lollenautafoundation.eu/uploads/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_-513809989.pdf http://lollenautafoundation.eu/uploads/sylvia-mwanza-phd-thesis-comp_-513809989.pdf book review ajote vol. 8 (2019), 254-260 260 disabilities: from prevailing theories to validated practices, 10(2), 103-127. ojanen, e., ronimus, m., ahonen, t., chansa-kabali, t., february, p., jere-folotiya, j. & puhakka, s. (2015). graphogame–a catalyst for the multi-level promotion of literacy in diverse contexts. frontiers in psychology, 6, 671. policy monitoring and research centrepmrc (2017). the status of early childhood care, development and education in zambia. retrieved from http://www.pmrczambia.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/12/the-statusof-early-childhood-caredevelopment-and-education-inzambia-pmrc-analysis.pdf serpell, r. (1992). african dimensions of child care and nurturance. child care in context: cross-cultural perspectives, 463-476. serpell, r., & jere‐folotiya, j. (2008). developmental assessment, cultural context, gender, and schooling in zambia. international journal of psychology, 43(2), 88-96. seymour, p. h., aro, m., erskine, j. m., & collaboration with cost action a8 network. (2003). foundation literacy acquisition in european orthographies. british journal of psychology, 94(2), 143-174. tambulukani, g., & bus, a. g. (2011). linguistic diversity: a contributory factor to reading problems in zambian schools. applied linguistics, 33(2), 141-160. thomas, c. m., & thomas, m. a. (2009). early childhood care and education in zambia: an integral part of educational provision?. current issues in comparative education, 11, 6-14. zuilkowski, s. s., fink, g., moucheraud, c., & matafwali, b. (2012). early childhood education, child development and school readiness: evidence from zambia. south african journal of childhood education, 2(2), 20. http://www.pmrczambia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/the-status-of-early-childhood-care-development-and-education-in-zambia-pmrc-analysis.pdf http://www.pmrczambia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/the-status-of-early-childhood-care-development-and-education-in-zambia-pmrc-analysis.pdf http://www.pmrczambia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/the-status-of-early-childhood-care-development-and-education-in-zambia-pmrc-analysis.pdf http://www.pmrczambia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/the-status-of-early-childhood-care-development-and-education-in-zambia-pmrc-analysis.pdf http://www.pmrczambia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/the-status-of-early-childhood-care-development-and-education-in-zambia-pmrc-analysis.pdf 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allor awinsong, 2 & stephen kwakye apau 3 1 college of education studies, university of cape coast, ghana. 2 university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, canada. 3 university of education, winneba, ghana. abstract this study explores ghanaian history teachers’ experiences of the "middle ground of curriculum; a crucial stage of curriculum negotiation and a process, according to harris (2002), that includes what “teachers individually and collectively perceived and enacted. . . prior to classroom implementation” the study employed the concurrent parallel design (quanqual). the researchers collected quantitative data from sixty history teachers in cape coast metropolis through the census method. six teachers were randomly selected from the sixty to participate in the qualitative phase of the study. the quantitative data was analysed descriptively (means and standard deviations) while the qualitative data was analysed based on emerging themes. the findings revealed that the history departments through departmental relation, subject conceptualisation and governance influence the ways in which teachers negotiate the formal curriculum prior to teaching. more specifically, the study established the interaction of these variables that shape history teachers’ decision-making on the middle ground of the curriculum. the study, therefore, showed that the internalisation of curriculum change is a 1 *dr. charles a. oppong is a senior lecturer of history education and curriculum studies at the college of education studies of the university of cape coast, ghana. 2 *moses allor awinsong is a teaching fellow at the department of history, university of saskatchewan with interests in international studies, education, history, and policy analysis 3 *stephen kwakye apau is an assistant lecturer in the faculty of educational studies, university of education, winneba, ghana. his interests are in history education, curriculum research, and secondary education. the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 112 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. dynamic process that is evidenced at all levels of curriculum change – the high ground, middle ground of the curriculum, and lower ground. key words: subject department, middle ground of curriculum, departmental relation, subject conceptualisation, departmental governance. introduction the development of the curriculum is normally the responsibility of policy makers through the appropriate regulatory institution (ball, 2012; goodson, 1994). the 2007 education reforms of ghana, for instance, witnessed the production of curriculum materials by the curriculum research and development division of the ghana education service (ges). the curriculum research and development division determines what should be taught, the learning experiences to encourage, and the ends that must be sought by all agents of education (kuyini, 2013). however, the process of curriculum changes in ghana over the years stressed the provision of resources for teaching rather than a retooling and retraining of the main agents, teachers, to carry out the mandates or specifications of the formal curriculum (kadingdi, 2006). this has made it difficult for teachers to undertake the gathering, organizing, and deploying of available teaching resources because sometimes they lack knowledge or training for the implementation of new reforms, particularly in the reforms' early years.(harris, 2005). but it is the school resources and teacher-initiated activities that ensure effective curriculum implementation in the classroom. how teachers understand the formal curriculum and their use of resources to transmit knowledge in the classroom is what harris (2002) describes as the middle ground of the curriculum. this study locates the middle ground of the curriculum between the high ground curriculum (the formal construction of the written curriculum) and its lower ground-level (implementation in the classroom). the middle ground of the curriculum acknowledges the dynamic interaction between these varying levels of curricula and the role of teachers as active participants in the interpretation and enactment of the curriculum (harris, 2002). in the ghanaian educational context, this space is dominated not only by teachers’ decoding of the high curriculum but their ability to deploy scarce resources to meet the goals set out by the formal curriculum in ways which grant them agency to shape practice (lovat & smith, 1991). this charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 113 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. space, therefore, serves as a political resource for teachers to interpret and re-interpret the high ground of curriculum at the micro level of practice (ball & bowe, 1992; goodson, 1983). there are, however, differences in the way teachers understand and perceive the curriculum, and how they implement it in classroom through teaching. here, the middle ground of the curriculum includes the various consultation teacher make, their choices of teaching resources, recommendations to students and parents on what to read, their relations with each other, and their approach to and understanding of the subject’s intellectual breadth, and how to make complex problems easy for digestion by students. invariably, teachers’ ability to engage effectively in all these pre-teaching phase interactions allow for a negotiation to be made with the formal curriculum in ways that enable its implementation within the specific community and the school contexts that teachers find themselves. harris (2005) identified three factors that define the middle ground of the curriculum namely, sites, contexts and processes. this study is framed within the site variable conceptualized as the subject department. the subject department is the site in which teachers most often form collegial relationships and develop shared social norms (siskin, 1994). these social norms can promote cohesion and support teachers’ understanding of the received (high ground) curriculum. subject departments shape how the teaching and learning aims of the formal curriculum are addressed, achieved and sustained for generations through the brewing of norms peculiar to the department. so important are these subject departments that clark (1987) referred to them as “small worlds, different worlds.” on his part, o’boyle (2000) notes that subject departments are places where a strong sense of social and professional ties are built among teachers which reinforce teachers’ marquee position in the field of education. the history subject department recognises the workplace as of the greatest significance to history teachers as it “collects teachers of like subject-area interests, expertise and professional language” (grimmett & neufeld, 1994, p. 34). mulford (2003) suggests that the interaction among teachers in their subject departments shape teachers 'curriculum decision-making. teachers’ individual and collective perceptions of the nature and number of decisions available to them are evident in the micro-political processes through which they negotiate the curriculum. these processes are theorized along departmental relations; subject conceptualization; and departmental governance practices. these are, therefore, major starting points for comprehending the middle ground of the curriculum in schools. in this regard, the current study seeks to examine history departments’ role in the negotiation of the the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 114 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. high curriculum before classroom implementation. specifically, an attempt is made to examine how teachers interpret and reinterpret curriculum to suit their understanding. the purpose of the research a myriad of reasons account for history teachers’ individual and collective impression, grasp, and subsequent negotiations of the history curriculum prior to classroom implementation. firstly, the success or otherwise of history teaching across a country is informed by mediating factors in the process of decoding the nation's curriculum in schools. secondly, knowledge of the middle ground of curriculum in ghanaian schools could provide information on what areas of staff capacity building interventions could help improve the teaching of history. this allows for a reconcentration of attention on an important neglected part of curriculum implementation aside from the usual focus of research on the formal and ground level curriculum (cobbold & opong, 2010; goodson, 1994; kwarteng, 2011). this study thus replicates goodson's (1994) british and harris's (2002) australian examination of the middle ground of curriculum in the context of the ghanaian school system. this internationalizes the study of the concept for the benefit of the educational systems of developing economies. it also popularizes this process in order to spread awareness and elicit policy responses and interventions for better curriculum enactment in ghanaian schools. we examine history departments’ role in the interposition between the formal curriculum and lower ground curriculum in schools. hence, how teachers interpret and reinterpret curriculum before teaching is the central focus of this study. context in ghanaian high schools, the teaching of history is traced back to the colonial school system where much of what was taught was british history. in postcolonial ghana, the focus shifted to the teaching of afrocentric history highlighting african and ghanaian achievements in many areas. ghanaian senior high school history departments are staff based on the number of students taking the course. due to low enrolment of students over the past two decades, the number of history teachers has reduced considerably (cobbold & opong, 2010). nonetheless, a history departmental culture and outlook remain pervasive in ghanaian schools even where there are only two or three teachers (amengor, 2011). where there are fewer students taking history, schools tend to combine history departments with others such as government, social studies and economics to allow for effective collegial bonds, resources maximization, and improvement charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 115 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. of contact hours. trained history teachers may therefore end up teaching other subjects in addition to history. within such contexts, teachers are still able to negotiate the history curriculum with other trained history teachers who might not necessarily be teaching the subject due to the small class sizes in recent years. in this sense, the negotiations made of the formal curriculum for history teaching in ghanaian senior high schools differ from the australian and british contexts examined by harris and goodson where history departments are staffed with teachers teaching the subject throughout the school year. thus, in ghana’s senior high school system, the middle ground of curriculum implies negotiations of the formal curriculum not just among teachers teaching history but with other teachers who, though trained as history teachers, might not be teaching the subject. and as eshun and mensah (2013) note, the mastery teachers make of the formal curriculum impact their choices of teaching approaches and resources. these professional impressions and understanding of the curriculum and the corresponding adoptions and adaptations do, in the long term, become a salient part of the culture of teaching a subject in schools. this means that the middle ground of curriculum in ghanaian schools invariably draws on interdisciplinary subcultures without diluting the quality of history teaching. in this study, we used teachers who teach history and other subjects in the same cognate subject department in ghanaian schools. this gave us insight into how departmental cultures for the teaching of history are established and sustained. this brought us closer to understanding the site and context within which history teaching is done while allowing for generalization about similar sites and contexts to be made about the ghanaian school system. we focus our examination of the middle ground of curriculum in ghana on three main points namely, departmental relations, subject conceptualization, and departmental governance. the ways in which history teachers interpret and reinterpret the history curriculum through these three parameters before teaching it in the classroom are interrogated deeply and interpretations made of them. the middle ground of curriculum the middle ground of curriculum, as harris (2002) indicated, is what “teachers individually and collectively perceived and enacted...prior to classroom implementation” of a given curriculum document. as the name suggests, it is located between the high ground of curriculum (the formal or written curriculum) and the lower ground of curriculum (classroom implementation). the the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 116 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. middle ground of the curriculum was first theorized by ivor goodson in 1994. without rejecting harris’ contention that the subject department is the most important site where interaction and reinterpretation of the curriculum occur, we add that the ghanaian context shows that the middle ground of curriculum can be experienced within an interdisciplinary subject department of cognate areas of teaching such as humanities, social science and human/biological sciences. we also make an important theoretical contribution to the field of curriculum enactment by designing a construct that explains how the formal curriculum is mediated in the subculture before classroom implementation. whilst it is broadly acknowledged that curriculum change often takes place before classroom implementation (mclachlan, fleer, & edwards, 2018; parkay, anctil, & hass, 2014), this study will explore how departmental relation, subject conceptualization and departmental governance as salient variables in the middle ground of the curriculum, play significant roles in curriculum mediation. through the framework shown in figure 1, the dimensions of the history subject department as experienced by history teachers is illuminated. the middle ground of curriculum framework provided here is an emergent design by the researchers. we add understanding to both goodson’s and harris’ examinations of this concept of the middle ground of the curriculum. departmental relation departmental relation refers to social and professional interaction and engagements that take place among teachers in the same subject department. warm interpersonal relationship within the subject department is a subject subculture variable that nourishes the realization of the middle ground of curriculum. for instance, wang (2015) argued that well-arranged school structures boost teacher collegiality which in turn furthers collective enquiry, responsibility and subsequently guarantee effective teaching. he found that a cooperative relationships among teachers benefit students when such arrangements are not imposed form above but were the result of intentional organization of the school or departmental space to foster interaction among teachers. similarly, ronfeldt, farmer, mcqueen, and grissom (2015) found that a good relationship exists between the breadth of teachers’ instructional collaboration and students achievements. while this study does not show how collaboration affected the quality of understanding of syllabi, it shows that teachers improved professionally when they team up with others to address professional needs in the design of instructions. a study by uk's department for education and skills (2002) also revealed that 80% of the teachers felt that support and co charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 117 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. operation from departmental colleagues had greatly impacted their work as professionals. reeves, pun, and chung (2017) similarly confirmed that student achievement and teacher satisfaction with their job were predicated on how effective teachers collaborated both in designing instructions and observing each other during teaching. reeves, pun, and chung (2017) therefore concluded that not all collaborative activities may produce desirable results. rather, schools and teachers need to identify the areas of collaboration among them that produce substantial professional results. deductively, we see that sincere, trustworthy relations among teachers in a subject department constitute an important means by which curriculum documents are decoded through the shared meaning made of them by teachers in deliberation with each other. o’boyle (2000) suggested that an absence of discussions and meetings on teaching methods, learning outcomes, and assessment instruments, would result in individualism and could negatively affect departmental success in the implementation of curriculum. the success or otherwise of a subject department in implementing syllabi documents stems from the bonded, interpersonal relationship among teachers and how that relationship supports information sharing, instructional collaboration and other professional engagements. doppenberg, den brok, and bakx (2012) also add that the frequency of dialogue among teachers and the varying aims of those discussions inform the effectiveness teachers perceive of those collaborations. in other words, the frequency of engagement and diversity of concerns resolved from time to time in collaborative teams help deepen teacher cooperation in gaining shared knowledge of the formal curriculum and taking responsibility to implement it well. siskin (1994) refers to departments with commendable teacher working relations as “bonded departments”. and this working bond informs teachers’ interpretation and negotiation of the formal curriculum document for effective implementation in classrooms. collegiality’s role in achieving meaningful middle ground of the curriculum cannot therefore be underestimated. discussions and interactions among teachers may include teaching methods, instructional resources, clinical observations, supporting roles from other teachers in class, and creating rare teaching and learning resources for curriculum implementation. respectable, trustworthy and confidential relationships among teachers in a subject department create a social context in that site within which teachers act collectively to realize formal the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 118 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. curriculum objectives. thus, social and professional interactions in the subject department are a subculture prerequisite which molds the way the middle ground of curriculum is achieved. subject conceptualization subject conceptualization specifies teachers understanding and perceptions of the subject they teach. it includes the nature, scope and importance of the subject they teach. these understandings that teachers possess about their subjects constitute a crucial subculture variable that mediates the formal curriculum and ground level curriculum. beswick (2012) explains that mathematics teachers’ “beliefs about the nature of mathematics influence the ways in which they teach the subject.” he contends that teachers understanding of mathematics as a school subject differ significantly from the discipline as it is known among mathematicians. this implies that there might exist a gap between what teachers learn in training and what they teach in schools. that gap has huge potential to shape the practice of teaching in the classroom. where a curriculum document dwells much on the discipline as it is rather than how it might be taught in schools, teacher collaboration is key to supporting the decoding of the document into teachable forms that support students’ growth in knowledge of the discipline. and it is that decoding and practicalizing that highlight the curriculum’s middle ground occupied by teachers and their subject departments. also, douglas (2011) submitted that teachers’ perception of the subject, such as its status and scope, significantly tells how they teach it. the decisions on the methods to adopt, assessment tools, and classroom organization are all made based on the perception teachers make of their subject. in a study of teachers’ relationship to their subjects, john (2005) concluded that teachers’ perception of the subject influences their views of student academic progression and how their subjects ought to be taught. for instance, history teachers may think that the history subject is structured chronologically therefore, if a student fails to understand form one concepts, the student would find it difficult to appreciate form three abstract generalizations. again, english teachers may think that the content of the english curriculum is too broad as far as the goals of reading, writing and speaking are concerned. these discrete forms of perceptions may inform teachers’ preparation and implementation of the curriculum` in the classroom. stodolsky and grossman (1995, p. 6) add clarity to this as they argue that “these conceptions of subject matter create a ‘conceptual context’ that helps frame the work of high charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 119 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. school teachers and mediates their responses to reform proposals”. for example, teachers willingness to employ information and communication technology (ict) in teaching is heavily influenced by their perception of their subject and its ability to accommodate changes (prestridge, 2012). in an observation of three english teachers in australia, ningsih and fata, (2015) found that specific methodological choices of teachers emerged from their pre-established views of english as a school subject. here, the conception teachers make of their subject enable them select resources, tools, and approaches to teaching that work best for them in each circumstance. for this reason, teachers’ belief systems about their teaching subject augment how they implement the formal ground curriculum. in the ghanaian environment, similar experiences of teacher beliefs about the subjects exist. as akyeampong (2017) noted recently, the grasp teachers make of mathematics determine their choice of particular methods and approaches in delivering mathematics instructions to primary school pupils. while difficulties remain on how to efficaciously incorporate learnercentered pedagogies in the teaching process, teachers’ methods show that certain intimations of the subject ground them in some approaches rather than others. buabeng-andoh and yidana (2015), for instance, add that teachers teaching approaches in ghanaian schools remain highly teacher-centered. in their study, buabeng-andoh and yidana (2015) discovered that these teacher-centered approach were responsible for the limited accommodation made for information and communication technology in teaching in ghanaian schools. however, the ambivalence they saw can be explained as emanating from teachers’ impressions about their subjects and whether technology could have grave consequence on their ability to transmit intended subject matter. all these calculations form part of the decoding of the formal curriculum teachers do based on their grasp of their teaching subjects. subject conceptualization, therefore, forms an important part of mediation between the formal and ground curriculum called the middle ground of curriculum. the conceptualizations that teachers make of the subject matter mediate what formal designers of the curriculum think and, how teachers perceive them to be as well as how to teach them based on their grasp of the subject. departmental governance departmental governance relates to how subject departments are run for the purposes of academic work in schools. departmental heads and instructional leadership are used the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 120 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. interchangeably in this paper because they are both linked to leadership in schools. the middle ground of curriculum metaphor is actualized within educational settings when effective departmental governance facilitates teachers’ ability to negotiate the curriculum towards implementation. in a large scale study in kenya, wanzare (2012) sought to examine how headteachers and supervisors perceived instructional supervision in schools. while there was consensus that internal instructional supervision sought to meet regulatory requirements, there were benefits such as advanced teacher competence and improved students’ academic performance. the act of internal instructional supervision serves as a check on how the formal curriculum is decoded and whether other sharers of instructional power mainly headteachers or departmental leaders add to the process of negotiating the formal curriculum before classroom implementation. school leaders also possess inspirational influences on teachers’ ability to and actual negotiation of the formal curriculum (spillane & kim, 2012). in a study in an american suburban school district, spillane and kim (2012) posited that the key position occupied by school leaders empower them to not only share instructional power with teachers but they are also able to inspire relations among teachers in ways that further collaboration and professional cooperation. a reason for department leaders’ effectiveness in shaping curriculum negotiation come from teachers’ perception of these leaders as experienced minds in the subject area, according to leithwood (2016). this is because departmental leaders invariably garner experience in the teaching of the subject over years prior to their appointment in most schools. they expend the legitimacy extended to them by teachers to lead the process of decoding the high curriculum together with teachers in the enactment process (siskin, 1997). lochmiller (2016) highlights this in his study which concluded that school administrators’ instructional feedback to teachers build on the commentators’ own experience of teaching the subject. the effect is that over time, distinct subcultures emerge in those departments that may inspire how particular curricula are received, decoded and implemented. while lochmiller (2016) found it problematic that feedbacks to teachers emphasized pedagogy rather than content knowledge, the overall act of engaging in conversations about instructional methods buttresses the significance of leadership in the subject department in the negotiation of the curriculum. john and la velle (2004) suggested that such pedagogical decisions are informed as much by subject departments leaders. gordon (2008) also made the point that even the choice of pedagogies or methods depend on the charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 121 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. professional leadership available to teachers in the department. when efficient departmental leadership supports teachers’ pedagogical decisions, the choices made are invariably a mediation of what a formal curriculum sets down and specific local conditions or contexts within which instructions take place. though there is research paucity on departmental leadership in the ghanaian educational context (donkor, 2015; kwadzo agezo, 2010), baffour-awuah (2011) found that instructional supervision guidelines set out under the ghana education service are archaic. teachers, however, did well to practice instructional supervision and those experiences were useful to improving professional growth in the teachers’ estimation. instructional supervision therefore constitute one way teachers gauge their maturity and grasp of a formal curriculum through the collective feedback from departmental leaders, headteachers and others. donkor (2015) indicated that school leaders better support the attainment of educational goals when they demonstrate skills and experience of effective classroom practice. this expertise legitimizes their instructional and other professional input that they give to teachers. clearly, that sharing of professional experience will, over time, embed into the subject department’s teaching culture. such cultures could superimpose themselves on how curriculum documents are read, understood and practiced. that middling in the curriculum implementation process reinforces the power of site and context of the subject department in the negotiation of formal curricula documents. the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 122 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. figure 1: representation of curriculum negotiation between the middle ground of curriculum and the formal and lower ground curriculum. the figure demonstrates how the three factors of subject conceptualization, departmental governance, and staff relations mediate the high and lower ground curriculum in the process we have referred to as the middle ground of curriculum. teachers’ conceptual understanding of the subject, teacher relations and the quality of departmental leadership are central to the negotiation history teachers make between the high ground curriculum and the ground level curriculum. thus, we have theoretically established that three interrelated variables departmental relation, subject conceptualization, and departmental governance impact history teachers’ interpretations and negotiation of the history curriculum document. a well-structured and responsive subject department is thus, an important step in the middling of the curriculum that facilitate the attainment of curriculum goals. charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 123 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. methodological considerations the mixed method paradigm was used for this study. specifically, the study employed the concurrent parallel design (quan-qual). this design was found to be the most appropriate as the researchers sought to triangulate the methods by directly comparing quantitative results with qualitative findings for corroboration and validation purposes. in the collection of survey data, we employ the census method to collect data from sixty history teachers in the cape coast metropolis. subsequently, six history teachers who participated in the survey phase were conveniently selected for interviews. the six teachers selected represented 10% of the 60 used, and according to creswell (1998), this is considered as appropriate. the instruments employed to collect data were questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide. the four-point likert-type scale questionnaire had three sections with 24 items on departmental relation, subject conceptualization and departmental governance. the quantitative and qualitative data were analysed separately. means and standard deviations were computed with the use of the statistical package for social science (spss) to determine the direction of the quantitative responses. the range for the means score was 1.0 to 4.0. a score from 1.0 to 2.4 represented disagreement on a response while a score between 2.5 to 4.0 represented consensus. standard deviation scores are from 0.0 to 1.0. there is homogenous response when the score is 0.9 below and heterogeneous when it is above 1.0. the interview data were subjected to a thematic analysis using constant comparison analysis. first, the researchers studied the field notes, transcribed the recordings into manuscripts and carefully read through them. this was done to identify main themes and ideas based on the questions posed to participants.. findings and discussion the results obtained from this study are presented in this section. three key elements namely, departmental relation, subject conceptualization, and departmental governance, that support the middling process in curriculum mediation were examined. the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 124 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. departmental relation the purpose of this theme was to interrogate how teacher relations in the ghanaian high school history department contribute to curriculum negotiation in schools. table 1 contains the data on the above theme. table 1: departmental relations statement mean sd i have regular meetings with colleagues in the department over matters concerning pre-teaching preparation 2.6 .73 i frequently ask for the aid of colleagues when i encounter a challenge before or after teaching 3.8 1.1 colleagues cooperate effectively to solve teaching and learning related problems facing the department 2.9 .81 my colleagues’ support has greatly improved the way i teach and enact the curriculum 2.7 1.0 my colleagues and i have very friendly disposition and respect for each other which helps me enact the syllabus well through teaching 2.8 1.0 there is frequent discussion in the department on the syllabus before academic work starts 2.8 .90 departmental members always review teaching and learning strategies within the term and academic year 2.8 .77 mean of means/average standard deviation 2.9 .90 there was a general agreement, on the average among respondents, that departmental relation influences how history teachers negotiate the curriculum before classroom implementation. this position is informed by the mean scores of the various items. it was observed that all the mean values were within the affirmation range. a mean of mean score of 2.75 added iteration that teacher relations is a major variable in the interposition of the high charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 125 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. ground and lower level curriculum in history departments in high schools in ghana. also, the average standard deviation of 0.92 indicates homogeneity of teachers’ thoughts that interpersonal relations drive the efforts at decoding the formal curriculum document. it further demonstrates, as wang (2015) found, that interactions in the history subject departments improved teachers’ teaching preparation and grasp of teaching and learning resources. the subject department is, therefore, better understood in negotiating the curriculum when teachers’ relationships in the department come under scrutiny. during interview sessions, all respondents reported that they engaged in various forms of departmental interactions with colleagues from time to time. these exchanges included regular meetings on pre-teaching preparation; solving teaching and learning problems facing the department; discussions of the meanings and demands of the curriculum. teachers, from these responses, valued how these arrangements in the history department helped them make sense of the intents of curriculum designers as contained in the formal curriculum documents. this adds to the findings of the department for education and skills' (2002) that teachers’ quality of practice got a notch higher when they cooperated with other teachers. one teacher stated that “departmental interaction regarding the teaching and learning of history motivates me to be innovative in my teaching. for example, i have been able to get ideas on other methods to help impart knowledge to students.” such discussions on the methods of teaching history among teachers improve quality resource gathering for classroom practice in ways that echo ronfeldt et al's (2015) contention that teacher cooperation translates into enhanced students outcomes. other teachers also shared similar views. another high school history teacher said that: we consult each other with regard to the teaching of the history subject. these could be lesson preparation, the teaching of certain topics in the syllabus, the use of certain instructional materials. this is normally done on individual level, because it is not all the time that we meet us a department to discuss teaching related issues. sometimes it could even be at the middle of the term that we may need assistance. and so, the person who needs assistance may have a discussion with those with enough experience. this means that fruitful teacher relations may even supersede departmental leadership in negotiating curriculum documents because teacher interrelations engender constant dialogue. in the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 126 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. this way, the new teachers tap into the expertise of experienced teachers all the time. this is particularly important in ghanaian high schools were scarce resources, unequal economic situation of communities, and limited technology demand close collaboration among teachers in key areas of need to successfully decode and practicalize formal curriculum documents in the history classrooms (reeves et al., 2017). a teacher from a southern cape coast high school also held that: departmental colleagues’ discussions of the history syllabus before lesson preparation help a lot in breaking down the issues for effective classroom teaching. this is because most of the issues are not simple enough for easy understanding. therefore, when we meet, we are able to discuss for better simplification. for the ghanaian high school history teacher, speaking to colleagues about professional opportunities and challenges boosted their effectiveness as professionals. given the long silences in ghana’s curriculum reform and retraining initiatives, teacher dialogues facilitate proactive curriculum implementation as doppenberg et al (2012) noted. teachers’ enhanced grasp of the curriculum stems from this collective approach to analyzing it and sharing ideas on how to implement it. in ghanaian high schools, such interpersonal relations make up for the gap in training between teachers who were trained during curriculum reforms and teachers who enter the classroom long after reforms are implemented without the benefit of knowing completely the curriculum beyond what is written in the syllabus. departmental interactions therefore engender knowledge sharing and generate social capital which develop enduring teacher professionalism. day and sachs (2004) observed that the subject matter students learn and how they learn emerge from a potpourri of teachers’ informal negotiations and conventional professional engagements. this observation presupposes that departmental interaction not only fosters curriculum implementation but also ensures teachers’ professional development through the breeding of ideas (siskin, 1997). therefore, professional and social dialogue aid the transitional engagement with the formal curriculum towards realizing lower level implementation. subject conceptualization this theme aims to find out how teachers conceptualize and understand the history subject, and how that understanding helps them to negotiate formal curriculum for classroom implementation. table 2 presents the data on the above rubric. charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 127 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. table 2: subject conceptualization statement mean sd the subject is very important in the school system so teaching it requires special expertise 3.2 .84 the subject is unique from other subjects in form and purpose so it cannot be taught like other subjects 3.4 .73 my understanding of what the subject is determines how i teach it in class 3.0 .66 my understanding of what the subject is determines the resources i select for my teaching 3.1 .74 my lesson preparation is influenced by my understanding of the subject i teach 3.2 .76 my attitude towards the subject i teach is determined by my understanding of the subject 3.1 .79 mean of means/average standard deviation 3.2 .75 the questionnaire collated yielded mean scores ranging between 3.0 and 3.2. this showed teachers’ belief that their understanding of the nature of history as a subject informed how they prepared, organized and executed teaching responsibilities in classrooms. also, a mean of mean score of 3.13 further reiterated the subject conceptualization’s role in decoding and implementing the high ground curriculum in history classrooms. by inference, history teachers' understanding of the subject which they teach facilitates not only their negotiation of formal curriculum content but the teaching methods they decide to use. such decisions over content, methods, collaborations, and other professional choices form significant part of the middling of the curriculum. the average standard deviation score of 0.78 demonstrate the proximate nature of teachers’ responses to enquiries on how critical subject conceptualization is in mediating high curriculum documents before classroom implementation. the findings show that the ways teachers conceptualize the subject tell the way they go about decoding and teaching the formal curriculum. whereas formal ghanaian curriculum document requires fidelity to the tenets laid the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 128 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. out in it, teachers in this study show that their understanding of the nature of the subject they teach is a negotiating factor in how the curriculum is understood and taught to learners in schools. in this sense, the grasp of the history subject among teachers in ghanaian high schools constitute a subculture variable in our understanding of the middle ground of the curriculum. a major theme in the interviews was how the nature of history as a subject informs the professional decisions of teachers with regard to the formal curriculum. when asked how the understanding of history as subject impacts the ways teachers negotiate the formal curriculum’s requirements for teaching, one teacher explained that “the subject is very chronological and structured in content in many ways. it is sequential.” for this reason, this teacher adapted topics and subtopics tactfully to the individual capacities and the special circumstances of the school. this is important because “without a good understanding of one topic, it is difficult for students to understand certain subsequent topics,” according to another teacher. this teacher explained further that “it is like mathematics. you cannot jump some topics.” this deviates from the largely thematic arrangement of ideas in the ghanaian history syllabus. the intent of the curriculum designers was to allow students enter the study of history through exposure to african history, world history and then ghanaian history. however, teachers appear to have adopted far more practical approaches other than those prescribed by the formal curriculum. there is therefore a gap between how professional historians expect history to be taught and what teachers actually do with the curriculum. it recalls beswick's (2012) observation that professional expectations does not always translate into teaching practice for subjects in schools. respondents were also asked how their grasp of subject matter content determined their choice of teaching methods. one teacher said that, “my understanding of the subject content determines how i teach it in class.” on further probe, the respondent said, “the subject deals with past events that are remote in terms of time. therefore, with this understanding, i always rely on the use of current affairs as a springboard when teaching.” while this may describe entry approaches, this teacher relies on present events to relate the significance of historical facts to learners. it betrays the strictly professional tune and direction of the ghanaian history curriculum which emphasis training in the art of history at a basic level in preparation for university level work. the declining interest in the study of history (cobbold & oppong, 2010) may have compelled a shift by teachers to breath life into teaching history through using modern stories. content knowledge and the meanings made of that knowledge tell the approaches teachers adopt in transferring nuggets of charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 129 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. information or knowledge to learners in the classroom. other teachers confirmed this when one recalled that “lesson preparation and resource gathering are influenced by my understanding of the subject i teach.” “the history subject is very abstract so that compels me to assemble a lot of teaching and learning materials,” he added. ningsih and fata (2015) and akyeampong (2017) emphasized this point when they contended that teachers’ presumptions about their subject determine their choice of methods and resources for teaching. content knowledge not only inform practice, it also imbues confidence in the teacher about their abilities to lead subject matter learning at the ghanaian high school level. overall, teachers’ responses cluster around the imaginative, abstract, critical thinking nature of the history subject (oppong, 2011), and how these motivate their ways of decoding the formal curriculum. these understandings of the history subject, therefore, inspires history teachers’ interaction with the formal curriculum. the findings suggest that subject conceptualization determines how the formal curriculum is negotiated through their professional preparation before implementing the curriculum in the classroom. these show a clear tilt toward individual professional understanding of the subject rather than strict adherence to the impositions of the formal curriculum. also, teachers’ responses indicate that they do not implement the formal curriculum hook, line and sinker. rather, teachers negotiate the formal curriculum with their professional conceptualizations of the subject as a foundation for the decisions they make about the subject matter and methods needed to make a success of the transmission of knowledge to students. stodolsky and grossman (1995) rightly pointed out that teachers’ perception about the subject mediate their response to formal curriculum documents. despite the thematic arrangement of the ghanaian history curriculum, teachers adopt a chronological rather than progressive approach to teaching as the findings here demonstrate. teachers make practical choices about the quality and complexity of content types, and how to transmit same to students. in the ghanaian high school, as this study has shown, the tendency to adopt other ways of content organization betrays not only the formal curriculum requirements but also demonstrates teachers’ instructional power over specificities indicated by the formal curriculum (akyeampong, 2017; buabeng-andoh & yidana, 2015). another point worth noting is that professional notions and understanding of subject matter among ghanaian teachers are difficult to erase even if a new curriculum document proposes to do so (cf. stodolsky & the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 130 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. grossman, 1995). teachers’ grasp of the subject they teach is therefore a key subculture feature that underlies the mediations of the formal curriculum by ghanaian high school history teachers. departmental governance with reference to the above theme, the researchers sought to investigate the role of departmental leadership in mediation teachers made with the curriculum. table 3: departmental governance statement mean sd the department head fully supports effective teaching by teachers. 3.3 .83 the head of department is accountable to teachers on issues affecting teaching in the department 3.2 .92 the leader advocates for the teachers’ welfare at school administrative level to ensure teaching efficiency 2.9 .85 the head is a role model in teaching effectiveness for teachers in the department 3.0 .91 the head heavily influences the decisions about how i teach the subject by giving me pre-teaching resource support 2.3 .95 the head use his/her administrative power to influence effective teaching by teachers through role allocation 2.7 .87 the head organizes periodic workshops and seminars for teachers to be educated on the new approaches to teaching and learning 2.4 .83 the head reviews previous teaching and learning before the new term begins 2.8 .87 the head always organize meetings to discuss how the subject should be taught before academic work starts 2.8 .87 mean of means/average standard deviation 2.8 .86 charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 131 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. departmental governance within ghanaian high schools appeared to have been a major instrument for mediating formal curriculum. perhaps, with the exception of two items: 1) "the head heavily influences the decisions about how i teach the subject by giving me pre-teaching resource support", 2) "the head organizes periodic workshops and seminars for teachers to be educated on the new approaches to teaching and learning" which both received mean scores of 2.33 and 2.48 respectively, all the mean scores of the other items fell within 2.5 – 4.0. this range (2.5 – 4.0) indicates greater conformity and consensus in responses. the mean of means scores of 2.84 reiterate that respondents were close in their opinions than apart. overall, respondents concurred that good departmental governance facilitates history teachers’ efforts at decoding and making sense of the formal curriculum. again, the extent of homogeneity of the responses is illuminated by the average standard deviation of 0.86. both the mean of means and standard deviation scores suggest that respondents agree generally that departmental governance had an influence on how teachers interpret the high ground curriculum for classroom teaching. interviews buttressed the intimations gleaned from the questionnaires. one teacher commented that: there is always departmental meeting at the beginning of each term to discuss how the subject should be taught before academic work starts. such meetings also review previous term’s academic work and how the subject could be handled effectively. the head of department usually calls such meetings when normally students’ performance is not encouraging, and complaints are also made by students on how the subject is being taught. a second teacher recalled that: “the head of department always assesses pre-lessons preparation and makes suggestions and contributions at the beginning of every term. most of these assessments are done individually with the teachers.” these responses reveal a dialogic line of action among teachers and department leaders to confidently decipher formal curriculum documents, collaborative decision making on teaching methodologies, and collective redress of learners’ challenges. these echo the findings of spillane and kim (2012) and wanzare (2012) that school leaders’ work enhance teacher professional advancement in areas such as instructional supervision and collaborative initiatives. the more teachers interact at a departmental level with leaders in those departments, their capacity for professional engagement the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 132 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. with the formal curriculum gets better because collective understanding of the subject enables them to decide how to effectively teach content. when asked what other issues were discussed at department meetings, one of the respondents cited “scheme of work, unit planning, lesson plans and the instructional materials that would be used” as driving the agenda. such comments are incisive in that they demonstrate department leaders’ ability to sponsor dialogue that engender mediation of the formal curriculum. lochmiller (2016) highlights that discussions created by departmental leaders emphasize leadership’s critical role in the negotiations made of the content and methodological demands of the formal curriculum. therefore, decisions made about the formal curriculum after it is received in the department are informed as much by departmental leaders (john & la velle, 2004). department and even, unit heads’ constant review and check of schemes of work, lesson plans, teaching methods, class journals and subjects’ logbooks drive best practices in the classroom in ghanaian high schools (baffour-awuah, 2011; donkor, 2015; kwadzo agezo, 2010). as masuku (2011) argues, it is unlikely that schools can attain the desired academic standards if cultural patterns and methods to support teaching and learning are not created through departmental leaders. department leaders were also noted to have executed their administrative functions to support academic ends. a respondent recollected that “when there is a new trend like a change in waec’s way of setting questions, the head of department supplies us books and other materials to keep us abreast of time.” this additional indicator of leadership support for academic work iterate that arbitrations of the formal curriculum may go beyond the contents of the syllabus. department leaders’ role in recommending resources calls to mind donkor's (2015) finding that skilled teachers acting as departmental leaders immensely impact classroom practice of teachers in ghanaian schools. the accumulated years of teaching experience department leaders in ghana gain before taking up administrative duties in ghanaian schools make them particularly effective in providing and recommending resources for teachers they manage in the subject department. holistically, the three variables explored are the most important subject department subculture variables that make for successful negotiation of the formal curriculum. siskin’s (1994) point that the subject department is the site in which teachers most often form collegial charles a. oppong, moses allor awinsong, & stephen kwakye apau 133 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. relationships and develop shared social norms is rightly accepted. this observation is reinforced by ball and bowe's assertion that, “the ways in which the national curriculum is construed are, in part, dependent on existing subject paradigms and subject subcultures” (1992, p. 103). the internalisation of curriculum change is therefore a dynamic process that is evidenced not only at the ground level but is mediated by the subcultures that receive and implement the formal curriculum. conclusion and recommendations the study explored the experience of history teachers in mediating the history curriculum in high schools in cape coast, ghana. some observations were drawn from this study. firstly, the social and professional relation and interactions among teachers in the same subject department weigh on teachers' understanding of the curriculum and how to practicalize it in classrooms. also, professional dialogues enable teachers master the art and act of preparing and presenting curriculum content to students. therefore, the existence of a cooperative spirit among teachers in a subject department is beneficial to both teachers and students. it is, therefore, important that stakeholders pay critical attention to what goes on in subject departments in schools since departmental relations shapes classroom practices. it is important that education stakeholders pay critical attention to organizing school space in ways that bring teachers together so they can fruitfully engage to shape classroom practices. secondly, the way professional teachers conceive history as a subject affects their content preparation and teaching in class. in this sense, the strong interposition of subject conceptualization calls for greater efforts from trainers and government to synthesize teacher training content and high school curriculum that better prepare teachers for both content and pedagogical readiness in schools. some of the findings here could be extended to cognate subject areas in the ghanaian high school system. lastly, the quality of departmental governance inform the way teachers decode, interpret and implement the formal curriculum. there are salient implications of departmental governance on classroom practices. firstly, the findings point to the centrality of efficient departmental leadership to the mediation of the formal curriculum for classroom implementation. the criteria for leadership selection should be drawn to take cognizance of coordination, inspirational, and professional experience abilities. secondly, given that inefficient unit or departmental leadership the middle ground of curriculum: history teachers’ experiences in ghanaian senior high schools 134 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 111-138. derails teacher preparation, the researchers found that 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(2012). instructional supervision in public secondary schools in kenya. educational management administration & leadership, 40(2), 188–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143211427977 curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia beatrice sinyama sichombe university of pretoria, south africa abstract namibia’s classroom compositions are diverse. its policies on diversity reflect sustainable development goals, particularly the goal on quality education that ensures inclusive and equitable quality education for all. namibia’s diversity policies advocate for teacher education that is responsive to the country’s needs. what is unknown is what a socio-cultural curriculum means in namibian teacher education. this article focuses on the nature of the university of namibia’s (unam) bed curriculum and how student teachers learn its contents. i argue that teacher education for diversity should go beyond traditional teacher education programmes. its curricula should adopt a socio-cultural view. coursework and teaching practice should reflect the needs of learners and society. data collection consisted of curricular documents and interviews with the dean, and lecturers. content analysis was used. findings revealed that the bed curriculum inclines more towards a socio-cultural view. however, teaching practice lacks dedication in regard to diversity teaching. consequently, the bed programme only partially equips student teachers with competencies required to teach diverse learners because coursework alone cannot suffice. the study contributes to knowledge of what a socio-cultural curriculum means in namibian teacher education. key words: namibia teacher education for diversity, diversity teaching, curriculum, policies, practices. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 7 no. 2 2018 pp. 91-121 beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 92 introduction researchers acknowledge the current diversity in the majority of classrooms, and stress both the importance of preparing teachers who are capable of teaching in such diverse classrooms (klug et al., 2006; villegas & lucas, 2002b), and also how it is the task of teacher education institutions to prepare competent teachers who are able to handle diverse learners (valentin, 2006), and who are equipped with appropriate knowledge, skills and dispositions to teach all learners (klug et al., 2006). the need to conduct research in the area of teacher education for diversity is thus clearly recognised. moletsane, hemson, and muthukrishna (2004) noted a lack in the knowledge on the understanding of diversity underlying teacher education programmes; darling-hammond (2006) noted that there are fewer discussions about what goes on in the courses and clinical experiences to which student teachers are exposed; donnelly (2010) noted the need to investigate the effectiveness of the course organisation, content and pedagogy intended to produce teachers who meet the needs of all learners, while burns and shadoian-gersing (2010) claimed that there are no clear answers as to the best ways in which to prepare teachers to deal with diverse classrooms. furthermore, the need to conduct research in this area is also demonstrated by studies that revealed the problem of a lack of appropriate expertise to teach diverse learners and meet other diversity challenges (cooper & he, 2012; johnson & chang, 2012; vandeyar, 2010; wilmot & naidoo, 2011; coronel & gómez-hurtado, 2015; parker-jenkins & masterson, 2013; santoro & forghaniarani, 2015). these concerns culminated into an argument for this study that teacher education for diversity goes beyond traditional teacher education programmes, demanding diversity focused curricula if teachers of diversity are to be produced. in other words, its curricula should adopt a socio-cultural view. a socio-cultural curriculum is shaped by contextual influences within and beyond the classroom—it is contextualised to local social situations (gleeson, 2010). hence, curricula for diversity education should reflect the needs of learners and society (sowell & stollenwerk, 2000). despite this new understanding about curricula, there appears to be a scarcity of studies on what a socio-cultural curriculum means in namibian teacher education. namibia has national policies and goals of diversity, unity, inclusivity, justice and democracy (table 1.1). the education policy, towards education for all, in particular, demands a teacher education that is responsive to the needs of all learners. as table 1.1 indicates, namibia has other education policies that highlight its goals of diversity, unity and inclusivity. curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 93 table 1.1: namibian policies on diversity, unity and inclusivity policy relation to diversity, unity, and inclusivity the 1990 namibian constitution prohibits all forms of discrimination; allows freedom to profess and promote any culture, language, religion, and tradition. the education policy document – towards education for all, 1993 equity and access goals aim at providing equitable access to schools; aims to eradicate all forms of discrimination and segregation; advocates an lce that values learners’ needs and life experiences; expects teachers to help learners to integrate school and life outside of school; expects unam to provide education that is responsive to the needs of the people of namibia. the language policy for schools in namibia: a discussion document (2003) recognises languages as medium of cultural transmission and a person’s identity; provides for the use of the mother tongue as medium of instruction (moi) in pre-primary and grades 1-3, and as a subject from grade 4; allows schools to organise co-curricular activities to promote any language, especially those not used as moi: sensitises learners to appreciate multiculturalism the education act of 2001 allows learners freedom to practise any religion, and makes provision for cultural activities to take place at schools. investing in people, developing a country, 1998. equitable access to educational institutions; allows affirmative action to be applied to redress past imbalances; requires higher education to be relevant and contextual to national goals. the ministry of education sector policy on inclusive education (2013) this policy enhances namibia’s aim of inclusivity. despite the fact that the definition of inclusive education includes all learners, it exclusively targets equity for educationally marginalised learners. the harambee prosperity plan, 2016 built on a construct of an inclusive ‘namibian house’ where no-one feels left out. it promotes the ideologies of equality, equity, and fairness. it is people centred and inclusive. the national professional standards (npst) for element 5, namely, ‘demonstrate understanding of diversity’ emphasises diversity teaching. this includes knowledge of culturally responsive teaching, the recognition of learners’ backgrounds, and advocacy the use beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 94 teachers in namibia, 2006 of resources that promote diversity; teaching for diversity ideologies is incorporated across many competences, including, among others, nondiscriminatory practices and prejudices, consideration of learner differences in planning, teaching, resources and assessment. as stipulated in table 1.1, policies and directives on diversity, unity, and inclusivity are given. the language policy is on the way in which education institutions should manage the diverse languages in namibia and also sensitise learners about multiculturalism. this policy recognises the multicultural nature of the namibian population by providing for learners to learn through their mother tongues during the early grades (pre-primary and grades 1-3). the education act of 2001 echoes the constitution and sensitises education institutions about the freedoms that every namibian citizen should enjoy while the ministry of education sector policy on inclusive education espouses the attainment of equity by educationally marginalised learners. the harambee prosperity plan is largely guided by the principles of distributive justice (fraser, 2001; young, 2011). it aims to reduce inequalities among the namibian people. it assures the namibians “a house where everyone feels a sense of belonging, where everyone is presented with a fair opportunity to prosper in an inclusive manner and by so doing, ensures that no one feels left out” (republic of namibia, 2016, p. 4). it is people centred and inclusive and works towards prosperity for all. lastly, the national professional standards for teachers in namibia is not necessarily a policy as such but, rather, a model that provides directives on how teacher education programmes should be conceptualised. in the main, it incorporates, through its standards, the ideologies of teaching for diversity. as these policies have been formulated at the national level, it is not known how education institutions’ curricula reflect such agendas. this study focuses on the nature of curricula and practices intended to develop the knowledge, skills and dispositions of student teachers to enable them to teach for diversity at the university of namibia (unam). it forms part of a phd study undertaken at the university of namibia. two issues are embedded in this question, namely, the nature of the curriculum and contents; and the implementation of such a curriculum, i.e., how student teachers learn the curriculum. the essence is to establish whether the b.ed. curriculum is socio-cultural or technical skill-based. curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 95 the namibian context and the rationale during the colonial epoch, segregation on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender and social class translated to schools also been segregated. it was the aim of post-independence policies to desegregate all the schools. hence the composition of namibian classrooms [today] is diverse and unique as the socio-political contextual issues give it shape. namibian primary and secondary school classrooms, particularly urban schools, are heterogeneous due to their multicultural nature constituted by learners from different social classes, races, and ethnic groups. likewise, teachers come from different backgrounds with different perceptions regarding learners. it is this uniqueness of namibia that necessitated this study. therefore, perceiving such classrooms from a sociocultural perspective entails bringing such unique features of namibia that are shaped by social class, race and ethnicity from the society into the classrooms. the goal of this article is threefold. it seeks to contribute to a better understanding of what a socio-cultural curriculum entails in practice. it also aims to contribute to the limited discussions of what goes on within courses and in teaching practice that student teachers are exposed to with regards to diversity teaching. furthermore, this study interrogates the interrelationship between what happens in the classroom and what happens in society from a sociocultural perspective, i.e., the technocratic versus sociocultural view of the curriculum. it is the hope of the author that it contributes to the ministry of education’ curriculum policies discussions for namibian schools. literature review curricula in teacher education for diversity in this study the curriculum for teacher education for diversity is guided by cornbleth's (1988) argument that “our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect and shape how we think and talk about, study, and act on the education made available to students”. in line with this argument, there are two conflicting curriculum theories in the literature, namely, the technical and non-technical approaches (ornstein & hunkins, 2004). thus, a curriculum may incline towards either of these two approaches. technical approaches are more subject-centred and tend to focus on the development of the teachers’ technical skills and classroom techniques (tatto, 1997). this technocratic or the narrow view (themane, 2011) perceives a curriculum in terms of syllabus content, rules and procedures (gleeson, 2010), and a list of courses (cornbleth, 1988; themane, 2011). in this view, the curriculum is decontextualised and independent of “time and place” (cornbleth, 1988) and beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 96 teachers are expected to adhere to a standardised curriculum and prescribed teaching methods (ball, 2009; zeichner & ndimande, 2008). zeichner and gore (1990) criticised this model’s failure to equip teachers with the necessary knowledge to respond to learners’ needs. its top-down approach to curriculum development has also been criticised (sowell & stollenwerk, 2000) as was its association with the fidelity curriculum approach (snyder, bolin, & zuwalt, 1992). the fidelity curriculum makes teachers into mere implementers of the curriculum; agents who just follow instructions given by curriculum developers on how to teach learners the content (snyder, bolin, & zuwalt, 1992). this approach, sees teachers adopt a ‘blind compliance’ stance (themane, 2011) where they simply deliver the curriculum without adapting it (snyder et al., 1992). as snyder et al. (1992) emphasise, the aim of adapting the curriculum is, among other things, to meet the needs of the learners. the latter approach to curriculum development and implementation is referred to as the adaptation approach with the teacher making adjustments to the materials, topics, and teaching methods to suit the learners’ needs (snyder et al., 1992). considering the general inadequacy of a technical skill-based curriculum (banks et al., 2005), the proponents of diversity teaching called for a curriculum that inclined more towards nontechnical skills (i.e., the socio-cultural curriculum) (d'amant, 2012; du toit, 2011; themane, 2011). as a non-technical approach to the curriculum, it is more student-centred (ornstein & hunkins (2004), while the needs of both the learners and society form the major source of the curriculum content (sowell & stollenwerk, 2000). this reflects the constructivist approach that recognises, among other things, multiple perspectives, the promotion of critical thinking and collaboration (villegas & lucas, 2002b). the approach also contends that all learners are capable of learning (kea, campbell-whatley, & richards, 2006; meier & hartell, 2009). teacher education programmes (teps) which are aligned to the constructivist approach focus on the development of the teachers’ knowledge and skills to enable them to address the needs of diverse learners while learning occurs in context (sowell & stollenwerk, 2000). this view recognises teachers as indispensable due to their knowledge of both learners and contexts (ornstein & hunkins, 2004) and allows teachers to develop their own interpretations of situations as they interact with the learners and content (ornstein & hunkins, 2004). d'amant (2012), du toit, (2011) and themane (2011) refer to this approach as the broad or socio-cultural view as it goes beyond the list of courses to be taught to include societal issues. cornbleth (1988) describes this curriculum view as being “in context” and the curriculum as “a contextualised social process”. in curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 97 other words, the curriculum is shaped by contextual influences within and beyond the classroom and, thus, the curriculum is contextualised to local social situations (gleeson, 2010). bernstein (1990), in his sociolinguistic theory, asks the following questions: “how does the outside become the inside?” and “how does the inside reveal itself and shape the outside?” a question then arises as to the knowledge, skills and dispositions that make up a socio-cultural curriculum? socio-cultural curriculum content the study’s central argument is that teacher education for diversity goes beyond traditional teacher education programmes. it requires new thinking about curricula and practices to succeed. that is, it requires a set of special competencies consisting of knowledge, skills and dispositions, and these constitute a socio-cultural curriculum. interrogating the contents of what make up a socio-cultural curriculum contributes to ongoing debates of what teachers for diversity need to know. coursework there are two epistemological positions on the nature of integrating diversity issues into coursework to be found in the literature, namely, the information-centred model and the integrative-generative model (murrell et al., 1997). the information-centred model (murrell et al., 1997) or the segregated approach (zeichner, 1993) is an add-on approach in terms of which either a single course may focus on diversity issues or a few courses may include diversity topics (murrell et al., 1997; zeichner, 1993) without any changes to the curriculum’s structure, purpose and characteristics (banks, 2001). villegas and lucas (2002a) find this approach to be inadequate. it does not address issues in depth (garcia & lopez, 2005; kea et al., 2006; valentin, 2006); there is no long-term impact on attitude change (murrell et al., 1997); and it lacks a vision for preparing teachers for diversity. a conflicting perspective, the integrated approach, infuses diversity content across various courses and field experiences (kea et al., 2006; meier & hartell, 2009; villegas & lucas, 2007), and across the curriculum (vranješević, 2014). it ensures, among other things, in-depth coverage of issues across the programme; provides various opportunities to observe effective teaching in multicultural classrooms across courses; and, finally, the student teachers exposed to this approach become confident of their ability to teach in diverse classrooms (chisholm 1994). valentin (2006) emphasises that infusing diversity throughout courses involves all stakeholders and results in key issues being covered in each course. teaching practice beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 98 the need for the duration of teaching practice in diverse contexts to be extended is well supported (meier, 2010; cooper & he, 2012; darling-hammond, 2006). reeves and robinson (2014) argue that teaching practice may not benefit student teachers if the time provided is not sufficient to enable them to apply the theory they have learnt in practice. one proposal is for student teachers to go on teaching practice as early as the first year (meier, 2005; torm et al., 2012). however, darling-hammond (2006) observes that most effective programmes require at least a full academic year of study as this allows student teachers time to experience and apply “complex repertoires of practices” so that they “grow roots on their practice” (p.8). longer periods of teaching practice also enable students to gain sufficient experience to start to work independently of the expert teachers (darling-hammond, 2006). torm et al. (2012) argue that teaching practice should not be a ‘once off’ session but should take place throughout the training period as this would allow student teachers to develop their own personal working theory. the effect of longer durations was reported in a study of matoti and odora (2013) with the student teachers in this study indicating that they had appreciated teaching practice due to its frequency during the four years of study and, particularly, the six months in their final year. they claimed this had improved their confidence, planning skills and pedagogical approaches. the study context the main objective of the article was to explore how unam, through its bachelor of education (bed), incorporates diversity, unity and inclusivity issues in its curriculum. unam, with its five campuses, is the only government university in namibia that prepares teachers, while the bed is the only programme at unam that prepares teachers for the three phase levels, namely, bed lower primary, bed upper primary and bed secondary. two phases were studied at two sites ‒ the secondary phase at the unam main campus and the primary phase at the unam khomasdal campus. only three lecturers taught the social sciences at both campuses, and these and the dean of the faculty of education, formed part of this study. i chose social sciences firstly because this field of study deals exclusively with issues of diversity (harris & clarke, 2011; sheppard, 2010). it was, therefore presumed that the philosophy of the social science curriculum would be premised on both constructivist principles and social justice values. moreover, it was also anticipated that the coursework would include diversity issues, and teaching practice would be intentional about diversity teaching. curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 99 methods data sources the main source of data was the unam prospectus of the faculty of education as this seemed to be the only document that contained information on both the courses offered, and teaching practice. the document study commenced from mid-february 2016 and lasted until mid-march 2016. three issues guided the document study: curriculum and diversity issues; courses and diversity issues; and teaching practice and diversity issues. although documents formed the main source of data collection, the dean and the three lecturers were also interviewed to clarify some issues. the individual, face to face interviews with the first two lecturers were conducted in april 2016 while the interviews with the dean of the faculty and the third lecturer were both conducted in june and july 2016 respectively. the aim of the semi-structured interviews with the lecturers was, among others, to find answers to the following questions:  how does the bed programme prepare student teachers for diverse classrooms?  how are diversity, unity and inclusivity issues integrated in the bed courses? topics covered included among others, the philosophy underpinning the b. ed. curriculum; the presence of diversity in the b.ed. curriculum, and adequacy of the b.ed. curriculum with regards to enabling student teachers teach for diversity. during the interviews, i also took field notes, and i completed a summary contact form (miles, huberman & saldana (2014). data analysis the data analysis applied miles, huberman, and saldana's (2014) work on analysing qualitative data; highlighting three concurrent flows of activities, namely, data condensation, data display and conclusion drawing and verification. content analysis (louis et al., 2007; zhang & wildemuth, 2009) underpinned all three of the activities as proposed by miles, huberman, and saldana (2014) and followed the processes of coding, categorising, pattern seeking, and theme formulation. i opted for this technique because it provided an opportunity to analyse the text and obtain a better understanding of what had been said (zhang & wildemuth, 2009). data condensation and data display data condensation is the first stage of data analysis although it continues after the data collection until the completion of the report. its earlier stages include the management and processing of the data. during this stage, i condensed, summarised and simplified the data. data display constitutes a further level of data condensation (miles et al., 2014) and is a way of ‘assembling’ data into beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 100 easily accessible portions of information. when information is displayed, it becomes easier to form an impression of what is happening regarding the issue under investigation. this helps the researcher to overcome the challenge of extended and bulky text (miles et al., 2014). large volumes of information may be overwhelming and there may be a tendency to hastily jump to conclusions on the basis of ‘vivid information’ only, thus ignoring other valuable data (miles et al., 2014). this study used different displays for the different sets of data. data from documents the data from the documents was summarised into a document summary form (miles et al., 2014). three issues guided the summary, namely, the name or description of the document, evidence of diversity issues, and reflections on the meaning of the data in terms of diversity issues and teaching. these summaries were organised under curriculum and diversity issues; courses and diversity issues; and teaching practice and diversity issues. the aim was to establish the existence of diversity and diversity teaching in the unam bed social science curriculum, courses and teaching practice, as well as the philosophies underpinning the bed programme. data from interviews the audio data from the interviews with both the lecturers and the student teachers were transcribed as text into a microsoft word document. both sets of data were then converted into tables. this process comprised various steps. step 1: i read through each phrase, sentence or paragraph to determine where to place a full-stop, as the cut-point per row. for example, for the extract below, i would first decide the cutpoints which, in my case, were full stops. i would then read through the extract and insert full stops where necessary. this was determined primarily by the main idea in each phrase, sentence or paragraph. the curriculum for the b.ed. is more focused on the constructivism idea. we are moving to the idea of constructivism whereby we only expose learners and they should be in a position to construct their own knowledge; to construct their own meaning. meaning, we provide them with a learning environment, we provide them with materials and then they can create their own meaning out of it. that is basically the philosophy unam is driving all of us towards, particularly teacher education. step 2: curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 101 i would highlight the whole text; press ‘insert table’ on the menu bar and then press the ‘convert text to table’ command and instruct it to ‘separate text at full stops. each sentence, phrase or paragraph would then break only at a full stop. the outcome would then resemble the table below. the curriculum for the b.ed. is more focused on the constructivism idea. we are moving to the idea of constructivism whereby we only expose learners and they should be in a position to construct their own knowledge; to construct their own meaning. meaning, we provide them with a learning environment, we provide them with materials and then they can create their own meaning out of it. that is basically the philosophy unam is driving all of us towards, particularly teacher education. step 3: the table is then copied and pasted into micro-soft excel. like word, excel also has rows and columns. my reason for using excel was that it is easier to sort data using excel than using word. step 4: coding commenced. in line with the fact that qualitative data analysis is primarily an inductive process of identifying patterns and themes from the data collected (mcmillan & schumacher, 2010), i derived codes and categories from the data. however, this was not the sole technique i used. i also used an inductive-deductive logic (creswell, 2013) process in terms of which the codes that emerged from the data were preceded by predetermined codes that served as my ‘start list’ (miles et al., 2014). these codes had been derived from the research question, and other variables from the literature. these codes were broadly classified under two general categories derived from the research question, namely, curriculum philosophy, course contents, and curriculum implementation. these codes were revisited and revised throughout the data analysis process. each table comprised five columns and several rows. the first column contained the data. i read through each data segment in a row and gave a label to represent the meaning in the data segment. i used open codes (lofland, snow, anderson, & lofland, beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 102 2006). the open codes came from my start list and some emerged from the data. these were sorted and the same codes were grouped together. data open codes focused codes pattern coding remarks the curriculum for the b.ed. is more focused on the constructivism idea. we are moving to the idea of constructivism whereby we only expose learners and they should be in a position to construct their own knowledge; to construct their own meaning. meaning, we provide them with a learning environment, we provide them with materials and then they can create their own meaning out of it. that is basically the philosophy unam is driving all of us towards, particularly teacher education. step 5: this step involved the focused codes (lofland et al., 2006) in the third column. i analysed each group of open codes and decided on the category that best suited the group. the focused codes were again sorted and the same codes were grouped together. step 6: pattern coding commenced in the fourth column. this is the stage of analysis that ‘pulls together’ the different coded segments into one category that provides understanding, inferences, and explanations of the data (miles et al., 2014). the patterns were again sorted and all the same patterns were grouped together. step 7: once patterns had been identified, i moved to memoing (miles et al., 2014). at this stage of the analysis my aim of memoing was to make sense of the data. i reflected on the data curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 103 and, in the fifth column where i wrote remarks, i explained my thinking about the issues which had emerged from the data and identified commonalities and differences. the remarks (miles et al., 2014) helped me to add meaning to the data, make linkages between segments of the data and revise and relocate codes in case of unsuitability. this last stage of memoing and reflective remarks led to the formulation of themes under which the findings were reported. drawing and verifying conclusions all the levels of analysis i have discussed thus far led me to miles et al.'s (2014) last flow of activities, namely, conclusion drawing and verification. the verification of the findings for quality and truth (miles et al., 2014) involved comparing the findings from the interviews, and documents. the aim of this was to find commonalities and anomalies pertaining to the responses to the following research question: what curricula and practices are intended to develop the knowledge, skills and dispositions of student teachers required to teach for diversity? the all-encompassing aim was ‘to build a chain of evidence’, to draw meanings and to make sense (miles et al., 2014) of the nature of the unam bed social science curriculum. it was crucial at this stage to establish what miles et al. (2014) refer to as a ‘conceptual analogue’ that required me to relate the study findings to the literature that had assisted me to explain the findings. findings bed curriculum philosophy the outcome of the investigation revealed that unam’s prospectus seems to be the only document that provides information on and directs the bed programme. the findings revealed that the unam prospectus (university of namibia, 2016), inter alia, outlined the role and mission of the faculty of education, the programmes, the rationale for and the exit outcomes of the programme, the teaching-learning model and the curriculum framework. the rationale and exit outcomes, particularly in respect of the bed upper primary, presuppose that the bed programme is underpinned by constructivist and socio-cultural principles as it centres on learner-centredness; cultural capital (bourdieu, 1977); and curriculum differentiation (tomlinson, 2001). the philosophies underlying the bed programme were also highlighted during the interviews conducted with the dean of the faculty of education and the social science lecturers. the dean described the philosophy as that of ‘teaching the whole person’. in this context, this implies equipping teachers with all the required knowledge, skills and attitudes. integral to this beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 104 knowledge base are issues of context, adaptability and relevance, thus implying that a teacher is well equipped to teach and handle any situation as well as teach in any setting and anywhere. she also identified reflective practice as an important skill so that teachers ‘don’t just mindlessly go about teaching’. the skill of critical reflection is crucial to diversity teaching (howard, 2003). one of the lecturers interviewed approached the philosophy underlying the bed programme from a political perspective and brought in societal issues. the lecturer based the philosophy on the role of education in nation building – a view that “brings the outside inside” (bernstein, 1990). the two other lecturers interviewed responded exclusively from an epistemological perspective. they perceived constructivism as unam’s philosophy that among others, advocates for the appreciation of multiple perspectives; the consideration of learners’ previous knowledge; and the promotion of collaborative learning (bhattacharjee 2015). courses and diversity teaching unam adopts an integration approach as diversity issues are infused throughout the bed programme’s various courses (zeichner, 1993). this was revealed by aligning the courses with npst competences. the npst is a teacher education model to which “pre-service providers … will all be required to align their curricula, programmes and qualifications to meet the requirement of those standards” (ministry of education, 2006, p. 6). to align their courses with the npst, the unam’s course outlines indicate, next to each course content, the specific npst competence the course addresses. the frequency of each competence across courses appears in the last column (appendix 1 & 2). in the main the outcome of this analysis reveals the presence of diversity, unity and inclusivity issues. appendix 1 illustrates the compulsory courses in the bed programme upper primary. as appendix 1 indicates, element 5 of competence 3 – ‘demonstrate understanding of diversity’ and competence 13 – ‘learners with special needs’ – both explicitly reflect diversity issues. these two and most of the other competences are framed by constructivist principles and socio-cultural perspectives. teaching for diversity issues as advocated by these competences centre primarily on knowledge and skills of, among others, lce principles, diversity pedagogies, assessment equity, and the contextualising of subject content to learner needs. the dispositions include, among others, non-discrimination, un-bias, and good relationships with parents and the community. it is only competences c18, c24, and c26 that do not integrate diversity, unity and inclusivity issues (appendix 1). curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 105 however, there is no certainty that the criteria for aligning courses to specific competences took into account diversity issues. accordingly, the analysis was taken to another level and included the course aims that broadly encapsulate each course’s contribution to the programme. if diversity issues are one of the foci of the bed programme, these should be stipulated either in the broad course aims or the exit learning outcomes. the analysis included all the compulsory courses. in a way the outcome of this analysis deviated from the first one. table 7.1 evidence of diversity teaching in upper primary courses seven courses explicit about diversity issues ten courses implicit about diversity issues five courses no diversity issues social science education (major 1) childhood learning computer literacy language education (major 2) curriculum studies english for academic purposes inclusive education educational foundations english for teachers child development educational management first aid education social contemporary issues educational research integrated media technology education professional and community development eng. communication and study skills school based studies guidance and counselling project based learning science of teaching assessment and evaluation of teaching as table 7.1 illustrates, only seven out of 22 courses explicitly incorporate diversity issues. however, the intention of the seven courses differs. for example, social science education, language education, and inclusive educational are intentional about diversity teaching whereas school based studies (sbs), child development, social contemporary issues, professional and community development cover diversity ideologies but mainly at the level of awareness only (valentin, 2006). science of teaching and sbs in particular provide student teachers with ‘effective instructional’ and ‘practice-based’ experiences (university of namibia, 2016). therefore, teaching for diversity should be one of its exit learning outcomes. it appeared that, in beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 106 the main, teaching diverse learners did not appear to be a priority in the bed upper primary courses. the outcome of the secondary phase compulsory courses in the faculty and its alignment to the npst competences does not deviate significantly from the upper primary phase (appendix 2). in the main, it may be said that the bed courses (secondary phase) are aligned to the npst competences. as already indicated, the npst competences, except for c18, c24, and c26, generally incorporate the principles and ideologies of diversity teaching (appendix 2). table 7.2: evidence of diversity teaching in secondary phase courses eight courses explicit about diversity issues ten courses implicit about diversity issues six courses no diversity issues teaching methods school subject comparative education computer literacy school subject (history or geography) curriculum development and practice (hdp) english for academic purposes inclusive education educational foundations english for teachers human development and learning (hdl) educational management first aid education social contemporary issues educational research integrated media technology education professional and community development (pcd) english communication and study skills education technologist teaching practice guidance and counselling philosophy of education project based learning general teaching methods assessment and evaluation of teaching this outcome of table 7.2 implies that, upon graduation, a bed (secondary) graduate should be competent to teach learners from diverse backgrounds. however, as already observed, there is no curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 107 guarantee that these courses are intentional about diversity teaching and, hence, a deeper analysis of the course aims and exit learning outcomes was necessary. as was the case with the upper primary phase, the course aims and exit learning outcomes were analysed for their intentions in respect of teaching for diversity. the same approach applied and the analysis included all compulsory core courses done by all unam students. the outcome of the analysis of the secondary phase compulsory courses closely matched that of the upper primary phase courses. contrary to what appendix 2 depicts, this deeper analysis revealed that, out of twenty-four courses, as table 7.2 illustrates, only eight courses explicitly incorporated diversity issues. however, as was the case with upper primary phase courses, the intentions of the eight courses differ. it appeared that teaching methods for geography, and history, school subjects history and geography, as well as inclusive education were intended to include teaching for diversity. inclusive education adopts a broad view of diversity, and aims to prepare student teachers to address the needs of all learners; including learners with special needs. other courses under the same classification, such as professional and community development, human development and learning, philosophy of education, and teaching practice cover diversity ideologies but mainly at the level of awareness only (valentin, 2006). courses classified as ‘implicit about diversity issues’ integrate the ideologies of diversity teaching, but not overtly. although 8 subjects only appeared to be explicit and intentional about diversity teaching, coupling them with the ten courses deemed to be implicit about diversity issues, it may, perhaps, be concluded that student teachers graduating as secondary phase social science teachers would be aware of issues pertinent to diversity teaching. in general, the compulsory courses, although their level of intentions toward diversity teaching varies, may produce student teachers with the required knowledge, skills and dispositions to handle diverse settings. however, to increase the assurance of possessing this knowledge base, the courses should be more intentional about diversity teaching. specialisation courses and diversity teaching the lecturers taught the specialisation area of social science education (sse). student teachers in the upper primary phase take sse as major 1, and this includes both subject content and teaching methodology. for the secondary phase, student teachers may take history or geography as school subjects and also choose between the teaching methods of history or geography and development studies. beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 108 the aims of the sse (upper primary) course show evidence of diversity teaching. the overall picture demonstrates that student teachers would be prepared and sensitised in relation to equity practices, multiculturalism, learner differences, as well as constructivist principles. the sse (upper primary) adopts the socio-cultural view of the curriculum (cornbleth, 1988) that contextualises learning to local social situations (gleeson, 2010). at subject level, the geography modules such as human geography, settlement geography, economic geography, environmental studies, regional geography, political geography, and social geography address socio-cultural and socio-political issues, underpinned primarily by equity and social justice principles. social geography, in particular, addresses sociocultural and socio-economic issues as well as inequities and inequalities between people. the subject history, among others, covers socio-cultural, socio-economic and socio-political issues pertaining to discrimination, dominance, inequities and inequalities, collaboration, resistance and apartheid ideologies. exposing student teachers to these issues helps them to understand learner differences and needs. the exit learning outcomes of the teaching methods module of the secondary phase incorporate teaching for diversity ideologies pertaining to multiculturalism, school-community partnership, contextualisation of learning, and learner differences and needs. clearly this module aims to prepare student teachers to handle learners in diverse classrooms. its intentions go beyond mere awareness. overall, the sse specialisation courses showed that student teachers would be prepared and sensitised about equity practices, multiculturalism, learner differences, as well as constructivist principles. these courses adopted the socio-cultural view of the curriculum (cornbleth, 1988) that contextualises learning to local social situations (gleeson, 2010). diversity teaching during teaching practice the curriculum frameworks show that teaching practice is spread across the three years of the bed programme (table 7.3). it is in three phases and happens from year 2 to 4 (university of namibia, 2016). curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 109 table 7.3: duration of teaching practice phase 1 upper primary phase 2 upper primary phase 3 upper primary year 2, semester 1: 2 weeks year 2, semester 2: 2 weeks year 3, semester 1: 4 weeks year 3, semester 2: 2 weeks year 4, semester 1: 12 weeks phase 1 secondary phase 2 secondary phase 3 secondary year 2, semester 1: 3 weeks year 3, semester 1: 3 weeks year 4, semester 1: 8 weeks the duration of teaching practice ranges from 3 to 12 weeks with longer periods for the upper primary phase as compared to the secondary phase. in the case of this study it was assumed that some of the theories they take to teaching practice are centred on diversity teaching. a close scrutiny of both phases shows that the aims of teaching practice for both phases are the same. however, not one of the aims throughout the three tp phases (years 2-4) reveal any intentional teaching for diversity. the question thus arises as to whether student teachers are expected to be traditional and to possess technical skills (ornstein & hunkins, 2004) only, or whether they are expected to acquire more than just technical skills and gain pedagogical learner knowledge (grimmett & mackinnon, 1992) for diverse classrooms. one of its aims of exposing ‘students to the realities of … classrooms in namibia’ may encompass diversity issues but this remains uncertain and ambiguous. discussion and recommendations bed curriculum philosophy the evidence from this study reveals that the unam did not have a teacher education curriculum document, or if it did, it was not well-known by many. none of the documents, or the lecturers consulted made reference to a curriculum document apart from the prospectus. a prospectus seemed to function as a curriculum, although, its dedicated purpose was to serve as an information and advertisement tool. whereas, as defined in the national professional standards for teachers of namibia, “a curriculum is a plan of instruction that details what student teachers are to know, how they are to learn it, what the teacher's role is, and the context in which learning and teaching will take place” (ministry of education, 2006, p. 123). it is also a possibility that the prospectus was either regarded as the curriculum for the b.ed. programme, or was the only document providing curricular contents. as observed in this study, its absence seemed to have negative impacts. for instance, some issues pertaining to philosophical underpinnings could neither be beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 110 easily established nor clearly articulated by lecturers, particularly socio-cultural issues. this study recommends that the unam should have a curriculum document that covers the philosophical underpinnings of what to be learnt, how it is to be learnt, and where teaching and learning take place. the motive to investigate the philosophies that undergird the unam bed social science curriculum is central to this article. from a teaching for diversity perspective, a constructivist, and socio-cultural curriculum would be ideal in a teacher education programme with a diversity teaching intent. the findings revealed that the rationale particularly of the bed social science upper primary centres on learner-centred-ness; cultural capital (bourdieu, 1977); and curriculum differentiation (tomlinson, 2001). it is underpinned by constructivist principles, and takes into consideration societal and learners’ needs. the interviews with lecturers confirmed what is espoused by the prospectus that societal issues and constructivism informed the curriculum. however, societal issues as basis of the bed curriculum did not clearly stand out; they were largely implicit. due to the nature of the subject they taught, one would have expected the lecturers to be explicit about how socio-cultural issues underpinned the social science curriculum, and the bed programme as a whole. nevertheless, one can deduct from these findings that the bed social science curriculum’s philosophy is socio-cultural and it adopted constructivist principles to teaching and learning. coursework and diversity teaching as established from the findings, compulsory courses generally, to varying degrees, could render student teachers with the needed knowledge, skills and dispositions to teach diverse learners. the existing situation, for instance, the b.ed. upper primary, whereby seven courses were explicit about diversity issues and ten were covert, gives hope about diversity teaching. however, one would argue with more optimism that student teachers would be well prepared if diversity issues were infused across the entire curriculum, or if the other 10 courses were explicit about diversity issues as well. because courses, such as the science of teaching and school based studies, responsible for providing student teachers with ‘effective instruction’ and practice-based’ experiences (prospectus, 2016) were not explicit about diversity teaching, the hope for diversity teaching is minimal. one can argue that if the b.ed. programme had diversity intent, the two courses among others should have been intentional about diversity teaching. the npst as already curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 111 suggested, being the national framework for teacher education, should have competences dedicated to diversity teaching to increase the assurance of this knowledge base. these findings lead to the conclusion that some courses within the b.ed. programme would contribute to the development of the student teachers’ knowledge base. however, infusing diversity, unity and inclusivity issues across the curriculum would have benefited student teachers more. teaching practice and diversity teaching three key conclusions can be drawn about the unam b.ed. teaching practice. first, teaching practice for both phase levels begins in year 2. however, when gauged against the relevant literature, the timing of the teaching practice is open to criticism. the proposal is to begin as early as the first year and throughout the entire period of study, thus implying there should be an additional teaching practice phase in year one. with regards to the duration, as opposed to the proposals by renowned scholars such as darling-hammond et al. (2005) is at least a year. unam teaching practice is far shorter and it does not even add up to half a year, especially in the secondary phase. thus, it would appear that the bed student teachers do not have the benefit of much teaching practice. this could mean that their practice will not improve; they will not become independent and, as torm et al., (2012) contend, they will not develop a personal working theory, nor, as darling-hammond (2006) observes, they will not experience and apply “complex repertoires of practices”; and “grow roots on their practice” (p. 8). second, good practices in terms of teaching practice for diversity centre, among other things, on extended durations in diverse contexts (meier, 2010; cooper & he, 2012). teaching practice may not be of benefit if the student teachers are not given sufficient time to put the theoretical knowledge they have been taught into practice (reeves & robinson, 2014). hence, the suggestion of a full academic year of teaching practice as this will gradually enable student teachers to improve their practice, thus making them more independent (darling-hammond, lepage, hammerness, & duffy, 2005) and also develop their own personal working theory (torm et al., 2012). the duration of teaching practice at unam is contrary to that proposed in matoti and odora's study (2013) that reported the benefit of longer durations of teaching practice. in the institution that matoti and odora studied, teaching practice took place every year in the four-year course with the longest period being the whole semester (six months) in the final year. student beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 112 teachers appreciated the experience and they improved their confidence as well as their practical skills in planning and pedagogical third, none of the aims of teaching practice for both phase levels across the years shows intentions about diversity teaching. were teachers expected to be traditional and to possess technical skills (ornstein & hunkins, 2004) only, or were they expected to go beyond technical skills and possess pedagogical learner knowledge (grimmett & mackinnon, 1992) for diverse classrooms? however, one of teaching practice’s aims of exposing ‘students to the realities of … classrooms in namibia’ might encompass diversity issues, but this remains uncertain and ambiguous. to compel student teachers to pay attention to diversity issues, and diversity teaching protocols, diversity teaching should form part of the teaching practice aims, and perhaps a requirement. student teachers could demonstrate the ability to teach diverse classrooms as part of the requirements to attain the b.ed. qualification. overall, the unam b.ed. curriculum seem to incline more towards a technocratic view that is decontextualized from societal issues. overal, the philosophy of the unam bed social science curriculum was premised on both constructivist principles and social justice values, and inclined more towards a socio-cultural view, as some courses explicitly integrated diversity issues. however, the contribution from courses alone cannot suffice. teaching practice, as a teacher learning tool, should be organised in ways that provide opportunities for student teachers to experience and teach diverse classrooms. lecturers too, as teachers of teachers, should be role models. this study recommends that teaching practice should be dedicated to diversity teaching. diversity teaching should form part of the requirements of becoming a teacher. it can be concluded that, the unam b.ed.’s curriculum only partially equips student teachers with knowledge, skills and dispositions to teach diverse classrooms. curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 113 appendix 1: diversity issues in upper primary courses c o m p e te n c e n u m b e r e d . f o u n d a ti o n s im t s c h o o l b a s e d s tu d ie s in c lu s iv e e d u c a ti o n a e l e d u c a ti o n a l r e s e a rc h g u id a n c e a n d c o u n s e ll in g e d u c a ti o n m a n a g e m e n t f ir s t a id e d u c a ti o n p c d c h il d d e v e lo p m e n t e n g li s h f o r te a c h e rs c h il d h o o d l e a rn in g s c ie n c e o f te a c h in g c u rr ic u lu m s tu d ie s s o c ia l s c ie n c e e d u c a ti o n l a n g u a g e e d u c a ti o n p ro je c t b a s e d le a rn in g f re q u e n c y 3 14 12 8 27 7 1 6 2 6 8 6 15 6 28 6 6 5 10 5 11 5 13 5 16 5 25 5 4 4 5 4 7 4 21 4 9 3 14 3 17 3 19 3 20 3 23 3 26 3 18 2 22 2 24 2 29 2 30 1 beatrice sinyama sichombe ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 114 appendix 2: diversity issues in secondary phase courses c o m p e te n c e n u m b e r e d . f o u n d a ti o n s h d l im t e t e a c h in g p ra c ti c e g t m in c lu s iv e e d u c a ti o n c d p t e a c h in g m e th o d s 1 & 2 a e l e d u c a ti o n a l re s e a rc h g u id a n c e a n d c o u n s e ll in g p ro je c t b a s e d le a rn in g c o m p a ra ti v e e d u c a ti o n e d u c a ti o n m a n a g e m e n t f ir s t a id e d u c a ti o n p c d p h il o s o p h y o f e d u c a ti o n e n g li s h f o r te a c h e rs f re q u e n c y 3 15 27 8 8 7 28 7 26 6 4 5 6 5 12 5 15 5 1 4 9 4 10 4 11 4 14 4 16 4 5 3 7 3 13 3 24 3 25 3 2 2 17 2 18 2 19 2 20 2 21 2 29 2 22 1 23 1 30 1 curricula in teacher education for diversity in the university of namibia ajote vol. 7. no. 2, (2018), 91-121 115 references ball, a. f. 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(2009). qualitative analysis of content. applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science, , 308-319. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 139-158 adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects in senior secondary schools in osun state, nigeria lawrence femi ademiluyi department of business and entrepreneurship education kwara state university ilorin, nigeria femiluyi44@gmail.com abstract this study sought to determine the adequacy and utilization of ict facilities for teaching and learning business subjects in public senior secondary schools in osun state of nigeria. mixed method research design involving the distribution of questionnaires and the conduct of follow-up interviews was used for the study. the population consisted of business educators teaching in public secondary schools. no sample was drawn; the entire population was studied. the results show that ict facilities are barely available, grossly inadequate and largely unutilized in teaching business subjects in osun state public secondary schools in spite of the much-heralded introduction of ”opon imo” computer tablets supposedly made available to all senior secondary school students in the state. the study opined that government and other education stakeholders should provide functional ict facilities and personnel in public secondary schools. key words: business subjects, senior secondary schools, ict resources, osun state, nigeria. introduction national development is premised on a nation's technological attainment. this has made technology the premier instrument of progress, sustainable development, and self-reliance. technology is also rapidly emerging as an instrument of national stability and international harmony. it is no accident that the more technologically advanced a nation is, the more stable its politics and social life becomes lawrence femi ademiluyi 140 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. (ramey, 2012). furthermore, the advent of information and communication technology is redefining the concept of literacy. in the modern technological environment, literacy is no longer defined by the ability to read and write alone, but also by the ability to use computer and basic information and communication technology facilities. the acquisition, deployment and optimal utilization of information and communication technology (ict) facilities are therefore major indicators of education service delivery. the computer has turned out to be, arguably, the most revolutionary implement ever deployed for educational purposes, and is rapidly becoming indispensable to educators and learners alike even in africa (ibeneme, 2013). modern academia uses ict for virtually everything, from advertising admission to facilitating student application, to applicant admission, development of teaching materials, knowledge impartation, evaluation, and school administration and discipline (oke, 2012). ict enables communication, interaction, collaboration, computation, visualization, simulation, and data modeling. it also facilitates instruction, tutoring, mentoring, gathering and filtering of data, consolidation of information and derivation of knowledge. combinations of all the above are instantiated as multimedia and multimodal applications. it was based on this premise that the government of osun state of nigeria made it a policy to provide ict facilities in public secondary schools in the state (osun state government, 2016). however, funding limitations, inadequate ict infrastructures, and personnel appear to be inhibiting the full realization of the policy objectives. nigeria operates the 9-3-4 system of education comprising nine years of basic (six years of primary and three years of junior secondary) education, three years of senior secondary and four years of tertiary education (federal ministry of education, 2014). according to the national examination council (2016), business subjects at senior secondary level include accounting, commerce, insurance, office practice and stores management. neco also lists the following as entrepreneurship or trade subjects: marketing, stenography, storekeeping, and salesmanship, among others. all these require significant ict input if they are to be effectively taught and learnt in contemporary senior secondary schools. effective teaching in these fields demands full deployment and application of ict facilities. availability and adequacy of ict facilities depend largely on funding, while utilization may be influenced by teachers’ orientation and training, availability of enabling facilities like lighting, and adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 141 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. public policy. this study seeks to determine the extent to which ict facilities are being utilized in osun state’s public schools for teaching business subjects. literature review osofisan (2013) describes ict as the product of the marriage between the computer and the communication industry. it is the product of the merger between computing infrastructure and communication infrastructure. oke (2012) describes ict as processing, storage and transfer of information, which can be broken down into information technology hardware and communication. kwache (2017) posits that it is a general-purpose technology with a major impact on process technologies and product technologies and has social and political implications. kwache sees ict as diffusing widely across several industries and sectors of the economy through diverse applications. it is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application encompassing radio, television cellular phone, computer, network, hardware and software, satellite system, among others, as well as various devices and applications associated with them. ict has innumerable educational applications. oke (2012) opines that two major factors account for the introduction of information communication technology in teaching and learning in schools: students must be familiar with the use of information technology because of its usefulness in all facets of life, and teachers must use information and communication technology in teaching for quality improvement and more effective teaching. kwache (2017) states that learning resources in education have grown and experienced exponential improvement inline with global technology trends. he stressed further that national development is determined by a nation's technological advancements; this has made technology the cornerstone without which a nation cannot hope to develop. osofisan (2013) posits that information communication technology is the handling and processing of information using electronic devices. it simply means the creation, collection, storage, processing, transmission, display and use of information by the people and machine. ict can also be referred to as the technologies used for accessing, gathering, processing, manipulating and presenting or communicating information. in the opinion of oke (2012), information communication technology is not only an indivisible part of modern society, but its value in the education sector also cannot be overstated. oyebanji (2013) asserted that information and communication technologies are vital tools in any educational system with the potentials of being used to meet the learning need of lawrence femi ademiluyi 142 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. individual students, enhance high-quality learning materials, increase self-efficacy and independence of learning among students and improve teachers' professional development. in addition, ict promotes equality of educational opportunities for learners and teachers. in the same vein, other potentials of contemporary information and communication technology in education include its ability to accelerate and enrich basic skills in reading, writing, and understanding (kwache, 2017). it motivates and engages students as they are encouraged to be more independent and responsible for their own learning and to relate academic activities to the practices of the contemporary world of work, among others. brown (2009) is of the view that ict is very crucial for the achievement of national educational objectives because it expands citizens’ access to education at all levels and helps to improve the quality of teaching and learning. ict-based instructional materials have the capacity to increase learning rates, save the teacher’s time and efforts, increase learners’ interest and facilitate retention (onyejemezi, 2009). ict is well suited for information processing tasks because of its speed, accuracy, and ability to store large data in accessible forms (atkinson, 2010). at least in the urban parts of west africa, information technology has provided a mechanism for teachers to keep abreast of increasing demands for current pedagogical information (asiedu, 2016). the use of information and communication technology has become indispensable to pedagogy in the different fields of business. since the dawn of the twenty-first century, businesses have become increasingly dependent on icts for virtually all activities. the advent of e-commerce, with its attendant impact on all aspects of business, has meant that, at least in urban centres, little can be achieved in business without constant recourse to information technology. even in rural parts of africa, increasing internet access, enhanced by expanding access to cellular telephony, implies that banking and other transactions can now be completed on line with organizations in the neighborhood and others thousands of kilometers away (punch-nigeria, 2019). the social media especially have become veritable instruments of correspondence, advertizing and meetings. airline and railway bookings, seat and hotel reservations and payments, international trade are now enabled by ict. international travel papers, shipping documents, visa applications are now processed online. indeed, especially for students, the wide gulf which existed in nigeria between rural and urban areas only a couple of years ago is being speedily obliterated as examination bodies insist on conducting online examinations for students irrespective of location. secondary school students have therefore felt compelled to go outside the regular classroom to adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 143 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. master aspects of information technology since most school systems have few functional ict facilities (ofodu, 2017). given this emerging indispensability of ict to business activities, it is only natural to expect pedagogy in business subjects to be information technology-heavy. however, the application of ict in business pedagogy depends on the availability of relevant resources and the ict-dexterity of the teachers. ofori-attah (2017) is convinced that both facilities and expertise are in short supply in rural africa. in spite of this, social media platforms like facebook, twitter, linkedin, whatsapp, which are powered mobile devices like smartphones and computer tablets, have emerged as important instruments of education service delivery especially in tertiary institutions and urban centres. nigerian university teachers give online assignments, feedbacks, deliver lectures on line using social media (ademiluyi, 2016). at the secondary school level, however, a dearth of human and material resources appears to have stymied the use of information technology for education service delivery. a cursory look at the secondary schools in nigeria reveals that many business subject teachers in the system still rely heavily on the traditional "chalk and talk" method of teaching rather than embracing the use of ict. very few public institutions in nigeria makes use of contemporary ict facilities for classroom instructions. only the private schools have resources for computer-aided instruction; thus, the chalkboard and textbooks continue to dominate teaching and learning activities (orakpo, 2015; owuamanan, 2018). in 2012, the osun state government introduced opon imo tablets for the use of senior secondary school students and teachers. these are off-line, non-interactive computer tablets on which course materials have been loaded. these are available only to final year senior secondary school students. interactions with the students reveal that the devices contain only revision materials in all subjects rather than comprehensive teaching and learning materials. apparently, teachers rarely make use of them. it has been argued that students often load extraneous materials on them. questions have also been raised on their availability and usability especially in rural areas (fayemi, 2018). it is doubtful, therefore, if the introduction of opon imo has improved teaching and learning of business subjects in osun state of nigeria. the question is whether off-line, noninteractive tablets can adequately address the learning needs of students, especially in business subjects. since business subjects are supposed to prepare students for entry into the business world of the information age, teaching is not likely to be effective lawrence femi ademiluyi 144 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. in the absence of information technology facilities like cable television, computers, overhead projectors, internet, electronic board, digital multimedia among others. it appears that these facilities are not sufficiently provided for the teaching and learning process in secondary schools of osun state of nigeria. this may be detrimental to learning since ict enables instructors to make learning more immediate and make access to education more equal. azeez (2018) similarly suggested that a relationship exists between the usage of ict facilities and academic performance. effective use of ict in teaching and learning of business subjects depends on the availability of the facilities and teachers' competence in using them (oyeniran, 2010). observation and anecdotal inferences suggest that there are, at best, few functional internet facilities in public secondary schools in osun state. this appears to hinder the extent of teachers' exposure to the use of ict in teaching. teachers, as well as students, appear not to be knowledgeable in the use of ict. interactions by the researcher with education stakeholders in the state (teachers, headteachers and senior officials of the ministry of education) indicate that there has been, in the last ten years, no formal training for teachers on ict. indeed, the state’s recent public budgets have no provisions for teachers’ ict education (osun state government, 2018). it has also been observed that public secondary schools in most parts of nigeria lack computer-adept business subject teachers while irregular power supply appears to be the norm in the schools. moreover, it seems the schools could not purchase computers for use because of inadequate funds. besides, the limited-inclusion of the ict programmes in teacher training curriculum seems to be another major challenge inhibiting the adoption of ict in secondary schools. various studies have identified the multifaceted problems militating against the effective use of ict in the teaching /learning process in public schools throughout nigeria. these include: irregular power supply (ofodu, 2017); inadequate computer literate teachers (oyebanji, 2013); inadequate funds (ogunmilade, 2012), reluctance to change (ademiluyi, 2012) among others. anecdotal inferences show that osun state is not exempt from these challenges. while the government of osun state of nigeria has endeavored to introduce basic ict facilities in senior secondary schools, the adequacy and effectiveness of its efforts remain in question. government’s desire to further deploy ict facilities in its secondary schools appear to be inhibited by inadequate electricity facilities, funding, and trained personnel. the study sought to determine the extent to which the government has achieved its objectives in spite of identified inhibitions. adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 145 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. statement of the problem the government of osun state, in recognition of the importance of ict to the impartation and acquisition of knowledge in secondary school business subjects, introduced computer tablets for the use of secondary school students throughout the state. however, the extent to which this policy was followed through has been a subject of controversy. in recent years, secondary school students in osun state have returned abysmal results in public examinations. for the last four years (2015-2018), osun state was ranked 29th out of 36 states in west african examination council examinations (waec, 2018). students’ results in business subjects have reflected this sordid performance. is this performance level associated with the extent of ict deployment and utilization for teaching and learning? in the contemporary era, ict may be the dividing line between effectiveness and ineptitude in teaching and learning. if institutions do not effectively deploy and utilize ict facilities, the learning process may become sluggish and antiquated, to the detriment of national development efforts. there is, therefore, the need to empirically determine the availability, adequacy, and utilization of ict resources for teaching and learning of business subjects in senior secondary schools in osun state, hence the need for this study. purpose of the study the purpose of this study is to determine the adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching and learning business subjects in senior secondary schools in osun state of nigeria and to determine whether a significant difference exists in the ict status of rural and urban public schools. the focus of the study was to find answers to the following research questions: 1. how adequate are ict resources available for teaching business subjects in osun state secondary schools? 2. to what extent are ict resources being utilized for teaching business subjects in osun state secondary schools? the following hypothesis was also tested at 0.05 level of significance: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of business subject teachers in urban and rural areas on the availability and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects in osun state secondary schools. lawrence femi ademiluyi 146 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. methodology the researcher employed the mixed methods design involving the collection, analysis, and integration of both quantitative and qualitative methods. the quantitative aspect involved the use of descriptive survey instruments. for this purpose, a questionnaire was administered and analyzed. subsequently, follow up interviews were conducted with of the stakeholders. the interview was designed to seek clarifications and more detailed explanations on items and issues which may not be obvious from the quantitative results obtained from the questionnaire. the population for the study consisted of all business subject teachers who are graduates of business education in public secondary schools in osun state. the total number is 192. no sample was drawn; the entire population was studied in line with the opinion of agboola (2007) that it is ideal to study the entire population whenever possible. twelve of the respondents, selected on the basis of seniority, experience, and location (urban/rural) were subsequently interviewed for clarifications and in-depth insights. significance of the research area the deployment and utilization of ict facilities are important components of educational service delivery in nigeria, as in most other developing countries. business subjects today have huge ict contents. subjects like word processing, ict office applications and e-commerce cannot be mastered without adequate access to information technology resources. all other business subjects, to varying degrees, also have significant ict contents. however, funding inadequacy has pulled education and ict facilities provision down the pecking order in terms of resource allocation, resulting in poor student performance especially in business subjects. method of data collection a structured questionnaire tagged adequacy and utilization of ict resources for business subjects in osun state secondary schools designed by the researcher and duly validated with a cronbach reliability coefficient of 0.89 was used to gather data for the study. the questionnaire consisted of fifty (50) items designed after an extensive review of literature related to the study. the items were placed on the 4-point rating scale of highly adequate (he) =4, adequate (a) =3, inadequate (in)=2 and grossly inadequate (gi)= 1 for research question 1, while for research question 2, the rating scale is great extent (ge) = 4, moderate extent (me) = 3, small extent (se) = 2, and no extent adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 147 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. (ne) = 1. interviews were subsequently conducted with selected respondents to obtain deeper insight into their responses. data analysis a total of 192 copies of the questionnaire was administered, and 181 (94.27%) were retrieved. the data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, percentage scores for the demographics of the sample, and mean rating and standard deviation to answer the research questions. the decision rule was that scores between 3.50 and 4.00 were regarded as great extent or highly adequate; scores between 2.50 and 3.49 were regarded as adequate or moderate extent; scores between 1.50 and 2.49 were taken as small extent or inadequate while scores of 1.50 and below were rated as no extent or grossly inadequate. the null hypothesis designed to determine whether differences exist between respondents in urban areas and those in rural areas was tested at 0.05 alpha level using independent samples t-test. sample demographics of the 181 surveys returned, 124 were from male teachers, 57 were females. 142 of the respondents taught in schools located in urban areas while only 39 taught in schools located in rural areas. 36 of the respondents had second (graduate) degrees, while 141 had first degrees only. out of the 12 respondents interviewed, seven had over 15 years of teaching experience, three had over 20 years of experience while two had less than eight years of experience. results availability of ict resources table 1: extent of availability of ict resources for teaching and learning business subjects in osun state public secondary schools. s/n items mean standard deviation remarks 1. computers 1.30 0.87 no extent 2. computer printers 1.44 0.93 no extent 3. computer accessories 1.44 0.93 no extent lawrence femi ademiluyi 148 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. 4. internet 1.37 0.85 no extent 5. interactive white boards 1.34 0. 88 no extent 6. computer projectors 1.40 1.06` no extent 7. television sets 1.33 0.91 no extent 8. computer tablets 2.59 0.97 moderate extent 9. computer teachers 2.19 1.17 small extent 10. teaching software 1.33 1.01 no extent 11. computer technicians 2.11 1.13 small extent 12. smart phones 2.41 0.96 small extent __________________________________________________________________ of the twelve items listed, only computer tablets (mean:2.59) was available to a moderate extent; three were available to a small extent. these are computer teachers (mean: 2.19) and computer technicians (mean: 2.11) and smartphones (2.41). all others were rated as available to no extent, indicating that these facilities were virtually not available for the teaching and learning of business subjects in public secondary schools in osun state. the standard deviation ranged from 0.87 to 1.17 which indicated that the scores are not too dispersed from the mean, indicating a broad consensus of opinions. adequacy of ict resources table 2: adequacy of ict resources for teaching and learning business subjects in secondary schools in osun state s/n items mean standard deviation remarks 1. computers 1.37 0.76 grossly inadequate 2. computer printers 1.31 0.84 grossly inadequate 3. computer accessories 1.40 0.91 grossly inadequate 4. internet 1.37 0.85 grossly inadequate 5. interactive white boards 1.31 0. 78 grossly inadequate 6. computer projectors 1.33 0.73 grossly inadequate adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 149 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. 7. television sets 1.33 0..73 grossly inadequate 8. computer tablets 2.45 1.08 inadequate 9. computer teachers 2.19 1.17 grossly inadequate 10. teaching software 1.33 1.01 grossly inadequate 11. computer technicians 2.11 1.13 grossly inadequate 12. smart phones 1.41 0.96 grossly inadequate 13. training opportunities for teachers 1.30 0.65 grossly inadequate 14. training opportunities for technicians 1.30 0.65 grossly inadequate 15. teacher motivation 1.21 0.43 grossly inadequate _________________________________________________________________ all the items without except computer tablets (mean: 2.45) were rated as grossly inadequate. the items with the least score is teacher motivation (mean: 1.21), training opportunities for teachers (mean: 1.30) and technicians (mean: 1.30). the low standard deviation figures ranging from 0.43 to 1.13 indicate a broad consensus on the abysmal rating on the adequacy of ict resources for the teaching and learning of business subjects in public secondary schools in osun state. a juxtaposition of the findings in tables 1 and 2 shows that while certain items are indeed available, albeit to moderate or small extent, all items are uniformly inadequate for the use of students. these include computer tablets, teachers and technicians. these facilities and personnel indeed exist in the school systems but are insufficient in quality and quantum for teaching and learning business subjects. utilization of ict resources table 3: extent of utilization of ict resources for teaching and learning business subjects in osun state public secondary schools. s/n items mean standard deviation remarks 1. computers 1.33 0.86 no extent 2. computer printers 1.40 0.90 no extent lawrence femi ademiluyi 150 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. 3. computer accessories 1.40 0.90 no extent 4. internet 1.38 0.88 no extent 5. interactive white boards 1.34 0.88 no extent 6. computer projectors 1.47 1.01` no extent 7. television sets 1.31 0.96 no extent 8. computer tablets 2.34 0.97 small extent 9. computer teachers 1.37 1.17 no extent 10. teaching software 1.35 0.97 no extent 11. computer technicians 1.41 1.13 no extentt 12. smart phones 1.41 0.96 no extent the results in table 1 shows that out of the twelve items, 11 were rated as being utilized to no extent while only one, computer tablets (mean: 2.34) has been utilized to a small extent. no item was influenced to a great extent or moderate extent. t-test analysis of difference in the mean ratings of business subject teachers on adequacy and utilization of ict facilities group n mean sd t-cal df p-value p-value decision (fixed) (observed) urban 142 1.49 0.97 0.351 179 0.05 0.143 accept (ns) rural 39 1.43 0.94 ________________________________________________________________________ the result of the test of the null hypothesis at 0.05 alpha level shows that while respondents from schools located in urban areas were 142 in number, those from rural areas numbered 39. the mean scores for both groups were 1.49 and 1.43 respectively while the standard deviations were 0.97 and 0.94. the computed t-value is 0.351 while the observed p-value is 0.143. since the observed p value (0.143) is greater than the fixed level of significance (0.05), the null hypothesis of no adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 151 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. significant difference was accepted. this implies that the study recorded no significant difference in the ratings of respondents in urban and rural areas on adequacy and utilization of ict facilities for teaching business subjects in osun state secondary schools. insight from interviews interviews conducted with selected respondents shed some light on the responses on the adequacy and utilization of ict resources in osun state. the respondents uniformly indicated that because public schools were being poorly funded, ict facilities for teaching business subjects had not been adequately provided. according to one respondent, too many forces militate against the utilization of ict facilities in the state. these include poor funding, weak internet facilities, poor maintenance culture, and poor staff motivation, among others. a teacher further explained that in a few schools, the parents and teachers association might provide one or two desktop computers for the use of the entire school, leaving the school authorities to work out the means of providing access to the devices by hundreds of students. another teacher pointed out that public school teachers were being owed several months of salaries; hence the provision of ict facilities was not a priority to either the government or the staffers. similarly, no one regarded training in the usage of ict for business education pedagogy as a priority. according to another respondent, the divide in ict usage throughout nigeria is not so much between rural and urban schools, but between private and public schools. “while high brow private schools and the few elite public schools are well stocked with facilities of all types, public schools suffer from severe infrastructural neglect.” another respondent explained: “it is a class thing. the elites never send their children to public schools, except the federal government colleges which has space for less than two percent of the student population. they send their children to private schools where indeed state of the art facilities are often available in reasonable numbers.” in respect of the computer tablet designed for students, all respondents interviewed agreed that it was a progressive initiative but felt that the contents, distribution, and management should be improved. “the tablets should not be regarded as an alternative to conventional computer and other ict facilities. the tablets should be interactive and must be amenable to internet access.” lawrence femi ademiluyi 152 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. discussion of findings the study examined adequacy and utilization of ict resources for the teaching and learning of business subjects in senior secondary schools in osun state of nigeria. from the findings on table 1, it is clear that only computer tablets were available to a moderate extent; smartphones, computer teachers and technicians were available to a small extent while all the others were available to no extent. this confirms the observation that opon imon, the computer tablet had been made largely available especially to final year students in secondary schools. all other ict facilities needed for successful teaching and learning of business subjects in senior secondary schools were virtually not available. this shows that the submission of okebukola (2007) that nigerian secondary schools do not have adequate ict facilities for teaching and learning has not perceptibly improved. apparently, the injection of computer tablets has not effectively addressed this deficit in osun state. the findings in table 2 on the adequacy of ict facilities for teaching and learning business subjects in senior secondary schools shows that only one item, computer tablet was rated as inadequate. all others were rated as grossly inadequate. given the dismal rating on availability as reported in the first table, only a similarly dismal rating could have been expected in respect of adequacy. ademiluyi (2012) indicates that for students to have the best benefits from ict, the facilities must not only be available but also adequate. where the facilities are unavailable, they cannot be adequate. the findings on the second research question which addressed the question of utilization of ict resources for teaching and learning business subjects shows that again, only the computer tablets were being utilized to a small extent. all others were not being utilized at all simply because they were not available. babajide (2013) posits that in most nigerian schools, ict facilities are not being utilized because they are not available. even the computer tablets, which are only marginally available, are being utilized to a small extent, perhaps because of the questionable quality of its content and the pupils’ adaptation to it. the result of the test of hypothesis shows no significant difference in respondents’ mean ratings on adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects in public secondary schools in osun state. this finding is attributable to the fact that urban and rural schools are uniformly funded by the government, making no distinction in the provision of ict resources between urban and rural schools. private schools are apparently a different kettle of fish. adequacy and utilization of ict resources for teaching business subjects 153 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. oyebanji (2013) is of the opinion that private secondary schools, especially those owned by religious bodies and multinational organizations are better equipped, better staffed and better managed than public schools. he is also of the opinion that while urban and rural public secondary schools may differ in provision of physical infrastructural facilities, they do not significantly differ in provision of teaching resources, except in those schools – urban or rural – where the parent/teachers association has taken it upon itself to fund the provision of much needed facilities. the fundamental finding of the study is that ict facilities are virtually not available, and where they are, they are grossly inadequate and are therefore not being utilized for teaching and learning of business subjects in osun state owned secondary schools. while the opon imon, was introduced with fanfare as the cure-all tablet for all academic ailments in osun state secondary schools, the result of this study appears to validate the reports of students’ woeful performances in public examinations, not only in business subjects, but in all subjects. this shows that the off-line, non-interactive computer tablets have not satisfactorily complemented or replaced the computer, the internet, and other ict facilities as an instrument for teaching and learning of business subjects. the introduction of the tablets is arguably a step in the right direction and should not be discouraged; however, there is much more to teaching and learning in the information age than noninteractive tablets. if the society is to catch up with those optimizing the use of ict facilities for business teaching and learning, the provision of ict facilities and personnel needs to be prioritized and better funded. conclusion the finding of this study has shown that osun state public secondary schools are lagging behind in the level of application of ict facilities in the teaching-learning process in osun state. there is a stark dearth of ict facilities in public secondary schools while the capacity for using facilities by both teachers and students is also very low. despite the proven benefits in the use of ict in schools, many factors impede the successful application of ict in public secondary schools. in order to fit into the new scientific order, it is necessary for the government and relevant education support agencies in osun state of nigeria to provide ict facilities in schools and encourage its use through reorientation of students and training of teachers. lawrence femi ademiluyi 154 ajote vol. 8 (2019), 139-158. recommendations the following recommendations are proffered to redress the ict situation in public secondary schools: 1. the government should provide computers and computer accessories for the teaching and learning of business subjects in secondary schools. the current situation in which most schools have no computer for teaching and learning of business subjects needs to be expeditiously addressed 2. students and teachers must be re-orientated away from the chalk and board culture to embrace ict teaching and learning. this will make the process of knowledge acquisition and impartation easier for all concerned, 3. training and retraining must be provided for teachers who are to teach business subject using ict facilities. since no one can give what he does not have, no one can impart the knowledge he does not possess. 4. basic facilities should be provided in secondary schools. the government should find means of improving electricity supply to secondary schools. also, cheap internet access should be provided for students and teachers alike 5. the computer tablets currently provided should be made available to every senior secondary student; not only those in the final year. the tablet should have online accessibility, be made interactive, and the content should be more in-depth and thorough. 6. there should also be continuous and periodic training of business studies teachers on computer and computers skills acquisition. this will help provide them with practical and functional knowledge of the computer, the internet and associated areas of ict with the hope of integrating it with instructional methods of teaching and learning. references ademiluyi, l. f. 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(2005). information and communication technology: analysing the nigerian national policy for information technology. international. education journal. 6(3): 316-332. teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations 1philip boateng, ato kwamina arhin, frank owusu sekyere, asare kotor university of education, winneba, department of interdisciplinary studies college of technology education, kumasi, ghana, and samuel nti adarkwah department of education, ofinso college of education, ghana abstract this study explores personal teaching efficacy beliefs of basic school teachers in ghana undergoing recertification to upgrade their qualification. the study examines whether the personal teaching efficacy of the teachers is affected by their subject specialisation. a descriptive survey design was employed for the study. data for the study was obtained from a total of 185 in-service teachers selected randomly from a group of teachers who were undergoing recertification from diploma to bachelor’s degree in basic education in a teacher education university in ghana. teacher sense of efficacy scale (tses) was adapted and used to measure in-service teachers’ personal teaching efficacy beliefs. the findings of the study showed that in-service teachers have a high sense of personal teaching efficacy. the study also revealed that in-service teachers’ level of self-efficacy was not affected by their subject specialization. keywords: self-efficacy, personal teaching efficacy, pre-service teachers, recertification 1 philip boateng conceptualized and designed the study and wrote the first draft of the manuscript; ato kwamina arhin wrote the protocol and performed the statistical analysis; frank owusu sekyere did the literature searches and designed the conceptual framework for the study; and asare kotor and samuel ntiadarkwah collected the data for the study. they also edited the manuscript. email of corresponding author: quamyna@gmail.com african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 281-298 boateng, arhin, owusu-sekyere, kotor, and adarkwah ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 282 introduction the importance of teacher education cannot be overestimated. teacher education plays a crucial role in empowering people to adapt to the rapidly changing social, economic and cultural environment and in the development of human capital required for the economic and social growth of societies (anamuah-mensah, 2006). research shows that if teachers acquire the professional competence and attitudes that enable them to effectively perform their multiple tasks in the classroom, school, and the community, they become the single most important contributing factor in ensuring the provision of quality education (dave & rajput, 2000). it has been observed that teacher preparation and teacher’s knowledge of teaching and learning, subject matter knowledge, experience, and the combined set of qualifications measured by teacher licensure are all leading factors in teacher effectiveness (darlinghammond, 2006). teacher preparation is expected to help students-teachers develop the knowledge and skill they need in the classroom and well-prepared teachers are more likely to remain in teaching. goldhaber (2006) identified two components to be critically important in teacher preparation: teacher knowledge of the subject to be taught, and knowledge and skill in how to teach that subject. it is expected that adequately prepared teachers would have the capacity to shape students’ learning with academic activities (wang, haertel, & walberg, 1993). in view of this, kurt, ekici & gungor (2014) assert that it is obligatory for student teachers to be trained in terms of high self-efficacy and responsibility perception. a good teacher possesses the following qualities; planning, applying and evaluating the instructional process. to be successful teachers, student teachers should not only have good knowledge about pedagogy and know how to teach but must also be selfconfident in their ability to deliver the content to students (lin & tsai, 1999). bandura (1977) first proposed the concept of self-efficacy. tschannen-moran, woolfolk hoy and hoy (1998) applied this concept to teachers and defined teacher efficacy as, “the teacher’s belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context” (p. 233). wheatley (2002) linked teacher efficacy more directly to a teacher’s belief in his or her ability to influence student outcomes. skaalvik (2007, p. 612) defines teacher’s self-efficacy as “individual teachers' beliefs in their own abilities to plan, organize, and carry out activities teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 283 required to attain given educational goals”. studies show that teacher’s self-efficacy is related to teachers’ attitudes and beliefs regarding teaching (gencer & cakiroglu, 2007; tschannen-moran & woolfolk-hoy, 2001). moreover, teacher self-efficacy beliefs define the teacher’s behaviours regarding teaching and affect the attitudes and achievements of the students (huang, liu & shiomi, 2007). thus, teacher-efficacy relates to a context-specific assessment of one's ability to instruct students in a particular curriculum area or in a particular manner. teacher efficacy is a "future-oriented, task-specific judgement" (woolfolk hoy, hoy, & davis, 2009: 628) which has been linked to a variety of teaching behaviours and student outcomes such as achievement (ashton & webb, 1986; gibson & dembo, 1984; ross, 1992) and motivation (midgley, feldlaufer, & eccles, 1989; woolfolk, rosoff, & hoy, 1990). teachers’ efficacy judgments have also been associated with persistence at a task and exhibiting a greater academic focus (gibson & dembo, 1984), teachers’ enjoyment of teaching (watters & ginns, 1995), and greater degrees of risktaking (ashton & webb, 1986). further, research on the efficacy of teachers suggests that teachers with a high sense of efficacy are more willing to implement instructional innovations and competent teaching methods (czerniak & lumpe, 1996; stein & wang, 1988). pajares (1996) indicates that teachers’ personal self-efficacy beliefs affect their teaching activities and their approach towards teaching process and that teacher selfefficacy belief is related to the control of students’ beliefs in pre-service teachers. chong et al., (2010) state that content mastery makes teachers more confident and as a result, they perceive their self-efficacy higher. there are two major dimensions of teachers’ perceived efficacy: personal teaching efficacy (pte) and general teaching efficacy (gte) (soodak & podell, 1997; tschannen-moran &wookfolk hoy, 2001). personal teaching efficacy refers to teachers’ beliefs about their own ability to make a difference in their students’ learning, whereas general teaching efficacy comprises teachers’ beliefs about the power of factors outside of the school and teacher’s control to affect student performance. the present study examined the personal teaching efficacy of pre-service teachers in ghana. bekoe, kankam, ayaaba, eshun and bodorh (2015) observed that knowing the perceptions and beliefs of teachers enables one to make predictions about their teaching and assessment practices in classrooms. teachers' beliefs about their own abilities, confidence and competence, acknowledged as teacher efficacy may be the cause of many important boateng, arhin, owusu-sekyere, kotor, and adarkwah ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 284 instructional decisions which ultimately shape students' educational experiences (soodak & podell, 1997). hattie (2009) has also demonstrated the significance of the teacher in students' learning. every educational system has at its core the desire for all students to achieve their potential and to become well-rounded, socially competent citizens of society. if such ambitions are to be realized there is a need for research to consider more closely teacher variables that potentially influence student learning. in the classroom situation, "it is the differences in the teachers that make the difference in student learning" (hattie, 2009, p.236). we know much about the instructional practices that enhance student learning, but the core of teaching relates not just to the instructional environment of the classroom but also to the socio-emotional climate that teachers create (babad, 2009). high-quality teaching is not only based on what teachers know but also what teachers do (bakar, mohammed & zakaria, 2012) and the confidence with which they deliver what they know in the classroom. it has been observed that quality teachers are those who are able to deliver lessons with great confidence, resulting in positive learning. teachers should have confidence in delivering the knowledge and skills to students in order to bring about more positive learning outcomes. teachers play a vital role in determining the success of students’ learning, thus, understanding teachers’ perceptions and beliefs about themselves and their abilities is important (jia, eslami & burlbaw, 2006). teachers’ confidence in their ability to perform the actions leading to students’ learning is one of the important characteristics that predict teaching and learning outcomes (poulou, 2007). english language, mathematics and science are three fundamental subjects that each student has to pass at the pre-tertiary level in ghana. pre-service teachers need adequate training to be well equipped in order to teach these subjects at the lower level. it is widely believed that the more a teacher knows about his subject matter, the more effective he will be as a teacher. the empirical literature suggests that this belief needs drastic modification and in fact suggests that once a teacher reaches a certain level of understanding of the subject matter, then further understanding contributes nothing to student achievement (begle, 1979). the final component of teaching proficiency is a productive disposition about one’s own knowledge, practice, and learning. just as learners must develop a productive disposition toward english language, mathematics and science such that they believe that english language, mathematics and science make sense and that they can figure it out, so too must the teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 285 teachers develop a similar productive disposition. programs of teacher education and professional development based on research integrate the study of these three subjects and the study of students’ learning so that teachers will forge connections between the two. it is, therefore, important that teachers graduate from teacher training institutions with a high level of confidence and enter the teaching profession with full confidence because the first years of teaching are crucial in shaping their future performance (feiman-nemser 2001). exploring teacher self-efficacy among pre-service teachers is important, particularly where pre-service teachers undergo an ‘apprenticeship of learning’ (pendagast, garvis & keogh, 2011). most of the studies that examine in-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs have been conducted in western cultural contexts (bakar et al. 2012; poulou, 2007). though a few studies have surveyed ghanaian preservice teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, the focus has been on early childhood preservice teachers’ self-efficacy (abroampa, rotimi & asante, 2017) and the self-efficacy beliefs of preservice teachers in colleges of education (bekoe, kankam, ayaaba, eshun & bodorh, 2015). the present study sought to explore the personal teaching efficacy of basic school teachers undergoing recertification for an upgrade in their qualification and the differences in their efficacy beliefs and subject specialisation. it is important to find out if in-service teachers have been adequately prepared for the teaching task in terms of the level of their confidence in their ability to execute tasks associated with teaching to promote students’ learning. in this paper, we explored the following questions: (1) how confident are pre-service teachers in their ability to execute the practices of teaching? (2) how do pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs differ as a function of subject specialisation? hypotheses 1. there is no significant difference between teachers’ subject specialization in their instructional practices. 2. there is no significant difference between in-service teachers’ subject specialization in their classroom management practices 3. there is no significant difference between in-service teachers’ subject specialisation in their student engagement practices. methodology boateng, arhin, owusu-sekyere, kotor, and adarkwah ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 286 a descriptive survey research design was employed for this study. descriptive survey research design was deemed appropriate for this study in three ways. first, it enabled the researchers to obtain information from large samples of the population. second, it was well suited for gathering demographic data that describe the composition of the sample (mcintyre, 1999). finally, it required minimal investment to develop and administer, and is relatively easy for making generalisations (bell, 1996). data for this study was obtained from a total of 185 in-service teachers randomly selected from a group of teachers who had enrolled in a two-year post diploma in basic education programme in one of the teacher education universities in ghana. there was a total of 53 male teachers and 132 female teachers. the respondents per type of school were: private school, 9 and public school, 176. the questionnaire was made up of two parts. part one sought to gather respondents' background information such as age, gender, educational background, years of experience and subject specialisation. however, part two consisted of a measure of teachers' sense of efficacy based on instructional strategy, students’ engagement and classroom management. all the participants had already obtained a diploma in basic education and were teaching in basic schools within the ashanti region of ghana. all the respondents were undergoing re-certification from diploma to a bachelor’s degree. measure of teacher efficacy in this research, teacher sense of efficacy scale (tses) was used to measure preservice teachers' teacher efficacy beliefs. this scale was developed by tschannen-moran and woolfolk-hoy (2001) and has been adopted by many researchers to assess teacher’s sense of efficacy (cobbold & boateng, 2015; bekoe, et al. 2015; bakar, et. al, 2012). the tses consists of 24 items with three subscales: efficacy for student engagement (se), instructional strategies (is) and classroom management (cm). the original tses uses a nine-point-likert scale with an overall reliability of 0.94. however, the present study, like others (e.g. bakar et al. 2012; poulou, 2007; atay,2007), used a five-point likert scale of tses. the original tses scale asks the respondents ‘‘how much’’ but the present study like bakar et al. (2012) asked respondents ‘‘how confident’’ since teacher efficacy is a measure of the confidence one has to perform the tasks given to him or her. for example, we asked the respondents ‘‘how confident are you to: get through to the most difficult students'', ‘‘use a variety of assessment strategies'' and ‘‘control disruptive behaviour in the classroom''. teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 287 all the three subscales consist of eight items and each item is assessed along on a five-point likert scale between 1 (not at all confident and 5 (very confident). the instrument was piloted to ascertain its reliability. the overall reliability coefficient was .82. for the subscale ‘‘efficacy in student engagement’’, reliability was .79; for ‘‘efficacy in instructional practices’’, it was .82; and for ‘‘efficacy in classroom management’’, the reliability was .86. findings the teachers were asked how many years of experience they had in the classroom and also their subject of specialization (tables 1 and 2). table 1: years of teaching experience no of years frequency percentage 0-5 101 54.6 6-10 46 24.9 11-15 21 11.3 16-20 8 4.3 above 21 years 9 4.9 total 185 100 table 2: subject of specialization subject frequency percentage social studies 68 36.8 science 30 16.2 mathematics 55 29.7 home economics 32 17.3 total 185 100 the mean and standard deviation values of respondents’ views on how confident they are to undertake the following activities in the classroom namely; student engagement, instructional strategies and classroom management are provided in table three. table 3: means and standard deviations of in-service teachers’ self-efficacy boateng, arhin, owusu-sekyere, kotor, and adarkwah ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 288 mean sd student engagement 4.04 1.00 get through to the most difficult students 4.07 1.00 help students think critically 3.94 1.06 motivate students who show low interest in school work 3.98 1.12 get students to believe they can do well in school work 4.19 0.97 help your students value learning 4.23 0.98 foster student creativity 4.07 0.98 understanding of a student who is failing 4.03 0.90 assist families in helping their children do well in school 3.82 1.01 instructional strategy 3.97 3.98 1.06 1.06 respond to difficult questions from your students 4.00 1.03 gauge student comprehension of what you have taught 4.01 1.06 craft good question for your students 4.15 1.16 adjust your lessons to the proper level for individual student 3.84 1.19 use a variety of assessment strategies 3.96 1.05 provide an alternative explanation or an example when students are 4.05 1.04 confused implement alternative strategies in your classroom 3.97 0.96 provide appropriate challenges for very capable students 3.82 0.99 classroom management 4.09 4.09 0.97 0.97 control disruptive behaviour in the classroom 4.23 0.93 make your expectations clear about student behaviour 4.00 0.96 establish routines to keep activities running smoothly 4.06 1.03 children to follow classroom rules 4.28 0.94 establish a classroom management system with each group of students 4.00 0.95 calm a student who is disruptive and noisy 4.15 0.97 keep few problem students from ruining an entire lesson 4.04 0.95 respond to defiant student 3.92 1.03 the present study explores the personal teaching efficacy beliefs of basic school teachers who were undergoing recertification to upgrade their qualification in ghana and the findings are summarized in table 3. the major finding from table 3 is that respondents are largely very confident on every scale with a mean value around 4 (on a 1-5 scale). table 3 shows the mean and standard deviations values for student engagement (m=4.04, sd=1.0), instructional strategy (m=3.98, sd= 1.06) and classroom management (4.09, 0.97). generally, a mean value of 4 was recorded for the three scales. this shows that the respondents largely believe themselves to be efficacious. from table 3 it can be observed that the statement "how confident are you to help your students value learning” teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 289 from the student engagement scale recorded the highest mean value of 4.23. for instructional management, in-service teachers reported a high sense of efficacy for crafting good question for their students (m=4.15, sd=1.16). however, “providing appropriate challenge for very capable students” and “adjust your lessons to the proper level for individual student” recorded the least mean value for that scale. this indicates that respondents need help in these two areas since they relate. most teacher either do not provide instruction to meet the unique needs of individual students or find it very difficult to do it. these two areas require skills training. it requires a lot attention going forward in training our teachers. table 4: mean and standard deviation of total sub-scale scores by respondents’ subject specialisation specialisation instructional strategies students engagement classroom management social studies mean 30.79 32.12 32.15 n 68 68 68 sd 6.68 5.65 5.66 science mean 30.30 32.30 32.65 n 23 23 23 sd 5.20 4.47 4.23 mathematics mean 31.87 32.25 32.64 n 55 55 55 sd 5.53 5.76 4.84 home economics mean 30.72 31.19 30.94 n 32 32 32 sd 6.16 4.71 5.67 the descriptive statistics for the sub-categories based on subject specialisations are provided in table 4. it is worth noting that the mean values based on the three subcategories (instructional strategies, students engagement and classroom management) boateng, arhin, owusu-sekyere, kotor, and adarkwah ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 290 and the subject groupings ranges from 30 to 32. a one-way between-groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the teachers’ efficacy in instructional strategies, efficacy in student engagement, and efficacy in classroom management. table 5: one-way anova results of respondents’ instructional efficacy and specialization instructional strategies sum of squares df mean square f sig between groups 57.98 3 19.327 .525 .666 within groups 6406.565 174 36.819 total 6464.545 177 as shown in table 5, the one – way anova result of f (3,174) = .526, p = .666 indicates that there are no significant differences between the means of the subject specialization of the respondents. the p-value .666 is greater than alpha .05. this means that pre-service teachers’ subject area specialization had no effect on their instructional efficacy. table 6: one-way anova of respondents’ student engagement efficacy and specialization student engagement sum of squares df mean square f sig between groups 27.71 3 9.237 .318 .813 within groups 5059.24 174 29.076 total 5086.95 177 as shown in table 6, the one – way anova result of f (3,174) = .796, p = .498 indicates that there are no significant differences between the means of the subject specialization of teachers. the p-value .498 is greater than alpha .05; therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis. it cannot be concluded that there is a statistically significant difference in the teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 291 subject specialization of teachers and efficacy for student engagement. table 7: one-way anova results of respondents’ classroom management efficacy and specialization classroom management sum of squares df mean square f sig between groups 65.853 3 21.951 .796 .498 within groups 4798.349 174 27.577 total 4864.202 177 as shown in table 7, the one–way anova result of f (3,174) = .796, p = .498 indicates that there is no significant difference between the means of the four groups. the p-value .498 is greater than alpha .05, therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis. it cannot be concluded that there is a statistically significant difference in subject specialization of teachers and their efficacy for classroom management. discussion the study explored the teaching efficacy beliefs of some selected ghanaian basic school teachers with emphasis on their subject specialization. the respondents reported a high sense of personal teaching efficacy. this implies that they have high confidence in their ability to execute courses of action required to improve students' learning, maintain classroom order and engage students in the learning process as they graduate from teacher institutions and enter into the teaching profession. the findings of our study are consistent with bakar, mohammed and zakaria’s (2012) study on turkish and malaysian pre-service teachers respectively. the findings of the present study are also consistent with the findings of a related study by abroampa, rotimi and asante (2017). they found that early childhood pre-service teachers in ghanaian teacher education universities have high self-efficacy. our tses score is also relatively lower than the average mean score of 4.47 recorded in a study conducted by boateng, arhin, owusu-sekyere, kotor, and adarkwah ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 292 cobbold and boateng (2016) to explore in-service kindergarten teachers’ self-efficacy in the kumasi metropolis of ghana. the slight difference in the efficacy beliefs of both in-service and pre-service teachers in ghana is understandable since experience plays an important role in the development of teaching efficacy (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2007). it is also logical that the efficacy of preservice teachers is merely an indicator of how confident they are to face the real challenges of teaching (bakar, mohammed and zakaria (2012). mastery of teaching task, teaching practice, hard work and perseverance (steele, 2010), parental involvement in school activities (hoover-dempsey, brassler & brissie, 1987) and induction (keilwitz, 2014) can help preservice teachers experience success in teaching and subsequently improve upon their teaching efficacy. another purpose of the study was to determine whether in-service teachers’ sense of efficacy differed across subject specializations. the study revealed no statistically significant difference between subject specializations of in-service teachers and their sense of efficacy in terms of instructional practices, classroom management and student’s engagement. this suggests that pre-service teachers have similar levels of self-efficacy irrespective of their subject specializations to perform a task associated with teaching. this agrees well with evans’s study (2010) which examined the relationships between mathematical content knowledge and perceptions of teaching efficacy in a cohort of teach for america teachers. evans (2010) found that mathematics related majors, business majors and liberal arts majors had similar levels of self-efficacy. however, the findings of the present study seem to partly contradict the findings of the previous study conducted by bakar, mohammed and zakaria (2012). in a study to determine student teachers’ sense of efficacy, bakar, et al. (2012) found that preservice teachers’ sense of efficacy differed across content majors in malaysia. their study further showed that student teachers who majored in languages were more efficacious than students of others majors (vocational, science, mathematics and physical education. however, their study found no significant difference in teachers’ sense of efficacy among student teachers who majored in vocational, science, mathematics and physical education. our findings appear to agree partly with that of bakar, mohammed and zakaria’s (2012) findings that students who specialized in teaching social studies, science, home economics and mathematics did not differ in the sense of efficacy beliefs. this finding is not surprising since the participants in both studies share teaching efficacy beliefs of ghanaian basic school teachers and their subject specializations ajote vol. 8 (2019), 281-298 293 similar characteristics: all participants were undergoing recertification, that is, from diploma to post-diploma. this assertion corroborates the idea that taking additional teacher education courses do not contribute significantly to increasing preservice teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs (gencer and çakiroğlu, 2007). conclusion and implication for research and practice in-service teachers who participated in the study have a high sense of personal teaching efficacy. this implies that they have high confidence in their ability to execute courses of action required to improve students' learning. also, the respondents believe that they have the capability to maintain classroom order and engage students in the learning process as they graduate from teacher institutions and enter into the teaching profession. however, respondents’ abilities in the area of instructional strategies especially, providing appropriate challenges for very capable students and adjusting lessons to the proper level of individual students needs a lot of training. the respondents found it challenging in meeting students’ needs in these two areas. teacher training in the future should look at these two areas very well. it also requires that special education curriculum at the pre-service level should be revised to meet current classroom demands. the present study looked at inservice teachers' efficacy beliefs and the findings showed that in-service teachers largely believe themselves to be efficacious. further studies are required to look into the personal efficacy level of beginning teachers in ghana to ascertain whether it will increase or decrease after teacher preparation programmes. references abroampa, k.w., rotimi, o. w., & asante, n. j. 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(1990). teachers' sense of efficacy and their beliefs about managing students. teaching and teacher education, 6, 137-148. ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu department of arts and social sciences education, university of ibadan, nigeria e-mail: okwudili555@gmail.com abstract the study investigated the effect of two cooperative learning strategies, student teams-achievement divisions (stad) and think-pair-share (tps) on senior secondary school students’ achievement in reading comprehension in vandeikya local government area, benue state, nigeria. a total of 78 students (43 males and 35 females), drawn from three secondary schools participated in the study. experimental and control conditions were randomly assigned to the three intact classes: eg1 (stad), eg2 (tps) and cg (control group). the instrument used were reading comprehension achievement test (r=0.784) and lesson plans (teachers' instruction guides). data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ancova). the results show higher achievement gains for students in the eg1 and eg2 over those of the cg, but not across gender. the findings support the existing evidence on the efficacy of cooperative learning over the traditional teaching method. english language teachers will therefore find the two techniques useful in teaching reading comprehension. keywords: cooperative learning, student teams-achievement divisions, think-pair-share, academic achievement, reading comprehension introduction nigeria is one of the countries with a high rate of illiteracy. the human development report shows that within 15years (2005 2015), the literacy rate of nigerian adults (15 years and older) stood at 59.6 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 218-237 effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 219 (that means, an illiteracy rate of 40.1%). nigeria’s literacy rate is far below that of cameroun (75%), ghana (76.6%), togo (66.5%) and equatorial guinea (95.3). those of the youths between 25-24year stood at 65.3(females f) and 79.9 (males m). these are still far below the abovementioned african countries: ghana (89.9% f, 91.3% m); cameroun (80.4% f, 87.1% -m), and togo (81.4% f, 88.9% -m) and equatorial guinea (98.8% f, 97.7% m) respectively (united nations development programme 2016, 232). in the present situation, helping students to read is a key to increasing the literacy rate. reading is so central to education that students who are not able to read encounter problem in their overall achievement, including in other subjects. however, the teaching of reading is sometimes taken for granted in nigeria. in most public schools (both primary and secondary), the teaching of reading is left solely in the hands of english language teachers, many of whom are only trained to teach english. since these teachers are not professionally prepared to teach reading, they end up either avoiding it or just teaching it anyhow. besides, there seems to be a general assumption that students learn to read by mere going to school; that is to say, they learn to read by reading through trial and error, even without receiving specific instructions on how to read. the fact that instructions are delivered in english which is a second language in nigeria and the textbooks are also written in english compound students’ problems of learning to read due to their low proficiency in the language. reading as the pivot of literacy (onukaogu & moh, 2008) needs special skills and if students are not helped to develop those skills, they may continue to struggle with reading all through their school years. students who can read will most likely perform better in school than those who cannot read. muodumogu and ajegena (2011) explain that for excellence to be achieved in academics, learners need to be good readers who can read and comprehend texts in their various disciplines. the better reader a learner is, the more learning he/she acquires. it is nearly impossible for learners who cannot read to participate fully in the teaching-learning process, copy notes, do class and home works, extract meaning from the textbooks, write examinations and be meaningfully assessed. given the roles of reading in education, finding ways to facilitate its teaching is therefore necessary. existing research evidence indicates the effectiveness of cooperative learning over the traditional teaching method in different school subjects. this study therefore investigated the possible effect of two cooperative learning strategies (student teams-achievement division and think-pair effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 220 share strategies) on students’ achievement in reading comprehension in selected nigerian secondary schools. theoretical underpinning the theory underpinning this study is the social development theory propounded by lev vygotsky, a russian social cognitivist in 1978. vygotsky explains that social interaction (speech and practical activity) precedes intellectual development and that cognitive skills and consciousness originate from social relation and culture. social, interpersonal and linguistic factors therefore, facilitate children’s mental development. the theory further argues that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the zone of proximal development (zpd). the zone of proximal development describes the distance between the actual development level of a child (as determined by independent problemsolving) and the level of his/her potential development (determined through problem-solving under adult guidance) or in collaboration with more capable peers. this implies that children learn cognitive tasks through their interactions with older peers or adults. children can equally perform certain tasks under adult guidance or with peer collaboration which they cannot do if they work independently. the adult or peer who guides a child to improve in knowledge is called the more knowledgeable other (mko). social development theory is closely related to the concept of cooperative learning in the sense that cl is rooted in social interaction. sharing and discussion in the classroom gives learners opportunities to learn from one another. learners are able to bring in their diverse experiences and skills into the reading classroom. in both stad and think-pair-strategies, learners with different academic abilities are paired so that they can learn from one another and achieve the group goals. as learners engage in discussion, they become mko to one another since each person has something to contribute in the learning process. similarly, the teacher as a more experienced person facilitates and directs the students in their learning process, thus serving as an mko to all of them. literature review the centrality of reading to formal education is unquestionable. if students are to succeed in school, they must be efficient at reading since almost all the academic activities exist in or eventually are documented in writing. reading usually goes beyond recognizing words on a printed page. the end product of reading is comprehension; therefore, reading and comprehension are just two sides of the same coin. without comprehension, reading becomes a futile and boredom activity. reading enables effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 221 students to acquire the information needed not only to excel in school or pass their examinations but to achieve the overall goals of schooling. the importance of reading is even more pronounced in the present 21st century. reading comprehension is in fact, one of the basic skills students are expected to acquire in order to fit into the labor force and therefore, make meaningful contributions to the society at large. the ability to read opens the door to the acquisition of the required 21st century applied skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, oral and written communications, information technology application, creativity and lifelong learning (workforce readiness project, 2006). moreover, all the interdisciplinary themes which schools are expected to promote in the 21st century, including global awareness, financial, and entrepreneurial literacy, civic, health and environmental literacy are only open to students who can read. an efficient reader is one who is able to extract information in a text and use same to solve existential problems. this is made possible through comprehension the ability to understand what is read. comprehension makes reading meaningful, interesting and worthwhile. students are expected to read at a critical level by going beyond what is stated explicitly. however, reading comprehension can be a complex process and an uncritical reader can easily make a faulty conclusion. brummitt-yale (2008) explains that because reading comprehension is incredibly complex and multifaceted, readers do not develop the ability to comprehend texts quickly and independently. in other words, reading needs to be taught. rahvard (2010) maintains that reading comprehension may be especially difficult for students whose primary language is not english. this is because students are often confronted with readings from different content areas which may require them to apply specific strategies to enable them read efficiently. thus, teaching reading comprehension is an important task that every language teacher needs to pay serious attention to. adequate knowledge of vocabulary is a prerequisite for text comprehension. thus, the reader must have a considerable amount of vocabulary bank in order to read meaningfully. some text comprehension strategies including generating initial questions before reading, responding to those questions along the line, summarizing the passage and discussing the text with others could facilitate comprehension. moreover, for reading to be successful, it must be located within effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 222 the four language skills (including listening, speaking and writing). these skills are interwoven and should be taught as such. thus, making reading as interactive as possible becomes a necessity. although reading specialists are hardly present in the nigerian secondary schools, the english language teachers who teach reading are hardly well-prepared for this very important task. most of them rely on the traditional teaching method in which students are asked to read the comprehension passage in their english language textbooks and answer the questions that usually follow it. sometimes, when students are not able to read, the teacher may simply read while the students listen. at the end, they are asked to answer some questions either orally or in writing. many nigerian classrooms are also arranged to portray ‘the talking teacher and the listening learners’. interactions among students during lessons are most times hardly encouraged. this method of teaching reduces students’ ability to learn from one another or even believing that they can make meaningful contributions to the learning process. it can also lead to boredom. however, reading lessons require a teaching strategy which will make learners as active as possible. cooperative learning has been considered by many as an effective teaching method and an alternative to the traditional type. cooperative learning (cl) refers to a teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject (rahvard, 2010). it is considered a practical, dynamic and an effective method of teaching. cooperative learning has five essential elements: positive interdependence, face to face interaction, individual accountability, collaborative skills and group processing (johnson, johnson & holubec, 1994). according to slavin and cooper (1999), the intent of cooperative learning groups is to enhance the academic achievement of students by providing them with increased opportunity for discussion, learning from each other and for encouraging each other to excel. in a reading comprehension classroom, utilizing cooperative learning could be a way of harmonizing the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). it could also lead to active participation, deeper insights and greater understanding of texts as students offer and receive feedbacks to and from one another. dotson (2001) reports that out of the 67 studies on the achievement effects of cooperative learning, 61% found significantly greater achievement in it than in the traditional teaching method. positive effects of cooperative learning is also said to exist in all grade levels, across gender and among students of low, medium and high academic achievements (slavin, 2010). according to johnson effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 223 (2003), a meta-analysis of all studies on cooperative learning shows that the average person engaged in cooperative behavior performed at about two thirds of one standard deviation above the average person in a competitive and individualistic classroom. there are many cl strategies, among which are student teams-achievement divisions (stad) and think-pair-share (tps), two strategies used in the present study. the choice of stad and think-pair-share is based on the fact that they are simple to use. there are also existing evidence that the two techniques are helpful teaching techniques that could facilitate classroom participation and improve achievement as reported in zarei (2012), sampsel (2013), karaçöp (2016), khaleel and hamdan (2017), umam, asiah, wibowo and rohim (2017) and maulida (2017). student teams-achievement divisions emphasizes the use of team goals and team success that can only be achieved if all members of the team learn the objectives being taught. utami (2010) considers the team as the most important feature of stad. at every point, emphasis is placed on team members doing their best for the team, and on the team doing its best to help its members. there are five components of stad: class presentation, team study, quizzes or tests, individual improvement scores and team recognition (slavin 1991). think-pair-share (tps) is another cooperative learning strategy designed to enable students formulate individual ideas about a topic and then share those ideas with their peers. in a think-pairshare classroom, students are allotted time to reflect on a question so as to have a deeper understanding of a concept before sharing their thoughts with others. the group discussion that follows students’ thinking offers them the opportunity for increased understanding, deeper insight and active participation in the teaching-learning process. sharing with peers also leads to automatic correction and clarity (robertson, 2006). gender, as a social category is related to literacy and academic achievement. this relationship has been the focus of some studies including arellano (2013), olaitan (2017) and khaleel and hamdan (2017). the results of studies focusing on gender as it relates to achievement are sometimes contradictory. since think-pair-share and stad emphasize the need for mixed grouping of students (heterogeneous teams), gender was therefore considered as an important variable in this study. effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 224 null hypotheses four hypotheses were tested at 0.05 levels of significance: i. student teams-achievement division cl strategy has no significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. ii. think-pair-share cl strategy has no significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. iii. there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to student teams-achievement division cooperative learning strategy. iv. there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to think-pair-share cooperative learning strategy. methodology the study employed a non-randomized control group, pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. intact classes were used in order not to disrupt the normal classroom schedules. experimental and control conditions were randomly assigned to three classes: two experimental groups (one for stad and one for think-pair-share) and one control group. three co-educational public senior secondary schools in vandeikya local government areas of benue state were purposively selected based on willingness to participate, the english language textbook used by the school, and the number of male and female students in the intended classes. from each school, one ss2 class was selected. a total of 78 students, 43 males and 35 females formed the sample size. the instruments used for gathering the data were reading comprehension achievement test (rcat) and lesson plans. the rcat has sections ‘a’ (demographics) and ‘b’ which contains two reading comprehension passages adapted from the new oxford secondary english course for senior secondary schools book 2 (banjo, onaga, elugbe, & akano 2004). the titles of the reading comprehension passages were removed and some words were changed. each reading passage was followed by 15 questions (29 multiple choice and one fill-in the gap), making a total of 30 questions. the questions were generated by the researcher. the researcher also developed 12 lessons plans (lp) (4 for each group). four lps reflected the 5 components of stad and were used for the eg1, four reflected the 3 components of think-pair effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 225 share for the eg2, and four reflected the traditional teaching method for the control group (cg). each lp covered a 45-minutes lesson and includes a reading comprehension passage (the same text for all the groups). the reading passages were equally adapted from the new oxford secondary english course for senior secondary schools book 2. some passages were shortened to match the 45 minutes allotted for the lessons. each comprehension passage was followed by questions for group works, individual tests and assignments. each lp was accompanied by an instructional aid (charts) which were related to the ideas in the passages, and a marking guide. the rcat was validated by three lecturers in the faculty of education who made corrections and remarks on them. it was then trial-tested on 52 ss2 students (27 males and 25 females) in one school. a reliability of 0.784 was obtained after subjecting the data to appropriate statistical analysis. students in the selected schools were given a pre-test (rcat) on the same day. after that, three english language teachers (one from each school) were trained as research assistants. they were taught the basics of cooperative learning, stad and think-pair-share. students in the eg1 and eg2 were equally given a short orientation to familiarize them with the tenets of stad and tps strategies. students in the eg1 (stad) were grouped into 5-member learning teams using their scores in the pretest as a guide. each team had at least two male and two female students. the eg2 (think-pair-share) were divided into 3-member learning teams. each team had at least one male and one female student. a weekly pairing timetable was prepared for this group using their pre-test scores. team members were alternated each week as reflected on the time table. the experimental and control groups were subjected to varied treatments thus: the eg1 was taught reading comprehension using the stad strategy. the teacher presented each lesson following the 5 components of stad (teach, team study, test, team score and team recognition). at the end of each lesson, students with the highest average scores were recognized as greatest, greater, and great teams respectively and were given gifts like exercise books, biros or pencils. the eg2 was taught reading comprehension using the think-pair-share strategy. after the group activities, teacher read the questions one after the other and randomly called on few students from different teams to share their answers with the whole class. students who gave the right answers were applauded. the control group was taught reading comprehension using the traditional teaching strategy. students also answered the reading comprehension questions which were scored, and the scripts returned to them during the next class. effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 226 all the lessons for the three groups took place in the students’ classrooms within 45 minutes. each group received a total of four lessons (a lesson per week). after the four weeks teaching, an interval of two weeks was given, and students were given a post-test using the rcat. analysis of covariance (ancova) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 levels of significance while mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions. the decision rule is that the null hypotheses are not accepted if the p-value is less than 0.05 while it is accepted if the p-value is greater than 0.05. results h1: teams-achievement division (stad) has no significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. table 1: mean and standard deviation of students exposed to stad and those taught using the traditional teaching strategy group n pre -test post –test mean gain x 𝛿 x 𝛿 eg1 (stad) 24 6.79 2.17 13.94 2.94 7.15 control group 30 6.80 2.61 9.57 2.50 2.77 mean difference 4.37 table 2: ancova of students exposed to stad and those taught using the traditional teaching strategy: source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 279.323a 2 139.662 19.887 .000 intercept 579.003 1 579.003 82.447 .000 pre-stad test 22.167 1 22.167 3.156 .082 group/method 257.419 1 257.419 36.655 .000 error 358.158 51 7.023 total 7802.000 54 a. r squared = .438 (adjusted r squared = .416) effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 227 as shown in table 1, the mean achievement scores of students in the eg1at pre-test was 6.79 with a standard deviation of 2.17 while that of the control group (cg) was 6.80 with a standard deviation (sd) of 2.61. after the post-test, the mean achievement scores of the eg1 increased to 13.94 (sd 2.94) and 9.57 (sd = 2.50) for the cg. the mean gains of the eg was 7.15 while that of the cg was 2.77. this means that the eg1 had a higher mean gain after post-test, implying that stad led to higher achievement in reading comprehension for the former than the latter. further statistical analysis as shown in table 2 indicates that f (1, 51) = 36.655 and p = .000. since p(0.000) is less than 0.05, that is, p(0.000) <0.05), the null hypothesis was not accepted. this implies that there is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students exposed to stad and those exposed to the traditional teaching strategy in the rcat. h2: think-pair-share has no significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. table 3: mean and standard deviations of achievement of students exposed to think-pair-share and those taught using the traditional teaching strategy group n pre -test post –test mean gain x 𝛿 x 𝛿 eg2 (think-pair-share) 24 9.04 2.20 14.79 3.32 5.75 control 30 8.13 2.84 11.47 2.83 3.34 mean difference 3.32 effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 228 table 4: ancova of students’ achievement in reading comprehension using think-pair-share and traditional teaching strategies respectively source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 3.445a 2 1.723 40.219 .000 intercept 2.783 1 2.783 64.979 .000 pre-tps test .012 1 .012 .285 .596 group .479 1 .479 11.182 .002 error 2.184 51 .043 total 358.389 54 corrected total 5.629 53 a. r squared = .612 (adjusted r squared = .597) the result in table 3 shows the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of the eg2 and the cg after the pre-test is 9.04 and 8.13 with standard deviations of 2.20 and 2.84 respectively. after the post test, both the means and standard deviations changed to 14.79 (sd = 3.32) for the eg2 and 11.47 (sd = 2.83) for the cg. the mean gain for the experimental and control groups were 5.75 and 3.34 respectively, with a mean difference of 3.32 in favor of the think-pair-share group. the test of hypothesis as shown in table 4 reveals that f(1,51) = 11.182 and p=0.002. since the p(0.002) )<.05, the null hypothesis that think-pair-share has no significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension is not accepted. the implication is therefore, that think-pair-share has a significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. h3: there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to stad. table 5: mean and standard deviation of male and female students who were exposed to stad eg1 (stad) n pre-test post-test mean gain x 𝛿 x 𝛿 male students 14 7.07 6.56 14.29 2.70 7.22 female students 10 6.40 6.46 13.50 3.34 7.10 mean difference 0.79 effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 229 table 6: ancova of the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to stad source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 4.322a 2 2.161 .233 .794 intercept 375.500 1 375.500 40.514 .000 pre-stad test .721 1 .721 .078 .783 sex 3.034 1 3.034 .327 .573 error 194.636 21 9.268 total 4875.000 24 corrected total 198.958 23 a. r squared = .022 (adjusted r squared = -.071) table 5 indicates that the mean achievement scores of male students in reading comprehension before the intervention program was 7.07 with a standard deviation of 6.56. that of the female students prior to treatment was 6.40 with a standard deviation of 6.46. after the treatment, the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students were 14.29 and 13.50 with standard deviations of 2.70 and 3.34 respectively. the mean gain of the male students was 7.22 while that of female students was 7.10, (indicating a slight difference of 0.79, in favor of the male students). however, as shown in table 6, the f (1,21) =.327 p=.573. since the p(.573)>.05), the null hypothesis is accepted. this means that gender has no significant effect on the achievement in reading comprehension of students exposed to stad. h4: there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to think-pair-share. effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 230 table 7: mean and standard deviation of achievement in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to think-pair-share cooperative learning strategy eg2 (think-pair-share) n pre-test post-test mean gain x 𝛿 x 𝛿 male students 9 9.29 2.20 14.71 3.00 5.42 female students 11 8.70 2.26 14.90 3.90 6.20 mean difference 0.19 table 8: ancova of achievement scores in reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to think-pair-share cooperative learning strategy source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model .416a 2 .208 .017 .983 intercept 264.396 1 264.396 21.899 .000 pre-tps test .215 1 .215 .018 .895 sex .257 1 .257 .021 .885 error 253.542 21 12.073 total 5505.000 24 corrected total 253.958 23 a. r squared = .002 (adjusted r squared = -.093) table 7 shows that the mean achievement scores of male students exposed to think-pair-share at pretest was 9.29 with a standard deviation of 2.20 while that of female students was 8.70 with a standard deviation of 2.26. the mean achievement score of male students at post-test was 14.71 and a standard deviation of 3.00. on the contrary, female students had a mean achievement score of 14.90 and a standard deviation of 3.90 after treatment. the mean gain of the experimental and control groups were 5.42 and 6.20 respectively. the mean difference of the two groups was 0.78 in favor of female students. further analysis of the result as shown in table 8 shows that f (1, 21) = .021 and p=.885. since the p value (.885) is greater than the alpha level (0.05), that is, p(.885)>.05), the null hypothesis is accepted. effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 231 this means that gender has no significant effect on the achievement in reading comprehension of students exposed to think-pair-share comprehension. discussion the results show that stad and think-pair-share have significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. students in the eg1 and eg2 both scored higher marks than their counterparts in the cg after the trio were taught reading comprehension for four weeks. the findings are consistent with previous studies such as robertson (2006), zarei (2012), sampsel (2013), karaçöp (2016), umam, asiah, wibowo and rohim (2017) and khaleel and hamdan (2017). however, ishtiaq, ali and salem (2017) reported no significant difference among the control and experimental groups when stad was used among adult learners. although stad, and indeed any cooperative learning strategy cannot be said to guarantee automatic successful learning outcome, the study by ishtiaq, ali and salem (2017) covered a short period. the treatment was administered for only two weeks which might not be sufficient to investigate the effect of a teaching strategy especially if the participants are not familiar with the technique. a longer period would have been better. moreover, nath and ross (1996) as cited in dotson (2001) reported that if teachers did not strictly adhere to the framework of cl, the method is unsuccessful, and students spend more time on disagreement or conflict management than on academic tasks. similarly, maulida (2017) found out that teachers have different approaches to the think-pair-share in teaching reading comprehension. the variation could contribute to the differing effects. maulida also reported that the tps technique is not without problems such as inadequate preparation and students’ limited vocabulary. in other words, other intervening variables could contribute to the success or failure of cooperative learning teaching techniques. the result is consistent with slavin (2010) which asserts that cooperative learning is an alternative to the traditional teaching strategy. there is an indication that students in the experimental group 1 and 2 understood the reading comprehension passages better as reflected in their higher mean gains. one important aspect of think-pair-share and stad is that they enhance classroom interaction among students due to the compulsory group works. constant interaction makes them to be more active than in the traditional teaching method in which every student is on his/her own and responsible to the teacher. perhaps there was also the excitement of wanting to be the best group and possibly receiving a gift at the end. sampsel (2013) had earlier discovered that students exposed to tps technique effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 232 increased their classroom participation, contribution to the learning process and confidence. one of the objectives of cl is to give students room to contribute meaningfully to the learning process. this is achieved in smaller groups than in the large classes. reading comprehension requires this active participation. the findings are also consistent with the views of utami (2010) that stad is one of the simplest cl strategies which can be effectively used by teachers who are new to cooperative learning. during the training of the research assistants, it was evident that they were all new to cooperative learning. in spite of that, they were able to utilize the strategies after barely a week’s training. it is interesting to note that all the students – both in the cg and the eg actually improved in their mean achievement scores after being taught reading comprehension. their improvements were irrespective of the strategies used. this shows that it is very important for teachers to teach reading comprehension meaningfully. the result shows that gender has no significant effect on students’ achievement in reading comprehension. tables 5 and 7 reveal that both male and female students who were taught reading comprehension using the stad and think-pair-share strategies improved in their mean achievement scores. the two tables also show that while male students who were exposed to reading comprehension using stad scored higher that the female students (table 5), female students who were exposed to think-pair-share scored higher than the male students (table 7). however, ancova analysis of these two results (tables 6 and 8) revealed that the differences are not statistically significant. this indicates that both stad and think-pair-share cl strategies are effective in improving students’ achievement in reading comprehension irrespective of their gender. this finding is in line with an earlier study of amosun and isokpehi (2009) who reported that male and female students taught with cooperative learning strategies performed better than those taught with the traditional teaching strategy. however, when the results of male and female students were compared, the effect did not differ across gender. a similarly result was obtained by peklaj (2003) who equally reported that although boys who were exposed to the cooperative learning strategy scored higher than their female counterparts, the difference was not statistically significant. this has further confirmed the claim by slavin (2010) that the positive effect of cl exists in all grade levels and across gender. effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 233 an earlier study by khaleel and hamdan (2017) shows that think-pair-share strategy led to higher achievement gains for students than the traditional teaching method and even higher gains for female than male students that participated in the study. although the difference in achievement between boys and girls in the present study is not statistically significant, there is an indication that girls in think-pair-share group outperformed the girls. it is not particularly clear why this happened and why the stad favored boys more than the girls. arellano (2013) had reported that female students obtain better global results than their male counterparts in reading comprehension in english as a foreign language. there are many variables other than teaching method that could affect students’ achievement. besides, effective as cooperative learning may be, the results may not be similar in all cases. there are a great many teaching strategies and what works for one group may not work for another. popoola (2011) emphasized the need for teachers to promote gender equality in the classroom so as to enhance students’ achievement. despite the limited scope of this study, findings seem to indicate that using think-pair-share and stad might be helpful in closing gender gaps as it relates to achievement in reading comprehension. the strategies tend to offer students equal opportunities to participate in the teaching-learning process and thus enhance their comprehension. implication of the research the results of this study have implications for students and teachers of english language. to students, it is evident that if they collaborate with one another in the learning process, they will more likely enhance their learning. therefore, they need to be encouraged to see the gains of collaboration rather than competition in the classroom. cooperative learning activities helped students to learn from one another, thereby making their reading comprehension more productive. if they apply these collaborative skills when learning other school subject, their learning may equally be enhanced. however, students are hardly able to organise themselves into learning groups without the aid of teachers. therefore, the result has implication for teachers. teachers need to incorporate cooperative learning activities in their classrooms and monitor student activities so that they do not lose focus of the group goals. using stad and think-pair-share could help teachers to be more creative in teaching reading thereby removing the boredom that is sometimes associated with reading comprehension lessons. also, teachers who teach in overcrowded classrooms may find the two strategies as helpful alternative ways of handling such classes by grouping learners into manageable teams. effect of student teams achievement division and think-pair-share on students’ achievement in reading comprehension ajote vol. 8.1 (2019), 218-237 234 the simplicity and ease with which the teachers mastered the stad and think-pair-share techniques have implications for the in-service training of english language teachers. the teachers who participated in the study had no prior experience of using the techniques in their classroom, yet, a week’s informal training was sufficient for them to utilise them. thus, school administrators and the government may consider organising in-service training of teachers to acquaint them with the different techniques of cooperative learning in order to maximise teaching and learning. conclusion although the sample population used in the study is small and 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(1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. retrieved april 9, 2014 from http://www.worldcat.org/title/mind-in-society-the-development-of-higher-psychologicalprocesses/oclc/3517053 workforce readiness project. (2006). are they really ready to work? employers’ perspectives on the basic knowledge and applied skills of new entrants to the 21st century u.s. workforce. retrieved from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/final_report_pdf09-29-06.pdf zarei, a. a. (2012). the effects of stad and circ on l2 reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/2442186/the_effects_of_stad_and_circ_on_l2_reading_ http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/final_report_pdf09-29-06.pdf http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/final_report_pdf09-29-06.pdf african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 140-151 utilization of information communication technologies in effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda aheisibwe irene1 & byamukama muramuzi sprito2 department of foundations of education faculty of education 1kabale university, uganda 2bishop stuart university, mbarara, uganda abstract the study aimed at assessing the utilization of information communication technologies in the effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district, uganda. a cross-sectional survey design was employed. data was collected using a closed-ended questionnaire developed by özdemir et al. (2014) and an interview guide. statistical package for social scientists software version 23.0 was used to analyze the data. the study revealed a lack of knowledge and skills of ict, limited electricity supply, poor quality computers, and inadequacy of computer accessories as reasons for the non-utilization of ict. keywords: information communication technologies, effective administration, mitooma district of uganda introduction background to the study the use of information communication technology (ict) in the administration of schools has gained popularity globally over the past 20 years and this has led to changes in the way schools are administered (kayiwa, raihan, & clement, 2016). ict has led to changes not only to the teaching and learning process but also in the management and administration of educational institutions. information communication technology emphasis is one of the strategies increasingly adopted in utilization of information communication technologies in effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda 141 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140 151 recent times by governments around the world to encourage economic development (gupta, dasgupta & gupta, 2008). oboegbulem and ugwu (2013) observe that the use of ict in african schools can ease student recruitment and records management and can improve the quality of the teaching-learning process. in order to achieve sustainable development goal 4 i.e. provision of quality education, uganda has adopted ict as one of the strategies (muyinda, mayende, maiga, & oyo, 2019). however, most ugandan secondary schools have not adopted ict in running daily school activities (muyinda, mayende, maiga, & oyo, 2019). many secondary schools in mitooma district still use papers, pens, pencils, and folder files for record-keeping despite the supply of 13 computers to each government-aided secondary school by the government of uganda in 2013. this has led to difficulties in monitoring the teaching-learning process, to delays in the processing of students’ progress reports, and wastage of government resources. conceptually, this study was based on two variables namely; information communication technology and effective administration. information communication technology is a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information (sharma, 2019). these technological tools include laptops and computers, the internet, mobile technology, ipads, digital television, palmtops, ipods, and digital cameras/videos (freeman & hasnaoui, 2010). effective administration, on the other hand, is the link between an organization's various departments and the smooth flow of information from one unit to another (adebayo, 2013). this study conceptualized effective administration as planning, organizing, and controlling school activities using information communication technology. this study was guided by the sociotechnical theory (sts) proposed by eric trist, ken bamforth and fred emery which suggests that, rather than simply putting people into existing technical systems, work places should be designed in such a way that both people and technology coexist in harmony (walker, stanton, salmon, & jenkins, 2008). it is widely acknowledged that adopting a socio-technical approach leads to systems that are more acceptable to end users and deliver better value to stakeholders. this theory was used because it investigates computersupported cooperative work and cognitive systems that bridge the gap between traditional and modern means of data storage. figure 1. below explains how the sociotechnical approach works; figure 1: sociotechnical theory diagrammatic view. source: robert and stephen (1977) aheisibwe irene & byamukama muramuzi sprito 142 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140-151 statement of the problem mitooma district secondary schools continue to use stationery for their record manage despite government provision of some computers to the since 2013 (asiimwe & byensi, 2017). the difficulties in the proper management and monitoring of the teaching-learning process that this had produced is the background and justification for this study. we sought to examine the specific nature of links between the use or non-use of ict facilities and efficiency in school management and outcomes. research question what is the relationship between ict utilization and effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda? utilization of information communication technologies in effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda 143 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140 151 methodology research design this study adopted across sectional survey design because it provides a description of trends and attitudes or opinions of a population and it allows generalisation from a sample to an entire population so that inferences can be made about some characteristics, attitude or behaviour of that population (tashakkori & creswell, 2009). with a cross sectional survey design, it is easier to study a larger population from a small group of individuals and data can be collected at specific points in time; it is therefore cost effective (creswell, 2007). study population & sample size the study population constituted secondary school headteachers as well as teachers in mitooma district. there are ten (10) government-aided secondary schools in mitooma district with 350 teachers and 10 head teachers (district education department of mitooma district, 2019). a total of 196 teachers and headteachers participated in the study guided by morgan and krecjie’s table of sample size determination. sampling techniques the study employed both purposive and simple random techniques. a total population purposive sampling technique was used to select headteachers. creswell (2007) suggested that total population purposive sampling technique is used where the size of the population that has a particular set of characteristics that one is interested in is very small. purposive sampling was also used because it is time and cost-effective. to select teachers, simple random sampling was used because it offers an equal chance of selection, it is easier to form representative groups from an overall population and provides information with a lower chance of data errors. (kombo & tromp, 2006). data collection instruments the study employed a mixed methodological philosophy where both quantitative approach in the form of questionnaires and qualitative approach inform of in-depth interviews were employed during the data collection. teachers responded to the questionnaire while the headteachers were aheisibwe irene & byamukama muramuzi sprito 144 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140-151 interviewed. a closed-ended questionnaire developed by özdemir et al. (2014) was used to collect data from teachers. this questionnaire comprised three sections namely; section a which addressed the socio-demographic characteristics, section b which contained closed-ended items on a 5-point likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree examining the relationship between ict utilization and effective administration and section c which contained open-ended items addressing non-utilization of ict. a structured interview guide was also used to interview the headteachers. the items were mainly open-ended, thus giving headteachers the opportunity to provide in-depth knowledge about utilization of ict for effective administration. the interviews also helped to crosscheck, verify and strengthen some of the data gathered from the teachers’ questionnaire. quality control pilot testing was done to ensure validity and reliability of the questionnaire (nassaji, 2015). the instruments were pre-tested in one government-aided secondary school in mitooma district. cronbach’s coefficient alpha, which requires only a single test to determine the internal consistency of instruments, was computed. the instruments obtained a cronbach alpha of 0.82. this deemed it fit for data collection. procedure a letter of introduction obtained from district education officer (deo) was presented and the purpose of the study clearly explained to participants who thereafter signed consent forms. participation was voluntary and respondents were free to withdraw from the study at any point without reprimand. the identities of the respondents were kept confidential throughout the study. appointments were scheduled and questionnaires distributed. the tools of data collection were later collected from respondents at an agreed time. after filling the tools, they were kept confidential, accessible only to the researchers. data management and analysis data management is part of the research process which aims at making the research process as efficient as possible. to ensure efficient organisation of data beginning with its inputting into the computer, completely filled instruments were screened, coded and entered into the statistical package for social scientists (spss) version 23.0.descriptive statistics i.e. frequencies and utilization of information communication technologies in effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda 145 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140 151 percentages were computed for socio-demographic characteristics to examine the relationship between ict utilisation and effective administration pearson product moment correlation coefficient was computed while thematic analysis was done to establish reasons for non-utilisation of ict in secondary schools of mitooma district. findings table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of respondents in mitooma district characteristics frequency percent age (years) 20-30 years 72 36.7 31-40 years 91 46.6 41-50 years 31 15.8 above 50 years 2 1.0 gender male 141 71.9 female 55 28.1 period spent in school 1-2 years 70 35.7 3-5 years 49 25.0 6-10 years 47 24.0 above 10 years 30 15.3 experience (years) 1-2 years 55 28.1 3-5 years 40 20.4 6-10 years 32 16.3 above 10 years 69 35.2 source: primary data, 2019. aheisibwe irene & byamukama muramuzi sprito 146 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140-151 table 1 shows that the study was comprised of mainly males (71.9%) who were between 31-40 years (46.4%). the majority of the participants (35.7%) had spent 1-2 years teaching in that school but with a teaching experience of above ten years (35.2%). table 2. level of head teachers’ ict utilization in secondary schools in mitooma district status range frequency percent low 10-22 103 52.6 average 23-35 68 34.7 high 36-48 25 12.8 total 196 100.0 table 2 above shows that the majority (52%) headteachers of secondary schools in mitooma district have low usage of ict followed by (34.7%) while (12.8%) of respondents indicated high usage of ict. from the above table, majority headteachers have not embraced ict for effective administration. through an interview, the following reasons were identified; lack of knowledge of how to use ict was reported as the major hindrance. one headteacher said; computers were distributed to schools but there were no efforts on training us how to use them. we have not had workshops on practical skills of ict. generally, most teachers in uganda have little ict training, either in general computer skills or knowledge of how to use computers pedagogically. another issue raised was the quality and capability of computers available in secondary schools. one teacher said; most computers are so old and slow in processing information. in this school, many computers are aged with software problems and have virus. power source/supply also challenged most secondary schools in ict utilization. mitooma district has irregular electricity as reflected in a statement by one head teacher; utilization of information communication technologies in effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda 147 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140 151 sometimes electricity is off for weeks yet school activities must go on. this makes me reluctant on ict usage. i would rather keep using my paper and pen since they don’t require electricity to operate. limited access to computers and their accessories also limits the utilization of ict in mitooma secondary schools. most respondents reported that there were few computers in schools and they didn’t have personal computers. the few available computers were desktop which had to be used only at school premises which consequently limits ict usage. discussion, conclusion and recommendations the study established that most secondary schools in mitooma district do not effectively utilise ict in administration. this is in agreement with montoya et al. (2011) who noted that most school administrators lacked ict knowledge and skills thus hindering ict usage. similarly, ghani et al. (2011) suggested that most administrators lack knowledge of how information communication technologies can support their daily activities such as student administration, staff administration and general administration. this study also agrees with peralta and costa (2007) who conducted a qualitative multiple case-study research on school principals’ usage of ict in effective administration in five european countries. their study reveals that that technical competence influenced the usage of ict in administration. however, a study in portugal, regarding school principals' usage of ict in effective administration reported that ict usage was dependent on age whereby younger school administrators are associated with technical competence and pedagogical efficiency while using ict. the study revealed that ugandan teachers in mitooma district did not receive any training on ict usage. this is in agreement with a study by egomo., enyi and tah (2012) who suggested that although ict was introduced in schools, there were no efforts to induct teachers and administrators into its effective use. this finding also agrees with a study by novatech (2008) in burundi which suggested lack of awareness, coupled with a lack of trained teachers with ict knowledge leading to lack of interest and seeming lethargy in ict usage in secondary schools. power source/supply also challenged most secondary schools in ict utilization. this finding agrees with a study by novatech (2008) in burundi which suggested that infrastructure aheisibwe irene & byamukama muramuzi sprito 148 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140-151 particularly electricity has been the major threat to the growth of that country’s ict sector. this finding agrees with a study conducted by adedeji (2011) in nigeria who cited irregular supply of electricity as a major hindrance to ict usage among school administrators.) shafika (2007) further states that ict utilization in school administration in zambia is affected by irregular electricity. limited access to computers and their accessories was mentioned as a major hindrance to ict usage in effective administration. ict access is a necessary condition to the integration of ict in education (plomp, anderson, law, & quale, 2009). effective adoption and integration of ict into the administration of schools depends mainly on the availability and accessibility of ict resources such as hardware, software. if school administrators cannot access ict resources, then they will not use them. this finding agrees with a study by langat (2015) who found that access to technological resources is one of the effective facilitators of ict usage in school administration. further, a study by afshari., bakar., luan., samah and fooi (2009)) among 814 faculty members in higher education in turkey showed that majority of the respondents reported access to computers and the internet as a major factor for effective ict usage. also, a quantitative study conducted by peralta and costa (2007) to collect evidence from high school english teachers’ views on computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and personal characteristics revealed access to ict was very important in effective school administration. this finding further agrees with kiptalam and rodrigues (2010) who examined the levels of access and extent of use of information and communication technologies among teachers in selected kenyan secondary schools. the study reported limited access to computers, laptops, projectors, printers and e-blackboards which affected effective utilization of ict. muthanga and odipo (2018) also showed that computers were very few in kenyan schools and the ones available lacked adequate software programmes. conclusions the study established that ict utilization greatly influences effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda. several factors contributed to underutilization of information communication technologies in the administration of secondary schools in mitooma district. these include; lack of knowledge and skills of ict, limited electricity supply, poor quality computers and limited computer accessories. utilization of information communication technologies in effective administration of secondary schools in mitooma district of uganda 149 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 140 151 recommendations to prevent underutilization of ict in secondary schools in mitooma district, the study recommends that the ministry of education and sports should organize training sessions and workshops for all schoolteachers and administrators on ict applications for management of their schools. the ministry of education and sports should also avail teachers and headteachers with portable battery-powered icts such as tablets and laptops instead of desktop computers that must be tethered to constant electricity supply. this will improve access, practice, and usage of ict. to solve limited electricity supply, the study recommends that secondary schools in mitooma district should transition to solar power which is very efficient and more cost-effective. the study also recommends that teachers and school administrators should have a positive attitude towards ict. references adedeji, t, (2011) availability and use of ict in south –western nigeria colleges of education. international multidisciplinary journal, 5(5), 315331. asiimwe, p., & byensi, l. 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(2019). a study of information communication technology for inclusive education in secondary schools of delhi. unpublished research report retrieved from https://cutt.ly/itkgb5f shafika, i, (2007) survey of ict and education in africa: zimbabwe country report zimbabwe www.infodev.org retrieved on 16th june 2020 from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/10699 tashakkori, a., & creswell, j., w. (2009). exploring the nature of research questions in mixed methods research. journal of mixed methods research 23(3), 207-211. doi: 10.1177/1558689807302814. walker, g. h., stanton, n. a., salmon, p., & jenkins, d. p. (2008). a review of sociotechnical systems theory: a classic concept for new command and control paradigms. theoretical issues in ergonomics science, 9(6), 479-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220701635470 https://cutt.ly/itkgb5f https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220701635470 *corresponding author email: myaniger28@gmail.com inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice. 1regina akuffo darko, 2jane mwangi & 2lucy joy wachira 1 department of health, physical education, recreation and sports university of education, winneba, ghana 2 department of physical education, exercise and sports science kenyatta university, kenya abstract hands-on experience plays a key role in every teacher education programme as it helps the prospective teacher to experience a real world of teaching rather than in abstract. one of the most difficult aspects of inclusive teacher education programmes is capacitating pre-service teachers to practice inclusion in the classroom in real live conditions. this study aimed at evaluating student-teachers’ hands-on experiences in inclusive practical pe lessons during their university preparation programme using sequential mixed-method design. 152 pe studentteachers’ in level 300 from the two universities who train pe teachers in ghana were purposively sampled for this study. quantitative data was collected using questionnaires while qualitative data was collected through focus group discussion with 20 of the same participants. quantitative data were analysed using means and standard deviation and presented in tables. inferential statistics of independent t-test was used to ascertain the mean difference between studentteachers’ hands-on experiences. qualitative data were transcribed verbatim with trustworthiness assured through peer debriefing and member checking. both quantitative and qualitative results showed that the university preparation programme has no practical component for inclusion in pe. student-teachers’ hands-on teaching experience in inclusive practical pe was found to be inadequate. however, a significant difference (t (-4.020) at df (32.9), p< .005) was found between the two institutions. the study concludes that the preparation programme in the universities does not give student-teachers’ adequate inclusive practical exposure. to make inclusion experience more viable to student-teachers’, it is recommended that inclusive experiences should be african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 21-37 regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 22 incorporated into student-teachers’ on-campus teaching practice and all practical courses to help bridge the gap between theory and practice. keywords: hands-on experience, practical, physical education, inclusion, students with disabilities introduction physical education (pe) programme focuses on the educational value of physical activity (pa) oriented towards the multilateral and harmonious development of all learners in diverse class settings. pe encompasses education that emanates from knowledge resulting from experimentation in practical activities that develop skills in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains (pańczyk et al, 2008). practical pe demands a more physically oriented learning environment, separate from classroom-based subjects. nonetheless, one sure way to develop the requisite skills which is deemed irreplaceable, that enables an increase in awareness of movements for an individual is through experience of the practice of bodily activities and human movement (secretaria da educação básica, 2017). this is what pe practical lessons offers to all learners. from a practical point of view, pe involves a deliberate selection of certain tasks of teaching and educational purposes. these tasks are further subordinated to methodical units, taking into account the principles of construction of physical activities and ensuring the optimum conditions for personal development, physical fitness and motor exercises (pańczyk et al 2008). for the pe teacher to achieve the objective and goals set for a practical lesson, it calls for a focus on the art and science of teaching which involve vital ways of critically scrutinising and designing transformative and genuinely pluralistic pe practices. however, in order for a competent pe teacher to do this, there is the need to reclaim the art and science of teaching in pe, which is about being educative and making judgements about what to bring to the practical lesson setting especially where there is diversity of learners (quennerstedt, 2019). these unique factors of practical pe as a general education course call for teacher training programmes that equally meet the demands that the practical aspect of the subject requires especially when considering inclusion in practical lessons. it is evidently clear, therefore, inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 23 to place importance of focusing on contextual concept of students with disabilities (swd) in an inclusive practical pe compared to other classroom-based subjects (secretaria da educação básica, 2017), hence, the need for this study. the introduction of inclusive education (ie) policy in ghana is currently challenging school organisations in making the general curriculum accessible to all learners (nketsia et al., 2016). researchers have highlighted the grandness of a hands-on approach when planning to teach students with disabilities as it permits student-teachers to employ theoretical knowledge in an authentic field-based experience (di nardo et al., 2014; pederson, et, al, 2014). moreover, according to pederson et al, (2014), more practicum experiences are reflections of what preservice pe teachers will experience in their careers and it is therefore needed during their training. however, in ghana, existing patterns of teacher preparation programme follow the traditional teacher education approach with emphasis on teaching a regular class with less focus on inclusion (deku & vanderpuye, 2017). one of the most difficult aspects of inclusive teacher education programmes is the ability of pre-service teachers to practice inclusion in real life lessons. this has been highlighted well in the global unicef report (2012). many respondents who participated in the unicef project felt that theoretical knowledge contained in teacher education programmes does not always translate into classroom practice. the report failed to identify the reasons for ongoing gaps between theory and practice aspects of inclusive education. there are various reasons why theoretical information covered in teacher education programmes fail to make an impact in teaching practices of pre-service teachers. this is because universities and schools are two dissimilar worlds. the information covered in teacher education programmes often is too distant from the realities of the classrooms (sharma & loreman, 2014). more so, goodwin and rossowkimball (2012) pointed out that successful experiences of pe teachers with students with disabilities can positively reinforce how teachers perceive their competence to adequately deal with the various situations during class. hence, block et al. (2013) described the need to evaluate inclusive practical experiences of pre-service pe teachers. furthermore, a study conducted by the organisation for economic co-operation and development – oecd (schleicher, 2016) found that a large number of student-teachers’ biggest challenge in all participating oecd countries was their lack of preparedness and unwillingness regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 24 to teach students with disabilities. while some universities covered theoretical concepts about disabilities and inclusion, none of the universities had any practical component focused on the practice of inclusion (sharma, 2018). thus, one aspect of the teacher training programme that needs to be given significant attention relates to addressing gaps between theory and practice of inclusion. nevertheless, there is paucity with regards to information about the adequacy of the preparatory programme in terms of hands-on experiences at the university level for including students with disabilities in practical lessons in ghana. student-teachers’ subject-matter content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge are supposed to be merged by the university student-teacher preparation programme (ntim, 2017) through hands-on experiences. any failure of the university preparation programme to expose student-teachers’ to practical experiences will questioned the validity of the programme. as a result, the adequacy of pe student-teachers’ ability and competence to include students with disabilities in their regular pe lessons will be insignificant leading to potential decrease in quality teaching and learning of practical pe in an inclusive setting. most studies conducted globally that has been reviewed perceived a probable lack of experience in the teacher-preparation programmes for inclusion but that of ghana in the area of pe has not been evaluated. hence, this study aimed at evaluating student-teachers’ handson experiences in inclusive practical pe lessons during their university preparation programme in ghana. this study was based on kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory. the theory presents an approach that specifies how a course or a programme may be imparted to maximise a student's learning process. it proposes that learning is cyclical, comprising four phases, often referred to as knowing or feeling, observing or reflecting, thinking and doing. methods the sequential mixed-method design was used for this study. with this design, two approaches were used to collect data from the student-teachers’ first, using a questionnaire followed by a focus group discussion (fgd). participants were third year pe student-teachers’ of department of health, physical education and recreation, in the university of cape coast (ucc) and the department of health, physical education, recreation and sports in the university of education, winneba (uew). these student-teachers’ were purposively selected for this study because they had completed all their 3 years on-campus programme content taught courses and were about to inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 25 go out for internship. student-teachers’ who reported to have taken additional refresher courses in special needs education were excluded from the study. ethical clearance was sought from the institutional review board of ucc and the departmental heads of the two institutions before data was collected. participants were assured of confidentiality and freedom to withdraw from the study at any time without requital. the sample size for the quantitative data was 152 while that for the qualitative data was 20 of the same participants who were proportionally selected. data were collected first using a researcher designed 5-point likert scale type questionnaire made up of 8 items which was content and face validated by specialists in the area. the qualitative data were collected after the all the quantitative data has been collected and analysed using fgd. this helped to augment the data collected with the questionnaire. the fgd took place in mphil lecture halls in the two institutions on a scheduled date and time. it was first carried out in ucc and then in uew. audio recordings were played back to the participants to ensure confirmability. quantitative data were cleaned and then coded using ibm spss version 25. data were scored by summative index of all the 8 items with average score of 3. below 3 means disagreement and above 3 means agreement with the statements. the quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and presented in tables. inferential statistic of t-test was used to ascertain the mean difference between the hands-on experience of the student-teachers’ from the two institutions with alpha level of 0.05 for two tail. qualitative data were transcribed verbatim based on the research question. trustworthiness was assured through peer debriefing and member checking. results student-teachers’ hands-on experience in inclusive practical pe teaching the responses from the student-teachers’ indicated that the majority of them disagreed with all the items under practical experience with students with disabilities in an inclusive setting. from table 1, all the items recorded a mean below 2.88 out of the average mean of 3.0. this implied that, the preparatory programme in the university has not exposed student-teachers’ to hands-on experiences in inclusion and in an inclusive setting. student-teachers’ have not had the opportunity to observe an inclusive pe lesson (m=2.64, sd = 1.26) neither have they had the opportunity to interact with an inclusive class setting (m=2.76, sd=1.24). this implies that regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 26 though student-teachers’ are being trained yet there is paucity in their exposure to inclusive practical pe. table 1: student-teachers’ responses to pe practical experiences with students with disabilities in an inclusive setting items n mean sd 1. i have had the opportunity to observe students with and without disabilities pe practical lessons in an inclusive setting during my preparation programme. 152 2.6447 1.26286 2. i have had an opportunity to interact with students with and without disabilities in an inclusive pe practical lesson during my preparation programme. 152 2.7632 1.24346 3. i have had the opportunity to pair students without disabilities with swds to learn/practice a skill effectively. 152 2.7303 1.25530 4. i have had the opportunity to supervise students with and without disabilities while they practice a skill in an inclusive practical pe lesson. 152 2.6974 1.27658 5. i have had the opportunity to adequately demonstrate/describe skills to students with varying disabilities in an inclusive pe practical setting. 152 2.5526 1.16681 6. i had the opportunity to practically assess students with and without disabilities in an inclusive practical pe lesson. 152 2.6711 1.30600 inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 27 7. i have had the opportunity to practice how to present skill in parts to allow students with and without disabilities to learn efficiently. 152 2.6645 1.16769 8. i have had the opportunity to practice how to vary the pace of lesson delivery to help students with and without disabilities learn skills. 152 2.6382 1.16545 abbreviation: n – total number of participants, sd – standard deviation an independent sample t-test assuming unequal variance was used to test the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference between the hands-on experiences of studentteachers’ in the two universities. table 2 shows that there was a significant difference between the hands-on experiences of the student-teachers’ in the two universities. the result indicated that uew student-teachers’ (m= 22.36, sd= 6.57) showed more hands-on experiences than their colleagues from ucc (m = 16.28, sd= 6.97). from table 2, t (-4.020) at df (32.9), p< .005 was significant with hedges’ g of 0.90. the null hypothesis was therefore rejected. the result is presented in table 2. table 2: t-test results showing difference between student-teachers’ hands-onexperience for inclusive practical pe in the two universities t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper equal variances assumed -4.187 150 .000 -6.08220 1.45272 -8.95265 -3.21176 equal variances not assumed -4.020 32.921 .000 -6.08220 1.51280 -9.16030 -3.00411 abbreviation: t – t-test value , df – degree of freedom, significant** p<0.05 df =32.9 regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 28 to describe and also to get in-depth information about student-teachers’ hands-on experiences in inclusive practical pe lessons during their university preparation programme, a focus group discussion aspect of the study was carried out. student-teachers’ from uew seem to have visited segregated schools and reported that they have observed students with disabilities in their practical lessons but did not have the opportunity to teach them as they would have wished, for personal experience. some views shared by some of the student-teachers’ were as follows: one male participant said: “when we went to visit classified people at disabilities centres, we took part in their pa programmes. this gave us a prior knowledge about how they conduct their pe lessons, so that is why i am saying i have hands-on exposure in terms of practicals” (fgd participant, uew 2019). on the contrary one female student was of the view that: “. . . there is the saying that we learn more by doing so since i have not experienced and also not had the exposure, i will say i don’t have any handson experience” (fgd participant, uew 2019). another male student reported that: “we all know that theory is different from practice. i have gotten the theoretical knowledge but for practical experience, i will say a big ‘no” (fgd participant, uew 2019). all participants from ucc responded ‘no’ by shaking their head to their hands-on experience. some went on to further suggest what they needed to do since they have not had any practical exposure and gave their views as follows: a male participant from ucc reported that: “i have no exposure; i need to start reading about disability and how to involve them in our practical lessons. and also, most effectively, we should look at europe and the outside world; most of their activities go with equipment and you have to know how to use that equipment and how to improvise them. i have to start looking at ways to involve them. let's say if am going to teach volleyball, how do i improvise to suit someone who is able to use the hand but inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 29 cannot walk. how will i involve such a person in my volleyball class? i have to start reading to have basic knowledge about handling such individuals” (fgd participant, ucc 2019). another male participant said: “there is more we need to do; more we need to know and more we need to learn. so, what will be the best for us is to go out there and read more about swds, how to handle them and involve them in activities and also how to involve them with people without disabilities so that in all, everybody will benefit” (fgd participant, ucc 2019). another participant said: “i think we should start writing proposals and articles on those issues to push an agenda if they can as well include us or include the inclusive schools to our programme. with this, we can have part of our off-campus teaching practice in inclusive and special schools. even if it's just for a week or two, at least we will learn something so that if we go out there, we will be fully-baked. now we are half-baked; we are just waiting for issues to come up” (fgd male participant, ucc 2019). a female participant said: “i also think that we need to learn more, and also find out how we can handle swds when we meet them in the schools. i can actually see we have a lot to do in terms of practicals in inclusive schools. from today, i will learn more and also visit some of their schools to know how to handle these people”. (fgd participant, ucc 2019). another student suggested that: “… we can just integrate practicals into what we are already learning so that any practical lesson they will just spend about thirty minutes and teach us how we can adjust when we kind of have such a student in our class. so, a student regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 30 may simulate that situation and we see how best we can help the student go through it” (fgd male participant ucc, 2019). discussions an innovative trend in teacher education programmes that prepare teachers to teach in inclusive settings has been identified as an infusion of inclusive knowledge and practice into all content areas and subjects of the initial teacher-education curriculum (nash & norwich, 2010). researchers have highlighted the grandness of a hands-on approach when planning to teach students with disabilities as it enables students to apply their theoretical knowledge in an authentic field-based experience (di nardo et al., 2014; pederson et al., 2014). research has shown that student-teachers’ in pe may not experience interaction with students with disabilities or teach these students until they have begun teaching within schools (travers et al., 2010). these assertions align with the findings of the current study whereby all items under hands-on experiences recorded low means (i.e. below 3.0). though all items recorded low means, a significant difference was found to exist between the student-teachers’ from the two institutions when data was subjected to further inferential statistics of independent t-test. perhaps a reason for this significant difference might be due to programme differentiation. the focus group discussion results on student-teachers’ practical experience for the inclusion of students with disabilities in practical pe revealed that student-teachers’ from uew had the opportunity to observe pe lessons of students with disabilities in their segregated environment once during their (student-teachers’) adapted physical education course. participants from ucc said they have neither had any practical experience with students with disabilities nor thought of students with disabilities being part of their pe class one day. this is clear evidence that the two universities in ghana need to restructure their courses to make room for inclusive practical experiences in an inclusive setting for student-teachers’ before they move to the real world (school setting). in the application of experiential learning theory, contextual learning approaches like experiential learning (kolb, 2015), and situated learning were found to help educators to nurture integrated learners who are as sensitive to context as they are to abstract concepts. the current finding agrees with that of sprecht et al. (2015) who revealed that positive attitudes and self-efficacy of teachers towards inclusive education is promoted by the inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 31 restructuring of their school-based experience. this enable teachers to have direct and systematic interaction with students with disabilities and teaching in an inclusive setting. also, a study by gaintza and castro (2020) suggested that the type of activity proposed and the working methodology in pe sessions can be crucial in creating suitable experiences for student-teachers’. the focus group results also showed the majority of the student-teachers’ expressing the opinion that there should be an opportunity for them to have practical experience with students with disabilities. they were of the view that theory is different from practice, therefore when the theories are taught in the classroom to them, they should also be given the opportunity to practice what has been taught in a real-world situation. with this, they can better understand the concept and also better put the theoretical concept into meaningful practice. furthermore, they expressed that having practical exposure will help them to get the opportunity to observe how teachers use specific teaching techniques and strategies in inclusive settings. in support of this current finding, haegele et al. (2018), analysed 90 brazilian pe teachers and certified that participants’ attitudes were considerably impacted by their experiences during the lessons. this implies that though student-teachers’ have a positive intention to include students with disabilities, a further practical experience will build their confidence and attitude to carry out inclusive practical lessons successfully, all things being equal. a similar finding to this current study is that of sharma (2018) who stated that, although theoretical concepts about disabilities and inclusion were taught in some universities, none had any practical component focused on the practice of inclusion. in support of this current study finding, swanson et al. (2013) also found a disconnection between the knowledge of inclusion as presented through the university coursework and the students’ real-world field-experience. more optimistically, allen and wright (2014) studied the integration of theory and practices in pre-service teacher education practicum placements and reported that participants overwhelmingly backed the concept of linking university coursework to the practicum. this, they reported, would serve to bridge the gap between the university and the school, as well as between theory and practice. this assertion by allen and wright (2014) correlates with most of the views shared by student-teachers’ during the focus group discussion in this current study. against this backdrop, it can be said that student-teachers’ need teaching practice in general classes that include learners with diverse disabilities in pe. teachers and lecturers who are qualified and regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 32 experienced in inclusive pe should mentor them in such teaching practice so that they can be equipped with both the relevant theory and practice (majoko, 2019). to infuse some hands-on experiences in the preparation programme, other studentteachers’ in the focus group discussion suggested that they should have simulations of situations where a person with disability is present in a practical lesson. they also suggested introducing a practical session with students with disabilities during on-campus teaching practice (octp). these suggestions are in agreement with the observations of block et al. (2017) who reviewed and summarized a number of teacher preparation processes and made similar recommendations as: providing simulations of disability conditions while attempting to perform various physical activities, infusing disability-related contents across core curriculum studies as well as participating in on-campus and off-campus practicum sessions. what this suggests is that for inclusive pe to be effective and up to expectations, it behooves on the two departments to factor in simulations during practical sessions, practical experiences as part of the octp course, and also factor in practical experience in inclusive settings. findings and conclusion student-teachers’ hands-on teaching experience in inclusive practical pe in these two ghanaian university teacher education preparation programme was found be inadequate. nevertheless, a significant difference was found to exist between the practical experience of student-teachers’ from university of cape coast and university of education, winneba even though they both indicated that their practical exposure was inadequate. the study revealed that university of education student-teachers’ exposure to practical physical education for students with disabilities was in segregated schools and not in inclusive settings. student-teachers’ were of the view that practical experience in segregated schools was not enough for their hands-on experiences for inclusion in practical pe. it was also found that student-teachers’ were prepared to go an extra mile by visiting inclusive schools to learn how to handle students with disabilities in practical pe lessons. with this, student-teachers’ advocated that inclusive schools should be added to their practicum schools so that they can have exposure in order to be fully capacitated. the study draws the conclusion that the preparation programme in the universities do not give student-teachers’ adequate inclusive practical exposure and, therefore, should be restructured to meet the demands of inclusion in ghanaian schools. the university preparation programmes inclusive physical education during the university preparation programme in ghana: bridging the gap between theory and practice ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 33 do not have a practical component for inclusion in pe. practical experience tends to build confidence and competence in student-teachers’ to be able to teach students with disabilities in an inclusive practical pe lesson. a blend of theory and practical experience as well as varied methodology would help student-teachers’ to bridge the gap between theory and practice for inclusion in pe. recommendation it is recommended that university of education, winneba should re-examine the curriculum content of student-teachers’ adapted pe course and incorporate the practicum aspect into it. also, the two universities should bridge the programme gaps between theory and practice by giving student-teachers hands-on experiences in inclusive practical pe during their training programme in the universities. acknowledgments the researchers thank all student-teachers from the two institutions who agreed to participate in this study. further thanks go to all research assistants who helped in making the data collection process a success. ______________________ declaration of conflict of interests the authors declare no potential conflict of interest. funding the authors received no financial support for this research or publication of this article. ethical approval ethical clearance for this study was sought from the institutional review board of ucc (id number: uccirb/ext/2019/16). permission was also obtained from the departmental heads of the two institutions in ghana. regina akuffo darko, jane mwangi & lucy joy wachira ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 21-37 34 informed consent student-teachers’ consent was sought for prior to data collection and they were assured of confidentiality as well as withdrawing from the study without any reprisal. ______________________ authors contributions regina akuffo darko wrote the introduction of this manuscript and conducted the field work from which was obtained the data for the analysis. dr. jane mwangi wrote the discussion for this manuscript and dr. lucy joy wachira wrote the methodology for this manuscript. all authors reviewed the final manuscript. ______________________ references allen, j. m., & wright, s. e. 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(2019). physical education and the art of teaching: transformative learning and teaching in physical education and sports pedagogy, sport, education and society, 24:6, 611-623, doi: 10.1080/13573322.2019.1574731 salend, s. j., (2010). evaluating inclusive teacher education programs: a flexible framework. in c. forlin (ed), teacher education for inclusion: changing paradigms and innovative approaches (pp. 208–214). abingdon: routledge. sawhney, s. 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(2016). teaching excellence through professional learning and policy reform: lessons from around the world. international summit on the teaching profession. paris: oecd publishing sharma u (2018). preparing to teach in inclusive classrooms. oxford university press usa. professional learning and development. doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.113 sharma, u., & loreman, t. j. (2014). teacher educator perspectives on systemic barriers to inclusive education. an international conversation. in p. jones (ed.), bringing insider perspectives into inclusive teacher learning. potentials and challenges for educational professionals (pp. 168–177). london: routledge specht, j., mcghie-richmond, d., loreman, t., mirenda, bennett, s., gallagher,t., young, g., metsala, j., aylward, l., katz, j., lyons, w., thompson, s.,& cloutier, s. (2015). teaching in inclusive classrooms: efficacy and beliefs of canadian preservice teachers. international journal of inclusive education. doi: 10.1080/13603116.2015.1059501. swanson g. r, & cocchiarella m. (2013) preservice special and general educators’ knowledge of inclusion. teacher education and special education.;36: 204-216 travers, j., balfe, t., butler, c., day, t., dupont, m., mcdaid, r., o’donnell, m & prunty, a (2010). addressing the challenges and barriers to inclusion in irish schools. report to research and development committee of the department of education and skills. dublin: des. 220 european physical education review 21(2) retrieved from epe.sagepub.com on 3/11/2018. unicef. (2012). global teacher training and inclusion survey: report for unicef rights, education and protection project (reap). who (2018). physical activity facts. retrieved on 10/10/2018 from https//www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/physical-activity. attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia befekadu zeleke (phd & associate professor) department of educational planning and management addis ababa university abstract this study explored the attitude of trainees in postgraduate diploma in teaching towards the teaching profession. the study had a descriptive survey design. two hundred and fifty-eight trainees participated in the study. proportionate stratified random and simple random sampling were used in the selection of the study participants. quantitative data was collected using a standardized questionnaire developed by renthlei and malsawmi (2015). percentages and stanine scale frequency distributions were used to analyze the data and report the findings. the study revealed that a lack of other better job opportunities was the main reason for the trainees to choose teaching as their future profession. most also expressed the interest to quit the training and join any other better job opportunity the moment they get the chance. overall, the majority had a low attitude towards teaching as a profession. such a low trainees’ attitude towards teaching and their intention to quit the training or leave the profession any time the opportunity comes their way, puts the government’s plan to expand the coverage of education in jeopardy. clearly, an increase in schools cannot be achieved without a parallel increase in the number of qualified teachers. finally, implications of the findings were forwarded to pertinent bodies in teacher education programs. keywords: teaching profession, teachers’ attitude, trainees’ attitude introduction teachers are the building blocks of the educational system (barber &mourshed 2007; sunbul,2001). the provision of quality education requires qualified and motivated teachers. in connection with african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 153-171 befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 154 this, sahin (2004) states that teachers guide individuals and the society at large towards changing their behavior to improve the quality of life. teaching has an emotional dimension that directly and significantly affects success. this is one major quality that makes teaching different from other professions (eraslan and cakici 2011). teachers’ attitudes to and perceptions of their profession affect their professional competence and achievement (güneyli& aslan 2009). this is perhaps why durmusoglu et al. (2009) state that teachers’ attitudes towards their profession are crucial to the success of their teaching performance. baysal (1981) defines attitude as a cognitive, affective, and behavioral response organized based on experience and knowledge. attitude is a state of an individual’s readiness that is shaped through experience. it influences the individual’s response to a stimulus. an individual’s response (i.e., attitude) to stimuli can be favorable, neutral, or negative depending on the underlying experience of the individual. attitude is made up of three components: affective, behavioral, and cognitive. it acts as an instrument of individual behavior (feldman, 2002). ajzen (2005) and mcmillan (2000) conceptualize attitude as a learned tendency to respond in a constantly favorable or unfavorable way to an object, person, institution, or event. attitude is also considered as an acquired and psychological variable that directs an individual’s behavior towards a situation, an incident, an object, a person, a place, or an idea (tavşancıl, 2014; papanastasiou 2002; eagly&chaiken 2007; tavsancil 2006 and temizkan, 2008). teachers’ attitude towards teaching is a broad concept that incorporates several dimensions (haser & nasser (2003) and yaakub (1990)). it has a crucial impact on the extent to which teachers fulfill the requirements of their profession. in addition, teachers’ attitude reflects their commitment to their job. it also shows teachers’ awareness of the necessity and importance of their job for society. teachers’ attitude determines their beliefs about the need to develop themselves for their profession. on the whole, teachers’ attitude is a general reflection of the status of teachers’ liking for the job. a relationship has been observed and reported between teachers' attitudes towards their profession and their effectiveness in teaching (lapido 1984; lubis 1988, williams (2003) and stronge (2002). eggen & kauchak (2001) on their part note that positive teachers’ attitudes to and perceptions of teaching are central to effective teaching. eggen & kauchak further state that attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 155 teachers’ positive attitude and perception of teaching affect their classroom practices and influence student performance. ispi (2010), on the other hand, associates positive teachers’ attitude towards teaching with effective teaching and a low feeling of fatigue. kreinter and kinicki (2007) have identified three components of attitudes: affective, feeling or emotion. the cognitive component of attitude deals with beliefs or ideas, and the psychomotor component reflects behavior towards someone or something. these components appear together and shape a teacher’s classroom posture through direct and indirect interaction between the society, school, and teachers (kreinter and kinicki 2007). hence, studying the attitude teachers in pre-service training have towards the teaching profession is a crucial activity needed to obtain information that decisively determines the fate of the country’s educational objectives. the present trainees are the future implementers of the education policy that has been designed to achieve the country’s educational objectives. regardless of its nature (whether positive, neutral, or negative), the attitude of teachers in the training program determines their professional behavior (temizkan, 2008). teacher candidates who have positive attitudes towards the teaching profession can be expected to have higher academic success during their training (terzi & tezci 2007). similarly, trainees who have a negative attitude towards the teaching profession can be expected to show a limited effort that results in a low academic performance during their study in the training program different studies have examined the impact of attitude on the teaching profession and the factors which have a bearing on attitude. devi (2005) found that success in teaching depends on the attitude teachers have towards the profession. a study by suja (2007) reported that teachers’ attitude towards teaching, their interest in the profession, and their teaching experience significantly influence their job commitment. mathai (1992) also suggested that attitudes towards the teaching profession correlate with success in teaching. cornelius (2000), on the other hand, also confirmed that teachers’ intelligence, attitude, academic achievement, and attitude towards teaching contribute to making them competent or incompetent in their profession. many studies have also noted that the attitude practitioners develop towards a profession is the most important predictor of success in that profession (cakir 2005; durmusoglu et al. 2009). teacher candidates’ gaining of occupational morals and attitudes, argues cetin (2006), is as necessary as the requisite knowledge needed for effective teaching performance. befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 156 a large body of the literature consulted in this regard suggests that success for the teacher in the profession requires patience, dedication, and a willingness to embrace the profession. in this context, teacher candidates’ attitude towards the profession has a significant role to play in the success of their future career. teacher training /education programs have thus an essential role to play in helping pre-service teachers to develop a positive attitude towards their future profession. the purpose of the present study was to explore the attitude of trainees in the post graduate diploma in teaching (locally known as pgdt) towards the teaching profession. college of education and behavioral studies, addis ababa university, was the study setting. the findings of the study are hoped to provide the moe and the addis ababa city administration education bureau with information on the attitude of pre-service teachers towards the teaching profession and the implication this may have for the decisions to be made related to the status of the profession as well as the selection, recruitment, and deployment of teachers in the secondary schools. an overview of teacher education in ethiopia coherent literature on the history of teacher training or teacher education in ethiopia is scanty. however, pieces of evidence available here and there categorize teacher training/education programs in the country roughly into three phases. the first phase of the teacher training program, known as the haileselassie i phase, ran from1944/45 to 1954/55. this training program started in 1944/45 in minilik ii secondary school. the training was one-year long and was often known as a 6 + 1 teacher training program. students who wished to become teachers had to complete grade 6 and attend a one-year-long teacher training program. the 6+1 teacher training program was replaced by a 10+2 program sometime in the early 1960s and ended in 1974 (tirusew, 2006; tesfaye, 2014). the second phase of the teachers' training program, known as the ‘derg’ phase, was in place between 1978 and 1991. the teacher training program had different modalities during the derg regime. there was a one-year-long program to train primary school teachers at teachers training institutes. a two-year-long college program was also there to train teachers to teach at the junior high school level. there was yet another four-year-long university-level program that trained teachers to teach in secondary school. admission to the training programs was mainly determined by the student's score in eslce. the third teacher training phase was introduced along with the new education and training policy in 1991. the current teacher education program is an attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 157 extension of the program introduced in 1991. it should, however, be noted that the credit for taking the initial initiative to open a secondary school teacher education program goes to the department of education, addis ababa university, formerly known as hailesallassie i university (tirusew, 2006; tesfaye, 2014). as discussed above, the foundation for teacher education in ethiopia was laid in the former emperor’s period. several scholars consider the period as the golden age of the teaching career in ethiopia. teaching, in tesfaye’s (2014) opinion, was considered a noble profession in the society during the emperor’s regime. teachers were not only paid better but they also enjoyed high prestige and status relative to most civil servants at the time (tesfaye& admassu, 2004; tekeste (2006)). the derge period (1974-1991), which replaced the emperor’s regime, declared a national campaign commonly known as development through cooperation shortly after seizing power in 1975. many training systems and education programs fell apart due to the closure of secondary schools, colleges, and the university. the resumption of school after the two-year development campaign was met with an acute shortage of qualified teachers to teach particularly in the primary schools. as a tentative solution, the ministry of education recruited untrained high school graduates to fill the gap in teaching. this unwise decision, according to tekleselassie (2005), has since then, had an implication for the low status of the teaching profession. teachers' training institutes and colleges were reinstituted in 1979/80. in the reinstituted teacher training program, the former 10 + 2 training program was replaced by a one-year (12 + 1) primary school teacher training program (moe, 2005). after the downfall of the military regime in 1991, teacher education institutions were upgraded to diploma-offering colleges. several other new teacher education colleges were also opened in the country since then (tesfaye, 2014). the introduction of teacher education systems overhaul (teso) was another development seen in the recent history of education in the country. space would not allow me to dwell more on the details of the program here, but suffice it to say that the program was mainly an element of a donor-supported teacher development program designed to achieve the objectives of the education sector development program (esdp) (unesco 2005). however, after six years of implementation, teacher education system overhaul came to an end. the cause of this untimely termination of the program was the inadequate performances befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 158 of the graduates of the program. poor subject-matter knowledge, inability to implement the teaching and learning methods recommended in the school curriculum, and low career commitment were a few among the qualities of graduates of teacher education system overhaul that led to the termination of the system (moe, 2008b). the new post graduate diploma in teaching was introduced in 2011. the need for the program appears to have arisen from the recognition of the gap that teso left behind. the program (pgdt) is being implemented in 10 public universities in the country. the trainees are given a one-year-long professional and practical training before their employment in secondary school teaching (moe (2013)). clearly, the history of teacher education in ethiopia has passed through various forms of reforms over the past years. yet, there are still abundant problems associated with the profession. issues related to the trainees in pgdt are the case in point in the present study. it is common to hear disappoints that colleagues who work in the universities that host the pgdt program have about the trainees in the pdgt in their respective universities. one aspect of their disappointment is connected to the trainees’ lack of enthusiasm to receive training and become teachers. however, no empirical study has so far been carried out to tell us enough about what the trainees think about the pgdt program and the profession they are getting prepared to join – teaching. this study has been designed to fill this gap. the pgdt program in the college of education and behavioral studies, addis ababa university is the setting of the present study. statement of problem any occupation becomes a profession when organizations such as universities, states, and the public accept the system (wise, 2005). due to the complex nature of the task of teaching as a profession, individual trainees or newcomers to the field need to possess the right information about the profession. a study conducted by schutz, et. al. (2001) indicated that the goal of becoming a teacher emanates from four different sources of influence: family influence, teacher influence, peer influence, and teaching experience. new people often join the teacher training program with already established beliefs. the source of their belief could be one or the other of the four sources of influence mentioned earlier. the pre-service teacher training programs help in shaping the attitude of such trainees by providing a series of experiences incorporated into their curriculum. srivastava (1989) states that a favorable student-teachers attitude is formed at the end of a teacher training program. yadav (1992), on his attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 159 part, revealed that training has a significant influence on pre-service teachers’ self-concept, social maturity, and attitude towards the teaching profession. very few studies have been conducted on pgdt trainees in general and their attitudes towards the teaching profession in particular in ethiopia. koye’s (2014) study is among the few. koye (2014) conducted a study in the college of education and behavioral sciences, haramaya university. similarly, adugna (2012) assessed the attitude of prospective teachers enrolled in a postgraduate diploma in teaching at wollega university. koye and yonas (2013), on the other hand, studied the selection and admission processes of pgdt candidates at haramaya university. kindie (2015), on his part, studied prospective teachers’ perception of stakeholders’ experience in a practicum at bahir dar university while yirgalem, et.al.(2014) studied the experiences and sources of stress among practicing student-teachers at haromaya university. studies by koye (2014) and adugna (2012) focused on pgdt trainees’ attitudes towards the teaching profession at haramaya and wollega universities, respectively. however, the pgdt trainees in the two universities were drawn from the same region i.e. oromia region. all are expected to be assigned as secondary school teachers in any government school in the region. however, the pgdt trainees of the present study were drawn from the college of education and behavioral studies of addis ababa university. graduates of this program are often assigned to teach in government secondary schools in addis ababa. the difference in the place of assignment after graduation could be a cause for differences in the attitude of the pgdt trainees. besides, both koye (2014) and adugna used self-made questionnaires with varying lengths of items in their questionnaires. the current study, however, adopted a standardized questionnaire developed by renthlei and malsawmi (2015 to the local context and used it to collect data on the prospective teachers' attitude towards the teaching profession. the questionnaire had acceptable content validity and reliability coefficient measured using cronbach alpha (r). the remaining local studies reviewed and reported above focused on different issues of their interest related to the pgdt program. they differ in many ways from the present study. hence, there was a felt need to study pgdt trainees’ attitude towards the teaching profession at the college of education and behavioral studies, addis ababa university. this was among the rationale for the present study. the study was guided by the following basic questions: befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 160 1. what were the reasons for pgdt trainees to join the teaching profession? 2. what are the future career plans of the pgdt trainees? 3. what is the perceived attitude of pgdt trainees towards the teaching profession? scope of the study despite having a not-so-long history, teacher education in ethiopia has passed through various challenges that hampered its achievement of success. in response to the persistent challenge, the government initiated post-graduate diploma in secondary school teaching program. a postgraduate diploma in education is awarded to candidates who satisfactorily complete a oneyear long course in the school of education and pass the university examination given at the end of the study period. the pgdt program has been in place since 2010 in ten universities in a summer school mode. the initiative behind the program was the need to fill the gap left behind by the terminated teacher-training program of teacher education system overhaul. contrary to the government’s expectation, the teacher-training program under teacher education system overhaul (teso) had a short life span in the history of teacher education in ethiopia. the main reasons for the failure of the program have been reported in brief elsewhere in this paper. a brief note on the beginning and end of the program will suffice here. the program started in 2003 and ended in 2010. this study was delimited in scope to pgdt trainees enrolled in the college of education and behavioral studies of addis ababa university in the 2018/ 19 academic year in the summer in-service program. the study was also delimited to two groups of pgdt trainees, i.e. proper pgdt trainees in the years i and ii and others enrolled in the years v and vi. hence, the findings of this study can be generalized only to these groups of respondents. in addition, the study was delimited to identifying the attitude of pgdt trainees toward the teaching profession. future research can be recommended to find the causes behind the pgdt trainees’ attitude reported in the present study. significances of the study the findings of the study might help the college, moe, and addis ababa city administration education bureau in designing a regular system of evaluating the pgdt trainees’ attitudes and practices. the information hoped to be gained from the regular program evaluation will help in attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 161 making informed decisions related to the future fate of the teacher education program in the addis ababa city administration. operational definition (of what?) pgdt trainees’ attitude in this study refers to the average responses of the pgdt trainees towards the teaching profession using a standardized questionnaire developed by renthlei and malsawmi (2015) to measure the attitude of teachers toward the teaching profession. research design and methodology a descriptive survey design was used to conduct this study. a descriptive survey design is appropriate to unveil prevailing situations. it is an appropriate design when researchers want to describe the current situation and try to investigate people’s attitudes, behaviors, and feelings using questionnaires or interviews ( gay, et.al.,2012; leary, 2001). sampling technique the sample respondents for the study were drawn from a total of 1304 pgdt in-service trainees enrolled in the 2018/2019 academic year in the college understudy. out of these trainees, a total of 322 sample respondents were selected using proportionate stratified random and simple random sampling techniques. the sample size was determined based on the recommendations given by cohen et.al, (2007). the authors recommend around 321 sample respondents for a total population of 1300 at a 95 % level of confidence. according to the pgdt coordination office of the college, the pgdt trainees were grouped into two in the academic year the data used in the present study was collected. in the first group were proper pgdt trainees in years i and ii. this group had 400 trainees. in the second group were trainees enrolled in the summer program of pgdt. this group had 904 in-service trainees in years v and vi. the total population was stratified into two based on this classification of the trainees. a proportionate stratified random sampling was used to select sample trainees for the study. the proportionate sample size was determined for both groups. accordingly, out of the total 322 sample respondents, 99 of them were drawn from the proper pgdt trainees of years i and ii. the majority (i.e., 233) were selected from the in-service pgdt trainees in years v and vi. after stratifying and determining the sample sizes of the two groups of trainees, individual befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 162 respondents were selected from the list of each group. simple random sampling or the lottery method was used in the selection of individual sample trainees for the study. data gathering tool data for the study was collected using a standardized questionnaire developed by renthlei and malsawmi (2015). the questionnaire had two parts. the first part contained six questions set by the researcher. this part had multiple-choice items designed to solicit the profile of the study participants (sex, year of enrollment, and fields of specialization and university origins), their reasons for joining the teaching profession, and their future career plan. the second part of the questionnaire contained 22 five-point likert scale items. the items in this part asked the study participants to rate the attitude statements from strongly agree (4) to strongly disagree (0) against each item. twelve of these items were stated positively while the remaining ten items in the questionnaire were negatively stated. the validity and reliability of the items in the questionnaire were checked by the developers and reported as valid and reliable. the reliability of the questionnaire was found to be cronbach alpha(r= 0.81) and greater than the minimum (r-value of 0.70) suggested by pallant (2010). the questionnaire was administered to sample respondents in each section with the help of instructors assigned to teach the trainees in the college understudy. two hundred and fifty-eight pgdt trainees returned the completed questionnaire. data analysis the questionnaire data was first edited and entered into a computer using spss 20 software. the scoring for each item of the attitude scale was done by giving a score of 4, 3, 2, 1, and 0 for positive statements, and 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 for negative statements. as per the recommendations made by the developers of the questionnaire, the raw scores obtained by all 258 pgdt trainees were transformed into the stanine scale by organizing them in frequency distribution and then giving the percentage of each stanine score points according to the normal distribution curve. this way, norms for interpreting the raw scores were prepared with the help of stanine grade. accordingly, stanine 1 indicates very low attitude towards the teaching profession, stanine 2 and 3 indicate low attitude towards the teaching profession, stanine 4, 5, and 6 indicate moderate attitude towards the teaching profession, stanine7 and 8 indicate high attitude towards teaching profession and stanine9 indicates very high attitude towards teaching profession. percentages were attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 163 used to report the status of pgdt trainees’ attitudes toward the teaching profession, their reasons for joining the profession, and their intention (if any) to leave the teaching profession. results and discussions the study participants out of the total of 332 sample respondents, 258 (77.71%) respondents returned the completed questionnaire. the number of male and female pgdt trainees who returned the completed questionnaire was nearly the same. this indicates an improvement in female teachers’ participation in secondary school teaching. the increase seen in the number of secondary school female teachers since the beginning of the pgdt program is encouraging. table 1: pgdt trainees’ reasons for joining the teaching profession reasons for joining the teaching profession frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid peer influence 13 5.0 5.2 5.2 parents influence 16 6.2 6.3 11.5 own interest 120 46.5 47.6 59.1 lack of job opportunity 93 36.0 36.9 96.0 other reasons 10 3.9 4.0 100.0 total 252 97.7 100.0 missing 99.00 6 2.3 total 258 100.0 data in table 1 indicates pgdt trainees’ reasons for choosing the teaching profession. it is interesting to see that 46.5 % of the trainees joined the teaching profession based on their interests. however, the second larger group (i.e., 36 %) reported a lack of other job opportunities as a reason for joining the teaching profession. this implies that teaching as a profession was not attractive to such a large pool of applicants. a frustrating situation was that the majority i.e. 178 befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 164 (69 %) of the pgdt trainees were planning to leave the profession if given the chance to do so as reported in table 2. this result is similar to the result of the study (2014) conducted by the moe and reported in the esdp iv document. the study carried out by the moe and released in the esdp iv document (2014) reported that 70% of teachers considered in the study would, if given an equivalently paid option, leave the teaching profession (moe, 2015). table 2: pgdt trainees intention to leave the teaching profession if you get the chance of employment in other organizations with the same salary, would you leave the teaching profession? frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid yes 178 69.0 69.5 69.5 no 45 17.4 17.6 87.1 can't decide 33 12.8 12.9 100.0 total 256 99.2 100.0 missing 99.00 2 .8 total 258 100.0 perceived attitude of pgdt trainees towards the teaching profession table 3: score range, stanine grade, and interpretation of attitude scale towards teaching profession for pgdt trainees st.no score range stanine grade interpretation 9 above 80 0 very high attitude 8 7 77-80 0 high attitude 74-76 1 6 5 70-73 3 moderate 66-69 11 4 62-65 20 attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 165 3 59-61 19 low attitude 2 1 55-58 37 below 55 167 very low attitude tables 3 and 4 show the score range, stanine grade, and interpretation of the attitude scale used to measure pgdt trainees’ attitudes towards the teaching profession. as can be inferred from the data in the tables, the attitude of the majority of pgdt trainees’ i.e. 223 (86.43%) toward the teaching profession was unfavorable. this was represented by low and very low attitude scores as indicated in the table. only one candidate was found within the high attitude category while none of the pgdt trainees had a very high attitude towards the teaching profession. the data further indicates that about 34 (13.18 %) of the respondents had a neutral attitude towards the profession. this finding disagrees with the findings of the studies conducted on the attitude of pgdt trainees at haramaya university by koye (2014) and adugna (2012). koye reported that the pgdt trainee’s attitude in the study was nearly undecided although the trainees had favorable statements on the teaching profession. adugna, on the other hand, reported that pgdt trainees considered in his study had a moderately positive attitude towards the teaching profession. this means the trainees’ attitude was at an average level which is not strong enough to negatively influence the processes of teaching and learning in schools. table 4: attitude of pgdt trainees towards the teaching profession groups no of teachers percentage interpretation very high attitude 0 0.00% 0.39% (favorable) high attitude 1 0.39% moderate attitude 34 13.18% 13.18% (neutral) low attitude 56 21.71% 86.43% (unfavorable) very low attitude 167 64.73% befekadu zeleke ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 153-171 166 conclusions and policy implications conclusions as can be understood from the findings of this study, the trainees’ attitude toward the teaching profession in the college was very low and low. this means that the trainees had an unfavorable attitude towards teaching. a large number of the trainees joined the teaching profession only due to a lack of other job opportunities. even worse is the story that the larger proportion of the trainees had intentions to leave the profession given the opportunity. teaching, as a noble profession, requires teachers who join the profession to have a positive attitude, interest, and readiness to dedicate themselves to the profession. trainees in the pgdt program considered in the present study had an unfavorable attitude towards the teaching profession. this implies the mental and psychological readiness of the trainees to become teachers, not just secondary school teachers. in general, these trainees' lack of interest and enthusiasm towards the profession from the outset means that it would be difficult for the education sector particularly for secondary schools, to get competent and qualified teachers to facilitate the provision of quality secondary education. this, seen in the light of the government’s plan to expand the coverage of secondary schools with qualified teachers, poses an insurmountable obstacle if the existing practice is allowed to continue without appropriate intervention. policy implications the current state of pgdt trainees’ attitude towards the teaching profession implies that there is still a heavy workload ahead to raise the status of the teaching profession in the eyes of society. references adugnabersissa (2012). assessment of the attitude of prospective teachers enrolled in postgraduate diploma in teaching: the case of wollega university. science, technology, arts research journal. 1(4):65-73. ahmed,i., said, h. ,zeb, a., sihatullah., rehman, k., (2013). effects of professional attitude of teachers on their teaching performance: case of government secondary school teachers in malakand total 258 100.00% attitude of postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt) trainees towards the teaching profession in ethiopia ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 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(1990). a multivariate analysis of attitude toward teaching. pertanika, 13 (2), 267273. yadav, r. (1992). impact of teacher training on certain personality characteristics of b.ed. trainees. agra: agra university. yirgalem alemu, aschalew teshome, million kebede, and tessemaregassa (2014). experience of stress among student-teachers enrolled in a postgraduate diploma in teaching (pgdt): the case of haramaya university cluster centers, ethiopia. african educational research journal. vol. 2(3), pp. 96-10. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 80 103 process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke, & marie onovroghene salami department of science and technology education obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria abstract west african examination council results have continued to reveal nigeria’s high school students’ poor performance in science subjects, and especially, in practical science (waec 2014). the students’ demonstration of essential scientific attitudes is noted to be deficient. this is possibly caused by ineffective teaching and learning produced by the absence of necessary practical classes. this study, therefore, assessed the process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria as well as the relationship between the two variables. these groups of variables are central to students developing skills and knowledge in science and a determination of levels of competence in them would facilitate appropriate interventions to improve teaching and learning of science. the study adopted descriptive research survey design. the population for the study included all biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. from the four federal and seven state colleges of education in southwestern nigeria, two federal colleges of education and three state colleges of education were randomly selected to ensure adequate representation of the two school categories. one hundred biology students were randomly selected from each of the two school categories. two instruments were used for the study. these were biology process skill application rating scale (bpsars) and biology scientific attitude questionnaire (bsaq). a reliability value of 0.72 for bpsars and 0.76 for bsaq was gotten using cronbach alpha coefficient. the result revealed that there existed a moderate application of process skills and a moderate level of scientific attitude among the respondents as 67.3% and 84.8% having a moderate level of process skills application and process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 81 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 scientific attitude respectively. it was shown that there was no significant relationship between the process skill application and scientific attitude (r=0.09, p>0.05) of respondents in the study area. keywords: process skills application, scientific attitude, colleges of education introduction an important goal of science education enshrined in nigeria’s national policy on education (frn, 2014) is the emphasis on the teaching and learning of science processes and principles for individual and national development by providing knowledge and understanding of the complexity of the world and human environment at large. the federal government of nigeria emphasized the importance of all-round education to assist learners in acquiring appropriate skills, competencies and abilities so that they can live and commit to the development of the society (frn, 2014). arokoyu and nna (2012) believed that knowledge and skills which we have known as the core components of science education are essential factors for scientific creativity and developments. the literature highlights three important dimensions of science teaching. this is the content or the basic concepts that embed scientific knowledge. this is the aspect of science that most people first think about, and it is certainly very important. the other two important dimensions of science teaching are the processes of engaging in science and scientific attitudes. the processes of carrying out scientific investigations and activities are the science process skills that scientists use during experiment (lloyd and kathleen 2012; omoifo (2012). these are the skills that are used generally in daily lives as people try to find answers to everyday questions. this means that as students are taught science process skills, they are also taught how to live both in the present and in subsequent situations. these skills are applicable to every human activities and endeavors. the third dimension of science focuses on dispositions and characteristic attitudes to science. of science contents, processes and attitudes, three interrelated aspects of science, omoifo (2012) noted that contents are the concepts in various fields of sciences whose practical application is taught using process skills. the resultant effects of these aspects are reflected in the student’s scientific attitudes. these skills are important to make students build on various attitudes that will help them become better in the society. process skills prepare students for scientific explorations and endeavours. lloyd and kathleen’s (2012) notion of process skills was that ability to merge the science process skills (sps) with classroom lessons and research and experimental activities would make the learning experiences more valuable and meaningful for students. they believed that students adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 82 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 would learn the of scientific skills as well as science content and would be actively engaged with the science they are learning. it is also believed that building these skills will help students understand what they need to become better scientists who display appropriate scientific attitudes. these skills are divided into basic process skills and integrated process skills. the basic skills are the fundamental skills students use in scientific activities. involve their use of the sense organs for observation, taking accurate measurements and grouping objects into various classes, termed classification, using words to exchange information, forming assumptions, i.e., inferences and providing rationale for predictions. process skills also include generic ones like hypothesizing a give problem, carrying out experiments, improvising by manipulating and changing conditions for experiments as a well as interpreting data and formulating models. these generic skills require the use of two or more basic process skills. the national educational research development council (nerdc) and national universities commissions (nuc) have been involved in the development of various curricula that emphasize the acquisition of sps in use at different levels of nigeria’s education system (babajide, 2015). some aspects of nigeria’s secondary and tertiary education curricula include the objectives to expose and train students to successfully learn and acquire science processes skills that will empower them to overcome challenges, make decisions, and live as effective global citizens contributing to the attainment of nigeria’s national goals (ekon &eni, 2015). despite these efforts, research suggest poor development and non-acquisition of science process skills in nigerian secondary schools because not many students are exposed to science practical activities at this level (nwosu, 2006; idigie, nja and ugwu 2017). the consequence of students not learning science the right way is a logical inability to acquire the basic attitudes of science. but why would science teachers fail to inculcate science process skills during practical classes when teaching their students? investigations carried out have shown that practical classes where students learn about process skills in more concrete ways are rarely taught by teachers until shortly before students sit for their final external certification examinations. discussing why teachers are the most impediment to students developing the science process skills, ango (2002) reported that they lack expertise, having themselves not been always well trained and guided during their training as teacher educators. this is induced by the poor state of practical laboratories as well as factors like the knowledge level of teacher trainers, their disposition towards science teaching, process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 83 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 which would normally include the development of scientific attitudes as a component. the trainer and the teacher can teach their students only what they have expertise in and the level of teaching expertise they used to inculcate these skills in their students would determine how the students apply those skills. thus, a poor level of acquisition of process skills would mean that student’s interest in science would likely be poorly developed. this would similarly negatively result in poorly developed scientific attitude. acquiring science process skills, however, forms the bedrock for inquiry in science and for the development of intellectual skills and attitudes that are prerequisites to learning of scientific concepts (nwagbo & uzoamaka, 2011). scientific attitudes are as important as the science process skills; it is in the attitude that the true nature of the skills acquired is expressed. these attitudes include cognitive components of rationality, intellectual belief, and aversion to suspicion; emotional components of perseverance, humility, and honesty; and affective components that include curiosity, self-reliance, suspended judgment, proactiveness and open mindedness. cheung (2009) and utsa & akkant (2014) have reported a correlation between students’ high positive scientific attitude and considerable improvement in academic achievement in science subjects. it also had a positive effect on scientific creativity of students. therefore, teacher focus should not be on academic achievement in science subject alone but in the students’ attitudes towards science as well. sirhan (2007) observed that attitudes and motivation are important in aiding meaningful learning; noting that success in learning and positive attitudes to learning are linked. gokul and malliga (2015) believe that the science teacher serves as the major developer of scientific attitude in students as s/he manipulates all situation during the application of process skills to inculcate in pupils the requisite scientific attitude. the teacher also serves as an example to the students in demonstrating intellectual honesty, respect for others’ points of view, and exhibiting an unbiased and impartial behavior. various empirical studies have been carried out on process skills and scientific attitudes in different areas. segumpa’s (n.d.) work on bruneian students’ science process showed the pre service teachers in all science inquiry processes had an average overall competency level, average competency level of basic skills (mean = 17.82; max = 30) and a poor competency level of integrated science inquiry skills. (mean = 11.30; max = 30). segumpa’s work showed the highest competency levels for observing, measuring and quantifying skills while classifying, formulating models, interpreting data and inferring rated average, and experimenting, controlling variables and adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 84 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 predicting were poor. giwa, libata and wakkala (2018) worked on the relationship between science process skills and student attitude toward physics in senior secondary school. the results on the process skills revealed that interpretation of data, observation and measuring were the highest skills while the overall mean score was 1.33 which is synonymous on a scale that the knowledge of process skills was poor. sunyono (2018)’s work on science process skills characteristics of junior high school students in lampung, indonesia revealed an average level of process skills by the students. it was also revealed that observation and classification skills were average, the skill of predicting, interpreting and communicating were the lowest skills of the respondents. azizah, ibrahim, widodo (2018)’s work on process skill assessment instrument for use in an indonesian school revealed that observation, measurement, classifying and communication had a high level of process skills respectively while hypothesis and inferring were low. their study revealed an overall high level of process skills with a mean score of 0.78. o. r. olatoun (2017) investigated scientific attitude development of chemistry graduate employees in some selected industries in southwest nigeria. the results of the study revealed that the level of scientific attitudes developed by chemistry graduates from undergraduate chemistry courses was lower than scientific attitudes required by the industries. ten scientific attitudes were used for the study. these were self-reliance, open mindedness, flexibility, perseverance, adaptability, proactiveness, honesty, initiative, respect and integrity. it was revealed that the respondents had a high level of scientific attitude while integrity and honesty had the highest scores. pitafi and farooq’s (2012) study of scientific attitude of secondary school students in pakistan utilized eight constructs of scientific attitude. these constructs included curiosity, rationality, willingness to suspend judgment, open mindedness, critical mindedness, objectivity, honesty and humility. the study revealed that the attitude of students in the study area was slightly scientific. the scientific attitudes that rated highest were curiosity and critical mindedness while the lowest scoring ones were willingness to suspend judgment and rationality. in m. p. lacap’s (2015) study of the scientific attitude of philippines’ students majoring in science, the dimensions of attitudes measured were rationality, curiosity, open mindedness, aversion to superstition, objectivity of intellectual beliefs and suspended judgment. open-mindedness had the highest mean of 3.88 which was rated high. this means that the students were very much willing to learn new things and ideas. it was also revealed that the students had a high rate of aversion to superstition, curiosity and process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 85 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 objectivity of intellectual belief while a moderate level of scientific knowledge for rationality and suspended judgment. scientific attitudes are to be developed during hands on activities that promote and encourage students to carry out tasks by themselves and these can only be carried out via the application of process skills. how much of these are been done in teacher education colleges in nigeria is not clear. hence, ascertain how much of scientific attitude the teachers possess is equally largely unclear. an assessment of these skills and attitude in teachers who will teach the students in secondary schools thus remains an important task to be carried out so that remediation can be made where necessary for both the present and future pre service teachers. our goal for the current study was to fill this gap. statement of problem the essence of scientific teaching and learning is to inculcate specific scientific skills and attitudes in the students. these skills and attitudes are pre requisites for the mental training and development of the students. students will be able to apply the skills and attitudes they cultivate to everyday life and these will help them generate ideas that contribute value to the society in the best possible way. the west african examination council has consistently complained about the poor performance of students in science subjects, and especially in practical science. danmole (2012) has noted that teachers in nigeria seem to believe that biology can be taught effectively without practical. this reveals a gap in the understanding of the necessity of process skill application in learning science. nigeria’s science students have consequently not been able to demonstrate essential scientific attitudes. the need to assess the process skill application and scientific attitude of biology students in colleges of education in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria in order to be able to apply appropriate policy intervention has the be reason for this study. significance of the study an essential component teaching science is ensuring that students inculcate various requisite science skills, processes, and attitudes all of which are required not only for effective professional life but also for effectual contribution to nation building. biology is one of the important science subjects taught in nigerian schools that can offer these qualities to students. the study will thus provide education planners and the teachers in nigeria’s colleges of education information on how well students apply process skills as well as indicate to them areas where students need help in adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 86 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 acquiring and applying process skills. it will also provide information on the level of scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria and what specific variables need to be worked on. objectives of study 1. determine the level of process skill application (psa) of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria; 2. examine the scientific attitudes (sa) of biology students in colleges of education in the study area 3. examine the relationship between process skills application and scientific attitude of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. research question 1. what is the level of application of process skills of biology students in colleges of education in the study area? 2. how adequate are the scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in the study area? research hypothesis there is no significant relationship between process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria methodology the study adopted descriptive survey research design. the population for the study comprised of all biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. the study sample size comprised of 500 part iii biology students from five colleges of education in the study area. using simple random sampling technique, two federal colleges of education (ondo and oyo) were selected out of the four federal colleges of education in four of the six southwestern nigeria states (oyo state, ogun state, lagos state, ondo state). simple random sampling technique was also used to select three state colleges of education from the seven existing in southwestern nigeria. these were the state colleges of education in oyo, osun and ekiti states. this was done to ensure process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 87 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 adequate representation of the two school categories. using simple random sampling technique, fifty students from each of biology/chemistry and biology/integrated science combinations were selected to make a total of 100 national certificate in education (nce) biology students in each of the selected colleges of education. two research instruments were used for this study, namely: biology process skills application rating scale (bpsars) and biology scientific attitude questionnaire (bsaq). bpsars was used to rate the process skills application competence of the students while bsaq provided information on their scientific attitude. the instruments were validated by content and exploratory factorial analysis. the reliability test for each instrument was also determined. bpsars yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.72 and 0.89 using cronbach alpha and guttman split half coefficient respectively. bsaq yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.760 and 0.672 using cronbach alpha and split-half coefficient respectively. data collected was analyzed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. the analysis included descriptive statistics of frequency and percentages, mean, standard deviation, skewness and inferential statistics of multivariate analysis of variance, bivariate pearson product moment correlation. results research question one ▪ what is the level of application of process skills of biology students in colleges of education in the study area? to answer this research question, data were collected for each of the components of the process skills application. components that had more than one description, with elements that included observation, measurement, prediction, hypothesis, experimenting, and interpreting data, were summed up to give a total process skill score for each item. the various skills were then grouped into the two basic categories of process skills, i.e., basic process skill and integrated process skill. this was done by adding the various scores of the items together. for the basic process skills, scores for observation, measurements, classification, communicating, inferencing, prediction were added together and for the integrated process skills, scores for hypothesizing, experimenting, manipulative skills, controlling variables, interpreting data and formulating models were added together. all the scores were then added together to give a total score for process skills application. the students were observed and their marked practical manuals were checked to make adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 88 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 two sets of observations. the responses in the practical manuals were compared with the instructions specified in the manuals and the specimens/ equipment that were supplied for the respective practical. this was also done to assess the components which were not observed during real-time practical. the average (to the nearest whole number) of the scores for the two observations were taken as the final score. the result is presented in table 1 table 1: descriptive analysis of process skills of the biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria skills min. max. mean. stand. dev. stand. error adjusted mean rank skewness std. error of skewness observation 1.00 14.00 9.12 2.85 0.23 60.80 2 -0.65 0.20 measurement 0.00 15.00 7.64 3.40 0.28 50.93 6 0.25 0.20 classification 0.00 4.00 2.15 3.52 0.29 43.00 9 0.10 0.20 communicating 0.00 5.00 3.13 1.32 0.11 62.60 1 -0.09 0.20 inferencing 0.00 5.00 2.80 1.15 0.09 43.60 8 -0.13 0.20 predicting 0.00 9.00 4.22 2.31 0.19 42.20 10 0.31 0.20 hypothesizing 1.00 10.00 4.44 2.03 0.17 44.40 7 0.49 0.20 experimenting 2.00 10.00 5.33 2.47 0.20 53.30 5 0.25 0.20 manipulating 0.00 5.00 2.98 1.49 0.12 59.6 3 0.05 0.20 controlling variable 0.00 5.00 2.74 1.47 0.12 54.8 4 0.36 0.20 interpreting data 0.00 8.00 3.89 1.72 0.14 38.9 11 0.13 0.20 formulating model 0.00 5.00 1.29 0.84 0.07 25.8 12 1.42 0.20 adjusted mean = (mean of classified sps x (total max. score obtainable from tsps) max. score obtainable in items of classified sps table 1 reveal the mean and adjusted mean values for each of the process skills. this was to determine the most applied process skills among the respondents. it is clear from the table that process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 89 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 communicating skill was the most applied skill by the respondents as it ranks 1 with adjusted mean value of 62.60. this is followed by observation and manipulative skills respectively with the adjusted mean value( ) of 60.80 and 59.60 respectively. this is followed by controlling variable, experimenting, measurement, hypothesis, inferencing, classification, predicting, interpreting data and formulating models which were ranked from 4 to 12 with adjusted mean scores of 54.8, 53.30, 50.93, 44.40, 43.60, 43.00, 42.00, 38.9, 25.8. figure 1. bar graph of process skills application of respondents in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria table 2. descriptive analysis of the components of process skill application adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 90 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 skill max. score min. max. mean. stand. dev. adjusted mean rank skewness std. error of skewness basic psa 55 10.00 48.00 29.84 9.17 54.25 1 -0.005 0.198 integrated psa 45 5.00 40.00 20.74 7.81 46.09 2 0.025 0.198 total psa 100 19.00 83.00 50.65 15.44 0.074 0.198 adjusted mean = (mean of classified psa x (total max. score obtainable from tpsa) max. score obtainable in items of classified psa table 2. compared the levels of process skill application by respondents in the study area and observed that the level of utilization was higher for basic or generic process skills than for the integrated process skill; this is confirmed in the adjusted mean score of the two categories. the adjusted mean was used because the number of items in each category was not equal. this was then calculated to achieve uniformity in the mean of the categories. comparing the mean score to the maximum obtainable scores (mbpsa =55, mipsa =45), it can be educed that there was a moderate (average) level of basic and integrated process skill application as well as a moderate level of the general application of process skills among the respondents. the process skills were categorized into low, moderate, and high level and the results are presented in the table below. table 3: level of process skills application of respondents in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. skills frequency percentage (%) decision basic process skills low moderate high 20 91 39 13.3 60.7 26.0 moderate process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 91 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 integrated process skills low moderate high 40 90 20 26.7 60.0 13.3 moderate total process skills low moderate high 20 101 29 13.3 67.3 19.3 moderate table 3. shows the level of basic process skills exhibited by the respondents. the majority (60.7%) demonstrated a moderate level of basic process skills application, while 26.0% of the respondents demonstrated a high level of basic process skills application. only 13.3% demonstrated a low level of basic process skills. the result in table 3 also shows the level of integrated process skills demonstrated by the respondents. 60.0% of the respondents demonstrated a moderate level of integrated process skills, 26.7% of the respondents demonstrated a low level of integrated process skills, while 13.3% demonstrated a high level of integrated process skills. the table also reveals the overall level of process skills application exhibited by the respondents. most of the respondents (67.3%) demonstrated a moderate level of basic process skills, while 19.3% demonstrated a high level of process skills application, and 13.3% demonstrated a low level of process skills application. it could be concluded that there was a moderate level of application of basic process skills and integrated process skills application among the respondents as there was a moderate level of application of overall process skills among the respondents. research question two: ▪ how adequate is the scientific attitude of respondents in the study area? the items under each component of behavior were added together to get a single score for each of the components. since the number of items was different, adjusted mean was used to get a unified mean so that the mean score for all the components could be determined and compared adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 92 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 table 4: descriptive analysis of scientific attitude of the biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria scientific attitude min. max. mean. stand. adjusted rank skewness std. error of dev. mean skewness rationality 2.00 8.00 5.62 1.48 74.47 6 -0.550 0.109 intellectual belief 2.00 8.00 6.25 1.33 82.81 3 -0.71 0.109 aversion to suspicion 3.00 12.00 8.15 1.95 71.99 7 -0.19 0.109 perseverance 3.00 12.00 9.20 1.79 81.27 4 -0.38 0.109 humility 2.00 8.00 5.35 1.51 70.89 8 -0.35 0.109 honesty 2.00 10.00 4.50 1.91 59.63 10 -0.95 0.109 curiosity 2.00 8.00 6.59 1.25 87.31 1 -1.15 0.109 self-reliance 2.00 8.00 6.39 1.38 84.67 2 -0.97 0.109 suspended judgment 3.00 12.00 6.63 1.82 58.57 11 -0.89 0.109 proactive 3.00 12.00 8.84 2.00 78.09 5 -0.70 0.109 openminded 2.00 10.00 5.23 1.82 69.30 9 1.53 0.109 adjusted mean = (mean of classified sa x (total max. score obtainable from sa) max. score obtainable in items of classified sa the result in table 4 shows the relative scientific attitude possessed by biology students in coes in southwestern nigeria. it reveals curiosity scoring the highest among attitudes the students have with adjusted mean score 87.31 which was ranked 1, this was followed by self-reliance ranked 2 with an adjusted mean score of 84.71. the other types of scientific attitudes were ranked 3-11 in the following order; intellectual belief, perseverance, proactiveness, rationality, aversion to suspicion, process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 93 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 humility, open-mindedness, honesty and suspended judgment showing that suspended judgement was the least attitude by the students in the study area with a mean score of 58.57. comparing the mean score with the total maximum score obtainable, it could be concluded that most of the students possessed a high level of scientific attitude components except for honesty and openmindedness which respectively had a mean score of 4.50 and 5.23 from a maximum obtainable score of 10. the result is presented in table 5. figure 5: bar chart of scientific attitudes of respondents the relative strength of the three main components of scientific attitude was also determined as the attitudes were categorized into cognitive, affective and emotional component of scientific attitudes. to answer the question on the scientific attitude of the sampled respondents, biology scientific attitude questionnaire was sectionalized into three components, which included cognitive components (belief), emotional components (feelings), and attitudinal components (actions/behavior). results for each section as well as the combination of the sections are presented below. the cognitive components consist of rationality, intellectual belief, aversion to suspicion; the emotional components consist of perseverance, humility, honesty while the affective components consist of curiosity, self-reliance, suspended judgments, honesty, open mindedness, proactiveness. the results were presented below. adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 94 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 table 5: descriptive analysis of components of scientific attitude of respondents attitude max. score min. max. mean. stand. dev. adjusted mean rank skewness std. error of skewness cognitive 28.00 10.00 28.00 20.02 3.09 75.79 2 -0.22 0.109 emotional 28.00 9.00 28.00 19.05 3.29 72.00 3 0.28 0.109 affective 48.00 12.00 48.00 36.67 5.53 80.98 1 -1.13 0.110 cumulative 47.00 100.00 75.75 8.14 -0.22 0.110 attitude table 5 above shows that the affective component of the scientific attitude was the most prominent among the students with an adjusted mean score of 80.98. this was then followed by the cognitive component with an adjusted mean score of 75.79 and then the emotional component with an adjusted mean score of 72.00. a comparison of the mean score to the overall total possible score for each component indicate that the respondents possessed a moderate level of adequacy of cognitive, emotional and attitudinal scientific attitude as the mean scores were high relative to the maximum possible score. these components were categorized into high, moderate, and low. table 6: percentage analysis of scientific attitude of the respondents skills frequency percentage (%) decision cognitive component low moderate high 96 288 115 19.3 57.7 23.0 moderate emotional component low moderate high 114 269 116 22.8 53.9 23.3 moderate process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 95 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 attitudinal component low moderate high 44 404 51 8.8 81.0 10.2 moderate overall scientific attitude low moderate high 29 423 47 5.8 84.8 9.4 moderate for the cognitive component, it was revealed that most of the respondents (57.7%) demonstrated a moderate level of cognitive components, while 23.4% demonstrated a high level of cognitive components. only 19.2% demonstrated a low level of cognitive components. the table also revealed that 53.9% possessed a moderate level of emotional components, while only 23.2% and 22.8% demonstrated high and low levels of emotional components respectively. it was also observed from the table that most of the respondents (81.0%) demonstrated a moderate level of attitudinal components of scientific attitude, while only 10.2% and 8.8% demonstrated high and low levels of attitudinal components respectively. table 6 showed the level of general attitudinal components exhibited by the respondents. from the table, the majority (84.8%) demonstrated a moderate level of general attitudinal components, while only 9.4% and 5.8% demonstrated high and low levels of general attitudinal components respectively. it could then be concluded that there exists a moderate level of adequacy of cognitive scientific attitude, emotional scientific attitude and affective scientific attitude among respondents in the study area likewise a moderate level of overall scientific attitude. adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 96 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 figure 4.10.: bar chart on levels of scientific attitude components of respondents hypothesis one ▪ there is no significant relationship between process skills application and scientific attitude of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. to test this research hypothesis, bivariate pearson product moment correlation was used first to determine the relationship between each of the components of the variables before the total variables were correlated. cohen (1992) was then used to judge the strength of correlation among the variables. the result is presented in table 7 table 7: correlation of component of process skills application, higher order thinking skills, scientific attitude and creativity among colleges of education in southwestern nigeria correlations isps bsps cogcom emcom atcom isps pearson correlation sig. (2-tailed) 1 .656** -.090 -.119 -.029 .000 .274 .148 .728 process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 97 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 n 149 149 149 149 143 bsps pearson correlation sig. (2-tailed) n .656** 1 .037 .061 -.001 .000 .653 .456 .992 149 150 150 150 144 cogcom pearson correlation sig. (2-tailed) n -.090 .037 1 .131 .053 .274 .653 .110 .530 149 150 150 150 144 emcom pearson correlation sig. (2-tailed) n -.119 .061 .131 1 .127 .148 .456 .110 .130 149 150 150 150 144 atcom pearson correlation sig. (2-tailed) n -.029 -.001 .053 .127 1 .728 .992 .530 .130 143 144 144 144 144 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). on comparison of each of the components of process skills application and scientific attitude. the study revealed that there existed a significant relationship between basic process skills and integrated process skills (r=0.656, p<0.05) and the relationship is strong and positive. there was however no significant relationship between basic process skills application and all the components of scientific attitude in the study area (p>0.05). there was however no significant relationship between the cognitive components of attitude and all other components of process skill application among biology education students in colleges adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 98 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 of education in southwestern nigeria. there was also no significant relationship among the components of scientific attitude. table 8: correlation table of overall psa, hots, sc and sa in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria correlations **sa: scientific attitude table 8 revealed that there was no significant relationship between process skill application and scientific attitude of the respondents in the study area as the relationship was both weak and negative (r=-0.09, p>0.05). it could be concluded that no significant relationship exists between process skills application and scientific attitude of respondents in the study area. discussion of the study the study reveals that there was a moderate level of application of basic and integrated process skills application among respondents in the study area. the findings of this study were in line with the research carried out by segumpa (n.d.) which concluded that students possessed an average level of process skills as well as an average level of competency of basic process skills among the sampled respondents in his study. the implication of segumpa’s study is that these respondents might also be able to apply the skills. process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 99 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 however, the findings of the current study differ from segumpa finding in the area of integrated skills, as the segumpa’s revealed a poor level of competency of the skill. other areas where the findings of our study agree with that of segumpa are in the individual components of the process skill application. the findings agree with segumpa’s in revealing an average level of competency for observation skills, measuring skills, and classification. our study revealed an average level of interpreting variables, predicting variables, and inferencing and controlling variables disagreeing with segumpa’s findings of a low level of application of these skills among the respondents. the findings were also consistent with those of sunyono (2018) that revealed an average level of process skills and an average level of observation and classification skills given that the lowest rating obtained was on predicting and interpreting. our study diverged from sunyono’s in that communication skills which was the least applied skills by the respondents in his was the most applied process skills by respondents in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. the findings of the study do not agree with that of azizah et. al (2018) whose work revealed a high level of process skills application when instruments for measuring process skills were assessed. it is essential to note from the study that prediction and inferencing skills that are low are interconnected. this will account for the reason why the skills for formulating models will be low as these two skills, of prediction and inference, are needed to formulate models. we could then posit that that if the skill of prediction and inferencing are improved upon, students will be able to effectively formulate models in science. the study reveals a moderate level of adequacy of scientific attitude among respondents in the study area. it reveals that curiosity and self-reliance are the attitude most possessed among respondents while honesty and suspended judgement are the least possessed scientific attitude among respondents in the study area. this result is partially in line with the work of olatoun (2017) that revealed a high level of scientific attitude among selected graduate employees in nigeria. as honesty was the highest in olatoun’s study, this study is at variance with hers as honesty was the lowest in our study. the semantics used and mannerism of constructing the items might be responsible for this. the result was partially in line with the work of pitafi and farooq (2012) whose study revealed that curiosity was the highest level of scientific attitude possessed by the students while willingness to suspend judgement was the lowest level of attitude demonstrated by the students. on this, findings of our study agree with pitafi and farooq (2012). the result of the adeyinka oluwaseun kareem, moruf ademola adeleke & marie onovroghene salami 100 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 current study also partially agreed with that of lacap (2015) where a moderate level of attitude was seen for rationality and suspended judgement. our study reveals that there was no significant relationship between process skills application and the scientific attitude of respondents in the study area. it also shows a significant positive relationship between basic and integrated process skills. the findings did not agree with those of giwa, libata and wakkala (2018) that revealed significant relationship between science process skills and attitudes of students in nigeria. however, the study was carried out on physics and subject variation could be a factor in the difference seen in the results of the study. process skill application did not affect scientific attitude of respondents in the study area, it could be said that there are other factors that will help to improve scientific attitude in the study area. many of the literatures reviewed were also in other fields of science like chemistry, physics and mathematics. also, factors relating to the application of process skills can be examined to determine why there was no relationship between the application of process skills and scientific attitude. it could mean that students do not carry out practical activities in the right way using standard best practices. if this is not done, the influence of the application of process skills on scientific attitude could be defeated. another factor could also be because practical classes in colleges of education and even secondary schools in nigeria are carried out in large groups where only one student does the activity and others look on or assist. it is only on rare occasions that each student carries out all the expected activities for a particular experiment. this will definitely have an effect on the holistic understanding of scientific concept and on improving the scientific attitude of the student. to improve process skills application, each individual student should carry out all the expected activities as each component has a part to play in improving the overall acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitude of the students. conclusion the conclusion of the study is that there was a moderate level of basic and integrated process skills application among respondents as well as a moderate level of application of overall process skills among the respondents in the study area. there was a moderate level of scientific attitude among respondents in the study area. the study concludes that the biology students in the selected colleges of education had a moderate level of adequacy for the cognitive, emotional and attitudinal components of scientific attitude in the study area. process skills application and scientific attitudes of biology students in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. 101 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.80-103 on the relationship among the variables of the study, the study findings reveals that there was no significant relationship between overall process skills application and scientific attitude among respondents in the study area, though the structure of practical classes could be responsible for the lack of relationship as it is expected that process skill will help to improve general understanding of various component of science of the students. recommendations based on the findings from our study we recommend that practical activities be emphasized, and the appropriate practical procedures be followed in colleges of education in southwestern nigeria. this will help to develop the process skills application of pre-service teachers in those colleges of education. in developing the science process skills in the right way, students will also simultaneously learn appropriate scientific attitude of curiosity, honesty and open mindedness required of biology teachers. emphasis should also be laid on the development of integrated process skills by allowing students do more of practical than the alternative to practical right from secondary schools. it is also important that while teaching students in the classroom, teachers and instructors should watch out for how well students imbibe right attitudes in science as this could also be evaluated in the students. emphasis should be placed on making resources and facilities available so that practical classes will not be muddled up and every student are able to carry out activities individually and appropriately. references ango, m. l. 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(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).wces2014.doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.643 waec (2014). the west african examination council chief examiners’ report. west african senior school certificate examination (wassce) may/june, 2014 http://www.sciencedirect.com/ http://www.sciencedirect.com/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis francis owusu mensah1, kingsley agyapong2, & augustine acheampong3 1institute for distance and e-learning, university of education, winneba, ghana. 2, 3 dept of management studies education, akenten appiah-menka university of skills training and entrepreneurial development, kumasi, ghana abstract this study sought to categorise students based on the preferences that influenced their choice of distance education program in ghana. questionnaires were used to collect data from 120 students taking part in the university of education, winneba (uew) distance education (de) programme at the kumasi girls senior high school [shs] study center. respondents were segmented into three clusters (highly, moderately, and least satisfied) based on four preferences (price, quality, packaging, and social boding) that influenced their satisfaction with the distance education programme. results from both hierarchical and non-hierarchical cluster analysis with squared euclidean distance and ward’s method showed that the highly satisfied cluster was driven by the quality of service and the competitive fees structure of the uew distance education programme. further analysis of the differences between the clusters indicated that satisfaction with the uew distance programme significantly differs across the three segments. keywords: distance education, price, quality, packaging, social bonding, ghana 1. introduction the report of the president’s committee on review of education reforms in ghana (2002) mandated universities to embark on educational reforms at all levels to make education respond to ghana’s national industrial and technological developmental and high level skills training needs for all sectors of the nation’s economy. the committee’s report acknowledged the need for ghana to vigorously pursue a national programme in distance education. it recommended the use of distance education as an alternative to conventional education and called for government support african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 365-391 francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 366 for tertiary institutions offering distance education. manu and agyapong’s (2014) study on the prospects of providing distance education programmes for professional teachers in ghana supports the view that distance education is an effective alternative to conventional education as it enables professional teachers to combine their professional work with further professional studies. distance education is an effective way to provide university education to thousands of qualified applicants. sujatha (2002) posits that distance education enables interested over-aged persons to obtain relevant education. hence, distance education consists of a diverse cluster of students with different characteristics and this diversity calls for different marketing strategies. to successfully match their products and services to their students’ needs, distance education planners must make decisions on which students should be targeted and which programmes should be offered. engaging in these decision-making processes makes segmentation one of the fundamental activities that distance education planners engage in. considerable amount of research has been conducted in the area of distance education in ghana, much of which has focused on technology and infrastructure (ozdemir & abrevaya, 2007; viberg & grönlundm 2015), course environment (ahern & el hindi 2000; faux & black-hughes, 2000; trinidad & pearson,2004), administrative and organisational issues (dahl, 2003; feist 2003; vallejo, 2001), and tutoring (jelfs, richardson & price, 2009). however, there is limited research on student de preferences and on how de institutions design programmes specifically targeted at increasingly diverse segments of students. the purpose of this study is thus to address these gaps in the distance education literature. accordingly, its research objectives are 1. to segment/cluster students taking part in the uew distance education programme based on their satisfaction with the programme 2. to validate the student clusters/segments identified 3. to find out whether the factors that influence students’ satisfaction with uew distance education programmes differ across clusters 2. literature review 2.1 the concept of distance education perraton (1988:43) defines distance education ‘as an educational process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone removed in space and/or time from the students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 367 learner’. keegan (1996) contends that distance education is a form of education with such attributes as: • the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the period of the learning process (this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face education) • the influence of an educational organisation both in the planning and preparation of learning materials and the provision of student support services (this distinguishes it from private study and teach yourself programmes). • the use of technical media-print, audio, video or computer – to unite teacher and learner and administer the content of the course. • the provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue (this distinguishes it from other uses of technology in education); and • the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals rather than in groups, with the option of irregular seminars and meetings. (keegan, 1996:50). distance education has been used in many countries to expand access to education for people who would otherwise not have had the opportunity to benefit from formal education (perraton, 1988, 2004). this expansion has been made possible through print, radio, or television media (perraton, 1998). distance education's appeal lies in its potential to substitute or complement traditional teaching methods (stewart, 1988). the need for continuous learning as well as the ‘unprecedented innovation in communications’ have facilitated the increased popularity of distance education (garrison, 2000:1). 2.1.1 students’ perception of courses students' perception of the value of their courses and educational experience is inextricably connected to their sense of satisfaction. high satisfaction "leads to lower levels of attrition, greater learning success, and greater motivation" (kuo et al., 2013).de lourdes machado et al., (2011) and gibbons (2012) found the key to student satisfaction with their program to lay in teaching quality, interactions with faculty both in and out of class, and quality of academic advising and teaching assessment. one of the most repeated statements made by students concerning their satisfaction was the importance of faculty who came to class well prepared (gibbons 2012). francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 368 2.2 market segmentation numerous marketing scholars have looked at the term market segmentation. salami and adewoye (2006) believe that when market segmentation is well undertaken, the result is the maximisation of returns on marketing expenditure. market segments can be demographically classified based on the type of customer. market segmentation consists of a group of customers who share a similar set of wants (kotler, 2004). market segments have present or potential customers with common features appropriate in explaining the customer’s response to suppliers’ market stimuli (kotler, 2002). market segment has further been described as a subgroup of people or organisations sharing one or more characteristics that cause them to have a similar product and/or service need (kotler & keller, 2005). this presupposes that market segmentation is a homogeneous group of clients, each responding differently to advertising, delivery, pricing, and other marketing mix variables (doyle, 2004). segmentation and targeting are critical in the marketplace and allows the marketer to plan, develop and deliver a product or service that satisfies the needs and wants of the target market (pickton & broderick, 2005). kotler (2004) considers overall attractiveness and the company’s objectives and resources as factors that affect segmentation looked at two factors when evaluating the market segment. wood (2007) concludes that market segmentation is the process of grouping customers within a market according to similar needs, habits, or attitudes that can be addressed through marketing. thus, splitting a market into different classes of consumers who have distinct interests, characteristics, or habits and may need different goods or marketing mixes (armstrong & kotler, 2005). thus, dividing the market, factors such as psychographic, demographic, geographic, psychological, and behavioural will enable the marketers to have a better understanding of the dynamics of the target market to help improve marketing effectiveness (gunter & furnham, 1992). 2.3 factors influencing the patronage of product/service • price price is the amount a customer is asked to pay for a product or the total of the values that consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using a product or service (bearden et al 2004). hinterhuber (2008) posits that pricing strategies differ in diverse ways across industries, countries, and customers. it means the price charged for different products or services has different names. for example, in the transport sector price is referred to as fare, it is referred to as a toll on drivers on students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 369 the highway, rent to the tenants, a bill for water and electricity services to consumers, retainer to the lawyers and commission to the salesperson, etc. (kotler et al., 2006). the central role of price is to influence consumer buying behaviour, switching behaviour and satisfaction (e.g. jakaria & gilbert, 2002; keaveney, 1995; matzler, renzl, & faullant, 2007; varki & colgate, 2001). rondan (2004) suggests that price is an important factor in the purchase decision, especially for frequently purchased products. in describing the price, kotler, armstrong, saunders and wong (2002) maintain that it is the most significant factor that affects consumer’s choice of goods and services, though other researchers indicate that price is the only variable among the four ‘ps’ that produces revenue (e.g., agwu & carter, 2014). price has also been used as an indicator to separate luxury from non-luxury products (al khattab & aldehayyat, 2011). dolnicar (2002) found that a higher price leads to the expectation of good service, a good location, a pleasant atmosphere, large rooms, and comfort in general, as well as the availability of the internet in the service firms. thus, customers use a higher price as an indicator of the quality of good or service (kotler, 2009), to make judgments about product and service quality (kotler & keller (2009), and that customers want good quality products/services at reasonable and affordable prices (peng & wang, 2006; wang, 2006). therefore, customers perceive the price and quality of products/services to match but when price does not match the quality of products/services, customers experience dissonance (oliver, 1997). in line with these studies, agyapong, acheampong, and kwakye (2015) also found in their study that brand name, brand image, flexible payment terms, location, and worldwide acceptance of certificates by students are the factors that influence students’ decisions in choosing a university for distance education. the uew is considered one of the affordable universities in ghana in terms of its tuition fees. in addition, payment of tuition fees can be made in instalments, which makes paying it easier for students. according to kotler and keller (2009), many customers use price to make judgments about product and service quality, emphasizing that image pricing is effective with ego-sensitive products. research for example by joseph and joseph (1997); sia, (2013); yusuf, ghazali and abdullah (2017) has established a relationship between price/cost on service quality and students’ satisfaction. price/cost has been suggested as one of the significant factors that students consider in making a choice among educational institutions. francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 370 product/ service quality according to bitner et al., (1990), quality of service is a measure of customer satisfaction and parasuraman et al. (1985) claim that quality of service is the degree of disparity between the expectations of customers for service and their real perceptions of service. therefore, highly satisfied customers signify that the customer’s actual performance is greater than their expectations (william, 2002). kotler, bowen, and makens (1996) highlight a variety of views of quality based on product features, freedom from deficiencies, and categories. agyapong, acheampong, and kwakye (2015) suggest that organisations have multiple images, hence, the university can use that picture as an important measure of perceived quality of service to its advantage in offering distance education to influence the company's customer expectations. wu and liang (2009) claim that for customers to be satisfied with a high quality of service, there should be a pleasant atmosphere and an entertaining experience at the place where the service is delivered. berry, parasuraman, and zeithaml (1991) observe that service quality is a significant differentiator and the most effective strategic tool for organisations and heskett et al., (1994) concluded that service quality drives customer satisfaction, which creates customer loyalty leading to growth. one of the most important factors that influence the quality of distance education is the performance of the instructors in the delivery of lessons (bolliger, 2004; huynh, 2005; ladyshewsky, 2013; michael, maithya, & cheloti, 2016). the nature of distance education requires instructors to exhibit a different set of skills and responsibilities. instructors in distance education programmes serve as the mediator between the student and the study materials (beaudoin, 1990), a situation different from face-to-face interactions in traditional education. as a result, the instructor must understand the increased diversity of learners and determine test formats, measurement practices, and assessment strategies accordingly (banerjee & brinckerhoff, 2002) to persuade and motivate students to accept a distance learning environment (selim, 2005). to ensure the high-quality performance of instructors in the distance learning programme, the uew continuously organize capacity building programmes for its tutors to be able to offer quality face-to-face and online teaching. these programmes aimed to equip the tutors with the knowledge and needed resources to offer excellent education, as well as provide support for students. students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 371 • packaging according to hill (2005) when individual preferences become complex and diverse, the packaging is the major product branding strategy. underwood (2003) echoes that package design with product images attracts consumers’ attention to the brand. rundh (2005) echoed the importance of packaging which attracts consumer’s attention to the brands, improves identity, and affects the expectations of consumers about a particular product. packaging is also important in the marketing environment and is one way to gain consumer notice in terms of goods and services (berkowtiz, 1987). wells, farley, and armstrong (2007) observe that packaging works as an instrument for differentiation, and a means to make consumers decide the product from a wide range of parallel products. adelina and morgan (2007) claim that packaging is one of the most important resources in marketing communications today and that packaging has a huge effect on consumers purchasing behaviour. saeed, lodhi, mukhtar, hussain, mahmood, and ahmad (2011) emphasise that organisations should integrate the brand image, brand attachment, and environmental effects to have an impact on consumer purchase decisions and that packaging also stimulates customer’s buying behaviour (wells, farley, & armstrong, 2007). research has established a relationship between student satisfaction and how distance education programmes are packaged. for example, a positive relationship has been reported between the consistency and density of the learning content (swan, 2001), flexibility and quality of the course (pei-chen, tsai, finger, yueh-yang et al., 2008), course structure (eom, wen, & ashill, 2006) and the students’ satisfaction and perceived learning. the uew strives to achieve these in terms of the delivery of learning content and the quality of course manuals. the uew distance education programme has branded itself through the use of a variety of modes/channels to deliver learning content to students. the university uses a combination of face-to-face bi-weekly weekend tutorials at the study centres, interactive teaching and learning on moodle learning management system, video conferencing via the internet on tablets and seminars/presentations. additionally, students are given course manuals that cover the entire contents of the courses to be treated in students’ choice of programmes. these manuals are designed in an interactive manner so that students can feel the “presence of the teacher” as they read the module (institute for distance and e-learning, uew, 2020). francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 372 • bonding bonding is the close economic, psychological, emotional, and/or physiological attachment of members within an associative and collaborative relationship (forgas et al. 2010). developing a buyer-seller relationship is a critical bonding tool. it reduces emotional conflict relationship between players in a relationship (palmatier, 2008; sin et al., 2005). for the effective formation of bonding attitude, the social bond is important (chiu, 2002). social bonds described as a personal tie that emphasises on service dimension in the buyer-seller relationship through interpersonal relations and exchanges to establish friendships (berry, 1995; wilson 1995). social bonds positively influence customer’s emotions toward feelings associated with service experience and have a major psychological benefit from a customer's point of view (chiu, 2002). social bonds include self-disclosure, listening, and caring for clients, which in effect strengthen the shared connection between the consumer and the service provider, their transparency, and their degree of proximity (chiu, 2002). damkuviene and virvilaite (2007) argued that interdependence, long-term outlook, engagement, and trust should be the elements in the relationships. kandampully and duffy (1999) contend that a customer’s interest in maintaining a loyal relationship is depended on the organisation’s ability to anticipate customers’ future needs and offering them before any other company. a precursor of bonding between learners and instructors is the levels and amount of interactions that occur between them. an interactive teaching style and higher levels of learnerinstructor interaction serve as a good predictor of student satisfaction (arbaugh, 2000; kuo, walker, belland & schroder, 2013; moore, 2002). for example, swan (2001) found that most students who reported higher levels of interaction with instructors and peers report higher levels of satisfaction and higher levels of learning. uew can ensure higher levels of learner-instructor interactions through the tutorials the distance education programme offers to students. tutorials are organised bi-weekly on saturdays, with the inclusion of sundays during examinations. tutors with a specialty in the various courses meet students during tutorials to discuss issues concerning their programmes, clarify difficult areas in the course and also give students the opportunity to ask questions that may be boggling their minds as they do their independent studies. the period is also used to counsel students, resolve issues, and give course materials to students. students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 373 • customer satisfaction and loyalty customer satisfaction is a widely researched field in marketing and has been the topic of numerous studies. chavan and ahmad (2013) see customer satisfaction as is a strategy adopted by companies to satisfy a customer’s needs. it increases customer loyalty and, hence, sales and profits (chavan & ahmad, 2013). kotler (2000) considers it as customer attitude or behaviour towards the difference between what customers expect from the product and what they receive regarding fulfilment of a goal. walsh et al. (2006) identify a strong relationship between customer satisfaction and the corporate reputation of an organisation. according to wood (2008), effective marketing involves all aspects of an organisation and must consistently provide value to win customers and earn their loyalty. this involves the organisation creating benefits for customers to increase and maintain their repeat business (anderson and jacobsen 2000). all this agrees with claims that true consumer loyalty is generated when consumers become an organisation's advocate without any motivation (oliver, 1997) and with the suggestion that greater customer satisfaction leads to greater customer intent to repurchase a product (rust and zahorik, 1993). anderson and sullivian (1993) suggest that a high level of customer satisfaction decreases the perceived need to switch service providers. this increases customer repurchases of the organisation’s product and leads to higher profitability in the long-run (bowen & chen, 2001; anderson et al., 1994; jones & sasser, 1995; reichheld, 1996). these studies all place a strong emphasis on the importance of service quality and the association between service quality and customer perception, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty all enhancing company competitiveness (cronin & taylor, 1992; taylor, & baker, 1994; schulz, 2012; parasuraman et al. 1988; anderson and sullivan, 1993; dick and basu, 1994) several other studies support this idea that positive corporate and brand identity is a determinant of consumer loyalty (gronroos, 1988; anderson et al. 1994; andreassen, 1999; kotler and armstrong, 2008; kapiki, 2012). the uew services and the corporate name has made the school one of the best in the ghanaian distance education market. as the first institution to rollout a distance educational programme, the university has a niche in the educational market mainly due to the good corporate image the university has built and customer satisfaction through lecturer-student interaction which in the long-run lead to customer loyalty. francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 374 • word-of-mouth (wom) communication the provision of two-way communication for students to engage in dialogue with the de institution is an attribute of distance education (keegan,1996). wom communication is interpersonal communication that affects the consumers’ decision-making process about the purchase of goods and services (mangold, miller, & brockway,1999). studies show that it has a higher effect on consumer product judgement than does print media (herr, et al, 1991), and is often related to customers’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with previous purchase experiences. therefore, for wom communication to elicit a positive response from consumers, it must be vivid and useful to generate interest in consumer purchase patterns (yu & tang (2010). in the educational setting, positive wom communication by students on distance education programmes sells the university and its programme to the external world. thus, true consumer loyalty is generated when consumers become an organisation's advocate without any motivation (oliver,1997). this is the uew experience. wom communication is a promotional tool for the uew distance education programme. uew’s interaction with students has generated a positive word of mouth promotion for it in the educational market on the quality of the university’s distance education programmes. the wom communication by students broadcasts satisfaction with programme content, the commitment by lecturers to give their best effort, recognition of students by all academic and non-academic staff and effectively announces the university’s use of a combination of face-to-face bi-weekly weekend tutorials and interactive teaching and learning on moodle learning management system. 3. methodology sample one-hundred and twenty (120) students taking part in the uew distance programme at the kumasi girls shs study center were used for the study. to gather data, we approached students who had reported for classes for the distance education programme at the kumasi girls shs center. participation was voluntary and anonymous. based on the recommendations of mooi and sarstedt (2011), the sample size of 120 was deemed to be adequate for cluster analysis. mooi and sarstedt (2011), recommend that for a sample size to be sufficient for cluster analysis the number of observations should be at least 2m; where m is the number of clustering variables. in this study, the number of clustering variables was four (service quality, social bonding, packaging, and price) students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 375 suggesting that a sample size of 16 will be sufficient for the study. the sample size of 120 was, therefore, more than sufficient for the study. measures self-administered questionnaires were used to elicit responses regarding students’ overall satisfaction with the uew distance education programme. respondents were expected to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with certain statements about satisfaction. these items were measured using a five-point, likert scale with the following anchors: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. we also collected data on two separate factors that are related to satisfaction (i.e. positive word of mouth and likelihood to recommend) about/the uew distance education programme. 4. results table 1: descriptive statistics and correlation matrix for cluster variables variable n min. max. mean sd 1 2 3 4 1. service quality 120 2 10 7.28 2.08 2. social bonding 120 1 5 3.71 1.34 .76* 3. packaging 120 1 5 2.72 1.37 .58* .46* 4. price 120 1 5 2.66 1.40 .74* .63* .76* note: sd = standard deviation; min. = minimum; max. = maximum; *p < .01 table 1 contains the detail of the data collected on the variables of the study which involve service quality, social bonding, packaging, and price. from the 120 respondents that participated in the study, the minimum score was 1 whereas the maximum was 5. it was observed that these variables averaged 7.28, 3.71, 2.72, and 2.66 respectively. service quality obtained the highest mean with a corresponding standard deviation of 2.08. the c o r relation analysis in this study sought to establish the relationships between the variables to ascertain the existence of multicollinearity which talks about the extent to which a variable can be explained by another. this was essential because an increase in multicollinearity obscures the interpretation of the variate as it complicates the establishment of the effect of any single variable because of the interrelationships. tables 1 shows a significant positive relationship exists between service quality and social bonding, packaging, and price with .76, .58, and .74 respectively. this establishes a moderate correlation among the francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 376 variables of the study which explains that as service quality increases, it strengthens social bonding, packaging, and as well increases the price. hierarchical cluster analysis based on squared euclidean distance using ward’s method was conducted to group respondents. the analysis yielded three groups. the f-values in table 2 shows that the means of the three groups are significantly different in terms of the four factors that influence students’ satisfaction with uew’s distance education programme. the k-means cluster analysis was then used to segment students into groups (see table 3). the first cluster has 18 respondents and has relatively low means across all the factors that influence satisfaction with uew’s distance education programme. this shows that this segment should not be a likely target for uew in its distance education programme. the second cluster has 54 respondents. it is the largest cluster and is most distinguished by relatively higher means on service quality and price. the means for the other variables for this cluster are also relatively higher than the other clusters. thus, this segment can be seen as highly satisfied with the uew distance education programme and that uew provides high-quality service at affordable prices in its distance education programme. the third cluster has 48 respondents. this cluster showed average mean scores across all the clusters. this indicates that this cluster is moderately satisfied with the uew distance education programme. table 2 means and one-way anova results from hierarchical cluster analysis mean values mean-centered values cluster number cluster number variable 1 2 3 1 2 3 f sig. service quality 5.50 7.14 9.45 -1.78 -0.14 2.17 65.22 .000 social bonding 2.44 3.76 5.00 -1.27 0.05 1.29 65.91 .000 packaging 1.11 2.94 4.12 -1.61 0.22 1.40 80.24 .000 price 1.08 2.71 4.30 -1.58 0.05 1.64 89.34 .000 cluster size (n) 36 51 33 36 51 33 students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 377 table 3 means and one-way anova results from k-means cluster analysis mean values mean-centered values cluster number cluster number variable 1 2 3 1 2 3 f sig. service quality 3.61 8.94 6.79 -3.67 1.66 -0.49 212.51 .000 social bonding 1.56 4.57 3.54 -2.15 0.86 -0.16 83.66 .000 packaging 1.44 3.78 2.00 -1.28 1.06 -0.72 61.06 .000 price 1.17 3.98 1.73 -1.49 1.32 -0.93 180.79 .000 cluster size (n) 18 54 48 18 54 48 we further collected data on positive word of mouth and the likelihood to recommend uew to test the validity of the cluster. the results (see table 4) show that the overall manova model is significant (f = .203, df = 3, p = .000) table 4 manova results assessing cluster solution criterion validity variable cluster cluster multivariate f univariate f p number mean (wilks’ lambda) .203 .000 positive word of mouth 1 1.59 70.091 .000 2 3.94 3 2.38 likelihood to recommend 1 1.46 146.152 .000 2 4.44 3 2.83 ______________________________________________________________________________ note: multivariate f has 3 degrees of freedom; univariate f has 2 degrees of freedom 5. discussions and conclusions tables 2 and 3 above display the results of the hierarchical and non-hierarchical k-means cluster analysis using simple euclidean distance as the similarity measure to conduct and specify a threefrancis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 378 cluster solution and the initial cluster centres that were generated from the hierarchical cluster analysis. the three factors were drawn based on the results from the hierarchical cluster solutions to affect the non-hierarchical cluster. these clusters which are the segments as regards the study comprises of highly satisfied, moderately satisfied, and least satisfied. hair et al. (2012) state cluster size and significance of clustering variable differences as the two distinguished differences between the hierarchical and non-hierarchical results. comparing the results from the two solutions, non-hierarchical cluster sizes produced 18, 54, and 48 as against 36, 51, and 33 for the hierarchical and this is attributed to the fact that the non-hierarchical is able to redistribute observations among its clusters and also has the ability to demarcate clusters that are most distinctive than the hierarchical solutions. table 3 contains anova results that project the variations among variable means across the three clusters. the results are expected to be statistically significant because the clusters were formed from the four-clustering variables (hair et al., 2014). the fvalues specify that all four variables are significantly different. predominantly, service quality and price have very large fvalues (of 212.51, and 180.79) respectively. the non-hierarchical results suggest that the cluster solution is satisfactorily discriminating observations. the first cluster has 18 observations and is distinguished by relatively low means for social bonding, packaging, and price. the only exception is service quality, but it recorded the lowest among all the clusters. this implies that generally, the cluster is a representation of a market segment touted as underperforming. where students are least satisfied mainly in social bonding, packaging, and price of the uew distance education programme and the overall lower means suggest that this segment should not be considered as a probable target for the institution. the second cluster has 54 observations and is distinguished by comparatively higher means on service quality and price. this is interpreted as a segment touted as one in which uew scores highly satisfactory with its distance education programme by providing high-quality service at an affordable price. uew will be right to conclude that the segment is as well favourable for other variables like social bonding and packaging because they have higher means compared to all other segments, and it is the highest segment by far. the final cluster has 48 observations and is distinguished by a higher mean for service quality. however, it falls behind cluster 2 in the pecking order in terms of the high means but students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 379 comes before cluster 1 and for that reason automatically positioned the average segment. this implies that students from this cluster are satisfied with the quality of the uew distance education programme but are not happy with the packaging and the tuition fees charged. bonding becomes somewhat difficult, and for that reason, the segment is a moderately satisfied one. nonetheless, uew can improve service quality and other variables to turn the tables. table 4 estimates a manova model using two criterion validity variables as the dependent and cluster segment membership as the independent variables. this was done because a correlation was established among the dependent variables (hair et al., 2014). the criterion variables in this case were the positive word of mouth and the likelihood to recommend uew to test the validity of the cluster. the overall effect was significant at (f = .203, df = 3, p = .000) which provides grounds for the variables to be predicted by knowing which segment a student belongs to. the individual f-values were all significant and they validated the findings (f=70.091, 146.152; p=0.000, 0.000) for positive word of mouth and likely to recommend respectively. the current study classified 120 students of the uew distance learning based on the preferences that influence their choice of distance education in ghana. respondents were segmented into three clusters that comprised of highly, moderately, and least satisfied based on four preferences (price, quality, packaging, and social bonding) that influenced their satisfaction with the distance education programme of uew. in all, 18 of the respondents were in the segment of least satisfied, 54 were highly satisfied, and 48 were in the segment of moderately satisfied. in addition to differences in the mean values of the clustering variables, there were statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of positive word of mouth and likely to recommend uew to others. the results from the study observed both differences and similarities in customer satisfaction among the three segments. the findings ranked cluster two as the highest among the three. it made 54 observations and is distinguished by comparatively higher means on service quality and price. meanwhile, all the other variables recorded higher means in this segment that exceeded all the other segments implying that uew highly satisfies the segment with its distance education programme by providing affordable high-quality services. the results are in line with the argument of heskett et al., (1994) that service quality drives customer satisfaction which in turn creates customer loyalty leading to growth. additionally, the quality of the service serves as francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 380 a key predictor of customer satisfaction because it is positioned between the continuum of customer’s expectations and the actual perception of the service performance (bitner et al., 1990; parasuraman et al., 1985). in such instances, customers employ price in their evaluation and judgement of product and service quality of which availability and affordability are central for the price to be considered as reasonable (wang, 2006; kotler & keller, 2009). importantly, the attitude of the students in this segment demonstrates that the perception of a customer is for the price charged to match the quality delivered (oliver, 1997). the findings of the study also revealed that cluster 3 which represented the moderately satisfied segment emerged closely after cluster 2 with 48 respondents. service quality among the other variables recorded a higher mean value less than that of cluster 2 but greater than cluster 1 and the remaining variables were marginally differentiated among members of the segment. this implies that uew satisfies this segment moderately with moderate prices and a moderation impact of packaging and social bonding. this is in line with previous postulations from researchers that when a customer perceives the fairness of the price given by the service provider, it develops positive feelings toward the service provider gradually which in turn evolved into a behavioural intention (yieh et al., 2007) and the satisfaction of the customer due to value placed on the service received (lenka et al., 2009; kaura & datta, 2012). this segment is placed at the mid-point of the continuum where members are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with the distance education programme that uew delivers. the institution can employ some business strategies to target this segment to convert them into profitable customers in the future. finally, the last cluster realised 18 respondents who have the least satisfaction as regards the services of the uew distance education programme. the members had similarities among all the other variables (social bonding, packaging, and price) with service quality as the only exception. although service quality was differentiated among the other variables, it was the least of all the segments. this segment was the least among the three and the implication is that the members are the least satisfied with all the offerings of uew and for that reason targeting it for future growth will be a misplaced priority. our findings further reveal that the strongest relationships among the variables existed between service quality, price and customer satisfaction. this affirms prior studies which argue that service quality dimensions have a positive impact on customer satisfaction except for students’ perspectives on satisfaction with distance education in ghana: a cluster analysis ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 381 tangibility (lenka et al., 2009; kaura & datta, 2012; kapiki, 2012; see also, kaura, 2013 who made a similar observation in the banking sector; walsh et al., 2006; and wood, 2008). the findings further confirm price as a factor that significantly influences customer satisfaction particularly in the service industry (singh & sirdeshmukh, 2000; jiang & rosenbloom, 2005; han & ryu, 2009). nonetheless, the success of price effects hinges on the perception of the customer regarding value creation and fairness of price that produces positive behaviour toward future actions (yieh et al., 2007; kaura, 2013). although packaging and social bonding were among the variables of the study, they had minimal impact on the students across all the segments. finally, the respondents varied significantly among the various segments as regard positive word of mouth and likelihood to recommend uew distance learning to others and the results are consistent with the argument of brown, barry, dacin, and gunst (2005) that positive word of mouth accompanied by recommendation are bye products of customer satisfaction, commitment, and recognition that usually occur from a previous experience (wilson & peterson, 1989). additionally, word of mouth communication influences the decision-making process of consumers in their purchases because the information from colleagues is deemed as much more credible than that of the organisation (mangold, miller, & brockway, 1999). in conclusion, we argue that uew must take advantage of the significant impact of service quality and price factors on customer satisfaction that runs through all the segments to develop and implement strategic decisions to achieve a competitive advantage in the distance education market. 6. limitations and future research we like to draw attention to some limitations of the study. first, the study did not include all variables potentially related to students’ satisfaction in distance education, although it covered all the variables of interest in this particular context. further research can look at other variables that influence students' satisfaction (e.g. corporate image, reputation, learning environment). this will help provide a more holistic view and understanding of student satisfaction. second, this study focused on only one study century, the kumasi girls study center in ghana. future researchers who are interested in students’ satisfaction with distance learning education might include other study centers to increase the sample size and broaden the scope of the study. finally, the study did not explore the potential role of lecturers in students' satisfaction in distance education. future studies might bring new light to this matter by looking at lecturers’ role in students’ satisfaction. francis owusu mensah, kingsley agyapong, & augustine acheampong ajote vol. 10. no.1 (2021), 365-391 382 references adelina, b & morgan, h (2007). consumer buying behaviour and perception toward retail brand baby products. journal of brand management, 8 (3). agwu, m. e., carter, a. l., & murray, p. j. 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(2000). services marketing: integrating customer focus across the firm, (2nd ed.), boston, m.a: irwin/ mcgraw-hill author contribution o francis owusu mensah: introduction, literature review, discussion, and conclusion. o kingsley agyapong: literature review, methodology, discussion, and conclusion. o augustine acheampong: data analysis, discussion, and conclusion. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 195-221 maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: student-teachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy festo nguru the university of dodoma, tanzania abstract there is a lack of clarity about the role of practical work in promoting learning and thinking, due to mediocrity in the way it is being handled. this study used mixed methods design to develop through microteaching, lsp integrated practical work to explore its characteristics in order to examine how the student-teachers adapted to the pedagogy in relation to its efficacy in developing science, english language, and pedagogy. the research was conducted at the university of dodoma. the study involved 63 student-teachers and five lecturers with different specializations. the study was carried out in three cycles at the college of education. it involved the second-year students who were studying bachelor of education in science, who undertook a physics teaching methods course. review of lesson plans, achievement tests, classroom observations, and interviews with student-teachers, together with focus group discussions among the lecturers, were used to collect data. the qualitative data were analysed using the thematic analysis approach, while the quantitative data were analysed through repeated measures t-test. the student-teachers were able to plan and implement lsp practical lessons in which case students reported to have enjoyed their participation, sharing of experiences, and the bilingual classrooms. the findings from the repeated measures t-test show that there was a significant rise in the mean scores from pre-test (67.9) to the post-test (80.2), with very much reduced variability (sd) of scores among students from 24.9 (pre-test) to 6.6 (post-test). from interviews with 8 case students after each lesson, it was concluded that the students improved in science content, english language competence, and pedagogy. festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 196 keywords: language supportive practical work; language supportive pedagogy; pre-service science teacher education; secondary science education; collaborative science teacher development 1. background to the study 1.1 introduction many scientists and science educators acknowledge that practical work occupies the central place in science education. according to millar (2004), practical work refers to any teaching and learning activity in which students are involved in observing or manipulating real objects and materials they are studying. practical experiences are essential for understanding science. however, there is a debate on the efficacy of practical work in elementary education (abrahams & millar, 2008; hodson, 1998; millar, le mare’chal & tiberghien, 1999; watson, 2000). generally, there is lack of clarity about the role of practical work in achieving educational aims. white (1996), in his study, made a conclusion that there was insufficient evidence that practical work promotes better understanding of the methods of science and abstraction processes, make information memorable, motivate and reveal links between topics. abrahams and millar (2008) claim that, the way practical work is administered cause a waste of time, particularly when students are engaged in practicing procedures of experiments, rather than learning concepts behind the phenomena. jokiranta (2014) argues that, waste of time may occur when practical work uses the cook-book approach without engaging students in thinking. this controversy about practical works is due to mediocrity in the way practical tasks are being handled in various contexts by various stakeholders. abrahams and millar (2008) argue that, kinds of practical work conducted are effective only in making the students do what they are instructed to do with the physical objects. they are not effective for promoting effective learning and thinking. they also observed that, there was little evidence that teachers are aware of addressing the cognitive challenge of linking observables with the ideas in designing practical activities for science lessons. thus, there is a need to improve effectiveness and efficiency of practical works. similarly, in tanzania, in general, secondary school teachers have been reported as less motivated in involving practical works in teaching physics. kibga (2013) reported that, in tanzania, there is a trend of poor practical experiences in secondary schools as well as in teacher education institutions. even when the teachers engage their science students in experiments, maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 197 practical and theoretical lessons are taught separately as two disconnected subjects (kibga, 2013). this tendency is most likely to make students work on practical activities without much reflection on the actions, thus resulting in poor achievement and insufficient to development of critical thinking (hinneh, 2017; kim & chin 2011). it sometimes even confuses the students (sharpe 2012). this study used language supportive pedagogy (lsp) in attempting to improve practical work in teaching science, making practical oriented lessons more efficient in the achievement of the educational goals and purposes of teaching science. language supportive pedagogy (lsp) is a pedagogic approach that supports language within subjects other than english language. it is a kind of pedagogy that supports both science and language learning. it builds on social-cultural, sociolinguistic and constructivist theories of leaning. the research comprised of an intervention whereby designed practical-oriented science lessons integrated with language supportive pedagogy were developed through micro-teaching. the aim was to explore the characteristics and effectiveness by observing how student-teachers adapted to the intervention. 1.2 theoretical framework according to piaget (1973), learners construct knowledge through interaction with the social and cultural environment in which they live. vygotsky (1978), emphasizes that, social interaction enhances construction of knowledge. knowledge construction is consolidated when our ideas are accepted and or challenged by others where they differ. “through social interaction, our ideas are modified and refined – and so are shaped towards a shared set that makes discourse and collaborative action possible.” (millar 2004, p.8). therefore, practical work becomes more effective when it is associated with discussion about the observations, measurements, and the outcomes of the practical activity. so a typical practical activity will be followed by a period of discussion of the observations and measurements made, patterns in them (such as similarities, differences, correlations and trends), and how they might be interpreted and explained. (millar, 2004, p.9). therefore, in a practical oriented lesson, students are expected to share their ideas about what they are doing, and the findings they come up with. science is the use of theoretical models and data deriving from verifiable experiments or observation to study the material world around us. making sense of the world involves using and developing language to communicate meaning (exploratorium, 2015). science uses language to festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 198 communicate observations. hence, science and language are inseparable. science students are required to speak, listen, read and write about science. de oliveira, obenchain, kenney, oliveira (2019) assert that recently there has been an advocacy for a shift of approach from learning language only in the language classroom, to language learning across e curriculum, whereby curriculum spaces are created in which language and content are integrated and coexist harmoniously across all school subjects. pando and aguirre-muñoz (2019) argue that, in teaching science, we should consider the social practice of scientific communities in which language is used in conducting investigations, making sense of information gathered, and informing the scientific community. therefore, teachers must provide their learners with science instruction that integrates both content concepts and language communication skills. thus, appropriate learning and doing of science should support the development of language skills, as learning and doing science requires the use of language skills. lunetta (1998) argues that practical task alone is not sufficient to enable students to construct the meaning for complex science concepts. according to nomlomo & vuzo (2014), research conducted in many countries shows that teachers and students who are non-native speakers of english experience problems in the classroom that uses english as a language of instruction. the same experience has been reported to exist in sub-saharan africa by milligana, clegg & tikly (2016). generally, many african learners are disadvantaged educationally as they struggle to learn through english, the medium of instruction which is the foreign language (nomlomo, 2007). according to de oliveira, obenchain, kenney and oliveira (2019), content-language integrated practice involves visualizations, writing (text production), oral discussions and kinaesthetic activities; whereby physical activity can take a wide range of forms spanning from physical manipulation of tangible objects as part of science inquiries to stimulate thinking and discussions. nutta et al. (2011) suggest a framework for creating effective environment for second language learning with five principles: the first principle is about providing the learners with many opportunities to read, write, listen and discuss oral and written english texts expressed in various ways. the second principle is drawing attention to patterns of english language structure. that is, while teaching the science subjects, teachers and students need to pay attention to the english language structure. the third principle requires that learners be given classroom time to practice their english productively. moreover, while teaching, give the maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 199 learners opportunities to notice their language errors and to correct them (the fourth principle). finally, the fifth principle states that,construct activities that maximize opportunities for learners to interact with others in english. nutta et al. (2011) emphasize that teachers and students should reflect on how they use english. furthermore zehler (1994) suggests some strategies that teachers can use to engage learners. these activities include asking more probing questions which require new or extended responses, creating opportunities for sustained dialogue and substantive language use, providing opportunities for language use in multiple settings, providing specific explanations of key words and special or technical vocabulary, and using everyday language. 1.3 literature review generally, science students, whose native language is not english, have limited language proficiency. hence, it is difficult for them to comprehend the science concepts which are communicated through english language as the language of instruction (nutta, bautista & butter, 2011). in such a context, learners normally face the challenge of accessing and constructing knowledge (thomson, 2012). secondary school students in tanzania fit into the words of nutta et al. (2011), who refer to such students as english language learners (ells) or speakers of other languages. these still need to learn more english to succeed in learning science at school. the tanzanian educational and training policy stipulated the use of english as language of instruction in secondary schools. due to poor english proficiency skills, students struggle to grasp the content of subjects taught through the english language, and this affects their academic performance adversely (heugh, 2003). learners’ interaction is limited to participate in social and academic life in the classroom since each subject has its own specific language i.e. its own vocabulary and genres of writing. therefore, teachers need to identify ways to support language development (thomson, 2012). mwinsheikhe (2009), conducted a study to investigate the teachers and students’ english proficiency in secondary schools in tanzania, focusing on science lessons. the author observed that there was deficiency in english competency among the students as well as teachers. teachers reported to have been filling nervous in classroom they were supposed to use english only. student participation was very minimal as majority of them could not express themselves clearly. only, a small proportion of students could express in english freely. however, when working in groups the students festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 200 preferred to use kiswahili. among the strategies the teachers used to handle this situation included code-switching and teaching english language in addition to the subject matter. low language proficiency in english was reported to limit learning in secondary schools in tanzania (rubagumya, afitsca, clegg & kiliku , 2011). however, qorro (2009) contends that while research findings show that the use of foreign language as a medium of instruction leads to low access of education; pressure from parents and policy makers prefer the use of english as language of instruction. among the reasons they give is that in this error of globalization and free markets we need english to interact with the international world. thus, currently, english is the language of instruction in secondary schools and higher education in tanzania. the tanzanian education and training policy 2014 recommends the use of both kiswahili and english as languages of instruction at all levels of education and training, including secondary schools (urt, 2014). however, recently no guideline has been provided on the use of the languages of instruction. hence, till now english is used as a language of instruction in secondary schools. milligana, clegg & tikly (2016) conducted a mixed method exploratory research aiming at understanding the pre-existing status of learning in primary 4 classrooms and the impact of the introduction of language supportive pedagogy training and textbooks, in rwanda. the sample consisted of eight treatment and control schools. the study involved the use of language materials by trained teachers in the lsp. findings had shown that teachers had positive attitude on the bilingual classrooms (kinyarwanda and english in this case) in the textbooks through glossaries and speaking activities. the language supportive textbooks allowed learners and teachers to engage with the activities and read the simpler content for curriculum understanding and language development. the learner centered teaching that involved talking, writing and reading facilitated learning. the findings suggested that language supportive learning can lead to significant improvements in learner outcomes and more effective engagement with subjects across the curriculum. therefore, science learning needs to go together with language development. recent research suggests that the integration of these seemingly disparate areas is advantageous to both (exploratorium, 2015). however, pre-service teachers are rarely oriented to the integration of language learning in the learning of science (cho & mcdonnough, 2009). milligana, clegg & tikly (2016) add that, in policy discussions in sub-saharan africa it is rare to find language maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 201 being discussed as an issue for all teachers teaching all the subjects to consider; instead is considered as the territory of the english teachers in the school to develop learners’ language. consequently, teachers do only prepare activities which help their students learn the subject matter. they rarely think about the language development potential that the same activities may breed. although mwinsheikhe (2009) puts and argument that not every teacher can teach english. it is the belief of this research that the science teachers may be trained to develop english proficiency skills, and while in the field they may be encouraged to collaborating with english teachers in their workings, and make significant contribution to the boosting students’ english language proficiency. 2. purpose of the study this study aimed at exploring the characteristics of practical work integrated with language supportive pedagogy (lsp), and how student-teachers adapt the model in relation to science learning, language learning, and pedagogy. this was an attempt to design practical oriented lessons to increase learning efficiency among secondary schools students through microteaching. therefore the study was guided by the following specific objectives: 1) to investigate the characteristics of lsp integrated practical work in relation to learning of science, english language proficiency, and development of pedagogy; and 2) to evaluate the adaptation of the students-teachers to the lsp integrated practical work in relation to its efficiency to learning science, language proficiency, and development of pedagogy. research questions 1) what are the characteristics of lsp integrated practical work in relation to science learning, english language proficiency development and development of pedagogy? 2) how did the student-teachers adapt to the lsp integrated practical work to enhance science learning, development of english language proficiency skills and pedagogy? festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 202 3. research methods this study used mixed methods design. as the study was conducted in the natural setting involving pre and post-tests, it adopted a case study design which was complemented with pretest post-test a quasi-experimental research design. yin (2018) defines case study as an empirical method that investigates phenomenon in depth within its natural (real-world) context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context may not be clearly separated. hence, the contextual conditions were relevant to this study. the research comprised of an intervention whereby designed practical-oriented science lessons integrated with language supportive pedagogy were developed through micro-teaching. the aim was to explore its characteristics and effectiveness and observing how student-teachers adapted the pedagogy. the data collection methods involved: pre and post tests for (63) student-teachers; observations and interviews to 8 purposefully selected students, four males and 4 females from high achievers and low achievers; and focused group discussions among lecturers specializing in areas under research, language, physics, and education. this study was carried out at the university of dodoma, college of education, in the year 2018 from february to june. the study used purposive sampling technique to obtain five lecturers and 63 students, and to select eight case students. the study involved five lecturers; three with specialization in science education from the college of education, one with specialization in physics from the college of natural and mathematical sciences, and the another one with specialization in english language from the college of humanities and social sciences. hence, the study involved multidisciplinary lecturers to enhance all the types of skills which were to be developed, i.e. pedagogy, content and english language. the study involved 63 second year students pursuing bachelor of education in science, and bachelor of education in science with ict programmes, who undertook a course with code number sc 221 titled physics teaching methods. among the 63 students, 8 students were purposively sampled as case study students. the list of case study students list comprised of four high performing and four low performing students. the details of the characteristics of the case students are shown in the table 3.1. gender was greatly taken into account to obtain the proportionate representative sample, whereby two high performing male students and two high performing female students were involved in the study. maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 203 table 3.1: characteristics of the selected case students case stude nt cs1 cs2 cs3 cs4 cs5 cs6 cs7 cs8 sex m m f f f f f m pre-test score /100 39.5 53 69.5 77.5 81 85 89 91 performance statu s lp lp lp lp hp hp hp hp key: cs – case student, m – male, ffemale, lp – low performing, hp – high performing source: field data (2018) similarly, two low performing male students and two low performing female students were also involved in the study. review of lesson plans produced by the student-teachers, classroom observations, focus group discussions by the lecturers and interviews to the case students were used to explore the characteristics for the model and student-teachers adaptation to it. achievement tests were used to determine the changes brought about by the model in relation to science learning, and development of english language and pedagogy. the research process prior to the implementation of the lessons a pre-test on physics teaching methods course was undertaken by all students to establish learning status of the student-teachers and to select the case students. the test was jointly prepared by the lectures in a focus group discussion. the test was composed of 114 multiple choice items on the key vocabulary rerated to physics content in secondary schools, and physics education. excerpts for marked script for question number 17 and 38 are shown in figure 3.1 festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 204 figure 3. 1: excerpts from the marked test items for questions 17 & 38 for pre-test (field data, 2018) there were also a few descriptive questions which could determine competencies related to english language and physics pedagogy. the descriptive questions included tasks related to state 5 methods used in teaching physics, and select one he/she considered the best and give reasons. in another task the student-teachers were given extracts of the topic of refraction from two textbooks. the student-teachers were supposed to use four reasons in selecting one text extract which was better for teaching form two secondary school students. the test was prepared and marked by all the five lectures ensure high reliability and validity. for the internal consistence of the items pre-test the cronbach’s alpha reliability was determined to be 0.813 which is high. three cycles of lessons were implemented and evaluated, the first cycle spent four hours and the other two cycles spent 2 hours each. the topics for study were chosen from the course outline. the topic for the first lesson was content number 4 which was about laboratory techniques and management. section 4.2 was picked which was about designing and carrying out practical works (experiments) relevant with the tanzanian ordinary secondary school maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 205 curriculum. the content for the second and third lessons was selected from module three. it was about approaches in teaching and learning physics. section number 3.3 of the content required the students to make classroom presentations (microteaching) of some physics topics from the secondary school syllabus. while the first lesson cycle was taken up by a lecturer, the 2nd and 3rd cycles required student-teachers in groups of five to prepare practical oriented language supportive lessons and presented in classroom for about 60 minutes. therefore, there were two lessons in each cycle. there were three types of objectives in the lessons: content objectives, english language learning objectives and pedagogy development objectives. the lessons objectives for the first cycle included: content objectives: by the end of the cycle a student teachers was expected to be able to: 1) compare and contrast practical work, experiment and investigation; 2) discuss the features of an experimental design; 3) explaining experimental procedures; 4) perform experiments relevant with the tanzanian ordinary secondary school curriculum; 5) write experimental reports. pedagogical objectives: by the end of the cycle a student-teacher was expected to be able to: (1) plan language supportive practical oriented lessons; (2) distinguish practical work, experiment and investigation; (3) explaining experimental procedures; (4) design, perform and supervise experiments for students in secondary schools; (5) perform experiments for demonstration; (6) write experimental report with both scientific format and language qualities;and (7) evaluate experimental reports written by students. english language development objectives: by the end of the cycle a student-teacher was expected to be able to: festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 206 1) use the vocabulary related to the key terms used in the topic / subtopic experimental design, procedures and report; 2) develop reading skills using science based practical work texts. 3) use of simple-present-tense in designing experiments; 4) use of past tense in reporting experiments; 5) use of passive voice in reporting experiments; and 6) write experimental reports using the scientific format using appropriate language. the lessons were prepared jointly among the lecturers. the first lesson on laboratory techniques was executed by one lecturer while being observed by the other four lecturers. the four observers filled in a special checklist as the lesson went on. each of the lesson observers was also assigned to give the lesson feedback at the end of each lesson. in the first lesson, three tasks were administered to student-teachers. the first task, students using think pair share discussed the contrast among practical work, experiments and investigations. for the second task the teacher, through jigsaw method guided the students in groups of five to discuss the features of experimental design: title of the experiment, purpose of the experiments and procedures were discussed. in the second lesson of the first cycle, student-teachers in groups of five were given experimental design to read and follow the steps of performing an experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity at ng’hong’hona village, where the college of education is situated. while doing the experiment the teachers passed from one group to another to ask the students questions about the aim of the experiment, the apparatus used, procedures they followed and the results they obtained. by the end of the session the teacher through plenary discussion asked the students to share their findings on the acceleration due to gravity at ng’hong’hona. finally, the students were instructed to write a report of the experiment, as homework, answering the questions about what they did, why they did it (purpose / aim of the experiment), how they did it (experimental procedures or methodology), what results they obtained (experimental results or data), what did the data tell (data analysis and discussion of results) and what they thought was the significance of the results (conclusion). the objectives for the second and third cycles were as follows: maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 207 science learning objectives: by the end of the cycles a student was expected to be able 1) to identify the features of lsp integrated practical lesson; 2) to plan an lsp integrated practical lesson; and 3) to implement an lsp oriented practical lesson. language learning objectives: by the end of the cycles a student was expected to be able to: 1) use the vocabulary related to the key terms related to the topic; 2) use the vocabulary related to the apparatus used in the practical works; 3) explain the procedures for doing practical works; 4) explain the observations from the practical activities; 5) report the findings from the practical activities; and 6) draw conclusions and deduce theories from the practical works. pedagogical objectives: by the end of the cycle a student was expected to be able to: 1) plan an lsp integrated practical lesson; 2) implement and lsp integrated practical lesson; and 3) evaluate an lsp integrated practical lesson. the second cycle was composed of two lesson presentations from the students. the content was extracted from the third course content which was about approaches in teaching and learning physics. the student teachers in groups of five were supposed to prepare language supportive practical oriented lessons which were presented in 60 minutes each (in two days). the first lesson presented by student-teachers was about pressure in liquids. the content objectives for the lesson were firstly to determine the factors affecting liquid pressure; secondly, was to be able to derive the formula for determining amount of pressure exerted by liquids in specific contexts, thirdly to explain the applications of liquid pressure in daily life. the language objectives included to comprehend the key vocabulary related to pressure in liquids such as pressure, depth, altitude, water jets, bottom and top. another language objective was describing appropriately the relationship between depth / altitude and density and liquid pressure. e.g. festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 208 liquid pressure depends on density. pressure in liquids depends on depth. pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth below the surface. in the first task the student teachers guided the students to determine the effect of depth in liquids using practical activities. for the second task the student-teacher guided the students step by step to derive the formula for determination of liquid pressure through writing in their exercise books. the third task required the students to discuss the applications of pressure in liquids. the second presentation was about transformer. the content objectives for the lesson included (i) to explain the structure and mode of action of a transformer; (ii) to determine the transformer equation; and (iii) to explain the uses of transformers. the language objectives included comprehending the key terms related to the topic, like transformer, coil, voltage, secondary coil, primary coil, secondary voltage, primary voltage, step-up, step-down, power, efficiency, welding, and laminate. the second language objective was to be able to describe applications of transformers in daily life using appropriate language. in the first task the student teachers used a diagram to guide students to discuss the structure and working principle of a transformer. for the second task, the studentteacher guided the students to deduce the transformer equation though step by step writing. the last task was through jigsaw method, the students were guided to discuss, write and present (read) the uses of transformers in daily life using complete sentences. student teachers were instructed to write full sentences. the third cycle lessons were also extracted from the third course content, which was about approaches in teaching and learning physics. the student teachers in groups of five were supposed to prepare language supportive practical oriented lessons which were presented in 60 minutes each. two of these were selected as sample lessons for this study. the first lesson presentation was about the phenomenon of reflection in curved mirrors. the specific physics content objectives included: defining, given a ray diagram, the related terms like concave mirror, con, principal focus, radius of curvature, reflections, principal axis of the mirror, and principle focus pole of the mirror; to determine the position of images using graphical methods; and discuss the real applications of the curved mirrors. the language objectives were to write and pronounce well the key terms related to reflection in curved mirrors; describe the position of an image with the appropriate language using the prepositions between, behind, in-front-of, beyond, at, etc; and describe characteristics of images using the adjectives magnified, inverted, real, virtual, diminished etc. in the first task the student-teacher provided the students with the curved maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 209 mirrors to manipulate and observe the characteristics of the image formed by them. then, using ray diagrams the studentteacher guided the students to define various terms related to the phenomenon of reflection in curved mirrors. later on, the students were guided to write sentences discussing the characteristics of the images formed by the curved mirrors using the adjectives real, virtual, inverted, diminished, magnified, etc. moreover, using graphical method, the students were guided to determine image position when the objects were located at different positions. the teacher asked the students to describe position of the images using the prepositions behind, beyond, in-front-of, at, between etc. finally the students, in a plenary discussion shared their experiences about the uses of the curved mirrors in real life, like shaving mirrors, driving mirrors, etc. the second lesson presented in the third cycle was about structure and properties of matter. the specific physics content objectives included: defining the term elasticity, using at least three examples, distinguish elastic from non-elastic materials, and investigate and demonstrate the relationship between tension and extension of loaded elastic materials appropriately (hooke’s law). the language objectives pointed out by the students teachers included: vocabulary development on the meaning of related vocabulary like extension, tension, elasticity, rubber band and spiral spring and their pronunciations, and discuss the hooke’s law. the student-teachers used buzz groups to demonstrate and guide their students to perform experiments to stretch elastic and non-elastic materials and discuss the observations and the differences. then students were guided to mention examples of elastic materials from their real life experiences. finally, the students, in groups of five, were guided to perform an experiment to determine the relationship between tension and extension. 4. the research findings and discussions 4.1 exploring the characteristics of lsp integrates practical works the first objective of this study was to investigate the characteristics of lsp integrated practical works in relation to learning of science, english language proficiency skills, and development of pedagogy. review of lesson plans prepared by the student-teachers, classroom observations, focus group discussions by the lecturers and interviews to the case students, the following are the features of lsp integrated practical works can be drawn: interdisciplinary collaboration among teachers: the students were exposed to the mode which required them to collaborate with other festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 210 teachers in other specializations, especially the english language teachers. the instructor needs to collaborate with english teachers to build his or her english language proficiency skills in relation to the science topics. the instructor may consult english texts and references like dictionaries for development of grammar and pronunciation skills. aiming at multiple outcomes: the lessons aimed at multiple outcomes; language learning, physics learning and development of pedagogical-content-knowledge. the lessons had three types of objectives; content, language and pedagogy objectives. lemke (1990) maintains that science lessons aim at learning how different phenomena and processes are expressed in scientific language. therefore, mastery of science involves learning how to talk, read and write about science. defining the key terms related to the topic or practical work design: the lesson involved the studying the meaning of the vocabulary related to the key terms related to the topics, subtopics and experimental designs. this was done through giving the definitions or interpretation or translation of the terms. translation (english-swahili translation) was employed by the instructors especially when the students failed to capture the meaning of some english vocabularies through interpretation. active engagement by students in reading, writing, practical activities and discussions: there was active involvement of the students in the lessons. the student-teachers were actively engaged in writing the lsp integrated practical oriented lesson plans, implementing the lessons, dong practical tasks and discussing the observations and findings of the practical activities. the students were involved in talking, writing and doing practical works. students were involved in writing out the procedures, explaining the steps to others, telling the names and functions of the apparatus used, discuss the results of the experiments, and writing the report of the experiments. language error correction: to curb the noted challenges, the lesson observers employed spontaneous correction strategy especially when common mistakes were committed by the students. for instance, the language expert would provide the students with ideal pronunciation and grammar deemed necessary. similarly, the students were also spontaneously assisted by the physics experts especially when some scientific terms were wrongly conceptualized. by the end of the lessons, a short time spared for the language expert to clarify language issues in relation to the errors committed. in addition to that, the lessons also involved practicing reading skills using science based texts. for instance, they were provided with designs of some experiments, whereby they were supposed to read and comprehend the procedures of the experiments. finally, the students were to practice grammar maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 211 while developing the practical activities and discuss the ideas from the observations and the results of the practical works. the grammatical errors were corrected immediately, in the talking or writing tasks. where necessary, the lessons included interpretations and translations of the key subject / topic vocabulary. worth (2008) asserts that when students discuss about science with their colleagues and their teachers, they make meaning from their own thinking, listen to the ideas of others, they become aware of multiple perspectives and can evaluate other’s and their own ideas. interviews were conducted with the case students immediately after each lesson. the interviews considered the things that learners enjoyed during the lesson, new vocabulary learned during the lesson, content learned from the lesson, methods that worked best for students, improvements for next lesson and language skills learned from the lesson. the interview guide is shown in appendix 2. the following are interview responses by the learners. in general in all the lessons students reported to have enjoyed the emphasis of the lessons on the relationship between the theoretical physics lessons and their applications in the real world through the use of real objects as teaching aids. moreover, the student teachers enjoyed their participations in the lesson activities, strategic use of kiswahili, and swahili translations. moreover, the students enjoyed student-presentations from their colleagues. the students reported to have learned about the relationship of the terms practical work, experiment and investigation, reflection by curves mirrors and their applications in real life, elasticity and hooke’s law, working of a transformer and its applications in electrical circuits, determination of image position through graphical methods, how to construct a transformer, how to report an experimental work. practical works integrated with sharing of experiences and ideas was reported to have helped the students to understand better the lesson. group discussion method also worked best as it helped students share ideas with fellow students in order to grasp different concepts in the lesson. observation method worked best because one could learn through more than one sense organ. the probing questions asked promptly helped the students to improve in thinking and speech/questions asked promptly. moreover, the strategic use of kiswahili in teaching and learning process gives a room for most students to actively participate in the lessons. festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 212 4.2 adaptation of the student-teachers to the lsp integrated practical works the second objective of the research was to evaluate the adaptation of the student teachers to lsp integrated practical works and the effectiveness of the model to learning science, language proficiency skills, and development of pedagogy. this was done through review of the students’ lesson plans, classroom observations, focus group discussions by the lecturers, interviews to the case students and achievement tests. the review of the students’ lesson plans and classroom observations show that the student-teachers were able to prepare and implement effective lsp oriented practical-based lessons. a lesson plan excerpt from the first lesson in the third cycle of the study about reflections in curved mirrors is shown in figure 4.1. figure 4.1: a lesson plan excerpt from the first lesson in the third cycle of the study about reflections in curved mirrors (field data, 2018) through the study, the case student-teachers reported to have learned the meaning of a number of vocabularies related to science content and pedagogy. the students also were given a chance to evaluate the efficiency of the lessons by providing their suggestions for improvement. they suggested that teachers should emphasize pronunciations through modeling. they also suggested that student presentations should be promoted as they increase students’ confidence in learning. in addition, they argued that discussions and reading practices in classrooms context should be encouraged to improve both reading and pronunciation skills. they argued that discussions promote the students’ reasoning ability and strengthen interactions. furthermore, they preferred that, teachers should always correct the learners just in case of mistakes or errors and encourage slow learners participate effectively in teaching and learning process. the students also noted that there was a problem of time management in lesson development, particularly in the first lesson. the teacher should plan a few and critical activities relevant to the learning as usually practical tasks are time consuming. it is wise to select only important activities found more relevant for the lesson. the case students were also asked to state any maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 213 language skills they perceived to have learned during the lessons. they reported to have learned correct pronunciation of many words, grammatical aspects in construction of sentences, speaking skills through presentations in the classroom, learning of the key subject vocabulary, use of language which is appropriate to the level of students, use of simple sentences in both written and spoken english. they also appreciated that the strategic use of kiswahili facilitated their learning of various concepts. the analysis of the post-test scores for the case study students was done to determine whether or not there was significant increase in performance from the pre-test to the post-test. initially descriptive section of the items and classroom observation of the case students had shown that the student teacher’s faced difficulty in expressing themselves. areas in which errors were noted included: omitting of punctuation marks and use of inappropriate punctuation marks, for example ‘…interactive method this is the sharing of…..’; lack of subject – verb agreement especially for third person singular, for example ‘…this allow…’, ‘it involve use of…’; misspellings, examples ‘…….it is less costfull……’, ‘….. by using demostration teaching method….’; lack of plural markers, for example ‘ ….method of teaching physics include….’ and ‘….. the following are the reason ……’. some high performing students appeared to use too long sentences without punctuation marks leading to confusion of intended idea(s). e.g. ‘…experimentation method is better because; involve the use of all senses ie. ear, skin, tongue and mouth which help student to understand better, also this method help teacher to easily explain some abstracts complex ideas, also by using experiment method it is easier student to memorize as they forget…’. table 4.1 indicates the distribution of both preand post-test scores for case students. the post-test performance was high for all the case students with higher gain for the lower performing students. festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 214 table 4.1: distribution of preand post-test scores of the case students s/no case student identity sex pre-test (x/1 00) post-test x/100) gain status 1 cs1 m 39.5 74.1 +34.6 lp 2 cs2 m 53 66.6 +13.6 lp 3 cs3 f 69.5 82.2 +12.7 lp 4 cs4 f 77.5 88.5 +11 lp 5 cs5 f 81 90.5 +9.5 hp 6 cs6 f 85 89 +4 hp 7 cs7 m 89 93.5 +4.5 hp 8 cs8 m 91 95 +4 hp key: lp low performance, hp – high performance, cs – case student. source: pre-test (2018) another analysis was done to compare the pretest and posttest results of all the student-teachers on the scale of 100%, using the repeated measures t test, with confidence interval of 95%the repeated measures t-test has shown that there was a statistically significant increase of the means scores from pre-test to the post-test. the number of students who attended both tests was 55. pretest mean was 67.9 and the posttest mean was 80.165. the standard deviation which is the measure of variability in scores among students show that there was a much decrease of the variation of scores among the student teachers. the paired sample statistics are shown in table 4.2. maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 215 table 4.2: paired sample statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 pre-test 67.90 5 55 24.9493 3.3642 post-test 80.16 5 55 6.6153 0.8920 the number of students n = 55 (m= 67.9, sd = 24.9) and post-test [m = 80.2, sd = 6.6; t(54) = -3.972, p = 0.000]. the eta squared statistic (0.226). hence, there was a significant rise in the mean scores from 67.9 to 80.2. the magnitude of the difference in the means was very large (eta squared= 0.226), indicating a very large effect size. the paired samples t-test results are shown in table 4.3. table 4.3: paired samples test paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 pretest posttest 12.2600 22.8899 3.0865 -18.4480 -6.0720 -3.972 54 .000 generally, lsp integrated practical works facilitated much improvement of language skills among the studentteachers. however, this microteaching with the second year university student-teachers whose language proficiency was more developed compared to the target students in secondary schools. the little benefit shown is likely to be magnified when working with the learners with lower language proficiency in the secondary schools. abrahams and millar (2008) highlights that practical work can be significantly improved if teachers and science book writers are aware that, the practical oriented lessons need to make connections between the domains of observables (objects, events and phenomena) and the domain of ideas. a similar festo nguru ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 216 study was conducted by callahan, sampson and rivale ( 2019 ) on activating bilingual english language learners’ strengths in science using the pedagogy of argument driven inquiry adi). the adi was done through eight instructional stages which include task identification and guiding question, method design and data collection, data analysis and initial argument development, argumentation, explicit and reflective discussion, investigative report writing, double-blind peer review, and report revision and submission. in all the eight steps the students produced spoken and written accounts of their experience. hence, through eight steps the students engaged with oral and written language, integrated with laboratory experiences. the adi instructional model was reported to be useful for providing english language learners with opportunities to participate in the practices of science while strengthening their english and scientific literacy skills. 5. supporting english language learners after implementation of the lsp practical based lessons the lecturers held a reflection meeting to evaluate the study. the following challenges were noted: firstly, most of the students faced the challenges of writing the language objectives as they were used to traditional way of writing their lesson plans which did not include such kind of objectives. language supportive practical lessons require more text books and reference materials with language supportive qualities. therefore, the implementation of lsp approach in secondary schools may be limited by the likely current shortage of reading and practical materials which are language supportive. they also highlighted that lsp lessons require careful planning and more time for organizing the teaching and learning activities. this integrations of lsp with practical works is more demanding than practical works which that simply require students to observe and remember the observable features of an event or process (abrahams & millar (2008). they also require searching for suitable materials and reviewing of the key vocabulary before the execution of lsp lesson. finding time for lsp facilitators’ meeting has been very challenging due to the fact the members came from different colleges and were being occupied by different university engagements. however, encompassed with high degree of commitment, the study was conducted successfully. callahan, sampson and rivale ( 2019 ) acknowledge that, if poorly implemented with little attention to classroom social dynamics, even the lsp integrated practical works might lead to exclusion of science students who are english language learners in the science maximizing science learning through practical work in secondary schools in tanzania: studentteachers’ adaptation to language supportive pedagogy ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 195-221 217 classroom. what is important for science teachers is to constantly questions and refine instructional practices. 6. conclusions lsp practical based lessons shared the following characteristics:as the lessons aim at multiple outcomes; language learning, science learning and development of pedagogy there is a need for the science teacher to collaborate with the english teachers to prepare learning experiences which aim at language learning and science content learning. the lsp integrated practical oriented lessons need to include interpretations and translations of the key subject / topic vocabulary and involvement in reading guides to promote reading skills. based on the study findings, it can be concluded that the student teachers were able to adapt well to the lsp integrated practical works as the lessons they planned and executed reflected the lsp features and were effective improving science learning, development of english language skills and improvement in pedagogy. these findings are similar to that observed by milligana, clegg and tikly (2016) that language supportive learning can improve language as well as other subjects across the curriculum. this kind of research may be scaled up to involve pre-service teachers, in-service teachers and more secondary schools. furthermore, the language supportive pedagogy can be included in the teacher education institutions and secondary school curriculum. the study suggests alternative bilingual classrooms, through the use kiswahili strategically in a classroom where english language dominates as the language of instruction. thus, the policy makers may formulate the guidelines for the bilingual classrooms in secondary schools, as already the policy allows the use of both english and kiswahili in secondary schools. 7. references abrahams, i. & millar, r. 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(1994). working with english language learners: strategies for elementary and middle school teachers. ncbe program information guide, no. 19. retrieved october 23, 2019, from www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/pigs/pig19.htm. . http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/pigs/pig19.htm the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh department of science and technology education, university of ibadan, nigeria. abstract the study investigated the relationship between locus of control, study habit, gender and academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis. the descriptive survey research design was adopted. seven hundred and fifty senior secondary two (ss2) physics students were randomly selected from 30 schools in the five local governments areas of ibadan metropolis. three instruments were used for data collection. the instruments are physics achievement test (pat) (r = 0.70), locus of control scale (locs) (0.86) and study habit questionnaire (shq) (0.89). two (2) research questions were answered, using inferential statistics of t-test, and multiple regression analysis. findings of the study showed that there is a relationship between locus of control and academic achievement [r=0.216, n=750,p= <0.01]. it was found that locus of control, study habits and gender predicted students’ academic achievement of students, with r=0.203, which is equivalent to 20.3%. this however indicates a poor level of prediction. r2 = 0.041, which is equivalent to 4.1%, indicating a very poor level of shared variance between the dependent variable and the independent variables. the study recommends the adoption of the instructional methods that will enhance students’ locus of control and the promotion of good study habits among senior secondary school physics students. governments, education administrators, and school authorities should consider the joint interactive influence of locus of control, study habits and gender when designing programs for physics. keywords: locus of control, study habits, gender, academic achievement african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 21 48 uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 22 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 introduction the importance of physics as a requirement for understanding the intricacies of modern technology and its essential contribution to technological advancement cannot be overemphasized. physics is the connection between science and technology. physics is the branch of science that deals with objects, energy and their interactions. physics principles are used by technologists to fabricate devices and gadgets that people use in all spheres of human endeavour like in medicine, telecommunication, military, transportation, just to mention a few. any country that desires technological advancement must take the teaching and learning of physics very seriously. sani (2012) noted that the study of physics can lead students onto diverse scientific fields and professions such as engineering, manufacturing, mining and construction industries. hence, the immense benefit of physics to the development of the society. according to nigerian education research and development council (nerdc, 2008), the objectives of senior secondary school physics curriculum is: to provide basic literacy in physics for functional living in the society, acquire basic concepts and principles of physics as a preparation for future studies, acquire essential scientific skills and attitudes as a preparation for technological application of physics; and stimulate and enhance creativity. as laudable as these objectives are, achieving them have been difficult over time. nigerian students’ performance in physics in external and certificate examinations has been a source of worry to stakeholders of education. below is a table displaying nigerian students’ performance in may/june west african secondary school certificate examinations from 2006 to 2017. table 1: statistics for entries and result for may/june wassce physics from 2006-2017 year no of candidates credit (1-6) in % pass (7-8) in % fail 9% total fail 2006 375824 58.05 23.15 16.52 39.67 2007 418593 43.19 33.48 21.13 54.61 the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 23 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 2008 415113 48.26 21.95 28.13 50.08 2009 465636 47.83 30.41 17.16 47.57 2010 463755 51.27 26.40 18.27 44.67 2011 563161 63.94 24.30 11.76 36.06 2012 624658 68.74 22.06 09.20 31.26 2013 636857 46.62 27.62 22.92 50.54 2014 644391 60.21 24.83 12.58 37.41 2015 605248 40.02 25.36 34.62 59.98 2016 666901 76.27 16.05 5.52 21.57 2017 704504 53.10 27.43 17.40 44.83 source: statistics section, west african examinations council (waec) national office, onipanu, lagos, nigeria table 1 above illustrates fluctuations in the outcome of secondary school certificate examination in physics between 2006 and 2017. in 2006, 58.05% of the applicants who sat for physics examination recorded a minimum of credit pass in the examination; in 2007, 2008 and 2009, 43.19%, 48.26% and 47.83% respectively recorded a minimum of credit pass in physics, indicating a decline from the result recorded in 2006. however, the results of 2010 (51.27%), 2011 (63.94%) and 2012 (68.74%) showed a steady increase. this was then followed by a sharp decline in 2013 at a cumulative pass percentage of 46.62%. the performance of students in the 2014 wassce showed an improvement from the previous year with a cumulative pass percentage of 60.21%, again followed by a sharp decline in 2015 to 40.02%. the pattern was repeated for 2016 and 2017 results, with the 2016 result posting a steep improvement value of 76% success rate and a subsequent drop to 53% in 2017. uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 24 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 fig 1: percentage pass recorded in may/june wassce physics from 2006-2017 these fluctuation in students’ performance as demonstrated in the figure above is worrisome and requires attention. the mastery of a subject is determined by the performance of the students in such a subject at a prescribed examination. the expectation for teacher-students interactivity is a successful outcome for learners. the expectation for students’ academic achievement occupies a central position in the educational process. academic achievement, frequently measured by the examination results, is considered a key criterion in the evaluation of one’s potentialities and capacities (nuthana and yenagi 2009). hence, the fluctuating performance of nigerian students in physics has been a major source of concern to science educators. several factors that have been identified to be responsible for this poor academic achievement of students in physics include students’ locus of control, study habit, and gender. locus of control the concept of locus of control was developed by psychologist julian rotter in 1954 (see fakeye (2011). his suggestion was that human behaviour is controlled by both punishments and rewards. consequences stemming from an individual's actions would then influence the perception of the causes of the events and actions. the concept was further refined in 1966 when julian rotter created and published a scale that measures whether an individual's locus of control is internal or external. locus 58.05 43.19 48.26 47.83 51.27 63.94 68.74 46.62 60.21 40.02 76.27 53.1 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 % pass at credit level the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 25 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 of control can be defined as the strength of an individual's belief in the amount of control that they have over life-affecting situations and experiences. individuals have varied opinions about who and what controls their life. some attributes the outcome of their endeavours to gods, luck or another person, while some will attribute the outcome of their endeavours to their own effort and experiences (ogunmakin and akomolafe, 2013). individuals who possess an internal locus of control typically assume that they possess a degree of control over circumstances and events that happen to them. however, individuals who possess an external locus of control believe that they have no control of what happens to them, which leads them to place responsibility and blame on external variables such as luck and gods. a student who records poor performance in physics may ascribe his performance to the abstract nature of the subject, inadequate resource availability, or poor teaching method adopted by the teacher. a student may say that it is of no need to study for a class test since he will still fail the test because the teacher does not like him. such student will not work harder or learn from previous experiences. these beliefs show his locus of control. fakeye (2011) carried out a study on locus of control as a correlate of academic achievement of students in english as a second language in ibadan. he shows that learners who have internal locus of control orientation believes that their aptitude are guided by their personal decisions and efforts while learners with external locus of control orientation believe that their aptitude is girded by fate, luck or external circumstances. research reveals that students who have moderate to strong internal locus of control perform better. the place of the locus of control in learning is very important because all things being equal, people will either see themselves as masters of their destiny or victims of circumstances. in learning situation, internal orientation needs to be accomplished by competence, self-efficacy and opportunity. awofala, awofala, fatade and nneji (2012) argued that possession of internal locus of control is essential for students to have a thorough understanding of science and mathematics. according to them, these students are more likely to develop an intrinsic orientation in which participation in science and mathematics tasks brings them feelings of competence, mastery, control and self-determination. in summary, individuals with internal locus of control are reported to engage in activities that will improve their situation; emphasize striving for achievement; work hard to develop their knowledge, skills and abilities; are inquisitive, and try to figure out why things turned out the way they did; take note of information that they can use to create positive uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 26 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 outcomes in the future; have a more participative management style; manage the drawbacks of a strong internal locus of control and, are generally more successful (awofala, awofala, fatade and nneji, 2012). individuals with external locus of control are said to lack competence, self-efficacy, and can become neurotic, anxious and depressed. they tend to be more stressed and prone to clinical depression, according to tucker. people who are over-dependent on external factors for motivation, are said to be more likely to become agitated when these factors are absent hamayan, and genesse (2006). awofala et al (2012) concluded that external locus of control makes people vulnerable to manipulation and open to abuse since such people would depend largely on the reinforcement by significant others for everything they do. conversely, those with internal locus of control are more at peace with themselves and they take responsibility for their mistakes and successes. it is believed that students develop internal locus of control as they grow. students with internal locus of control tend to have good study habits. significant relationship between locus of control and academic achievement of students have been reported by various studies (awofala et al 2012; akinleke and adeaga 2014). a study of orang asli students in malaysia by azlina, ma’rof, hanina and mohd ibrani (2015) indicates that the internal locus of control is significantly associated with good academic performance, while external locus of control related to low academic performance. this means that the achievements of students in physics may be moderated by the extent to which students attribute success or failure to internal or external factors, i.e., factors under or not under their control. contrarily, findings of studies conducted by reynolds and weigand (2010), dinçyürek, güneyli, and çaglar (2012) and oludipe (2013) found no significant relationship between locus of control and academic achievement of students. these findings offered a contrary position to the views of studies which found significant relationship between locus of control and students’ academic achievement. other similar contrary findings include those by omotayo (2012) cited in oludipe (2013), which revealed that locus of control did not significantly predict (r2 = 0.017p > 0.05) students’ achievement in economics. ogunmakin and akomolafe’s (2013) study of academic self-efficacy, locus of control and academic performance of secondary school students in ondo state, nigeria concluded that locus of control was not able to predict students’ performance. however, locus of control and academic selfthe influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 27 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 efficacy, when jointly considered, was able to predict students’ performance. this finding could be interpreted to mean that locus of control relied on other factors such as academic self-efficacy to influence students’ academic achievement. these disagreements call for further studies, especially for physics, which is the area of concern of this study and the reason for this research. study habit study is the activity that precipitates learning and gaining knowledge, either from books or by examining things in the world. effective study habit, on the other hand, requires that learners studies regularly to achieve maximum success in their schoolwork (ogbodo 2010). fielden (2004) in mendezabal (2013) observed that good study habits enable the student to critically reflect on skills outcomes such as selecting, analysing, critiquing, and synthesizing. adeyemo (2010) considers study habit as a well-planned and deliberate form of reliability that the student adopts to understand any academic subject. students with good study habits are able to evaluate the learning that have been achieved in order to make adjustments to whatever deficiency they experience (nneji 2002). successful students show a commitment to maximize learning from educational experiences, monitor their progress, and make adjustments in their efforts when necessary to accomplish their goal. an effective study habit is a behaviour embraced by students which serves as the vehicle of learning; it describes the degree to which the student engages in regular acts of studying, characterized by appropriate studying routines, including reviews of material, frequency of studying sessions, time management etc., occurring in a conducive environment (mendezabal 2013). study habit has been found to be closely related to academic achievement. some studies that examined the role of non-cognitive variables like study skills in academic achievement have affirmed their strong relationship with academic performance of students. a good study habit is thus important for academic success, especially in a technical subject like physics where more time, dedication and energy are needed to decode the technicalities, terminologies and the abstract nature of the subject. in a study that examined the usefulness of instilling good study habits in students as a means of enhancing their academic performance, osa-edoh and alutu (2012) found significant relationship between the two variables. his study suggests that it is only when students cultivate proper study habits that their academic performance can be improved upon. a study by olatoye (2008) identified students’ study habits as main contributing factor in the prediction of physics achievement. uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 28 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 his study implies that negative study habits is likely associated with student lack of impetus to engage adequately in productive physics learning during allocated school time and during personal study time. a study by mendezabal (2013) on students’ performance in philippine professional regulatory commission’s licensure examinations by revealed significant positive relationship between study habits of students and their academic achievement. the study indicated that high achievers have better study habits than the low achievers. students who acquired better study habits scores have better performance in the licensure examination. a similar study by mahwish, naima, hira and wajiha (2017) on the performance of selected students of allana iqbal college for women, sailkot and government technical college for boys, sailkot, pakistan, also established a significant relationship between study habits and academic performance of the students. kalaivani and babu (2013) studied the success of selected higher secondary school students of cuddalore district, india in chemistry final exam compared with their study habits. the t-test that was performed for differences showed a directly proportional relationship between study habits and marks obtained in chemistry by the students. this indicates that students who followed a methodological study routine performed better in the examination. however, there are investigations on study habits and performance that have posted negative results. nouhi, shakoori and nakhei (2008) in their study on study habits, skills and academic achievement of students in kerman university of medical sciences, iran, found no relationship between study habits and students’ academic achievement. fakeye and amao (2013) study, “classroom participation and study habit as predictors of achievement in literature-in-english in selected senior secondary school in ibadan north local government area of oyo state”, concluded that student study habit had no significant relationship with their achievement in literature-in-english (r = -.042, df = 498; p<.05). this contrasting finding could be due to the nature of the subject of interest in this study, that is literature-in-english rather than physics. the result of this study could imply that it is possible for students to prepare and perform well in english language examination without following any particular study routine/habit. this finding is very significant as it provided evidence for more study on the relationship between study habits and academic achievement of students in other disciplines and population. the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 29 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 gender researchers hold contradictory opinions on whether there are gender differences in students’ performance in sciences (aina, 2013). aweriale’s (2006) study produced a conclusion that gender has no influence on performance in physics when the male and female are taught under the same conditions. the current study agrees with aina and aweriale that there is no gender difference in the academic achievement of senior secondary school students. female students have shown that they are equal with their male peers in academic exercises when equal opportunity to compete are provided. dania (2014) cited in dania and daniel (2015) also found no significant relationship between gender and students’ academic achievement according to the us national science foundation (2015) cited in jugovic (2017), girls and women are not well represented in educational and career paths in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem). the study by jugovic (2017) shows that in the 2016/2017 school year, for instance, girls accounted for only 0.1% of admissions into secondary vocational schools for naval architecture in croatia, 2.4% in schools for mechanical engineering, 3.5% in schools for electrical engineering, and 29.1% in schools for civil engineering. similar statistics was reported in uk by mujtaba and reiss (2012). the study revealed that boys reported enjoying physics lessons more and found physics more interesting than the girls. the study opined that boys are more likely to report that they are good in physics than the girls. similar studies have identified a predisposition to view stem related subjects such as physics as subjects designated for boys and men. for instance, francis, archer, moote, dewitt, macleod, and yeomans (2017) referenced studies showing that students perceive physics as a masculine subject. a study of selected students in akwanga local government area of nasarawa state, nigeria by odagboyi (2015) revealed that the mean score of students’ academic achievement in biology favoured the males. this is a disturbing situation which requires attention and further examination. corroborating the findings on gender disparity in stem education, seyranian, madva, duong, abramzon, tibbetts and harackiewiz (2018) found evidence of gender disparity among students offering physics as a course. the study concludes that gender disparities in physics both in terms of belonging and physics knowledge is a serious situation. uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 30 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 statement of the problem the poor achievement of nigerian students in physics poses great challenge to national development and is a concern to physics education. many factors have been adduced to be responsible for this trend and they could be grouped under teacher, school, government, home and student factors. most studies focused on teacher and material variables affecting the teaching and learning of physics. there is dearth of literature in the area of student variables affecting the academic achievement of students’ in physics. hence, the need for this study on the relationship between locus of control, study habit, gender and academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis, oyo state, nigeria. research questions 1. what is the composite contribution of independent variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) to the dependent variable (academic achievement)? 2. what is the relative contribution of the independent variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) to the dependent variable (academic achievement)? methodology the study adopted descriptive survey research design of the correlational type. the design is suitable because it enabled the researcher to examine the relationship between variables in the research study and to express the strength and direction of the relationship. this design cannot establish causality or time sequence because the events had taken place, but it can provide a good rationale for examining the predictive effects of one variable over the other. the aim was to examine the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable. research instruments three research instruments were used for the study, study habits (shq), locus of control scale (locs) and physics attitude test questionnaire. sample of the instruments are attached in appendix section of this study. the design, validity and reliability were carried out as follows: the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 31 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 locus of control scale (locs): this scale was adapted from terry pettijohn’s 20 item locus of control scale published by yemen and clawson (2003) and reorganized to match the level of understanding of the sample population. the locus of control scale locs contains 12 items. the instrument was used to find students’ locus of control for learning of physics. the students responded by expressing their level of agreement or disagreement on a 4-point likert-scale questions ranging from strongly disagree (sd), disagree (d), agree (a) to strongly agree (sa). to ascertain the validity of the instrument, copies of locs was given to experts in the field of science education and education psychology to establish both face and content validity. the experts passed their comments on it and made necessary corrections. the instrument, which contained 48 questions, was taken for pilot study and was trimmed down to 12 questions after its the validation. the reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach’s alpha and it was determined to be 0.86. study habit questionnaire (shq): this scale was adapted from virginia gordon’s university survey: a guidebook and readings for new students. the instrument contained 20 items covering four variables, which was used to assess the study habit of senior secondary school students. the students responded by expressing their level of agreement or disagreement on a 4-point likert-scale questions ranging from strongly disagree (sd), disagree (d), agree (a) and strongly agree (sa). copies of shq were given to experts in the field of science education and education psychology to establish both face and content validity. the experts passed comments on it and made necessary corrections. the instrument, which contained 48 questions, was taken for pilot study and was trimmed down to 12 questions after its the validation the reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach’s alpha. the reliability of the instrument was determined to be 0.89. physics achievement test (pat): this scale was designed by the researcher to enable him assess students’ physics content knowledge. the pat was divided into two sections, section a and section b. section a contains the demographic data of the students, which include name of school, gender (sex), class and age. section b contains multiple-choice questions examining student achievement in physics. the pat contains 20 multiple-choice questions with four response options a – d, constructed with table of specification on some selected topics in physics. topics on which the test was based were energy, waves, scalars and vectors, machines, temperature and measurement, motion, and linear momentum. uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 32 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 copies of the pat were given to experts in the field of science education to establish both face and content validity. the experts passed their comments and made necessary corrections. the instrument initially contained 50 questions which were trimmed down to 20 questions after the difficulty index and discrimination index had been ascertained from the result obtained during pilot study. data collected from the sampled population was analysed using inferential statistics of t-test and multiple regression analysis. these data packages enabled the researcher to examine the level of relationship existing between the variables in the study. the composite relationship between locus of control, gender and, academic achievement was investigated using multiple regression analysis. table 2 specification of items for topics used in the study content psychological skills k n o w l e d g e c o m p r e h e n s io n a p p l ic a t io n a n a l y s is s y n t h e s is e v a l u a t io n t o t a l energy 7 (1) 1 waves 15 (1) 1 scalars and vectors 11, (1) 1 machines 8 (1) 9,16,17,18,19,20 (6) 7 the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 33 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 temperature and measurement 10 (1) 1 motion 4 (1) 6 (1) 13,14 (2) 3,12 (2) 6 linear momentum 1, (1) 2 (1) 5 (1) 3 total 3 3 9 2 3 20 note: the numbers in bracket represents the number of items in each cell, while the subscripts represent the serial number of the item in pat. result and discussions 1. what is the composite contribution of independent variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) to the dependent variable (academic achievement)? table 3 summary of multiple regression analysis on composite the contributions of independent variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) to students’ academic achievement model sum of square df mean square f sig regression residual total 26.548 7626.315 7652.863 3 743 746 8.849 10.264 .862 .460b r = .203 r2 = .041 uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 34 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 adjusted r2 = .037 std. error of the estimate = 3.14317 table 3 above reveals that the model (locus of control, gender and study habit) when taken together was unable to predict the dependent variable (academic achievement, measured in pat), [f(3,746)= 0.862, p<0.01], with r=.203, which is equivalent to 20.3%. the variance, r2 = .041, which is equivalent to 4.1%, indicates a very poor level of shared variance between the dependent variable and the independent variable. this explains that 4% of the academic achievement of students in physics can be explained by the independent variables while the remaining 95.9% will be explained by factors not included in the study. this signifies a very poor relationship between the joint interaction of locus of control, gender, study habits and, academic achievement. 2. what is the relative contribution of the independent variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) to the depended variable (academic achievement)? table 4 summary of the multiple regression analysis showing relative the contribution of independent variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) to students’ academic achievement model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients rank t sig beta (β) std. error beta (b) (constant) 3.760 1.388 2.710 .007 locus of control .168 .032 .206 1st 5.310 .000 study habits -.015 .018 -.033 3rd -.854 .394 gender -.054 .242 -.008 2nd -.223 .823 the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 35 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 table 4 above presents the statistics of the relative contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variable when other variables are held constant. the most significant independent variable is locus of control, with unstandardized coefficient (β) of 0.168 and standardized coefficient (b) of 0.206. this means that for one unit increase in locus of control, there will be an increase in students’ academic achievement by 0.168 units. for the standardized coefficient, a unit deviation in locus of control will yield 0.206 deviations in students’ academic achievement. the least significant contributor is study habits, with unstandardized coefficient (β) of -0.054 and standardized coefficient (β) of -0.008. the result obtained shows no correlation between study habits and students’ academic achievement in physics. gender, with unstandardized coefficient (β) of -.015 and standardized coefficient (b) of -.008, is the second most significant contributor. table 5: comparison of academic achievement of male and female physics students group statistics gender n mean std. deviation std. error mean pat score male 381 8.8451 3.35679 .17197 female 369 8.5881 3.03485 .15799 table 5 above shows the result of an independent-samples t-test which was carried out to compare the physics achievement test score of male and female students. result shows that the male students have the highest adjusted mean score (ẍ = 8.85) while the female students have adjusted mean score (ẍ = 8.59). but their mean difference is not statistically significant. the magnitude of the difference in the mean of the score was very small (eta square = 0.0016) the finding of this study is in line with nejati, abedi, agbaci and mohammadi (2012) who investigated the relationship between locus of control and the academic performance of selected students of azad islamic university of yazd, iran, by considering the role quality of life and satisfaction with life. the outcome of the study by nejati et al revealed that locus of control significantly correlated with the academic performance of the students. also, these findings corroborate the findings of samayalangki and yodida (2017) which found that there was a strong uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 36 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 positive correlation between internal locus of control and academic achievement among college students in meghalay, india, from different streams, of both genders. the study found that there was a moderate positive correlation between external locus of control and academic achievement among the students. findings of this study is contrary to findings of studies conducted by reynolds and weigand (2010), dinçyürek, güneyli, and çaglar (2012) and oludipe (2013) which found no significant relationship between locus of control and academic achievement of students. this could be as a result of more of the students having external locus of control or it could be that the instruments used for data collection in these studies were externally worded. however, these findings offered new dimension to the views of studies which found significant relationship between locus of control and students’ academic achievement. result obtained from the study revealed that there is no significant relationship between study habits and academic achievement. mendezabal (2013) found similar result. the study by mendezabal (2013) shows that the students did not possess a favourable study habit. however, this is contrary to the findings of mahwish, naima, hira and wajiha (2017) on the performance of selected students in sailkot, pakistan, which found that there is significant relationship between study habits and academic performance of the students. the finding of the current study is contrary to the findings of nouhi, shakoori and nakhei (2008) and fakeye and amao (2013) which found no significant relationship between study habits and students’ academic achievement. the result of the study by fakeye and amao (2013) could imply that it is possible for students to prepare and perform well in english language examination without following any particular study routine/habit. this finding is very significant as it provided evidence for the relationship between study habits and academic achievement of students in other disciplines and population the current study also discovers no relationship between gender and academic achievement of students. this is in line with aweriale (2006) who also did not observe gender having an influence on performance in physics when the male and female are taught under the same conditions. conclusion the following conclusions were made based on the findings from the study: the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 37 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 1. there is a significant relationship between locus of control and academic achievement of the students in physics. students who recorded high locus of control scores equally recorded good achievement in physics test. this shows the importance of locus of control to students’ academic achievement. it implies that for students to perform well in physics, positive locus of control is needed. hence, there is need to assist students to develop good locus of control. 2. there is no significant relationship between the study habits of the students and academic achievement. students with low study habits achieved poor scores in physics test. 3. there is no significant relationship between gender and academic achievement. male students did not perform better than the female students. there is no significant difference between the scores of the male and female students in the physics test. 4. the study also found out that the variables (locus of control, study habits and gender) when taken together was able to predict academic achievement of students. the level of shared variance is positive, though quite poor. this shows that the independent variables when taken together can exert a level of influence on the academic achievement of students. recommendations the study therefore recommends the adoption of the necessary instructional methods that will enhance students’ locus of control. such instructional method should be the type that will avail students the opportunity to take on exercises/ assignments and individual task. the study also recommends that in order to help the students to be more successful in life, internal locus of control needs to be encouraged among students. this will motivate students to work harder for their progress with the believe that they are responsible for their own success or failure the study recommends that stereotypical association of physics with the male gender be discouraged in physics classes. also, female students should be given equal chance to play active role in physics classes governments, education administrators and school authorities should consider the joint interactive influence of locus of control, study habits and gender when designing programs for physics. uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 38 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 reference adeyemo, s. a. (2010). teaching/learning of physics in nigerian secondary schools: the curriculum transformation issues, problems and prospects. international journal of educational research and technology, vol 1(1), june 2010: 99-111 aina, j. k. (2013). gender analysis of students’ academic performance in physics practical in colleges of education, nigeria. advances in arts, social sciences and education research. © science and education development institute, 2013 volume 3 (5) may: 447 452, issn: 2276 – 6715 http://www.ejournal.sedinst.com. accessed thursday, april 23, 2015, 2:41:29 pm aweriale, p.e.o. 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(2015). influence of subject combination and gender on achievement of nce physics students in physics. international journal of social science and humanities research. 3(1), 169 – 174. available at: www.researchpublish.com dinçyürek, s, güneyli, a. & ça÷lar, m. (2012). the relation between assertiveness levels, locus of control and academic success of turkish language teacher candidates, sociology mind, 2(1), 61-66. fajonyomi, a. a. 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(2013). higher secondary students achievement in chemistry relation to their study habits. international journal of current research mahwish, r., naima, m., hira, t. and wajiha, n. (2017). a study on study habits and academic performance of students. international journal of asian social science. accessed november 24, 2019 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322206720_a_study_on_study_habits_and_ac ademic_performance_of_students mendezabal, m. j. n. (2013). study habits and attitudes: the road to academic success. open science repository education, online (open-access) e70081928. doi: 10.7392/education.70081928 mujtaba, t., and reiss, m. j. (2013). what sort of girl wants to study physics after the age of 16? findings from a large-scale uk survey. international journal of science education, 35(17), 2979–2998 nejati, m., abedi, a. a. and mohammadi (2012). the relationship between locus of control with the academic performance of the m.a. students by considering the role of life quality and satisfaction with life. interdisciplinary journal of contemporary research in business, 4(5), 254-263. uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 40 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 nigerian education research and development council (2008). senior secondary school physics curriculum 1-3. isbn 978-054-696-0. nneji, l. m. (2002). study habits of nigerian university students. nigerian educational research and development council, abuja, nigeria. nouhi, e., shakoori, a., and nakhei, n. 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(2013). predicting students’ achievement in physics using academic self concept and locus of control scale scores. international journal of social science and education. vol. 3, issue 4, issn: 2223-4934e and 2227-393x print osa-edoh, g. i. and alutu, a. 2012. a survey of students’ study habits in selected secondary schools. implication for counseling. current research journal of social sciences. vol. 4(3), pg. 228-234 reynolds, a. l., and weigand, m. j. (2010). the relationships among academic attitudes, psychological attitudes, and the first-semester academic achievement of firstyear college students. journal of student affairs research and practice, 47(2), 175-195. samayalangki, n. and yodida, b. (2017). locus of control in relation to academic achievement of college students in meghalaya. 4thinternational conference on multidisciplinary research & practice (4icmrp). pp 159 – 166. accessed nov. 25, 2019 from www.rsisinternational.org sani, a. (2012). role of physics education for technological development, employment and self productivity in nigeria. journal of education and social research, vol. 2(10), pg 166 the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 41 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 seyranian, v., madva, a., duong, n., abramzon, n., tibbetts, y. and harackiewiz, j. m. (2018). the longitudinal effects of stem identity and gender on flourishing and achievement in college physics. international journal of stem education. 5(40); 2 – 14. tucker, g. r, hamayan, e. and genesse, f.h. (2006). affective, cognitive and social factors in second language acquisition, canadian modern language review, 32, 214-26. yang, d. h. (2010). gender and classroom learning. psychology in the schools, 22, 08–2 uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 42 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 appendix a students’ physics achievement test dear respondent, this questionnaire is designed to elicit honest responses from the respondents and it is meant for students who are currently in ss3. in this regard, i solicit your honest answers to the questions below. the information obtained will be used purely for academic purpose. thanks for your anticipated cooperation. section a: (tick appropriately and write were such spaces are provided) name of school:………………………………………………………………………………… class/level of study: ……. sss ( ) age: sex: section b general instruction: the test is designed to assess students’ physics content knowledge. options a – d has been provided, choose appropriately. 1. impulse is : a. the product of time and acceleration b. the effect of force on a body c. the product of force and time d. energy e. none of the above 2. explain why the velocity of the gun is lower than that of the bullet shot out of the gun a. because the mass of the gun is bigger than that of the bullet shot out b. because, the gun has an internal processes c. because the bullet travels faster than the gun the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 43 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 d. because of the sound coming from the gun e. none of the above 3. a car moving at 50km/h is justifying newton’s first law of motion. a. true b. false c. not sure d. often e. none of the options 4. the difference between weight and mass is i. weight is a vector quantity while mass is a scalar quantity ii. weight is a for of force iii. weight is same as mass a. i b. ii c. iii d. i and ii e. ii and iii 5. i = f x t, where i = impulse of a body, f = force on the body, t = time. from this, impulse then means a. force and time b. the force acting on a body and the time during which it acts c. force of time d. force acting on time e. time during which force acts 6. a resultant force of 50n acts on a mass of 2.5kg, starting from rest. calculate acceleration produced. a. 20m/s2 b. 15m/s2 c. 18m/s2 d. 25m/s2 e. 50n 7. distinguish kinetic and potential energies. a. they are energies at work b. p.e is due to position while k.e is energy as a result of its motion c. they are both in motions d. all of the above e. none of the above 8. which of the following is not an example of levers of the first order? a. crossbar b. nutcracker c. scissors d. plier e. all of them 9. the velocity ratio of an inclined plane whose angle of inclination is o. is a. sin oo b. cos oo c. 1/sin oo d. 1/tan oo e. 1/cos oo uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 44 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 10. w hat is the lowest fixed point on the kelvin scale? a. 0 b. 303 c. 273 d. 100 e. 173 11. determine the resultant of two forces 5n and 7n, acting on a body from a point if they act in the same direction a. 2n b. 12n c. 35n d. 13n e. -2n 12. a stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity um/s. it reaches a maximum height and returns to the ground. derive an expression the maximum height… a. h= u2/2g b. h=2g/u2 c. h=u/2g d.h=0 e. 2ug 13. deduce the expression for the velocity acquired in a distance s, by a body which starts with a velocity u and moves with a uniform acceleration a. a. v2=u2+2as b. v=u+at c. v2=u2+2gh d.v=2gh e. v= ut + 2at2 14. deduce the expression for the velocity acquired in a time t for the body with initial velocity u and uniformly accelerated a. a. v2=u2+2as b. v=u+at c. v2=u2+2gh d.v=2gh e. v= ut + 2at2 15. transverse wave is an example of….... a. progressive wave b. interference c. frequency d. longitudinal wave e. wave on water 16. two forces, whose resultant is 100 n, are perpendicular to each other. if one of them makes an angle of 60o with the resultant, calculate its magnitude: (sin 60o = 0.8660, cos 60o = 0.5000) a. 200.0 n b. 86.6 n c. 173.2 n d. 115.5 n e. 50n 17. a machine with a velocity ratio of 30 moves a load of 3000 n when an effort of 200 n is applied. the efficiency of the machine is a. 30o/o b. 50 o/o c. 60 o/o d. 25 o/o e. 40% the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 45 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 18. the efficiency of a wheel and axle system is 80% and the radius of wheel to radius of axle is 4:1. in order to lift a mass of 20kg, the effort required is a. 60 n b. 32.5 n c. 62.5 n d. 250 n e. 80n 19. a plane inclined at an angle 30o to the horizontal has an efficiency of 60%. the force parallel to the plane required to push a load of 120 n uniformly up the plane is ? a. 60 n b. 100 n c. 120 n d. 200 n e. 140 n 20. t he velocity ratio of an inclined plane whose angle of inclination is 0o is a. sin 0 b. cos 0 c. tan 0 d. 1/ cos 0 e. 1/sin 0 uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 46 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 appendix b students’ questionnaire on study habit and locus of control test general instruction: the questions below are designed to assess the relationship between students’ study habit. the response keys are sd = strongly disagree, d = disagree, a = agree, sa = strongly agree. s/no items sd d a sa time management 1 i make my personal study timetable for each term. 2 i reschedule the time table every week if i miss my study time 3 i study for at least 2 hours every night. 4 i stipulate my time for exercise and socialization with my friends 5 i love spending enough time chatting and playing with my friends. study environment 6 i have a special place that i go to read. 7 if the place i am staying to read is too quiet, i usually feel sleepy 8 i cannot read in a noisy environment so i go to quiet places to read. the influence of locus of control, study habits and gender on the academic achievement of senior secondary school physics students in ibadan metropolis 47 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 9 i read in the classroom when the teacher is not in the class 10 i like studying in my bedroom test taking/preparation habits 11 i start preparing for exam from the first day of the term 12 i start revising for exams 3 days before the exam. 13 i belong to a study group and i don’t miss group meetings 14 i attend extra classes outside the normal school classes to prepare myself well for exam 15 i have a study guide. reading habits 16 i read before every class lesson 17 i can concentrate and understand the materials that i read without re-reading them a second. 18 until i read loud, i don’t understand what i read. 19 i adjust my reading style when i am reading literature social science, or science classes. 20 i prefer jotting down whatever i am reading locus of control test uchenna kingsley okeke & edidiong e. ukoh 48 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp. 21 48 questions sd d a sa 1 i usually get what i want in physics 2 i don’t really need luck to do well in physics 3 if i don’t succeed on a physics task, i tend to give up 4 my success in physics is by chance 5 everybody must work hard to achieve success in physics 6 i would not be doing physics if i am not sure of it 7 i deserve the respect i receive from physics classmates 8 people become successful in physics when they work hard 9 success in physics is by luck 10 persistence and hard work usually lead to success in physics 11 my physics teacher can pass or fail, depending on whether he/she likes me 12 i never knew where i stand with physics african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 2020 pages 120-139 effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria oladimeji, olaropo ibukun* & adebisi, thomas ajibade**1 dept of science and technology education, faculty of education, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria abstract effective teaching of biology practical entails the use of specimens. however, in nigeria, some natural specimens are difficult to obtain when needed, hindering the learning and application of science process skills. consequently, teachers resort to pictorial representation of specimen and to online prints for biology practical instructions. another possible alternative less discussed is the use of synthetic or artificial specimens. the goal of this study, therefore, was to examine the effect of using synthetic and natural specimen on practical skillsprocess skills acquisition and application in biology practical in secondary schools. it sought to determine the efficacy of using synthetic specimens to complement or substitute for natural specimens in teaching biology practical. the study employed the pre-test, post-test, control group, quasiexperimental design. a total of 212 senior secondary school (ss ii) biology students in six selected government-owned high schools in moba and ijero local government area of ekiti state, nigeria, were randomly selected for the study. the schools were paired and assigned to two experimental groups (using synthetic and natural specimens) and a control group (using conventional drawings). eight instruments were employed for the study and used at treatment stage. data collected were analyzed using analysis of variance (anova), analysis of covariance (ancova) and multiple classification analysis (mca). the results showed that there was a significant effect of synthetic specimens and natural specimens on the proficiency of the students in basic science process skills acquisition (f = 60.470, p<0.05). however, the mean gain of 3.884 which existed between the two *oio oladimejiolaropo@gmail.com **taa thomasadebisi7@gmail.com; adetom247@yahoo.co.uk mailto:oladimejiolaropo@gmail.com mailto:thomasadebisi7@gmail.com effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 121 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 groups showed that natural specimens were slightly more effective than synthetic specimens. the results also showed a significant effect for the use of synthetic specimens on process skills acquisition and applications of biology concept among the students (f = 74.773, p<0.05). the study concluded that synthetic specimens are equally effective as natural specimens in improving the acquisition and application of basic science process skills of students in biology. keywords: specimens, science process skills, acquisition, application, biology introduction the poor attention given to practical biology over the years in nigerian schools, has contributed significantly to poor student achievements in the senior secondary school certificate examinations (ssce) in the subject. west african examination council chief examiners’ reports (2014) noted that the low achievement of students in the sciences was largely caused by poor performances in the practical aspects of science subjects. enebechi’s study (2009) also shows that some biology teachers in nigerian secondary schools were not conducting biology practical sessions alongside every topic they taught students during class lessons. rather, they would wait until just before the final examination when they used the instructions supplied by the west african examination council (waec) for teachers to prepare specimens for the final science practical examination to conduct a last-minute practical session for their students. manalanga and awelani (2014) concluded from their study that absence of equipped laboratories, a lack of libraries with up-to-date biology textbooks, and the use of inappropriate teaching methodologies contributed to poor performance of the students. daworiye, enaregha and eremasi (2015), in their study of factors affecting the teaching and learning of biology in bayelsa state of nigeria, also identified the main impediment as a lack of well-equipped laboratories, inadequate teaching and learning resources, non-conducive classroom environment, poor communication skills of students and poor attitude of students to biology as a subject. review of literature the methods of doing science are through experimentation and applications and the teaching of science has always entailed practical sessions in the laboratory. laboratory sessions ensure that science process skills are part of science instructions. together with other physical science subjects, biology provides students with useful information that are applied to solving many daily challenges of life. biology studies living things: plants and animals and their forms, functions, characteristics, oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 122 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 diversity and relationship with their environment (danmole, 2012). the study of biology exposes students to a variety of experiences which helps them to gain the necessary knowledge and skills of science, but the teaching of biology requires practical activities to equip the learners with meaningful and adequate laboratory and field skills (frn, 2013). millar (2004) defines practical work as an educational activity in which students learn by handling materials and equipment, making use of them for observation and experimentation. practical activity encloses an approach to learning that presents information in real and concrete form; going beyond the abstract and theoretical mode of learning (nzewi, 2008). practical science activities provide students with tactile learning experiences; the opportunity to observe, touch, count, measure, experiment, record and make inferences. learners handle and make use of equipment for experiments; collect and analyze data, manipulate variables, verify facts and draw inferences from the data collected. this facilitates students use cognitive and psychomotor skills and the opportunity to learn at different stages of experimentation. it has been observed that students learn best by doing and they retain more knowledge by practicing what they have learnt (kolb, 1984; moon, 2013). effective learning in science is enhanced by high quality and appropriate practical work. students are excited and inspired to pursue science when they are exposed to relevant practical activities using proper equipment. practical work helps students to develop the skills and ability to solve problems scientifically (nwakonobi & okoye, 2010). science process skills are the skills used in carrying out scientific operations, generating useful information, as well as solving problems (aktamis & ergin, 2008). they are fundamental to science, allowing learners to conduct investigations and reach meaningful conclusions. the basic science process skills are the skills demonstrated in practical classes which include observing, classifying, inferring, measuring, communicating and predicting while integrated science process skills include identifying variables, making hypotheses, constructing tables and graphs from data, defining variables and experimenting (rezba, 1999). studies indicate that purposeful use of instructional materials have positive impact on students’ academic achievement by facilitating meaningful learning (demirok, baglama & besgul, 2015; palma, russo & egizio, 2017). instructional materials include all the materials which appeal to the human senses and enrich learning, including pictures, non-projected still pictures, projected still pictures, and motion pictures, audio materials and three-dimensional materials (objects, models, mock-ups or dioramas effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 123 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 etc.) (stephen 2016). instructional materials have to be available and utilized effectively for a successful practical class to take place. the use of instructional materials in the classroom promotes students’ understanding of the subject concept as well as facilitate retention of knowledge (olatoye, 2017). when students have the opportunity of seeing, feeling and touching the materials, their interest and concentration in the classroom increase (nwike & catherine, 2013). in a biology practical class, specimens are the major instructional materials that students work with. a specimen is an individual representative of a species that is collected for scientific investigation (ikin 2011). a biological specimen is an individual organism, part of an organism (plant and animal) or micro-organism used to represent and study the characteristics of the entire population of a species or sub-species. synthetic specimens are generated by redesigning non-living systems to represent a living system. it involves the use of artificial materials such as plastics, rubber, ceramics, marble to design specimens that look like a real organism. synthetic specimens are designed with the aim of providing artificial specimens that look like natural biological specimens to serve as an alternative to teach students in biology practical where the natural specimens are not available. they are designed in a simple and durable form that is easy to maintain and requires no preservative chemicals. the use of synthetic specimens thus makes experiments that would otherwise be impossible or difficult to carry out in school laboratories possible (european academies science advisory council, 2011). theoretical framework this study is based on john dewey’s theory of cognitive constructivism and jerome bruner’s theory of discovery learning. john dewey (1859–1952), the american philosopher and educator believed education depends on action. dewey viewed learning as a process where the learners use their own explorative discovery and reasoning activities to generate knowledge, according much importance to the learner in the learning process (dewey, 1966, 1974b). dewey was against memorization by repetition in schools. he proposed a method of "directed living" whereby students would acquire knowledge by engaging in real practical activities and demonstrate it through creativity. he believed that students should be given the opportunity to think for themselves and express their thoughts clearly. he emphasized that education should be based on real experience and evidence. this experience is more useful in a social context, such as in the laboratory during oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 124 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 practical classes when learners come together to share ideas, perform joint experiments, observe and make inferences. the implication of john dewey’s learning theory for practical biology is that materials (specimens) must be provided for students to work on in the laboratory so that they can have something manipulate with their hands. they would then be able to work in groups, interact and construct their own knowledge. this would facilitate creativity, innovation and insightful thinking among the learners, thereby turning the practical class into an activity center where the teacher now plays the role of a guide. this is a favorable environment for the more capable students to assist weaker others through cooperative learning in group setting. jerome bruner’s learning theory suggests that learning is an active process which includes acquisition and transmission of information, making decision, formulating hypotheses and deriving meaning from information and experiences. learners build on past and current knowledge to synthesize new ideas. bruner emphasized the importance of categorization in every aspect of learning. this is achieved by grouping and interpreting information in terms of similarities and differences. bruner embraced the method of participatory learning rather than one-way method of instruction where students are only passive listeners (bruner, 1979). bruner postulated three modes of intellectual development; enactive learning about the environment through interaction with physical objects and the effect of these interactions; iconic learning through the use of images and models; and symbolic learning through the use of symbols. effective learning is achieved when a learner utilizes the combination of concrete, pictorial and symbolic activities. these three modes of representation are integrated and translate into one another. these apply to all categories of learners including adult learners. the implication of bruner’s learning theory for biology practical is that teacher should let instructional sequence progress from enactive to iconic to symbolic manner. learners should be encouraged to find alternative ways to solve the same problem. also, learners should assume more responsibility for learning as instruction proceeds while rich and genuine supportive environment should be provided for learning. applying these theories in accessing science process skills in biology practical teaching will yield a lot of educational benefits like generation of self-confidence, curiosity, motivation for solving problems and ability to think creatively. all these can only be possible when enough instructional resources are available. effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 125 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 statement of the problem effective teaching of biology practical entails the use of specimens in order to facilitate the learning and application of science process skills in and outside the classroom. however, the practical class in most nigerian schools face several limitations to the use and provision of natural specimens for instructing students; ranging from unavailability of the specimens when needed to the problem of preserving available one. teachers have consequently resorted to the use of pictorial representation of the specimen as well as to online prints for biology practical instructions. there is therefore a need for alternative sourcing of specimens other than pictorial and online prints that could still be used for equipping students with the necessary science process skills. it is the use of this alternative that the current study investigates. the objectives that guided the study are to: a. ascertain the difference in proficiency of basic science process skills acquisition of secondary school students exposed to synthetic specimens and those exposed to natural specimens in biology practical; b. examine the effect of using synthetic specimens and natural specimens on process skills application of biology concepts among the students in the study area. hypotheses: the following hypotheses were generated from the objectives above: h01: there is no significant difference in proficiency of basic science process skills acquisition of secondary school students exposed to synthetic specimens and those exposed to natural specimens in biology practical. h02: there is no significant difference in the effect of using synthetic specimens and natural specimens on process skills application of biology concepts among the students in the study area. methodology research design the quasi-experimental non-randomized pre-test, post-test, control group design was employed for the study. there were three groups of students, two experimental groups and one control group as illustrated below. oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 126 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 table 1: groups assigned for the research groups pre-test treatment(x) post-test synthetic specimens group (e1) a1 b1 a2 natural specimens group (e2) a3 b2 a4 control a5 c a6 where: e1=experimental group 1 (synthetic specimens) e2 = experimental group 2 (natural specimens) a1 = pre-test for experimental group 1 a3 = pre-test for experimental group 2 a5 = pre-test for control group b1 = treatment given to experimental group 1 b2 = treatment given to experimental group 2 c = hand drawing of specimens for control group a2 = post-test for experimental group 1 a4 = post-test for experimental group 2. a6 = post-test for control group the variables in the study consist of: • independent variables which are: synthetic specimens and natural specimens. • dependent variables are basic science process skills acquisition and basic science process skills application. table 2: nature of treatment provided for the groups s/n groups male female total 1 1st experimental group (using synthetic specimens) 32 51 83 2 2nd experimental group (using natural specimens) 25 42 67 3 control (using conventional drawing) 21 41 62 total 78 134 212 participants the study population comprised of all senior secondary school two (ss ii) biology students in two local government areas of ekiti state, nigeria (with the total number of twenty-seven (27) schools in the area). the sample for the study comprised of 212 students in six ss ii intact science classes. multi-stage sampling technique was used as follows; two senatorial districts were randomly effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 127 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 selected for the study (ekiti north and ekiti central) and two local government areas (lgas), one from each senatorial district (moba and ijero lga). six senior secondary schools were randomly selected; three each from the government owned schools in moba and ijero lgas respectively. the six schools were assigned to three groups; a, b and c (two schools in each group). group a served as the experimental group 1, group b served as the experimental group 2, while group c served as the control group. experimental group a was taught with synthetic specimens, experimental group b was taught with natural specimens while the control group did not have any practical treatment and used hand drawings. the selected schools were far apart from each other in order to eliminate diffusion of information among the groups. research instruments a total of eight instruments were used for this study. these include two response instruments and six stimuli instruments. the two response instruments used were: 1. science process skills acquisition test (spsat) 2. science process skills application scale (spsas) while the six stimuli instruments used were: 3. synthetic specimens kit (ssk) 4. natural specimens kit (nsk) 5. conventional drawing kit (cdk) 6. teacher instructional guide on the use of synthetic specimens kit (tigussk) 7. teacher instructional guide on the use of natural specimens kit (tigussk) 8. teachers instructional guide on the use of conventional diagrams kit (tigucdk) 1. science process skills acquisition test (spsat): the instrument was developed by the researchers to assess students’ ability to use the basic science process skills acquired in solving biology questions. the spsat was based on the contents of what the students were taught and it contained thirty five (35) multiple choice objectives test items, each item having four options (a, b, c, and d). the instrument was developed based on the six basic science process skills. observing has 7 items, inferring 7, measuring 3, communicating 8, classifying 7, and predicting 3. questions were adapted from past standard national examinations conducted by the waec and neco’s oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 128 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 (national examination council) past questions. these two instruments were used for the pre-test and after reshuffling they were also used for the post-test. 2. science process skill application scale (spsas) this was developed by the researchers using bloom’s taxonomy (table of specification). the contents include: skeletal system in mammals, digestive system in mammals and respiratory system in mammals on the vertical axis, while on the horizontal axis are the basic science process skills (observing, inferring, measuring, communicating, classifying and predicting). percentage was assigned to each basic science process skills accordingly to form the total number of questions required. it consisted of structural in form of fill-in-the gap type questions, also compiled from waec and neco biology practical past questions, based on the contents that were taught to the students. total score was eighty (80) marks. table 3: table of specification for science process skill application scale (practical) content areas basic science process skills observing (20%) inferring (20 %) measuring (10%) communicating (20%) classifying (20%) predicting (10%) total skeletal system in mammals (50%) 8 8 4 8 8 4 40 digestive system in mammals (25%) 4 4 2 4 4 2 20 respiratory system in mammals (25%) 4 4 2 4 4 2 20 total 16 16 8 16 16 8 80 effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 129 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 3. synthetic specimens kit (ssk): these stimuli instruments were provided by the department of science and technology education, faculty of education, obafemi awolowo university, ileife, nigeria. the synthetic specimens used included i. whole mammalian lungs (with tracheal and bronchi attached), mammalian heart, whole mammalian thoracic cage, tongue, oesophagus, liver (with gall bladder and bill duct), stomach sac, small and large intestines. ii. whole mammalian skeleton (man and dog). all the parts were intact and could its individual elements could be detached as required. these synthetic specimens were engineered through the use of artificial and chemical substances to produce non-living matter that replicated biological entities and natural specimens. they were used at treatment stage for experimental group a after pre-test for five weeks before post-test. natural specimens kit (nsk) these are bio-specimens which included guinea pigs and rabbits (dissected with all their abdominals and thoracic cage contents displayed); whole lung, liver, stomach and small and large intestines of goat; whole skeleton of dog (all the parts intact) and some pieces of bones from a goat. chloroform was used to anesthetize the guinea pigs and rabbits before dissection while formalin was used to preserve them. the skeleton used was sun dried by the researchers and kept in a big dry carton. these stimuli instruments were used at treatment stage for experimental group b. conventional drawing kit (cdk) the researchers taught the students by themselves. the specimens where drawn on the white board for the students to see according to the topic taught. all the features of the specimens drawn were well represented in form of view (anterior, posterior, lateral, dorsal and ventral) details and magnification. drawings were used at treatment stage for control group c and these were done with the use of temporary markers of different colours on the white board. other instruments used include; i. teacher instructional guide on the use of synthetic specimens kit (tigussk) ii. teacher instructional guide on the use of natural specimens kit (tigunsk) iii. teachers instructional guide on the use of conventional diagrams kit (tigucdk) oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 130 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 these three instruments that were developed by the researchers comprised of teachers and students’ activities arranged in steps according to the contents of the topics that had been taught to the students. the instruments were used at treatment stage for experimental groups a and b and control group c respectively. validation of research instruments the content and face validity of the response instruments (spsat and spsas) were carried out by one expert in the institute of education, obafemi awolowo university ile-ife, and two others who are have graded biology practical for national examinations (waec and neco) for about ten years. test-retest method was used to estimate the reliability coefficient of the instruments by comparing the scores of the first test and second test for each of the instruments. the school used for establishing the reliability of the instruments was excluded from the final study. the test-retest reliability coefficient for spsas is 0.81 using pearson product moment correlation measure. spsat was pilot tested by administering the test on thirty-two (32) senior secondary school ii (sssii) students outside the study area. the data collected was subjected to item analysis, the difficulty indices obtained ranged from 0.00-0.75 and the kuder-richardson (kr-20) value was 0.63. based on this result, five items with difficulty index below 0.20 and above 0.75 were dropped from 40 questions, four were adjusted, after which the reliability test was carried out again. the final kr-20 value of 0.72 for the remaining thirty-five (35) objective items was adjudged good for the study. synthetic specimens kit (ssk) and natural specimens kit (nsk) were found to be adequate, relevant and in good state, so they were considered good for the research. the content and face validity of instructional guide instruments (tiguss, tiguns and tigucd) were also carried out by an expert in the institute of education, obafemi awolowo university ile-ife, and two other experts that have been marking national examinations ( waec and neco) biology practical for not less than ten years. procedure for data collection the research was carried out in three different stages: a. the pre-treatment stage: the researchers went to the selected schools to seek approval from the schools’ principals and biology teachers. the researchers then addressed the effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 131 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 students on what will be required of them during the entire research work. the researchers later returned to the schools the following week and administered spsas and spsat questions to the students. this lasted for one week. b. the treatment stage: both the experimental groups and control group were taught by the researchers using teachers’ instructional guides and specific kits for each of the groups. experimental procedure. the treatment for the experimental group a was synthetic specimen (ss) while natural specimen (ns) was the treatment for the experimental group b and the conventional drawing (cd) was the treatment for the control group. this stage lasted for five weeks. c. the post treatment stage: the spsas and spsat questions were reshuffled and administered to the students in the seventh week of the study. method of data analysis the data collected was analyzed using analysis of co-variance (ancova), multiple classification analysis was used to further explain the basic findings of the study. the hypotheses were tested at a significance level of 0.05 using a two-tailed test. results the results and findings of the study based on the generated hypotheses are as presented below: table 4: anova table of proficiency difference in basic process skills before treatment anova pre-test sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 225.345 2 112.673 1.405 0.248 within groups 16765.542 209 80.218 total 16990.887 211 table 4 shows that there was no significant proficiency difference in basic science process skills of the respondents from the three groups before the instruments were administered. (f= 1.405, p>0.05). oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 132 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 research hypothesis one there is no significant difference in proficiency of basic science process skills acquisition of secondary school students exposed to synthetic specimens and those exposed to natural specimens in biology practical. table 5: ancova table of differences in basic science process skills acquisition of the three groups tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: post test scores (by spsat) source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 1197.963a 3 399.321 24.526 .000 .261 intercept 2376.644 1 2376.644 145.974 .000 .412 pretest acq 486.540 1 486.540 29.883 .000 .126 type 516.967 2 258.484 15.876 .000 .132 error 3386.504 208 16.281 total 48263.000 212 corrected total 4584.467 211 a. r squared = .261 (adjusted r squared = .251) table 5 shows that there is significant difference (f= 15.876, p<0.05) in the effect of using synthetic specimens versus natural specimens on the acquisition of basic science process skills measured by spsat on the students; a significant difference. it also shows that 13.2% of the difference in the skills’ acquisition of students exposed to these treatments is accounted for by the type of specimens used as shown by the partial eta squared value of 0.132. hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. the degree of difference was then determined as showed by the multiple classification analysis test below. effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 133 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 table 6: multiple classification analysis to compare the proficiency of the respondents in basic science process skills acquisition multiple comparisons dependent variable: post test scores scheffe (i) type (j) type mean differen ce (i-j) std. error sig. 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound synthetic natural -3.8824 1.95006 .140 -8.6901 .9252 conventional 17.6957* 1.95006 .000 12.8880 22.5033 natural synthetic 3.8824 1.95006 .140 -.9252 8.6901 conventional 21.5781* 2.07765 .000 16.4559 26.7003 conventional synthetic -17.6957* 1.95006 .000 -22.5033 -12.8880 natural -21.5781* 2.07765 .000 -26.7003 -16.4559 based on observed means. the error term is mean square (error) = 138.132. *. the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. table 6 shows that there is no significant difference in the proficiency of basic science process skills acquisition of those exposed to synthetic specimens and those exposed to natural specimens (p>0.05) but a mean difference score of 3.884 exist between the two groups with those exposed to the natural specimens having a higher mean score. it also shows that there was a significant difference in the mean scores of those exposed to synthetic specimens versus conventional method (hand drawing of specimens) with those exposed to synthetic specimens having a higher mean score by 17.70. also, there was a significant difference (p>0.05) between the proficiency of those exposed to conventional method (hand drawing) and those exposed to natural specimens with those taught using natural specimens having a higher mean score of 21.58. oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 134 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 research hypothesis two there is no significant difference in the effect of using synthetic specimens, natural specimens and conventional drawings on process skills application of biology concepts among the secondary school students. the science process skills acquisition scale (spsas) was used to test for this hypothesis and the scores obtained from these instruments are presented in table 6 and 7 as follows. table 7: ancova table of difference in basic science process skills application (psychomotor skills) of respondents measured by spsas. tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: post test scores source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 13603.514a 3 4534.505 66.800 .000 .491 intercept 16813.177 1 16813.177 247.682 .000 .544 pretestspsat 2554.065 1 2554.065 37.625 .000 .153 type 10151.475 2 5075.738 74.773 .000 .418 error 14119.481 208 67.882 total 108297.000 212 corrected total 27722.995 211 a. r squared = .491 (adjusted r squared = .483) table 7 above shows that there is significant difference (f= 74.773, p<0.05) in the effect of using synthetic and natural specimens on the application of basic science process skills by the students measured by spsas. this shows that the application of basic science process skills of the respondents differs significantly based on the type of specimens used. it also shows that 41.8% of the difference in the skills application of students exposed to these treatments is accounted for by the type of specimens used as shown by the partial eta squared value of 0.418. hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. the magnitude of difference was then determined as revealed by multiple classification analysis. table 8: multiple classification analysis (mca) on application (psychomotor skills) of basic effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 135 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 science process skills of respondents. multiple comparisons dependent variable: post test scores (spsas) scheffe (i) type (j) type mean difference (i-j) std. error sig. 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound synthetic natural -2.6124 1.48198 .214 -6.2660 1.0413 conventional 14.4189* 1.48198 .000 10.7652 18.0726 natural synthetic 2.6124 1.48198 .214 -1.0413 6.2660 conventional 17.0312* 1.57894 .000 13.1385 20.9240 conventional synthetic -14.4189* 1.48198 .000 -18.0726 -10.7652 natural -17.0312* 1.57894 .000 -20.9240 -13.1385 based on observed means. the error term is mean square (error) = 79.778. *. the mean difference is significant at the .05 level. the multiple classification analysis test on the application of basic science process skills of the respondents shows that there is significant difference in the application of basic science process skills of students taught using synthetic and natural specimens (p<0.05). both treatments were more effective when compared with those taught using conventional drawing. however, there was a slight difference between the performance of students in the synthetic and natural specimen groups with students exposed to natural specimens performing slightly better by a mean difference score of 2.614. discussion of findings before the treatments were administered, there was no significant proficiency difference in basic science process skills of the respondents from various groups. the three groups were homogeneous at the beginning of the study. the results show a significant difference in the proficiency of acquisition of basic science process skills between students exposed to specimens (synthetic and natural) and those who had no treatment, i.e., the control group with conventional drawings of the specimens. the study supports olutola, daramola, and bamidele (2016) report that students oladimeji, olaropo ibukun & adebisi, thomas. ajibade 136 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 exposed to specimen in biology practical had higher science process skills than other students who are not. further analyses revealed that the difference between the two experimental groups (synthetic specimen group and natural specimen group) is not statistically significant. the threedimensional nature of the materials visual, tactile instructional both synthetic and natural specimens clearly helped to arouse students’ attention and interest in learning. both synthetic and natural specimens are suitable and appropriate, affording students access to all the necessary views of an object (posterior, anterior, lateral, dorsal and ventral). learners could also view the two sessions (longitudinal and transverse) as well as line of symmetry (bilateral or radial) where necessary when working with either natural or synthetic specimens. this finding agrees with ifeoma (2013) who found that there is statistically significant difference in the educational performance of students taught with instructional materials compared with those that are not taught with them. all this aligns with john dewey’s learning theory (1966) that students should engage in real practical activities with their “minds on” and “hands on”-i.e., as learners perceive the knowledge with their minds, they can also lay their hands on it and manipulate it. the results show that both synthetic and natural specimens increase the basic science process skills applications of biology concept among the students. this implies that students were not only able to make better use of their psychomotor skills but also their application of basic science process skills increased significantly after they were exposed to both synthetic and natural specimens compared with conventional drawings. conclusion and recommendations based on the findings of this study, we conclude that synthetic specimens are equally as effective as are natural specimens in improving the acquisition and applications of basic science process skills in biology practical. teachers should therefore be encouraged to embrace the use of synthetic specimens as instructional materials to conduct biology practical especially for topics for which natural specimens are difficult to obtain. the availability of synthetic specimens in the laboratory will facilitate teachers conducting adequate practical activities in parallel with theoretical classes. encouraging teachers to embrace the use of synthetic specimens in the laboratory will also reduce the risk of exposure to chemicals used in preserving the natural specimens (e.g. formalin and ethanol). the environmental benefit of this is that it will help to reduce the pressure of demand on the natural population of organisms that would otherwise be harvested for practical activities, thus effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 137 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 enhancing conservation of biodiversity. we recommend that curriculum developers proactively introduce the usage of synthetic specimens into the biology curriculum and, administrators accordingly to make synthetic specimens available to teachers to facilitate the process skills acquisition and application of students in biology practical. references aktamis., h. & ergin, o. 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(2010). effect of project-based, demonstration and lecture effect of synthetic and natural specimen use on process skills and applications in secondary school biology practical in ekiti state, nigeria. 139 ajote vol. 9 (2020), pp.120-139 teaching strategies on senior secondary students’ achievement in aspect of agricultural science. international journal of educational research and technology, 1(1), 19-29. olutola, a. t., daramola, d., & bamidele, e. (2016). comparative effects of practical and alternative to practical methods on students’ academic performance in biology. benchmark journals, 3(1), 67-80. palma, r., russo, c., & egizio, f. (2017). a better school organizational performance? yes, but how? contemporary educational researches, journal, 7(1), 35-43. stephen, u. s. (2016). effects of realia and models instructional materials on academic performance in physics among senior secondary school students in akwa ibom state, nigeria. international journal of educational benchmark (ijeb), eissn: 2489-0170 pissn: 24894162 torres, j., & vasconcelos, c. (2017). models in science and for teaching science: data from an intervention programme. international journal of learning and teaching, 9(1), 308-318. united states environmental protection agency, (1999). integrated risk information system (iris) on chloroform. national center for environmental assessment, office of research and development, washington, dc. waec (2014). the west african examination council chief examiners’ report. west african senior school certificate examination (wassce) may/june, 2014 underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ngozi obiyo & james inyama department of educational foundations, university of nigeria, nsukka. abstract this study investigated the factors associated with underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigeria. a survey research design was adopted for the study. the study population comprised 86 chemistry teachers and 1,180 senior secondary 2 (ss2) chemistry students including those with special needs in the 86 public secondary schools in ohafia education zone, abia state in southeast geopolitical zone of nigeria. the sample size was 456 respondents of 57 chemistry teachers and 399 ss 2 chemistry students selected through multi-stage sampling procedure. the data collection was by questionnaire and cronbach alpha was applied in computing the reliability estimate of 0.97. the findings indicated that the inability of teachers to improvise and their lack of manipulative skills, among others, are factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials. the researchers recommended the necessity for adequate provision of instructional materials in the schools and for teachers to ensure that these materials are effectively utilized. students with special needs should be catered for based on their individualized education program as stipulated by the national policy on education in inclusive settings. keywords: chemistry, utilization, inclusive, instructional materials. introduction nigeria was one of the signatories to the salamanca declaration (1994), dakar framework for action (2000), united nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (2006) and sustainable african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 8 2019 pages 261-280 ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 262 development goals (sdgs) developed by un in 2015; all of which stipulated that the education of learners with special needs should be implemented through an inclusive education (ie) approach. the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria strongly protects human rights, nigeria's national policy on education (npe) guarantees education for all without any discrimination, and the ubec (universal basic education commission) act-2004 emphasized free and compulsory education of all nigerian children of school age irrespective of their diverse needs. furthermore, the npe stipulated the need for inclusion of children with special needs. it also touched on strategies for reducing dropout rates in primary education (federal ministry of education, 2015). the core value of these treaties and policy documents are that all children have the right to receive education that does not discriminate on any grounds such as ethnicity, religion, economic status, language, gender, disability among others. students’ achievement (including those with special needs) in chemistry in public examinations in nigeria has been poor over many years (inyang and ekpeyong, 2000; igwe, 2006; waec chief examiners’ report for 1991-2008 and for may/june 2012; jegede, 2010; oloyede, 2010 and omwirhiren, 2015). in 2010, out of the 185,430 candidates that sat for the chemistry examination, 31.88% scored between a1-c6, while 68.12% scored below c6 including f9. from 2011 to 2013, the percentage that scored c6 and above were 30.98%, 30.69%, and 30.00% respectively while the percentage that scored below c6 were 69.02%, 69.39%, and 70.00% respectively. table 1: students, achievements in chemistry for wassce year percentage grade 2010 31.88 a1-c6 68.12 d7-f9 2011 30.98 a1-c6 69.02 d7-f9 2012 30.69 a1-c6 69.39 d7-f9 2013 30.00 a1-c6 70.00 d7-f9 underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 263 student enrolment in chemistry between 2005 and 2009 was poor as depicted by the number of candidates that sat for the subject in the west african senior school certificate examination (wassce): table 2: students chemistry enrolment for wassce years enrolment 2005 185, 883 2006 171, 638 2007 165,113 2008 160,002 2009 144, 372 2005-2009 325,115 (total chemistry) further, in 2012, out of the 1.67 million candidates that sat for wassce, 122,000 candidates had their results withheld due to examination malpractice issues and this was a figure said to have been higher in previous years, especially in 2011 (premium times august 24, 2015). samba, achor, and ogbeba (2010) had also lamented on the fall in the standard of science teaching in nigeria. nwagbo (2001) identified underutilization of instructional materials as chief among a number of factors militating against students’ understanding and achievement in science subjects like chemistry. mathew and onyejegbu, (2013) had observed that students taught with instructional materials perform better than those taught without instructional materials. the federal republic of nigeria (frn, 2014) in its national policy on education stipulated that the quality of instruction should be oriented towards inculcating some values which included acquisition of functional skills and competencies necessary for self-reliance. emphasis was placed on primary education but arbitrarily transplanting an elementary model of learning to the secondary level was not appropriate (kokoszla & drye, 1981). the gap in performance between students with and without disabilities was more pronounced and academic expectations tend to increase at the secondary level (packard, et al, 2011). chemistry had been made to look too abstract, difficult, and uninteresting. this could be eliminated or minimized by the use of appropriate instructional materials. mboto and ogar (2004), and arokoyu (2005) reported conceptual difficulties with various chemical concepts by students which affected their understanding and performance in chemistry. in an inclusive setting, this may be more ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 264 difficult for persons with special needs in nigeria. all students irrespective of disabilities were admitted in schools, but no special attention is given to persons with special needs. this may be minimized by the use of instructional materials for all students. students (especially those with special needs) tend to find practical classes interesting because they are actively engaged. passive learning through lectures may not provide a lasting interest in chemistry for these students in an inclusive classroom. instructional materials could help students, disability notwithstanding to connect to the object of study, and student participation may increase. this may help to increase their interest in the concept being studied (nwoji, 2011). empirical studies in nigeria and israel respectively by mboto and ogar (2004), hofstein (2004) and (2005), reported poor retention of students in chemistry. this according to laha (2008) has led students to engage in cheating or examination malpractices in public examinations which has attracted public concern and outcry in nigeria. studies showed that where instructional materials were available in the area of study, they were not properly utilized or not used at all. related but separate empirical studies by emendu (2012), nwosu (2010), asubiojo and aladejana (2013) nwafor and eze (2014) tafi (2006), show that most of the schools in ekiti state, ebonyi state, all in nigeria that they investigated had instructional materials. however, most of these materials were neither assembled nor utilized in teaching and learning activities in chemistry. teachers did not possess the necessary manipulative skills for the utilization of these materials. there were no special educators posted to the schools in the area of study. other factors for underutilization of instructional materials included large class size, lack of facilities, time allocated to the teaching of each topic and methods of instruction (asogwa, onu and egbo, 2013; nwafor and eze, 2014). teachers’ skill in the handling of instructional materials was also a major factor (uzuegbu, mbadiwe, and anulobi, 2013). nor were inclusive practices involved in teaching and learning to accommodate persons with special needs. available results from west african examination council in ohafia education zone of abia state, nigeria (area of study), showed’ students’ poor performance in chemistry. only a few students offered chemistry including those with special needs. data collected from statistical unit secondary education management board (semb), ohafia zone, showed that out of the 96 students of akanu ohafia secondary school, ohafia, who sat for the wassce in the year 2011, only 26 sat for chemistry while in 2012 wassce, out of 82 candidates, only 22 students sat for chemistry in the same school. underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 265 statistical report on the number of students that sat for ss 2 centralized examination in the zone for chemistry in 2015 showed that there was poor enrolment in many of the public schools. the researchers’ focused group discussion and field experience revealed that in some schools in this zone, there was a high incidence of examination malpractices. some of the students complained of difficulty in understanding chemistry concepts and mentioned it as one of the reasons for engaging in malpractices. the needs of special students were not taken care of in inclusive settings. this study was guided by the following research questions and hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance to achieve the purpose of the study: 1. to what extent did chemistry teachers utilize the available instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone? 2. what were the factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone? 3. in what ways could instructional materials be supplied for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone? • ho1: there was no significant difference in the mean ratings of teachers and students on the utilization of the available instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. • ho2: there was no significant difference in the mean ratings of teachers and students on the factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. this study adopted a survey research design. it was adopted because a group of people and items were studied by collecting and analyzing data considered representative of the entire group in this research (nworgu, 2006). the study covered all the public secondary schools in ohafia education zone of abia state, nigeria. abia state was made up of three education zones namely: aba, ohafia, and umuahia with a uniform educational administrative structure in all the zones. ohafia education zone comprised the following local government areas (lga) which also served as education sub-zones, namely: arochukwu, bende, isuikwuato, and ohafia. ohafia education zone was chosen for the study because ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 266 there was evidence that students performed poorly in chemistry in public examinations in this zone. this also applied to those with special needs. the population of the study consisted of all 86 chemistry teachers in 86 public secondary schools and all 1,180 ss2 (senior secondary 2) chemistry students in the zone. the zone consists of 18, 26, 15 and 27 public secondary schools for arochukwu, bende, isuikwuato and ohafia subzones/l.g.a., respectively (statistics unit, secondary education management board (semb), ohafia education zone, abia state, 2016). the teachers were all qualified and each possessed a minimum certificate of national certificate in education (nce). they were males and females. regrettably, there were no special educators attached to any of the schools. there was no inclusion. a sample of 456 respondents comprising of 57 chemistry teachers (all qualified and trained as per state regulations) and 399 ss2 chemistry students in the public secondary schools in the zone was used for the study. the multi-stage sampling procedure was used to draw the sample for the study. the schools in this zone were already stratified into four sub-zones: arochukwu, bende, isuikwuato, and ohafia. in the first stage, purposive and proportionate stratified sampling techniques were used to select 57 schools from different sub-zones; 12 out of 18 from arochukwu, 17 out of 26 from bende, 10 out of 15 from isuikwuato and18 out of 27 from ohafia sub-zones. there was no special school for students with special needs in the zone and inclusion was not practiced. the sample size comprised of 84, 119, 70 and 126 ss2 chemistry students for each of the subzone of arochukwu, bende, isuikwuato and ohafia respectively, making a total of 399 chemistry students. thus a total of 456 respondents (teachers and students) were involved in the study, which is about 36.0% of the total population (1,266) (teachers and students). this study was anchored on jean piaget’s (1964) theory of intellectual development. the theory stated that cognitive development took place from the active interaction of a child with his environment. the theory helped both the teacher and learner to understand that utilization of instructional materials offered the learner the opportunity to interact with his environment. this made the learners, including those with special needs, to be actively involved in the learning process. [it states that methods of meeting goals and objectives should be discussed openly. other teaching professionals were needed to be directly or indirectly involved with the students, disability notwithstanding. underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 267 the instrument for data collection was the utilization of different instructional materials questionnaire (udimq). it had two sections, a and b. section a’ sought personal information of the respondents. section b was divided into three clusters a, b and c. cluster a contained 25 items on the utilization of the available instructional materials by chemistry teachers. cluster b comprised 13 item statements on the factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry. cluster c comprised 10 item statements on ways that the instructional materials were supplied for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. a four-point rating scale was used for clusters a, b and c. for cluster a, it was, very great extent (vge = 4), great extent (ge= 3), low extent (le = 2), very low extent (vle = 1). for clusters b and c they were, strongly agree (sa = 4), agree (a = 3), disagree (d = 2), strongly disagree (sd = 1). the instrument was validated by three experts to ensure face validity. two experts were from science education and one expert from measurement and evaluation from the university of nigeria, nsukka. their corrections and suggestions were used in the final production of the present instrument. to determine the reliability of the instrument (in this case, an estimate of internal consistency), trial testing was carried out using schools that were outside the zone. 10 chemistry teachers and 10 chemistry students were randomly selected at aba education zone of abia state. using cronbach alpha method, the reliability coefficients were estimated. the following reliability coefficients were obtained 0.65, 0.88 and 0.78. the overall reliability of the instrument was 0.97. teachers (males and females and all qualified by state standards) recorded cluster mean score of 1.89 and students (both males and females) recorded 1.94. comparatively, students had higher cluster mean score than teachers but there was agreement on underutilization of instructional materials. the standard deviation of the respondents ranged from 0.090.96. this was very close to the overall reliability of 0.97. these results showed that the instrument was reliable. face to face administration of the instrument was adopted. this ensured a 100% rate of return of the instrument. it also helped the researchers/assistants to explain items the respondents did not understand very well. they were administered to the respondents and retrieved on the spot after completion. two research assistants helped the researchers in the distribution and retrieval of the instrument. ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 268 the hypotheses were tested using t-test and tested at an alpha level of significance of 0.05. the research questions were answered by a mean and standard deviation. for cluster a, the real limit of the number was used to interpret it as follows: 1.00-1.49, very low extent (vle), 1.50-2.49, low extent, 2.50-3.49, great extent (ge), 3.50-4.00, very great extent (vge). mean value of 2.50 and above was the benchmark for acceptance for clusters b and c while any value below 2.50 was rejected. results the data for answering research question #1 was presented in table 3. table 3: mean ratings of teachers and students on the extent of utilization of available instructional materials by chemistry teachers in the area. s/n instructional materials utilization teachers(n =57) mean std decision teachers students (n=399) mean std decision students 1 mobile learning technology e.g cell phone with internet, ipad 1.33 0.48 very low extent 1.73 0.57 low extent 2 computers 1.22 0.31 very low extent 1.30 0.46 very low extent. 3 internet facilities/resources 1.21 0.50 very low extent 1.49 0.50 very low extent 4 disc materials e.g. vcd/dvd/mp3 1.43 0.18 very low extent 2.36 0.73 low extent 5 interactive white board (iwb) 1.44 0.48 very low extent 1.87 0.70 low extent 6 software e.g. power points, spreadsheet programs 1.34 0.68 very low extent 1.96 0.71 low extent 7 televisions 1.49 0.41 very low extent 1.63 0.60 low extent underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 269 8 projectors 1.34 0.50 very low extent 2.37 0.73 low extent 9 still and motion pictures 1.28 0.73 very low extent 2.22 0.62 low extent 10 models e.g molecular models 2.35 0.96 low extent 1.44 0.50 very low extent 11 mobiles 1.28 0.33 very low extent 2.01 0.71 low extent 12 pictures e.g. photographs, drawings 1.35 0.79 very low extent 2.32 0.50 low extent 13 workbooks 1.21 0.64 very low extent 2.15 0.69 low extent 14 journals, periodicals, magazines 1.42 0.69 very low extent 1.81 0.77 low extent 15 graphic materials e.g. charts 1.96 0.68 low extent 2.41 0.50 low extent 16 realia (real objects) 1.54 0.83 low extent 2.22 0.67 low extent 17 local materials (fruits, ashes, shells, palm oil) 1.67 0.48 low extent 2.41 0.98 low extent 18 burettes 1.75 0.79 low extent 1.32 0.47 very low extent 19 test tubes 2.46 0.80 low extent 2.10 0.55 low extent 20 burnsen burners 1.33 0.48 very low extent 1.84 0.93 low extent 21 conc acids e.g. hcl, h2so4, hno3 2.11 0.73 low extent 2.02 0.44 low extent 22 alkalis e.g. naoh, koh, 2.28 0.82 low extent 0.95 0.95 low extent 23 chemical balance 2.13 0.72 low extent 1.88 0.53 low extent 24 distillation apparatus e.g. condensers 1.33 0.47 very low extent 1.38 0.64 very low extent 25 apparatus for electrolysis e.g. voltammeters 1.39 0.48 very low extent 1.90 0.61 low extent cluster mean 1.89 0.09 low extent 1.94 0.12 low extent ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 270 data presented in table 3 revealed the mean ratings of teachers and students on the extent of utilization of the available instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the area. their mean score ranged from 1.28 to 1.49 for teachers and 1.63 to 2.37 to 2.37 for students. teachers recorded cluster mean score of 1.89 while students recorded cluster mean score of 1.94. the table showed that the standard deviation of the respondents ranged from 0.09 to 0.96 indicating that the respondents were not too far from the mean and from the opinion of one another in their responses. to further answer this research question, the following hypothesis was raised: • there was no significant difference between the mean ratings of teachers and students on the extent of utilization of available instructional materials for the teaching and learning of chemistry. table 4: t-test statistics of the mean ratings of teachers and students on the extent of utilization of available instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry. n mean std df t sig (2tailed) decision teachers 57 1.89 0.09 454 -3.12 0.00 significant students 399 1.94 0.12 data presented in table 4 indicated that the probability value (0.00) is less than the level of significance (0.05) at 454 degrees of freedom (df). the null hypothesis was therefore rejected. this implied that there was a significant difference between the mean ratings of teachers and students on the extent of utilization of available instructional materials for the teaching and learning of chemistry in the area (p <0.05). underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 271 table 5: mean ratings of teachers and students on factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. s/ n item statement teachers(n=5 7) mean std decision teacher s students(n=3 99) mean std decision students 1 lack of commitment by chemistry teachers 2.68 0.63 agree 3.04 0.72 agree 2 lack of manipulative skills/ technicians or operators 3.09 0.58 agree 3.02 0.55 agree 3 lack of facilities (e.g. electricity) 2.79 0.56 agree 2.65 0.55 agree 4 resistance to innovations 2.93 0.68 agree 2.87 0.66 agree 5 large class size 2.32 0.83 disagree 2.39 0.84 disagree 6 poor teacher training at colleges/universities offering education courses 2.98 0.52 agree 2.95 0.54 agree 7 methods of instruction used in my school do not require it 2.45 0.79 disagree 2.43 0.77 disagree 8 instructional material is time consuming 2.92 0.96 agree 2.92 0.98 agree 9 non-availability of the required materials 2.60 0.73 agree 2.66 0.74 agree 10 time allocated to the teaching of each topics is short 2.81 0.40 agree 2.80 0.40 agree 11 poor internal supervision by school authorities 3.21 0.84 agree 3.51 0.81 agree 12 lack of motivation, encouragement and support from school authorities 2.72 0.63 agree 2.76 0.64 agree 13 inabilities of teachers to build lessons on power point 2.67 0.89 agree 2.59 0.85 agree cluster mean 2.68 0.08 agree 2.75 0.25 agree ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 272 data presented in table 5 was used to answer research question #2. it revealed the mean ratings of teachers and students on factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. all the items except items 5 and 7 were rated above the benchmark value of 2.50. their mean scores ranged from 2.60 to 3.51. teachers recorded cluster mean score of 2.68 while students recorded cluster mean score of 2.75. the table showed that the standard deviation of respondents ranged from 0.08 to 0.98, indicating that the respondents were not too far from the mean and from the opinion of one another in their responses. to further answer this research question, the following hypothesis was raised: • there was no significant difference between the mean ratings of teachers and students on the factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for the teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone table 6: t-test statistics of the mean ratings of teachers and students on the factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in the area teachers n mean std df t sig (2tailed decision teacher 57 2.68 0.08 454 -2.13 0.03 significant students 399 2.25 0.25 data presented in table 6 indicated that the probability value (0.03) is less than the level of significance (0.05) at 454 degrees of freedom (df). the null hypothesis was therefore rejected. this implied that there was a significant difference between the mean ratings of teachers and students on the factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials for the teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone (p > 0.05). underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 273 table 7: mean and standard deviation of the responses of teachers and students on ways in which instructional materials are supplied for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. s/n item statement teachers(n=57) mean std decision teachers students (n=399) mean std decision students 1 improvisation by teachers 2.62 0.60 agree 3.1 0 0.55 agree 2 supply by principals through school income 2.72 0.30 agree 3.2 0 0.74 agree 3 supply by ministry of education (state and federal) 2.51 0.66 agree 2.5 8 1.08 agree 4 supply by school management board (semb) 2.61 0.13 agree 2.9 9 0.70 agree 5 donations from philanthropists 2.79 0.77 agree 2.8 5 0.91 agree 6 distribution of production by students in tertiary institutions 2.59 0.52 agree 2.8 0 0.77 agree 7 donations from pta 2.71 0.73 agree 2.9 6 0.58 agree 8 production by the students 2.65 0.52 agree 3.2 0 0.76 agree 9 supply by unicef/world bank 2.90 0.57 agree 2.5 4 0.82 agree 10 supply by community, clubs, and other organizations 2.54 0.64 agree 3.0 8 0.80 agree cluster mean 2.58 0.58 agree 2.9 0 0.33 agree ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 274 data presented in table 7 answered research question #3. it revealed the mean responses and standard deviation of teachers and students on the ways in which instructional materials could be supplied for teaching and learning of chemistry in the area. all the items were rated above the benchmark value of 2.50. their mean scores ranged from 2.51 to 3.20. teachers recorded cluster mean score of 2.58 while students had a cluster mean score of 2.90. discussion the findings from research question #1 showed that teachers utilized the available instructional materials to a very low extent which included computers, molecular models, pictures, burettes, test tubes, acids, alkalis and chemical balance among others. the high technology ones such as internet facilities, mobile learning technology, and software among others were not available, therefore were not even utilized. these were in agreement with the findings of nwosu (2010) that computers and other information communication technology (ict) tools were utilized to a very low extent by teachers. it was also in agreement with the findings of asubiojo and aladejana (2013) that available instructional materials were not adequately utilized. however, the results were contrary to the findings of emendu (2012) who noted that 60% of chemistry teachers agreed that the listed materials in that study were utilized while 40% of teachers agreed that they were not utilized. this disparity may be due to the type of materials involved. the study by emendu focused mainly on simple laboratory equipment while the present study include both simple and equally high technology ones. the findings showed that there was a significant difference between the mean ratings of teachers and students on the extent of utilization of these materials. the findings from research question #2 showed that lack of manipulative skills, a method of instruction used, time allocated to the teaching of each topic’ and inability of teachers to build lessons on powerpoint among others were factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials. these were in agreement with the findings of asogwa, onu and egbo (2013), uzuegbu, mbadiwe and anulobi (2013). the findings also showed that there was a significant difference between the mean ratings of teachers and students on factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials. the findings from research question #3 revealed ten ways the respondents agreed that instructional materials could be supplied to schools in the zone. they included improvisation by teachers, supply by school authorities, donations from parents teachers association (pta), underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 275 philanthropists, community and other organizations among others. these were in agreement with the findings of arokoyu (2005). the study findings show that many best practices were not followed in the schools in the area of study. schools did not arrange resources and administrative management processes to be inclusive. parents of non-disabled students were not provided with general information on the purpose of inclusion. there was no consistent communication with paraprofessionals. the methodology [what methodology??] should be developed as a tool to keep students by increasing their learning motivation. links should be developed between practical activities and teaching content (vannest, et al, 2011). conclusions the study identified some factors militating against the utilization of instructional materials in ohafia. there was a significant difference between the teachers’ and students’ mean response, hence, for this, the null hypothesis was rejected. the study determined ten ways that instructional materials could be supplied for teaching and learning of chemistry in the zone. there was no individualized education program for students with special needs in inclusive settings. this would greatly hurt inclusive education because students with special needs may be neglected. this study observes that there were no concrete plans to accommodate special needs students. this may hinder some of them from attaining their maximum capabilities as they may not get the necessary practical experience requirements. also, the research shows that most students were more interested in getting the certificate to go to the university. implications for inclusive education all categories of students with special needs are found in nigerian regular education classes. students with special needs that were offering chemistry were part of this study, though, they were not singled out to avoid any form of extraneous bias. the important thing was that they were all involved with the poor enrolment of chemistry and they were performing poorly. they were also involved in examination malpractices as identified from focus group discussions. based on these, the implication was that they should also be taught with instructional materials to be able to benefit from them. within the classrooms and laboratories, regular educator (chemistry teacher), laboratory scientist, signer, and special education teachers should provide instruction, through team teaching, co-teaching, parallel teaching, small group, and large group instruction. ngozi obiyo & james inyama ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 276 moreover, due to their physical challenges, students with special needs require individualized educational program (iep), that could cater for each student’s special interest. weekly joint planning time between regular and special educators would allow for the development of collaborative lesson plans. collaborative skills that are necessary for inclusion were important to the success of the program what program? as team members of the iep, parents, and families should be made aware of the continuum of activities available to students. they should assist in constructing schedules in order to meet students in the least restrictive environment. the students and teachers should undergo intensive training to ensure proper utilization of instructional materials. the school, pta, and other bodies should collaborate to make the instructional materials available to students. parent conferences should be held jointly with regular chemistry teachers and special educators. parents of non-disabled students should be provided with general information about inclusion. they should be informed that other teaching professionals will, directly and indirectly, be involved with their own children. change of attitude and internal motivation from the school community will make for meaningful inclusion of diverse children in various fields of school life. there should be consistent communication with special educators, regular class teachers and paraprofessionals such as audiologists, signers and speech therapists. the professional standard of the teaching team could be heightened as a result of working together, thereby raising the quality of instruction for students. the government should be actively involved in the education of persons with special needs to follow up policies with implementation. regular class teachers’ special interests must also be taken care of in inclusive classrooms. efforts should be made to include all stakeholders in the education of special needs students in the provision of resources. regular class teachers could be encouraged to take online courses on inclusive education. workshops may be organized for teachers and entrepreneurs and other stakeholders for possible synergy. the teachers and school authorities should remember that no child should be left behind. special accommodations must be made for them to learn and understand chemical concepts. instructional materials should be adapted for each student’s special use and need. there was a need to attach practical values to what they learn in class. collaborative efforts involving philanthropists, the community and the school are needed to make instructional materials available and to ensure that they are appropriately utilized. provisions underutilization of instructional materials for teaching and learning of chemistry in nigerian secondary schools: ohafia education zone, abia state’s example. ajote vol. 8 (2019), 261-280 277 should be made in the school budget for purchase of relevant instructional materials, teachers should improvise and encourage students to do the same. recommendations 1. government and all other stakeholders in education should ensure adequate provision of instructional materials in the schools. 2. resource centers should be established in each of the education zones in the state. 3. teachers should ensure effective utilization of the instructional materials provided and not just to allow them to rot in a store. teachers and students will need orientation in form of workshop on how to use the augmentative and assistive instructional materials that all students need, disability notwithstanding. 4. there is an urgent need for the government through the relevant agencies to organize workshops and seminars for teachers and other school authorities on the utilization of instructional materials. 5. teachers should make a conscious effort on their own to update their knowledge on the use of information communication technology (ict), power points and other application software. 6. the teacher training institutions should ensure that student teachers are given proper training in the area of educational technology in order to expose them to modern instructional technology and how to manipulate them. references akanu ohafia secondary school (2012). west african senior school certificate examination (wassce) result sheet. statistics unit, secondary education management board (semb), ohafia zone, abia state. arokoyu, a. a. 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(2011). special education teacher time use in four types of programs. journal of educational research. 104 (4), 219-230. waec releases 2012 result, withholds 122 thousand certificates (2012, august 10). premium times. retrieved online from www.google.com on august 24, 2015. west african examination council (waec, 2012). chief examiner’s report. lagos: waec. http://www.interesjournal.org/ http://www.google.com/ online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa chancellor college, school of education university of malawi. abstract this paper explores faculty members’ concerns and level of preparedness for open and distance learning (odl) at the university of malawi’s school of education during the recent covid-19 pandemic within a context that considers odl as a means of mitigating the impact of the pandemic on teaching and learning. data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with four experienced academic leaders within the school of education. the concerns based adoption model (cbam), particularly stages of concerns, served as a framework to understand the faculty’s concerns about the implementation of odl initiatives. inductive and deductive analysis approaches were used to analyse the interview transcripts to identify emerging themes. deductive analysis revealed that faculty members expressed several concerns such as awareness, informational, as well as consequences concerns as they talked about their feelings and attitudes towards the implementation of odl. inductive analysis on the other hand revealed that faculty members’ perceptions such as minimal preparation, negative orientations, and lack of policy awareness hamper the implementation of odl. these findings underscore the importance of members’ orientation change to ensure effective implementation of odl in contexts like the institution under study. we discuss these and propose that professional development could help members develop positive attitudes towards odl. keywords: concerns; concern-based adoption model; open distance learning, covid-19 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10 no.1 2021 pages 346-364 online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 347 introduction the covid-19 outbreak around the world has changed the education landscape in different ways; one of which is the renewed efforts by most institutions to accelerate the implementation of open and distance learning (odl). considering the contagious nature of the disease, most governments are still implementing drastic ‘social distancing’ measures, including the closure of schools. at the same time, covid-19’s impact on education is attracting the interest of researchers, mostly seeking to generate evidence that can inform education delivery in times of similar emergencies now and in the future. in this paper, we join research efforts on the theme of educational institutions and staff preparedness to implement odl during an emergency such as covid-19. we analyse the concerns of the university of malawi’s school of education faculty members about the implementation of odl. the implementation of odl has been slow (mtingwi & belle, 2012) partly because both students and teachers have a negative attitude towards odl (smidt et al., 2014). for instance, research evidence suggests that most students in malawi question the authenticity of odl (mkandawire & kaphesi, 2017), and many higher education institutions lack the financial capacity to effectively roll out odl (tembo, 2019). for instance, internet-based odl requires access not only to reliable and fast internet services but also the devices, such as laptops, to enable both students and teachers to have access to odl materials. unfortunately, most people in malawi do not have reliable internet services and electronic gadgets to use to access these platforms (zozie & chawinga, 2018). considering the above background, implementing odl in malawi seems like an impossibility. however, the closure of educational institutions due to covid-19 has attracted government policy interest to fast-track the implementation of odl initiatives. this is evidenced by the governments’ commitment in partnering with internet service providers to offer affordable services to education institutions (mkandawire, 2020). building upon this renewed interest, especially in higher education institutions, this study focused on faculty's readiness to adopt odl as a form of education innovation. bourn (2016) shows that successful implementation of an education innovation should ensure an understanding of the concerns of the teachers and supporting them throughout the process. the literature on innovation implementation (e.g. bourn, bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 348 2016) shows that teachers as change agents do not implement education innovations uniformly as these ‘change agents’ go through the various stages of concerns while implementing the innovations. the purpose of this study is to investigate the university of malawi faculty’s concerns on the implementation of odl in malawi. literature review the concept of open and distance learning (odl) there are diverse perspectives, attributed to changes in technology, concerning the notion of distance education, with some focusing on the medium of teaching and learning, while others focus on the nature of the actual teaching and learning process (cf greenberg, 1998; teaster & blieszner, 1999). furthermore, there is inconsistent use of terms in the literature related to this subject (moore et al., 2011). terms such as e-learning (usage of electronics in the teaching and learning process), online learning (students interact with their teachers using connected computers) or distance education (teacher and learner are physically separated from one another) are synonymously used. odl is mostly described as a kind of teaching methodology where learners and teachers are separated either by space or time for a significant portion of their learning (commonwealth of learning, 2002). while the students and the teachers remain separated, they either communicate via postal mails, or online facilities (zozie & chawinga, 2018). we focused on odl that relies on digital technologies such as moodle. the aim was to understand the faculty's concerns regarding the use of such facilities amidst covid-19. faculty role in implementation of odl since this study focuses on teacher education faculty, we highlight the professional roles of teacher educators to illustrate why it is necessary to consider their concerns as teacher education institutions transition to odl in the context of covid-19. according to the literature, teacher educators perform roles such as teacher of teacher, researcher, curriculum developer etc. (lunenberg, et al., 2014). hence teacher educators should possess unique knowledge: pedagogy of teacher education and understanding of policy that guides teacher education in specific contexts (goodwin & kosnik, 2013). the literature also shows that teacher educators face challenges as they transition from one professional phase or space to another. for example, as they transition online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 349 from school teaching to higher education, novice teacher educators have to cope with the demands of a research culture in higher education (ping et al., 2018). yet, induction to support such beginning teacher educators is very scarce in many institutions partly due to the lack of formal curriculum (lunenberg et al., 2014; ping et al., 2018). with limited professional development opportunities, teacher educators rely on learning at the workplace. the above reflection suggests that research on teacher educators’ concerns and challenges in different professional phases has been useful for determining their professional development content and activities. recently, covid-19 has presented a mix of new experiences for the profession of teacher educators. on one hand, teacher educators have started “exploring and experimenting with new ways to teach and learn using innovative technologies” (ferdig & pytash, 2021) furthermore, the already known education problems such as inequitable access to education have become known in greater detail because of the pandemic (ferdig & pytash, 2021). on the other hand, the pandemic has presented new demands on the work of teacher educators, including changes in approaching teaching practicum and developing a teacher education curriculum that responds to the emerging needs of future teachers (mutton, 2020). as teacher educators around the world experience this uncertain transitional phase due to covid-19, it is necessary to consider their needs, challenges and concerns as the basis for their continuing professional development. meanwhile, international research on how the pandemic is impacting the work of teacher educators (e.g. ferdig & pytash, 2021; mutton, 2020) has offered valuable insights into potential ways of supporting teacher educators. for example, ferdig and pytash (2021) have suggested the need to prepare student teachers for online learning experiences as one of the lessons that teacher educators should have learnt following the pandemic. however, as teacher educators long for the time when things will ‘get back to normal (ferdig & pytash, 2021), further research is required to continue drawing lessons that might generate sustainable ways of supporting teacher educators. therefore, in this paper, we consider teacher education faculty concerns in malawi, where there has been limited research on teacher educators’ experiences’ with the pandemic. we expect that the findings reported in this study will benefit the international literature for further comparisons with similar contexts. bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 350 theoretical framework to understand faculty concerns on odl, we followed the concerns based adoption model (cbam) that tracks the concerns of implementers of change (anderson, 1997). hall and hord (2015) describe cbam as an important tool that defines and explain concerns of implementers of educational innovations. the cbam allows researchers to probe the implementers of the innovation with three diagnostic keys: (1) stages of concern (soc), (2) levels of use (lou), (3) innovation configuration (ic). for this paper, we employed the soc key which refers to how implementers view an innovation or idea to be implemented. the seven elements of the soc components cluster into three: self, tasks and impact. while subjecting participants through items on this, it is believed that they reflect on the “self”, “task” as well as the “impact” of the innovation being implemented. the focus is on the implementers’ beliefs, attitudes or perceptions about innovation. this level has seven stages (briefly described in table 1). it is assumed that the implementers would undergo these seven soc as they implement an innovation. table 1: the seven stages of concerns no. stage description of concern 1 awareness this is where the teacher has some basic awareness of the key elements of the innovation being implemented. in this case, the issue is to what extent are the teacher educators aware of the open and distance learning being implemented 2 informational at this stage, the teachers’ focus on learning more about the innovation so that he has an in-depth understanding of the innovation i.e. open distance learning platform 3 personal here the teacher focuses on the individual. for instance, the role he is going to play, the personal demands and the challenges experienced 4 management here the teachers’ focus is on the pedagogical efficiency of the innovation, organization and the best use of the various resources at hand. 5 consequences at this stage, the teachers’ focus is on the impact of the innovation. online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 351 6 collaboration coordination and cooperation with others with the object of improving practice 7 refocusing exploration of more effective alternatives personal initiative, creativity recently, several tools have been developed to capture the soc. however, the focus seems to be on the quantitative aspects (see kang & everhart, 2014; trapani, 2019). while quantitative approaches to measuring the soc provide useful insights, it is mostly prescriptive hence our resolve to apply the key qualitatively to have an in-depth understanding of the participants’ beliefs about odl. concerns refer to “the composite representation of the feelings, preoccupation, thoughts, and consideration given to a particular issue or ask or innovation”(hall & hord, 2015, p. 152). the deployment of distance learning at the university of malawi is a new thing hence it was imperative to understand the implementers’ feelings, thoughts and preoccupations as this will provide useful insights to those managing the implementation process. in this paper, we specifically consider faculty concerns on odl that has gained prominence in research and policy following the recent outbreak of covid-19. the following questions guided the study: 1. what are the faculty’s concerns toward the implementation of odl in the university? 2. what are the faculty perceptions of the school of education’s readiness/preparedness to implement odl? methodology research design and study participants to achieve the aim of the study, we took the qualitative research approach within the interpretivists paradigm (creswell, 2012). we specifically used the case study design (hancock, 2006) to allow for an exploration and analysis of participants concerns about odl. study context and participants we worked with seven participants from chancellor colleges’ school of education. these participants were purposely sampled (merriam & merriam, 2009) to share their feelings, attitudes bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 352 as well as thoughts regarding the impending implementation of the odl. the profiles of these participants are shown in table 2. table 2: study participants profile participant code gender qualification teaching experience 1 p1 m phd >10 2 p2 m phd >10 3 p3 f phd >10 4 p4 f msc <10 5 p5 m phd >10 6 p6 m bed <10 7 p7 m msc <10 since we were interested in the views of the faculty members, our sample was not limited to those members that hold key positions within the faculty. we also ensured that other members who do not hold any position also took part to ensure that the sample is representative so long they have taken part in the various workshops related to odl. hence, the views provided by the participants could not only be valuable but also representative of the faculty concerning the state of odl. by sharing their feelings, thoughts, and perceptions about the odl, we were able to understand the concerns of faculty members regarding odl. data sources we used semi-structured to allow participants to freely articulate their understanding and concerns regarding odl. interview items aligned to the seven soc, described in table 1, were used to interrogate participants’ attitudes, feelings, perceptions regarding odl implementation. participants, for instance, participants were asked to articulate and explain their concerns and their perceptions about the impending implementation of odl. data analysis recorded audio interviews were transcribed verbatim for analysis. using deductive and inductive analysis approaches (creswell, 2012), we first familiarized ourselves with the analytical online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 353 framework (stages of concerns). to ensure the dependability of the findings, we all coded the first interview transcript separately using the framework then compared our codes assigned to the transcript and there was a 90% agreement. we then assigned the first author to code the remaining transcripts. we were interested in the evidence from the participant's talk that aligned with the soc. findings faculty’s concerns regarding the implementation of odl interview data suggests that there are several concerns the faculty have towards the implementation of odl. these concerns are awareness, information, management, consequences and refocusing. awareness concern stage all participants seem to be aware of odl. they explained their understanding and gave some examples of the same. for instance, p7 expressed that odl means “learning by distance”. some even expressed the subtle differences between the two keywords in the phrase “open” and “distance learning.” for example, while explaining her understanding of the term odl, p3 took time to unpack the phrase as follows she first highlighted that odl currently relies on online platforms as she expresses below: online learning it could be teaching and learning using different online platforms... distance learning, can be a blend: online as well as face to face, it can be aaa using print, so people come and maybe you teach them for some time, you go visit them, use print materials… furthermore, participants were able to explain how odl platforms are used. for instance, p2 explained that he uses odl platforms to ‘compliment’ the face to face instruction with his university certificate of education (uce) students. moreover, participants were able to highlight the importance of odl platforms. in this regard, p4 stated that “odl could be critical in the context of covid-19 such that lectures can be delivered anywhere without physical contact and again even if a lecturer is busy, delivery could be undertaken with no need to cover some distance”. p4 was however cautious that not all programs are tenable to odl as such blended mode of delivery could be explored in such instances. bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 354 the above sentiments indicate that these participants are not only aware of the odl, but are also aware of the affordances odl accords the users in the context of covid-19, the teaching and learning process is not affected as there is no reliance on a face to face instruction while using odl platforms. informational concern stage while participants expressed awareness regarding odl, they were worried about the way information surrounding odl is shared at the institution. for instance, p1 says “we don’t have enough information”. the reason for this, he thinks, is because “…information is more relevant when it is provided at the appropriate time…”. however, this raises the issue of when will this appropriate time come. similarly, p3 and p6 expressed that the lack of information concerning the state of the implementation is worrying as at the time of data collection there had been no arrangements in the school of education that required members of staff to start preparing for teaching using odl platforms. this is despite the plans to put some of the materials on the odl platforms. in the same vein, p4 expressed her lack of adequate information regarding odl at the institution. she reported the following: i don’t have much information. i am more of a technical person focusing more on technical issues surrounding odl. so, i am only concerned with connectivity issues and ict tools that could support teaching and learning but i am not aware of the institutional program of implementation. hence, to some extent, staff awareness of the odl efforts has been hampered by a lack of information concerning the implementation of the odl initiatives. management concern stage participants expressed their worry about how colleges’ management hinders the implementation of the projects. p3 claimed that odl has not been implemented since “…there hasn’t been a willingness on the part of management to make this happen…” this, he believes is further affected by the fact that people believe that “…we have enough already troubling us to think about other things…”. while they believe that the university management hampers the implementation of online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 355 odl, they are of the view that on the other hand management has tried to provide some of the basics such as the internet, training on moodle etc. which they believe is a node in the positive direction. on the other hand, p4, as well as p7, had other ideas regarding management commitment to odl. they expressed that management is supportive of odl as there are is a variety of ict tools in place such as moodle, google classroom, as well as the provision of laptops to every member of faculty involved in teaching. for instance, p4 stated that the college has facilitated training for members of staff in this regard. to her, the environment is supportive however it is the academics themselves that are hampering odl implementation because in some cases a review of programs is needed to be aligned with odl and this is a responsibility of deans. because of the foregoing, it is clear that management has put the required conditions in place to catalyse odl’s take off. mindset change amongst academics therefore could be crucial towards the implementation of odl at the institution. consequences concern stage odl, according to the participants, has many affordances that need to be fully explored and utilized. for instance, the “uninterrupted calendar” (p5) as well as “enhanced access” (p6) to education are some of the many affordances of odl that should drive the need to implement it. they observed that the current impact of covid-19 on the disruption of teaching and learning could be lessened if odl was implemented and asynchronous learning took place. for instance, one of the participants, when asked if it was right for the school to implement odl initiatives, said: we are late—things are supposed to be like that because even for our students (undergraduate), we can make use of what we have… here at our institution, the administration is trying; we have the whole ict department which is available and then we have laptops we have internet, of course, there are challenges but there is an initiative in that regard [p3]. bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 356 the participant believed that despite a few management issues, an enabling environment has been created to launch odl initiatives. furthermore, participants believe that odl is advantageous in as far as communication with the students is concerned. for instance, p2 claimed that: it’s advantageous and it has been on my part because i can share resources easily, i can make announcements easily, i can even use it to send messages through emails, i can grade assignments through the same interface so it’s very advantageous [p2] refocussing concern stage p3, who had been using the google classroom platform for some time, expressed that one of the ways to make the platform more visible and useable is to have a discussion board where learners could be able to discuss issues that the course lecturer has presented: i think maybe issues of discussion boards—where—i mean that’s an area that i have not tapped into, but i think if there could be that facility where you can have students have discussions easily aaa you pose a question and then they answer then that kind of thing [p3] the above presents evidence for the concerns regarding odl implementation faculty members has at this institution. faculty perceptions of the school of education’s preparedness to implement odl at the time of data collection, while participants expressed that covid-19 has presented the school an opportunity to accelerate the implementation of odl initiatives, they however expressed reservations that the school was not ready to implement odl initiatives as summarised in table 3. this represents some sort of mixed feeling. this was attributed to several factors including the willingness of the administration to give a clear direction on the implementation of the odl initiatives. this is worrisome especially considering that some participants expressed that the same administration has put in every effort to roll out the odl. online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 357 table 3: showing issues raised by participants concerning faculty preparedness faculty preparedness examples minimal preparation no content no progress concerning content development lack of policy awareness no policy awareness and direction to support online learning staff orientation lack of will from staff staff happy with status quo staff orientation towards odl the practicality of odl related to science courses odl is not an idea for science courses when it comes to practical work administrative issues copyright issues questions of who owns that material being raised. how staff will be rewarded for preparing the content for online learning when asked to express their ideas concerning the school’s preparedness to implement odl, while acknowledging that the covid-19 might have presented the school of education an opportunity to accelerate the implementation of odl initiatives, participants’ responses were negative. some of the reasons that came out strongly were: members of faculty orientation towards odl, lack of policy awareness, issues related to the management and administration, issues related to copyrights of the content developed by the staff members, and lack of preparation on the part of staff members and students. bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 358 minimal preparation participants were of the view that odl was far from being implemented since most of the staff is yet to adapt their course content into units for online platforms such as moodle. one participant challenged that: suppose today someone offered all students laptops, and free internet data can we start online lessons? my simple answer is no we cannot. which to me suggest that we are trying to deal with a level 2 problem skipping level 1[p2] similarly, p3 agreed with the above sentiments that staff members first needed to adapt their course content into materials suitable for online learning. she claimed that “we have the materials but to put them in a form where somebody can use and understand effectively at a distance requires adjustment…distance materials should be self-sufficient so that they can easily be understood.” these sentiments suggest that most members use the lack of other basics as an excuse for their unpreparedness. he, therefore, challenged the members that rather than worrying about how students would access the content or how issues of assessment would be addressed, the big issue should be about how much content of the courses that the members are teaching currently has been adapted for online learning. members of faculty orientations towards odl faculty orientation is also another hindrance that has led to the faculty not implementing odl initiatives. participants believe that one's orientations about odl (persons will, attitude towards odl, the practicality of odl for science courses, one’s attitude towards on status quo) can be an enabler or a hindrance in the implementation process. those with negative orientations will be unwilling to take part in the implementation process unlike those with positive orientations. for instance, one participant who once served as a director of e-learning argued that most staff members seem to be contented that the only way of offering their courses and producing graduates is through face to face interaction. while this is true to some extend, he argued that knowledge is tentative, environments also change. this means that people must be willing to change the way they conduct their activities. he challenged that this inability to move with time and their limited conceptualization that teaching and learning only emanates from face to face interaction is, online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 359 therefore, a grave mistake. he cited several examples of institutions that have successfully produced graduates using online learning platforms. below is an extract of his observation: this is a grave misconception, the fact that we have spent the most time in face-to-face learning activities should not imply that this is the only set of activities that produce learning. history is replete with many people who made it but not through face-to-face, else we should not have universities like open university in the uk [p2]. p4 on the other hand provided evidence that the lack of implementation is largely a result of the negative orientations people have towards odl when she said: odl resources are available but are not fully utilized. mindset change is needed for us to actualize odl. as i highlighted earlier we have a technical foundation in place to support odl however programs are owned by the deans and we don’t have control. let deans review their programs so that they be in sync with odl as they were initially approved as face to face. as technical people, we have done our part the above sentiments are an indication that the lack of implementation of odl at the institution should be linked to a lack of infrastructure or technical expertise since these are readily available to provide support. what is lacking, therefore, is the willingness to actualise the odl programmes. the implication of this, therefore, is that there is a need for staff re-orientation towards odl. one way of ensuring positive orientations for both staff and students, she suggests, is to “embark on sensitization campaigns among academics and students as mindset change is a crucial element in the effective implementation of odl”. apart from that, she further proposed that technical support could be provided in terms of bandwidth and cheaper data bundles to ensure that these barriers are no longer presented as an excuse. furthermore, she also highlighted the need to review most of the programmes to be in tandem with odl. bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 360 lack of policy awareness and copyright issues some participants also noted that odl implementation initiatives were affected by the little policy awareness as well as the unresolved copyright issues. p1 claimed that, at the training workshop on content development for online learning, copyright issues were raised by the members. questions such as “how will content developers benefit from such efforts?” were unresolved as p1 recalled: there has been some effort to upload material by the college so that we could offer some sort of online education. that has not yet materialized i think because of issues of copyright. staff members raised questions of copyright which were not addressed. so, there hasn’t been a move ahead. the lack of resolve to address the member's concerns appear to have discouraged most members to work towards transforming their course content into units that could be uploaded onto online platforms. discussion and conclusion in this study, we explored the concerns of faculty members regarding odl using the concernsbased adoption model. the study has revealed that the cbam is a fruitful model for exploring the concerns of the participants even before the innovation has been implemented. the study has specifically unearthed faculty concerns that might be useful for designing various support structures and planning for rolling out odl. this was one of the few studies that sought to qualitatively explore the faculty concerns on the implementations of odl at a public university in malawi. consistent with previous research (barker, 2003; appana,2008) and viewed through the lens of the cbam (anderson, 1997), data indicated that faculty had four concerns on the implementation of odl: awareness, information, refocusing and consequences. this may not be surprising because participants have been musing about the innovations based on the various workshops that have been organized towards the implementation of odl. despite these concerns, we noted subtle differences in the concerns expressed by the participants based on their backgrounds. for instance, concerning the level of preparedness, we noted that while other participants commended the administration for doing something towards the implementation of odl, others perceived the same administration as a online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 361 hindrance. these differences are also supported in the literature (for instance, george et al., 2013). george et al. (2013) claim that as different people are attached differently to various innovations, they are bound to express their concerns differently. the above-identified concerns reveal the teacher educators professional knowledge (pedagogy of teacher education, producing and consuming research, community service and understanding of policy (goodwin & kosnik, 2013) gaps. research shows that these knowledge domains are critical if teacher educators are to effectively discharge their duties (goodwin & kosnik, 2013). along these, we propose robust professional development (pd) programmes that would help in addressing these gaps. during our interaction with the participants, we noted that in most of the pd workshops the participants took part in, the focus was on participants’ awareness of the odl initiatives. our study, however, uncovered some other potential areas of focus during such pd workshops. these areas include; efforts geared toward discussing members orientations towards odl would be ideal in changing faculty members orientations towards odl. hence deliberate pd activities that are aimed at raising awareness, targeting reorienting faculty members attitudes towards odl as well as making members more knowledgeable in issues related to the use of technology during instruction could be ideal towards ensuring that members embrace the use of technology in education. in the literature review section, we discussed the various professional knowledge domains that are critical for teacher educators. along the same lines, we also propose that knowledge about technology and education be viewed as one of the important knowledge domains teacher educators ought to have. this is especially true in the context of covid-19 where teacher educators need to be well versed in issues related to the affordances of technology as ways of not only mitigating the impacts of pandemics such as covid-19 but also as a tool towards enhancing access to higher education institutions. we share the belief that a good grasp of issues surrounding the use o technology in education would ensure that members are not caught off guard when another pandemic hits, it would also ensure that members have a positive orientation towards the use of technology for every subject discipline. along these lines, teacher education programmes should also be able to discuss current issues that have the potential of disrupting teaching and learning just like the covid-19 pandemic. bob maseko, foster gondwe, symon winiko, & symon chiziwa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 362 we have also highlighted that despite the concerns raised, the faculty held a positive attitude toward the potential of odl at the institution. yet, given their concerns, the challenge is to translate the faculty positivity into the actual implementation of odl. on one hand, the factors reported in previous studies (kadzera, 2006; nyirongo, 2009) offer the potential to understand that faculty development is one of the action points to improve faculty use of modern technology for odl purposes in malawi’s higher education institutions. on the other hand, the present study suggests that the transition might require more than staff development. apart from faculty knowledge and skills, the faculty concerns reported in this study are to do with their attitudes. the data and focus of this paper do not permit us to draw conclusions that might be useful for addressing faculty concerns. however, the findings underscore the mounting proper professional development programmes that would properly re-orient members to have a positive attitude towards odl. for practice, the findings have offered the opportunity to understand the prevailing concerns which might be considered at the institutional, policy and programme level of technology professional development for teacher educators at the institution under study. among others, this case study offers insights for designing professional development programmes aimed at preparing teacher educators in the use of modern technology for odl. moreover, we envisage that findings from this study will add value to the successful implementation of odl interventions currently being conceptualized in malawi and elsewhere as education institutions grapple with other emergencies beyond the current covid-19 pandemic. author contribution bob maseko: development of the research concept, data collection, data analysis and overall write up of the manuscript. foster gondwe: development of the research concept, literature review, data analysis, and write up. symon winiko: development of the research concept, data collection, data analysis and manuscript write up. symon chiziwa: development of the research concept and write up. online learning amidst covid-19 emergency: a case of the university of malawi’s school of education ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 346-364 363 references anderson, s. e. 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(2018). mapping an open digital university in malawi: implications for africa. research in comparative and international education, 13(1), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499918761952 mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata mzumbe university, the republic of tanzania abstract updating mathematics teachers’ pedagogical skills and content knowledge is inevitable as the trend of students’ performance in tanzania is alarming. currently, social media have been one of the strategies for elevating mathematics teachers’ professional competencies through online learning communities. the study aimed at examining how mathematics teachers use informal whatsapp groups (iwgs) as one of the social media for continued professional development (cpd). key study questions are what are the perceptions of mathematics teachers on the benefits of iwgs in cpd? how do mathematics teachers use iwgs for cpd-related activities? what are the challenges they encounter? and what mathematics teachers recommend for better use of iwgs for cpd? two iwgs were involved with a total of 54 mathematics teachers who are currently teaching in secondary schools. the open-ended questionnaire was shared in the iwgs, and members accepted to fill it. ten members including those who have been in the iwgs for a longer period, those who frequently posted or asked questions, and group leaders were invited for interviews. the findings show that the iwgs have contributed to teachers developing their pedagogical skills and content knowledge through sharing experience, and materials and demonstrating teaching practices in video clips. the challenges include the problem of internet accessibility, inactiveness of members, and lack of effective criteria for evaluating the validity and reliability of information shared. the recommendation is for the authorities to set supportive policies and practices that will create enabling environments for mathematics teachers on cpd. introduction many secondary school students in tanzania struggle to understand mathematics (mazana et al., 2020). studies have investigated the factors associated with students’ struggle to understand mathematics in tanzanian secondary schools (mazana et al., 2020; united republic of tanzania [urt], 2019; masele & tweve, 2018). mathematics teachers' weak pedagogical abilities and content knowledge are some of the mentioned factors. thus, continuous professional development (cpd) practices in teaching are essential in elevating teachers’ pedagogical skills and content knowledge to keep them updated and in sync with the changing issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 121-142 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 122 times (popova et al., 2018). cpd includes workshops, seminars, peer observation, peer coaching, classroom action research and informal discussions or conversations conducted faceto-face or online (priajana, 2017). online learning communities play a vital role in understanding the avenues of motivating and igniting interest in studying mathematics for both teachers and students. this paper discusses teachers' using whatsapp, one of the online learning platforms to foster professional development. whatsapp platform is flexible in reaching many teachers who could otherwise not access other forms of cpd training. whatsapp platforms can engage teachers in constructive interactions to boost their pedagogical capabilities and content knowledge. whatsapp group platforms offer mathematics teachers an opportunity for cpd to learn and elevate their teaching skills (kopung, 2016; moodley, 2019; motteram et al., 2020). according to moodley (2019), whatsapp promotes peer collaborative mathematics learning, ubiquitous mathematics learning, synchronous and asynchronous mathematics learning and anonymous mathematics learning. cpd allows teachers to align their contextual experience with learners’ needs and interests by integrating multiple teaching methods (aras, 2020). contextual experience refers to the accumulated teaching experience of teachers in a particular learning setting that helps them better manage students’ learning processes in their classrooms. furthermore, cpd contributes to informing and orientating teachers on practical uses of learning resources, teaching aids, and active engagement of learners in the process of learning and considering the learning abilities of learners (lessing & de witt, 2007; opfer & pedder, 2010). mathematics teachers must engage in cpd practices to elevate their pedagogical skills, content knowledge and professionalism for teaching that can improve learners’ performance. studies have reported that instructional approaches, learning materials, motivation and teachers and students' attitudes significantly influence the teaching and learning of mathematics (mazana et al., 2020; mutodi & ngirande, 2014; mbugua et al., 2012). in tanzania, both teachers and students perceive mathematics negatively, which affects their learning attitude, hence their inability to demonstrate the acquired mathematics competencies (masele & tweve, 2018; setapa et al., 2016). using online learning platforms such as whatsapp helps foster teachers' attitude to the subject, thus; influencing how teachers teach mathematics and how students learn and perform (amir et al., 2016; mutodi & ngirande, 2014). according to mestry et al. (2009), teachers improve their pedagogical skills and content knowledge through engaging in various cpd activities. these cpd activities include using whatsapp platforms mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 123 to foster quality teaching and learning. in this era of technological sophistication, most of the cpd opportunities are implemented virtually via online platforms such as whatsapp (moodley, 2019; raja & nagasubramani, 2018). through whatsapp, technology has enhanced online learning communities to support cpd amongst teachers (duncan-howell, 2010). teachers have adopted whatsapp to support intra-school and inter-school cpd, with the results showing that they have improved their teaching skills and content knowledge (mughal et al., 2020; bruguera et al., 2019). universities and colleges ought to train and supply competent and adequate number of mathematics teachers who are capable of igniting interest and motivation for learners to study mathematics. in tanzania, the bachelor of education in mathematics requires a principal pass in advanced secondary and ordinary secondary level examinations. however, because many secondary school students perform dismally in mathematics, only a few qualify for university’s mathematics programmes, and fewer still decide to become mathematics teachers. to promote interest and exemplary performance in mathematics, teachers need to elevate their content knowledge and pedagogical competencies using various initiatives. opportunities to advance mathematics teachers' pedagogical skills and subject content knowledge include those afforded by technology-based platforms such as whatsapp-based informal groups for interaction and sharing ideas, experiences, and best teaching practices. several studies done by mazana et al. (2020), bütüner (2017) masele and tweve (2018) as well as ochieng et al. (2016) on east africa, have revealed that many mathematics teachers lack adequate pedagogical skills and mathematics content knowledge, which result in poor teaching of the subject in schools. mazana et al. described the flawed methodology that teachers in their research area use in teaching mathematics: teachers describe poor teaching methodology as a cause of student failure in mathematics. their answers revolved around poorly trained teachers with insufficient pedagogical skills, teachers lacking content knowledge, incompetency, lacking child psychology knowledge and relying on a teacher-centred approach to deliver instructions (2020:9) the ineffective teaching methods that teachers use in some tanzanian schools have negatively affected students’ learning and performance in mathematics. according to the urt (2019), in tanzania, academic performance in mathematics at the primary school level in 2018 dropped by 3.51% compared to 2017, mainly due to teachers’ lack of pedagogical skills coupled with limited content knowledge. it is impossible to address these pedagogical skills jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 124 and content knowledge challenges without engaging teachers in various cpd programmes. these cpd programmes, such as using online learning communities through whatsapp, are central to mentoring mathematics teachers to improve their teaching skills and content knowledge. raluca and romulus (2015) define informal groups as those whose collective experiences and interactions help to improve relationships and their skills beyond work matters that school management sets. in this study, whatsapp groups refer to 16 38 mathematics teachers who have voluntarily joined a whatsapp group for socialisation and interaction on teaching and learning mathematics and general issues about their wellbeing. these mathematics teachers set their own rules and regulations governing group cohesion. they have leaders who manage group activities and ensure adherence to the rules and regulations that members, primarily as administrators, set. in tanzania, 398 mathematics teachers (200 from primary schools and 198 from secondary schools) from poor performing areas received cpd training in the 2018-2019 period to update their knowledge and enhance their teaching skills (urt, 2019). in these cpd training, teachers learned various methods and strategies for teaching mathematics with subsequent targets to improve students’ performance in mathematics. yet, the number of teachers who received cpd training is relatively small compared to the total number of teachers in areas with poor mathematics performance. this observation implies that many mathematics teachers rarely received or participated in cpd training programmes to boost their content knowledge and pedagogical skills (kafyulilo et al., 2015). although different students have different learning abilities and learning styles, law (2013) claims that changes in teaching techniques and styles are necessary to accommodate the learners’ varying abilities. law further contends that teaching techniques and styles can be acquired when teachers reinvent their teaching practices in the classroom. they cannot be taught and imported to class. in this regard, teachers’ collaboration helps to improve their classroom pedagogical skills and content knowledge (arends et al., 2017). improved teachers’ pedagogical skills in turn will significantly and positively impact students' academic performances (mutodi & ngirande 2014). thus, integrating virtual platforms like whatsapp into teacher professional development practices could provide an opportunity for teachers to interact and elevate their pedagogical skills and content knowledge. studies conducted in the philippines (abirin & obra mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 125 jr, 2018) and saudi arabia (albalawi, 2017) revealed that teachers informally used whatsapp for interaction and learning as a cpd platform in different contexts. several studies have investigated how whatsapp has been integrated into teacher cpd to improve mathematics teaching and learning at different levels. motteram et al. (2020) studied how the whatsapp platform supported the cpd of english teachers in jordan. they found that whatsapp enabled teachers to share helpful information and materials, which helped improve pedagogical skills and content knowledge. however, there were challenges of access, equity, participation and sustainability. the study conducted by moodley (2019) focused on understanding how whatsapp helped create virtual learning environments for teachers. it established that the effective use of whatsapp depends on teachers’ awareness of the context and willingness of members to accept varying opinions and views. the study by cansoy (2017) on teachers’ use of whatsapp for cpd in turkey found four key areas of collaboration that were of benefit to group members, all helping the teachers to transform their teaching skills. the four key areas were: i) field knowledge: where teachers share documents and discuss subject matters; ii) pedagogical content knowledge: in which teachers share experiences of the best methods of managing students, managing learning process by choosing effective instructional methods and how to use them better and methods of assessing learning achievement; iii) sharing in-school teaching practices: this involves teachers' sharing pictures and videos demonstrating classroom experience with other teachers from other schools for learning purposes; and iv) emotional support among teachers: in which teachers encourage each other, share advice for improvement and acknowledge their achievements. la hanisi et al. (2018) investigated teachers’ use of whatsapp in collaborative learning to elevate teaching skills for better facilitation of learning in indonesia. likewise, in south africa, naidoo and kopung (2016) investigated how pre-service teachers use whatsapp to enhance their pedagogical skills. their study found that such whatsapp groups foster constructivist learning environments for teachers in mathematics. in this constructivist environment, pre-service teachers improve their mathematics teaching methods. drawing on experience they acquired from whatsapp group platforms, teachers employ various methods and techniques of teaching to engage learners, in classroom settings. the findings from these studies show that apart from whatsapp being a platform for communication and socialisation, it also enhances the mode of asking questions and provides a channel for students to find jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 126 solutions to problems and share new ideas. in this regard, whatsapp can give an alternative for supporting and sustaining cpd in an easy, fun, convenient and quick way. statement of the problem several studies in east africa show that teachers’ pedagogical competencies are generally low, negatively impacting students’ learning and performance (mazana et al. 2020; masele & tweve 2018). the cpd training has been inadequate, and the few teachers who have benefited from them have failed to sustain the learning that addresses learners' changing needs and interests. hence, the objective of this study was to explore how mathematics teachers use whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania. the following are the specific research questions that intended to answer the main research objective: i. what are mathematics teachers' perceptions of the benefits of whatsapp groups in teachers’ cpd in the tanzanian context? ii. how do mathematics teachers use whatsapp groups for cpd-related activities? iii. what challenges do mathematics teachers encounter in using whatsapp during cpd? iv. what do mathematics teachers recommend for better use of whatsapp groups for cpd? methodology study design the study is purely qualitative, and it adopted a netnography design to understand the online interaction pattern of mathematics teachers in whatsapp groups for cpd in this digital era. netnography originates from ethnographic methods, which allow a researcher to immerse in a social environment for an extended period and engage in conversation while observing members’ behaviours (brayman, 2012). the increase in internet accessibility has enabled people to form online communities that allow them to interact regularly (morais et al., 2020). on the other hand, the emergence of such online communities has made it difficult for ethnographers to study their interaction patterns and behaviours, hence the rise of netnography as a method for studying and analysing such online communities with their interactions. essentially, netnography focuses on studying people’s online interaction behaviours when mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 127 people are not in the exact location geographically but are rather technologically connected. the advantage of the netnography method is that it does not influence the monitoring of communication and interaction among the members (key informants) to gain experience-based insights into their usage behaviour (costello et al., 2017). in the same vein, addeo et al. (2020) add that netnography can make a researcher invisible to the people under observation and allow for automatic data recording, studying trends over time and in real-time. participants the study recruited two whatsapp groups comprising 54 mathematics teachers (group 1 with 38 members and group 2 with 16 members) who had completed their bachelor of education in economics and mathematics in or before 2018 and were currently teaching in different secondary schools in the country. the study employed a convenient sampling technique to determine whatsapp groups for the study. the study also used the purposive sampling technique to identify interviewees who met the pre-set criteria to provide the required information. the groups took part in the study because the pre-service degree programme was pure mathematics, preparing them to teach mathematics in secondary schools. the variation in the number of members within the groups emanated from the influence of the group administrators and various reasons in attracting people to join it or leave it. the groups have been operating for more than four years. participants gave their consent to participate in the study voluntarily. these whatsapp group members allowed the researchers into the whatsapp groups where the researcher stayed as members for six months, observing the interaction pattern. after the observation, 16 members were purposively selected as key informants (10 and 6 from group 1 and 2 respectively) and participated in interviews. the selected members were those who stayed in the group longest. additionally, they were also members who have been active in the group by frequently posting, and leading the questioning and answering compared to the rest of the members. the selected members participated in a semi-structured in-depth interview of about 40 minutes. data collection method group administrators, de facto leaders of whatsapp groups, invited the researcher to observe teachers' interactions within the whatsapp groups for six months. the researcher conducted non-participatory observations alongside the administration of open-ended questionnaires and telephone interviews for collecting data. all 54 members agreed to fill out the open-ended questionnaire shared in the group. jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 128 data analysis data analysis involved content and thematic analysis. the presentation provided detailed descriptions supported by verbatim quotations from the data and images obtained from observation of the group. the coding method helped identify the emerging patterns from the data collected to form themes that answered the research questions. the analysis process involved transcribing the recorded audio files into texts which were then coded after rounds of reading them for deeper understanding. the codes were then categorised to form the thematic patterns answering the research questions. ethical issues the researcher shared specific research questions that needed answers and informed participants what the research's purpose was. consent was obtained from the respondents before joining the whatsapp groups and for accepting to participate in interviews. all the respondents agreed to participate in the research. the information gathered and observed in whatsapp groups was treated confidentially and solely for learning purposes. findings the study sought to answer the main research objective that explored how mathematics teachers use whatsapp groups for continuous professional development (cpd). the study found that teachers generally have a positive perception of the use of whatsapp groups because the platform helps them improve teaching skills and knowledge of mathematics content regardless of the costs associated with the internet. moreover, teachers use whatsapp groups to share resources, learn new knowledge, ask questions and demonstrate their skills and knowledge through discussions geared to improving their classroom teaching practices. on the other hand, they encountered a main challenge of the lack of a fixed schedule for specific learning activities. also, they lacked uniform time to discuss posted topics in the forum. the lack of an agreed activity time results in a single issue taking several days without a response from the members. the researchers’ last question gathered the views and suggestions of the teachers who proposed upscaling whatsapp to benefit more teachers. the following paragraphs present these findings in detail. perceptions of mathematics teachers on the benefits of whatsapp on cpd the first question sought to understand mathematics teachers' perceptions of the whatsapp benefits in teaching and learning mathematics. the responses show that teachers have positive mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 129 perceptions of the tool mainly because whatsapp exposed them to new ideas and approaches and allowed them to share innovative ideas and skills. the wgs further provide an opportunity for teachers to collaborate in solving issues related to mathematics problems and discuss the emerging issues related to their area of teaching, as illustrated in table 1: table 1: mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the benefits of whatsapp for cpd no theme excerpts from transcripts implications 1 getting exposed to new innovative ideas and approaches ✓ getting information on the best teaching practices ✓ benefiting from different ideas posted ✓ exposure to new ideas and practices ✓ sharing answers to some complicated concepts ✓ also, this is a place where i learn different simple approaches and strategies of teaching some mathematics topics. ✓ asking different challenging questions ✓ the group enables us to know more things concerned with the mathematics teaching and learning process online interactions promote critical thinking that results in innovative ideas and new teaching strategies 2 sharing new creative ideas and materials ✓ sharing ideas with group members, ✓ sharing mathematical concepts and meaning ✓ with whatsapp, it becomes possible and straightforward to share different ideas and to understand various concepts concerning the subject ✓ i get additional materials, like past papers or images from books ✓ sharing experience of teaching from other teachers through video. ✓ getting notes and a better-organised scheme of works and lesson plans online interaction through whatsapp helps teachers benchmark, adopt and adapt innovative ideas. the whatsapp platform allows them to experiment with the best methods and strategies in assisting the learning process 3 solving challenging mathematical problems ✓ solving different mathematics problems with members, the online interaction elevate teachers’ skills on alternative paths of understanding and jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 130 ✓ solve other questions and share images solving mathematical problems that are challenging to them 4 discussing and debating ✓ by exchanging ideas with others ✓ also, by motivating and encouraging ourselves to improve teachers learn varying perspectives, beliefs and attitudes through online interactions and learn to accept the differences in teaching. exposure of mathematics teachers to innovations whatsapp groups have benefited tanzanian mathematics teachers in diverse ways. the findings obtained from interviews with teachers show that belonging to these wgs exposed mathematics teachers to new and innovative ideas and approaches that helped them bolster their understanding and practices. this exposure enabled teachers to improve their knowledge of some mathematical concepts, teaching strategies and better ways of planning and executing lesson plans. teachers shared mathematical concepts that some some perceived to be difficult in a simplified way that helped develop self-confidence and identity. in some contexts, links or short video clips were shared demonstrating how other mathematics teachers manage both lessons and students in the learning process. mathematics teachers also get an opportunity to ask questions and get answers from different teachers in the forum regarding different issues related to mathematics. thus, they obtained useful information to elevate their understanding of various mathematical concepts and approaches to teaching mathematics and create supportive learning environments. whatsapp groups have enabled mathematics teachers in tanzania to share ideas, materials, and personal experience, to help other teachers improve their teaching and learning situation. the interaction of the groups reveals that teachers share images of how certain formulae are derived or applied in solving mathematical problems. other teachers share tests or past examination question papers and their solutions. such papers are helpful for individual teachers when benchmarking their pedagogical skills, particularly in setting examination questions at their specific level. they use such questions to determine how the learners performed when given examinations set by other teachers other than from their respective teachers. in this regard, observation from the two whatsapp groups shows that some teachers share their challenges in teaching mathematics, such as low learner motivation and interest and inadequacy of learning materials while at the same time providing the initiatives they take to address these challenges. mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 131 shared solutions to challenging mathematical problems mathematics teachers collaborated to solve complex content, or methodological content challenges faced by some of their member teachers. some teachers struggle with some mathematics topics and require such groups to orientate them on better solutions. these initiatives have helped them to elevate their confidence, and their lesson and learners' management skills and content knowledge. whatsapp groups have been severally engaging mathematics teachers in debates on the effectiveness and efficiency of some approaches and methods of instructing mathematics. according to teachers, class level or location limits some teaching methods, whether rural or urban. based on the debates and discussions stemming from the whatsapp groups studied, it is apparent that the teachers are assisted in being able to make justifiable choices of approaches and methods that reflect their working environment. using whatsapp for mathematics teachers' continuous professional development the second research question was how mathematics teachers use whatsapp for continued professional learning. the findings were obtained based on direct observation in groups and interviews with teachers. figure 1 paints a composite picture of how teachers use whatsapp for interactive learning and sharing: figure 1: screenshots of chatting obtained from the whatsapp groups whatsapp as a platform for sharing online learning resources jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 132 whatsapp allows teachers to share online learning resources such as links to useful websites and document files. whatsapp enables teachers to share e-books in word document or portable document format (pdf) files, and past exam papers gleaned from different schools. mathematics teachers share links from various sites that contain subject content, past papers and new mathematics questions. some teachers have their blogposts where they post notes on various topics. teachers also share audio or voice notes that elaborate or explain concept(s) under discussion in the forum. whatsapp allows sharing video clips that teachers have recorded from their classroom practices. they share mathematics syllabi and schemes of work of different levels of education. teachers also help each other use the syllabus to prepare schemes of work, logbooks and lesson plans that can enhance students' understanding of different mathematics topics. whatsapp as a platform for sharing lesson management and presentation techniques teachers help each other apply the best techniques to manage curriculum contents and to design specific schemes of work. the management of curriculum content involves re-arranging the topics from the known to the unknown in a logical structure that helps learners understand the concepts taught and link them to real-life situations. in this regard, teacher c provided his experience on how discussions in whatsapp groups help guide teachers on which topics to cover first and how to arrange for remedial classes to finish uncovered topics: during the end of the year, i was teaching form three students who were about to sit for form four final examinations in the coming year. i had not covered three topics [circles, earth as a sphere and accounting]. i had to seek professional advice from experienced teachers in the group. their experience helped me teach the topic of accounts before moving to the topics designed for form four and made circles and earth as a sphere last topics after teaching all other form four topics. i shared it with my students, and we came up with the common decision appropriate for the sake of their good performance in their exams. they did well and were among the top performers in the country's national exam (teacher c, 2020). teachers practice their presentation and communication skills using whatsapp groups, enhancing their cpd. these are carried out through writing and posting or recording a voice note explaining certain concepts, ideas or mathematical problems that fellow teachers had asked help on. teachers in the forum help each other find solutions to different mathematics problems, including answering questions, getting new questions for learners, accessing books and past papers from different schools, including mock exams conducted in different regions of tanzania. mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 133 teaching strategies and aids are also shared and demonstrated in whatsapp groups. sharing different problems in the forum allows teachers to advise each other on how best to teach particular mathematics topics, enhancing their professionalism. teachers share their experiences of teaching different mathematics topics and challenge each other as they address the issues raised, ultimately improving their teaching practices to increase students' mathematics performance. challenges to using whatsapp groups the third question asked the respondents about the challenges besetting teachers' effective use of whatsapp for continuous professional development. their responses show that teachers face various challenges using the whatsapp groups for cpd. according to them, four challenges emerged from their responses. the correctness of information published in the forum, the inactivity of some members, lack promptitude of feedback from the members, and problems with internet connectivity. table 2: reported challenges that mathematics teachers face when using whatsapp no theme extracts from transcripts implications 1 question of validity, reliability and accessibility of information ✓ sometimes we get the wrong information ✓ failing to get some useful information mathematics teachers face the challenge of understanding whether the shared information is correct based on curriculum standards and reflects the requirements of the national examination council when it comes to students' assessment 2 challenge of reliable internet connection ✓ i faced challenges like network limitations and costs of buying bundles ✓ insufficient network and lack of money for purchasing data bundles ✓ internet bundles for downloading materials are expensive some mathematics teachers reside in areas with weak internet connections while others hardly manage to purchase data for the internet, making them unable to participate in live discussions 3 members’ inactivity and delayed feedback ✓ members are less serious and sometimes post irrelevant issues ✓ less response of the group, sometimes they reply too late ✓ people sending information other than mathematics-based content ✓ the challenge is sometimes you can send a question, but the members are not active (mostly they are offline), so sometimes it takes time to get feedback on what you had inquired ✓ poor cooperation among members and poor response of group member ✓ sometimes you may find that you need some help, but the member is not online limited access to internet connection deprives mathematics teachers of a chance to actively and timely participate in online interactive learning. jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 134 ✓ not getting in touch with the group for a long time with the above-noted challenges the forum members faced, they proposed initiating strategies regarding the validity and reliability of shared information. they believed that accessed information needs to be correct to be helpful to learners and must be relevant to the content as prescribed in the subject syllabus. in some cases, teachers reported that when debates were rather hot, they wanted to access online sources to verify the topic in the forum. sometimes, they could not get sufficient information on the matter. thus, teachers should have the skills to establish the validity and reliability of data from a vast array of online sources. these skills can also help them filter the correct information rather than grab whatever some teachers post in whatsapp groups. internet connectivity and accessibility difficulties pose a challenge for many mathematics teachers. the findings reveal that teachers in different locations experience varying internet speeds. some access the forum with slow internet speed makes it difficult to even open some shared files and videos. second, the cost of buying data remains high, making it impractical to have frequent access to data. in this regard, one teacher narrated that he sometimes was unable due to cost to access the forum for up to two to three weeks. occasional participation in the groups implies that teachers missed many discussions on various topics that were ongoing during their absence, and they find members have moved on to discussing a different issue or topic foreclosing their ability to ask questions about those earlier topics. another challenge is getting delayed feedback on some questions posed in the forum. since the group consists of members from different schools, even their schedules and teaching workloads vary, hence they lack common time for interaction in the forum. this makes it difficult for all members to respond timely to issues posted in the forum, sometimes responses coming in only after several days past posting. a few of the teachers admitted that inactivity and late responses discouraged some from using whatsapp groups as an interactive learning platform. mathematics teachers' recommendations for better use of whatsapp for cpd the final question in the study sought to get the teachers' suggestions on the practical use of whatsapp for teachers' learning. table 3: recommendations for supportive environments for using whatsapp forum no theme extract from transcripts implications mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 135 1 involving school leaders, subject experts or experienced teachers in the group ✓ to allow top leaders and lecturers or experienced teachers to be in the group to get information on matters that arise which are challenging to teachers and take them to management for getting solutions. the presence of experts in the group plays a crucial role in controlling the quality of learning and material shared and providing the required assistance. 2 enhancing internet accessibility to teachers ✓ improvements of the network by reducing the cost ✓ to provide free wi-fi to make easy sharing of ideas because sometimes people fail to contribute their ideas due to lack of money for buying data for the internet. ✓ it could be better if the internet could be free for learning groups because sometimes internet accessibility is the problem. ✓ make good, friendly and supportive policies for teachers providing the internet at a subsidised price will motivate teachers and promote their active interaction and learning for professional development. 3 schools should allocate time in the timetable for cpd ✓ to have a specific time for communication to enable a member to find areas with a strong and accessible network. ✓ to have some discussions on specific issues on which teachers face challenges to share the experience. also, this method helps teachers properly handle some challenges in the teaching process. ✓ encouraging group members to become active. mathematics teachers have huge workloads; hence, the arrangement of their lesson schedules should consider giving them free time for professional development activities where they can use the whatsapp platform for interactive learning 4 to provide training for teachers on the best use of whatsapp groups ✓ workshops are important so that each member of the group knows their responsibility in the forum ✓ members should be strict in sharing concepts and techniques of solving mathematics ✓ by educating members and giving seminars on using the whatsapp forum training on better use of whatsapp forums for learning have a multiplier effect on teachers where they elevate their learning avenues for professional development this section presents recommendations based on the findings of mathematics teachers view of the benefits and challenges of using whatsapp groups in elevating their professionalism. teachers believe that school leaders and experts in the subject area should participate in whatsapp groups. these experts may be teacher educators or experienced teachers in mathematics. the leaders and experts will guide and assist teachers who experience some challenges that need intervention in terms of leadership or experience in the area. forums' lack of consensus among group members calls for an intervention from the expert's opinion and advice. mathematics teachers call for affordable internet services to use whatsapp for cpd. the recommendation is raised for internet providers to treat mathematics teachers as a special group that requires internet services to support the online interaction approach for capacity jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 136 building and accessing adequate teaching and learning resources. the provision of cheap internet service requires the government to collaborate with service providers to support teachers' access to affordable internet in school settings. cheaper internet could promote technological-based teaching and learning and likely actuate an active learning environment. the school management should allocate free time once a week for teachers to engage in cpd activities, including through whatsapp groups. the free time during work hours could enable teachers to interact fully for both formal and informal activities designed to elevate their skills and knowledge. activities such as discussion, conversations, debates and reading shared materials facilitate the creation of new knowledge vital in transforming teachers' pedagogical skills and boosting their knowledge of the content. the study findings also indicate that teachers share materials and conduct long chats that require adequate preparatory time for reading and comprehending the materials before online discussions. school management should acknowledge the whatsapp groups, recognise them, and allocate some time to learn. schools should conduct training and workshops to on the best ways of using whatsapp groups to improve mathematics teachers pedagogical and content knowledge. this is especially needed because in some schools, social media remain a non-educative device, preventing the teachers' use of online platforms for interactive learning. consequently, some teachers treat web-based platforms as simply social applications that erode teachers and learners moral and ethical standards. in this light, teachers in such schools do not believe that whatsapp groups, for example, can be beneficial to them nor enhance their informative interaction. discussion the study first sought to understand mathematics teachers' perceptions on the benefits of using the whatsapp forum in cpd-related activities. the study revealed variations of opinions, ideas, and time for the response to topics posted in the forum. the findings indicated that teachers believe that whatsapp groups are beneficial in elevating their teaching skills because they enable sharing of experience, teaching and learning resources, and information. this finding concurs with moodley (2019), who found that the materials of different forms such as images, file documents, and short video clips shared virtually accord teachers an opportunity to learn from counterparts' experiences and practices (motteram et al., 2020). although some teachers encounter challenges related to internet accessibility, the use of the whatsapp forum remains convenient for many teachers who use smartphones because they can carry them everywhere unlike is possible for office computers. the findings resonate with cansoy's (2017) mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 137 revelation of four areas that teachers benefit from when engaging in whatsapp groups, viz., mathematics teachers develop their profession in content, pedagogy, and leadership skills, which are critical to teaching and learning mathematics decisions. secondly, the study intended to determine how mathematics teachers use whatsapp to elevate their professional competencies through cpd activities. the findings show that teachers’ use of whatsapp groups was both synchronous and asynchronous allowing them to learn at times that were convenient for them. this finding concurs with naidoo and kopung (2016), who found that teachers who used whatsapp groups engaged in learning at their own pace and time. this flexible nature of the whatsapp forum enriches the teaching context as teachers can reflect on their practices and adopt new teaching methods at convenience. online learning communities such as whatsapp groups will likely benefit more teachers who cannot access other cpd training, seminar, or workshop opportunities. as is clear in this study, teachers use the whatsapp platform to learn and share experiences, ideas, views, methods, and materials. our study reflects khoo et al. (2009) view that an online learning community of teachers can help them achieve results otherwise difficult for an individual to accomplish. school management should train such mathematics teachers on the best ways to use these whatsapp platforms. by so doing, it is likely to ensure excellence in their teaching practices in the subject. motteram et al. (2020) also identified the challenge of internet connectivity in their study. the study observed first that internet connectivity tends to affect the rate of interaction among the group members. they observe that internet connectivity problems made some members silent or late in their replies to the problems shared in the group. second, they observe that connectivity problems worsen mathematics teachers’ struggle to filter the validity and reliability of the vast information and materials shared by different members. since some materials shared in the groups did not indicate source, questions arose on whether they aligned with their school curriculum requirements. in the efforts to address this challenge, mathematics teachers encountered another challenge; accessing dependable sources to obtain the materials. unfortunately, the variation of teachers' abilities in the same forum due to different levels of education and experience hampered the problem of filtering the quality of materials. nevertheless, the collaboration in addressing mathematics problems benefits all teachers regardless of their education level. conclusion and recommendations jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 138 the study explored how mathematics teachers' use whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania. whatsapp platforms have proven to play a pivotal role to mathematics teachers in different aspects. whatsapp groups provide a platform to enhance teachers' pedagogical skills and content knowledge. these pedagogical skills and content knowledge help enhance students' learning. whatsapp has elevated teachers' content knowledge and pedagogical skills in this context. whatsapp groups' adoption and improved use have helped bridge the cpd gap for some teachers in tanzania, thus bolstering their professionalism. the challenges that mathematics teachers in tanzania face requires interventions that could maximise the utilisation of the whatsapp platform for cpd. our study, in line with views of research participant mathematics teachers, suggests some recommendations. mathematics teachers recommended better ways of facilitating effective and efficient use of whatsapp platforms. first, it was challenging to include university lecturers and school leaders in the same whatsapp groups because of their differing abilities to effectively participate. groups might need to be varied at different levels to tailor mathematics’ teachers’ interests appropriately (khoo et al., 2009). mathematics teachers in whatsapp groups can compile challenging questions which need some interventions while university lecturers and school leaders could assist with solutions and suggestion to the questions or challenges posted. the internet provision for teachers requires commitment and an agreement among three parties—teachers, the government and internet service providers in a way that facilitate affordable internet access. these determine how to help teachers and monitor their practices to ensure the use of the service for the intended learning purpose. the school management should value cpd activities and spare some time at least once per week or month to allow their teachers to participate fully. the school leaders should closely monitor the effective use of the allocated day and time for mathematics cpd activities. the recommendations highlight that capacity building should help mathematics teachers identify, vetting, and organise the required resources and facilities to enhance their use of whatsapp groups for cpd. teachers must be sure of the validity and relevance of the materials to share in the forum. future studies could focus on studying the management support essential for enabling mathematics teachers to embrace whatsapp and other social media platforms for cpd. mathematics teachers’ use of whatsapp groups as a platform for continuous professional development in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 139 jimmy ezekiel kihwele & fred mgata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 121-142 140 references abirin, s. g., & obra jr, m. r. 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(2013). reinventing teaching in mathematics classrooms: lesson study after a pragmatic perspective. international journal for lesson and learning studies, 2(2), 101– 114. https://doi.org/10.1108/20468251311323360 https://doi.org/10.24235/eltecho.v2i1.1592 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203168899_chapter_10 https://doi.org/10.1108/20468251311323360 factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria nkechinyere iwe michael okpara university of agriculture, umudike, nigeria abstract the study seeks to ascertain nigerian language teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as an enhancement to teaching and whether this awareness is influenced by teaching location and teacher qualification. the study adopts the survey research design with a sample size of 262 drawn using multi-staged sampling techniques. the z-test method was used in testing the hypothesis of the study. it was discovered that there was high mean response of teachers on the awareness of pedagogical gestures. there were significant differences in the mean response of urban/rural teachers and no significant differences in the mean response of graduate/non-graduate teacher’s awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique. our conclusion is that pedagogical gestures are indispensable in lesson delivery and that their pedagogic values are gained through awareness of them as enhancement technique. key words: gestures, teachers, pedagogical gestures, language classroom, awareness background gesturing complements the segmented and combinational forms that characterize speech and, by so doing, it serves as an enhancement to speech. communication usually consists of a blend of verbal and non-verbal transmission of information and the two strongly complement each other. for instance, when telling a story, there is invariably body movement of different types. these body movements translate into gesture which allows the speaker to convey a number of messages. gestures are therefore movements of the parts of the body (eye, hand, head, fingers, leg) that complement speech in human communication and their study fall into an aspect of linguistics african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 222-241 factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 223 referred to as paralinguistics or semiotics. kelly, manning, and rodak, (2008) suggest that teachers can use gesture to become even more effective in several fundamental aspects of their profession, including communication, assessment of their students’ knowledge and ability so as to instill a profound understanding of abstract concepts in traditionally difficult domains such as language and mathematics. they further maintain that even a casual observation of teachers and students interacting in the classroom will reveal that gestures are as pervasive and indispensable as black boards, desks and lesson plans. the general claim, therefore, is that adding gesture to spoken instruction makes the instruction more effective. it promotes learning when it is used in teaching contexts. in other words, children are more likely to benefit more from instruction when it is accompanied by gestures than when it is not. this means that the gestures that teachers produce during instructions, termed teaching gestures/pedagogical gestures could facilitate learning by helping children understand the concepts that accompany those gestures. this is because information is presented to them in two rather than one modality – speech and gesture. teachers use teaching gestures/pedagogical gestures to capture the attention of the students and make their lessons more dynamic and more understandable. according to tellier (2008), such gestures appear in various shapes: hand gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, body movements and so on. these gestures help learners to infer the meaning of spoken words or expressions. even in second language learning like gulberg’s (2008) study has shown, teachers use of gesture help to assist learners especially, struggling ones to grapple with aspects of the new language. gulberg studied the role of gesture in second language learning and strongly recommended the use of visually rich gestures such as iconic gestures. this is to strengthen his claim that such gestures serve as ideal input to beginning learners of a second language. according to gulberg, the best source of gestural information is the language teacher who is able to observe behavior in the two cultures (that of the native speakers and that of the second language learners) and use appropriate gestures to teach the language in his own classroom. (gulberg, 2008). such teachers are considered to be a lot more effective than those who do not take all the pains. the question is, “how aware are teachers of their use of these gestures as enhancement techniques in the classroom? it is against this background that the present study is designed to investigate nigerian teachers' awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement techniques in the english nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 224 language classroom. the study is planned to examine the influence of such variables as teachers' education, and location. gestures in language classroom communication is multimodal, consisting of a blend of verbal and non-verbal transmission of information. gestures are part of the non-verbal modalities of communication. scholarly appreciation of gestures dates back to the work of 18th century philosophers, abbe de condillac (cited in hewe, 1973) who propounded gestural theory which claims that language evolved from manual gestures. godwin (1986) suggests that gestures are “highly organized activities that contain temporal, spatial and social properties’’ (p.47). gesture, from godwin’s perspective, is a time and space related—not a continuous—activity. it accompanies speech or sometimes is used alone for the purpose of communication. however, that gestures are highly organized is debatable. when a speaker unconsciously uses gestures to accompany speech especially in informal communication or when children use gestures to call the attention of their caregivers before they acquire language, their gesturing is not organized. if gestures are employed in informal spontaneous use, then we are not inclined to believe that they are organized activities. gestures do not follow a particular pattern or system as spoken language. gesturing as a mode of communication lacks rules that guide its usage and process, so godwin's definition, from our view, does not pass our review. mcneil (1992) sees gesture as “an integral part of language as much as are words, phrases, and sentences – gesture and language are one system’’(p.2). this implies that language complements gesture and speech. there are no separate gesture languages from speech language. mcneill further claims that there are two elements of the speech-gesture relationship that are particularly interesting: firstly, co-speech gestures do not make sense without the accompanying speech. secondly and related to the first, is that gesture and speech combine to reveal meaning that goes beyond the sum of the two individual parts. for instance, according to mcneill (1992), a friend simply telling you how he got involved in an auto crash will not make clear the picture of the incident without gesturing how the cars collided. the addition of this iconic gesture would surely provide a much clearer and more elaborate representation of what happened (p.3). based on mcneil’s definition, communication without the use of gestures both in formal and informal setting is incomplete. this is supported by bates and dick (2002) who in their study of gesture factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 225 and development posit that since gesture and speech form an integrated system, gesture should play an important role in language and cognitive development. studies have shown the effect of gesture on second language memorization by young children. tellier (2008) as well as goldin – meadow and alibali (2013) show that gestures promote deeper learning and retention of knowledge much better than does lessons without gestures. teachers’ gestures, therefore, can be said to have a substantial impact on students' learning, as a teacher’s inclination to support difficult material with gesture may be precisely what their students need to grasp a challenging material. given that teachers’ gestures affect the information that students take up from a lesson, and given that teachers can alter their gestures if they wish to do so, goldin – meadow and alibali (2013) think that it may be worthwhile for teachers to use gestures in a planned and purposeful fashion to reinforce the message they intend to convey. furthermore, in the light of evidence that the use of gesture can itself promote learning, teachers may also wish to encourage children to produce gestures themselves, as such encouragement may serve to activate their implicit knowledge, making them particularly receptive to instruction (broaders, cook, mitchell & goldin – meadow, 2007). similarly, cook and goldin–meadow (2006) suggest that gesturing can free-up mental capacity and can also influence the process of information exchange between teachers and students. they observe a potential advantage of gesturing in assessment, suggesting that teachers could be trained to incorporate gesture in making more appropriate student appraisals. biau and soto-faraco (n.d, p.69) also record modulated auditory integration at two stages of learning; the early stage, and a later time when beat gestures synchronize with speech. beat gestures produced along with speech have been found to modulate brain activity in listeners (hubbard, wilson, callan & dapretto, 2009). these works show that gestures constitute a very prominent part of the paralinguistic context in which listeners perceive spoken messages. statement of the problem studies have shown that gestures are indispensable complement to everyday speech. each gesture has a shape and conveys meaning used to reinforce speech. of particular interest to this study is the finding that gestures perform pedagogical function by serving as enhancement tool for the nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 226 teacher in lesson delivery. english language teachers in l1 countries, it is believed, are consciously aware of pedagogical gestures, their nature, and pedagogical functions, and purposely use them in their lesson delivery as enhancement tools. however, the extent to which nigerian teachers of english in secondary schools share this awareness is unclear. since research findings in gesture studies have revealed that pedagogical gestures are facilitators of learning in the english language classroom, it is, therefore, important to investigate teachers' awareness of pedagogical gesture and their forms and their semantic import in the classroom in order to bring to the fore the importance of pedagogical gestures in lesson delivery. aim and research questions the study aims to determine nigerian english language teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique in the english language classroom, and whether location and qualification -induced teacher stereotypes influence teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures. the specific research questions were: (1) to what extent does urban teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures differ from those of their rural counterparts? (2) to what extent does graduate teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gesture differ from those of their counterparts without graduate qualifications? the following hypotheses were formulated: ho1 there is no significant difference between the mean responses of urban teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures from those of their rural counterparts. ho2 there is no significant difference between the mean responses of graduate teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures from those of their non-graduate counterparts. briefs on literature review gestures in teaching has attracted varied research attention such as roth (2001), valenzeno, alibali and klatzky (2003), church, ayman–nolley and mahootian (2004), lazaraton (2004), pozzer-ardebghi and roth (2007), nikazm (2008), tara and megan (2009), macedonia and knosche (2011), macedonia and kriegstein (2012), oluikpe (2014). gesture studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of child language acquisition. it has also contributed factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 227 immensely to adult communication. experimental studies have shown that pedagogical gestures facilitate the teaching of english (macedonia and knosche 2011), macedonia and kriegstein (2012 and are effective enhancement tools in the english language classroom. in the light of research findings in pedagogical gestures, this responds to neill and caswell (1995) and olsher’s (2008) call for teachers to be aware of the gestures they use in the language classroom. consequently, this study sensitizes nigerian english teachers to gestures they either consciously or unconsciously use in the language classroom as enhancement techniques. theoretical framework this researcher adopted the lexical gesture process model (lgpm) as propounded by krauss, chen, and gottesmann (2001) which holds that the primary function of iconic gestures, which they call lexical gestures, is to facilitate lexical access in speech production. in the words of the proponents: lexical gestures occur only as accompaniments to speech, but vary considerably in length, are non-repetitive, complex and changing in form and many appear to bear a meaningful relation to the semantic content of the speech they accompany. they are somewhat similar to ideational gestures such as hand-arm movements that consist of more than two independent vectorial components (p.90). describing the model, mol and kita (2013) observe that the primary function of lexical gestures is not to convey imagistic information to an interlocutor, but rather to facilitate the speaker-internal process of word retrieval. in their words, lgpm model is designed to explain the claim that lexical gestures facilitate word form retrieval. the basic idea is that the motor program for the gesture of a certain visio-spatial representation, created from a number of its spatial features, functions as a cross-modal prime for word form retrieval. the model assumes that lexical gestures are similar to iconic gestures. the higher rate of iconic gestures per word may be caused by attempts to facilitate the word retrieval that is difficult for speakers with non-fluent aphasia. assuming that some speakers have more difficulty retrieving words, they will then generate more gestures to counteract this difficulty (p.201). nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 228 the lexical gesture process model relates to speech production as it assumes that lexical gestures and speech involve three production stages that operate in concert: conceptualizing, formulating, and articulating (krauss, chen, and gottesmann, 2001). conceptualizing involves, among other things, drawing upon declarative and procedural knowledge to construct a communicative intention. the output of the conceptualizing stage—a preverbal message—is a conceptual structure containing a set of semantic specifications. at the formulating stage, the preverbal message is transformed in two ways. first, a grammatical encoder maps the to-be-lexicalized concept onto a lemma (i.e., an abstract symbol representing the selected word as a semantic-syntactic entity) in the mental lexicon whose meaning matches the content of the preverbal message. using syntactic information contained in the lemma, the conceptual structure is transformed into a surface structure (see also bierwisch & schrueder, 1992). then, by accessing word forms stored in lexical memory and constructing an appropriate plan for the utterance's prosody, a phonological encoder transforms this surface structure into a phonetic plan (essentially a set of instructions to the articulatory system). the output of the articulatory stage is overt speech, which the speaker monitors and uses as a source of corrective feedback. alibali (2000) summarizes the model thus: “at what point in the process of speech production is gesture involved? gesture is involved in generating the surface forms of utterances. specifically, gesture facilitates access to items in the mental system” (p.89). the model is found relevant to this study in that it accounts for gestures as facilitative of speech by ensuring that words or lexical items stored in the brain are retrieved in the process of conversation or speech initiation. and to this extent, it equally captures the social dimension of gestures as enhancement strategy in speech-based venture or communicative activity. methodology the study adopted the survey research design which entails selecting a sample from a population which is representative enough to make valid generalizations. baran (1999, p.350) supports this as he observes thus: “survey allows researchers to measure characteristics, opinions or behavior of a population by studying a small sample from that group generalizing back to the population, which is the group under scrutiny” the singular advantage of extensiveness in size and spread makes the choice of survey appropriate for the study. factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 229 the area of study is enugu state in south-east nigeria. enugu state has seventeen local government areas. the population of this study is 1,746 which is the population of english teachers in the 291 public secondary schools in enugu state of nigeria (enugu state secondary education board, 2017). on the sample size and sampling technique, the ‘population-percentage recommendation’ method has been adopted in determining the sample size of this study. in line with this method, some scholars have recommended sample sizes for specific population sizes. we have adopted the recommendations of berg and gall (1973) which are as follows: above 5000 population= above 20 percent as sample, below 5000= around 10-15 percent…” equally, a sample size between 10 percent and 25 percent is recommended as acceptable when determining sample size of studies with population of few thousands. in all, some factors like cost, project type, and time should be considered. in line with the above recommendations, since the population is1,746 the sample size of the study is 15% of the population of the study.” 𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓 𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟗 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙. 𝟐𝟔𝟐 a mixed and multi-staged sampling technique was adopted in selecting the sample namely: balloting sampling, proportionate sampling and accidental sampling techniques. the balloting sampling yields three educational zones in enugu state namely: enugu, agbani, and nsukka educational zones. the balloting involved writing the names of all the six educational zones in enugu state on paper, putting them in a bowl; shaking them properly at every pick without replacement until three educational zones were picked. the second stage involved proportionate sampling where the sample (262) was proportionately distributed among the three educational zones based on urban versus rural location with urban having higher percentage than rural schools because of population being higher in urban former schools. the last stage is where the accidental/missionary/available sampling method was used to select english teachers from schools in the zones as shown in table 1 below: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nigeria nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 230 s/n zone and location proportion sample proportion percentage 1 agbani, urban 54 21% 2 agbani, rural 33 12% 3 enugu, urban 50 19% 4 enugu, rural 37 14% 5 nsukka, urban 59 23% 6 nsukka, rural 29 11% total 262 100% table 1: breakdown of sampling method data for the study were collected using a self-constructed 4-point likert-type questionnaire. the questionnaire was patterned into two (2) sections; section a to elicit the respondents' biodata and sections b to d to generate data on different types of gestures especially pedagogical gestures and teachers’ awareness of them. section b contains 20 related questions that border on teachers’ awareness of typical everyday gestures. section c contains 20 questions on teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures. to ensure reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was conducted using some teachers of other subjects in umuahia, abia state. the instrument was administered to the subjects on two separate occasions with a gap of two months. this approach in establishing reliability is called test-retest method or measure of stability. nwahunanya & akanwa (2008 p.63) observe that in this method, “the same test is given to the same group of testees on more than one occasion. then the scores obtained by the group on the first administration are correlated with the scores obtained from the same group of testees on the second administration of the same test. the reliability coefficient in this case will simply be the correlation between the two sets of scores by the same testees on two administrations of the same test” thus, the spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used for the test, which formula is given as: rs =1–6d2/n(n 2-1) __________________ factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 231 rs = spearman’s rank correlation coefficient d2 = sum of squared‘d’. n = number of subjects (paired ranks) a correlation figure of 0.81 was gotten which was considered high enough for the administration of the questionnaire to the actual sample. validity refers to the extent to which an instruction is capable of doing what it is expected to do (nwahunanya & akanwa, 2008). the study adopted the face validity option. it pertains to whether the test looks valid to the examinees who take it, the administrative personnel who decide on its use, and the technically untrained other observers (anastasi & urbiria, 1997). in adopting this method, three research scholars were consulted to assess the relative inclusiveness, adequacy as well as the grammatical coverage of the items in the measuring instruments. the amendments by the expert gave the instruments some validity. two hundred and sixty-two (262) copies of questionnaire were distributed to respondents on different days for the urban and rural secondary schools. the researcher also observed the teachers who were selected for the study during their lessons for one month and made use of research assistants in the course of the observation and administration of questionnaire. there was close monitoring of the respondents and the research assistants in the course of administration of the questionnaire to ensure a reduction or avoidance of mortality or invalid filling of the copies of the questionnaires. a brief orientation was also organized for the respondents on the intents of the research to ensure that possible biases and prejudices were taken care of or avoided. sixty-two copies of questionnaire were invalid hence 200 copies were returned valid and used for the study. below is a breakdown of the percentage of returned and valid copies of the questionnaire: returned 200 76% invalid 62 24% total 262 100% table 2: breakdown of questionnaire distribution data for the study were presented and analyzed using the likert scale of 4 points to determine the significance of each of the instrument items. each of the items was analyzed using the likert scale and decision value of 3.00 was adopted in determining the significance. in this nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 232 method, strongly agree (sa) is allotted 4, agree is allotted 3, strongly disagree is allotted 2, and disagree is 1. also, the means and grand means were calculated for each of the categories of the questions. the z-test method was adopted in testing the hypotheses of this study. the method is considered apt because the hypotheses were to determine the significance between two means (a two-tailed test). also, we considered the z—test method because as alluded by kothari (1997), ztest is suitable for studies with high sample from 30-above. the z-test method formula is: z= x̅1 –x̅2 √s1 2 + s22 n1 n2 where: x̅ = the mean/grand mean as the case may be s= standard deviation n= sample decision rule: 1) reject the null hypothesis if the calculated z (zcal) is greater than the (zcrit) critical value. 2) accept if, the z critical value is less than the z calculated value. data presentation, analysis, and discussion data analysis and presentation is based on the returned/valid 200 (76%) copies of questionnaire. factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 233 table 3: difference between urban and rural teachers’ mean response on awareness of pedagogical gestures urban (x1)=101 rural (x2) = 99 statement ∑fx̅ x̅1 ∑fx̅ x̅2 1 pedagogical gestures are those used by teachers as enhancement technique to help the student learn. 334 3.30 396 4.00 2 they involve either the movement of a part or combination of parts of the body. 314 3.10 381 3.84 3 they are classified based on their pedagogical function. 304 3.00 392 3.95 4 iconic gesture is a pedagogical gesture generally used to depict visually an action or an object. 291 2.88 398 4.02 5 iconic gesture involves stretching a close fist through the window to demonstrate a throw. 326 3.22 401 4.05 6 it also involves demonstrating the need to warm up the body in cold weather by rubbing the palms together. 316 3.12 389 3.92 7 iconic gesture includes holding tight the first to demonstrate insistence. 341 3.37 386 3.89 8 it may be expressed by making a loud clap to demonstrate an auto crash 356 3.52 391 3.94 9 iconic gesture also involves punching the fists in the air to demonstrate a fight. 361 3.57 388 3.91 10 it may be in the form of making some bodily action like walking fast to demonstrate a quick action. 308 3.04 371 3.74 11 deictic gesture is a pedagogical gesture generally used to refer to abstract/concrete pointing. 299 2.96 359 3.62 12 it may be in the form of pointing to an object in the immediate environment. 341 3.37 382 3.85 13 it could be used to represent past action by pointing behind one. 361 3.57 374 3.77 14 it could also be in the form of flicking the finger up and down to describe a particular object. 301 2.98 368 3.71 nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 234 15 it may involve flicking the finger back and forth to bacon on someone or draw students’ attention in class. 331 3.27 387 3.90 16 metaphoric gesture is a pedagogical gesture, which uses concrete demonstration to describe abstract ideas or concepts 324 3.20 359 3.62 17 metaphoric gesture involves gesturing with the hand in an upward movement to indicate high intelligence. 319 3.15 364 3.67 18 it could also be in the form of a spherical pantomime to represent the idea of wholeness. 308 3.04 378 3.81 19 metaphorical gesture may involve opening the two palms before students to demonstrate emptiness or nothingness. 301 2.98 384 3.87 20 it may be in the form of a sluggish movement to demonstrate dullness or slow learning. 390 3.93 total 6136 60.64 7638 77.01 grand mean (x1) =∑x̅/n =60.64/20 =3.03 grand mean (x1) =∑x̅/n =77.01/20 =3.85 from the values of the grand mean, it is evident that the mean response of both urban and rural teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures is above the 3.00 decision point. a slight differential however exists as the rural teachers mean response is above that of their urban counterparts. the significance of the differential shall be established when the hypothesis is tested. it is necessary to observe that from the analysis above, rural teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures seemingly vary from that of their urban counterparts. this is important considering the observation of comley (2013) that demographic features of students as well as method of teaching are some factors that could trigger some variation in knowledge and perhaps implementation of pedagogical gestures in lesson activities. teachers in nigeria’s rural settings often deal with students who are comparatively of low social status and with relatively low exposure to contemporary learning aids. this situation seems able to trigger a higher level of awareness and use of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among rural teachers. factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 235 table 4: difference between graduate and non-graduate teachers’ mean response on awareness of pedagogical gestures graduate (x1)= 157 nongraduate (x2) =43 statement ∑fx̅ x̅ ∑fx̅ x̅ 1 pedagogical gestures are those used by teachers as enhancement technique to help the student learn. 529 3.36 69 1.60 2 they involve either the movement of a part or combination of parts of the body. 531 3.38 71 1.65 3 they are classified based on their pedagogical function. 496 3.15 65 1.51 4 iconic gesture is a pedagogical gesture generally used to depict visually an action or an object. 494 3.14 57 1.32 5 iconic gesture involves stretching a close fist through the window to demonstrate a throw. 501 3.19 68 1.58 6 it also involves demonstrating the need to warm up the body in cold weather by rubbing the palms together. 521 3.31 75 1.74 7 iconic gesture includes holding tight the first to demonstrate insistence. 518 3.29 76 1.76 8 it may be expressed by making a loud clap to demonstrate an auto crash 534 3.40 81 1.88 9 iconic gesture also involves punching the fists in the air to demonstrate a fight. 498 3.17 65 1.51 10 it may be in the form of making some bodily action like walking fast to demonstrate a quick action. 541 3.44 70 1.62 11 deictic gesture is a pedagogical gesture generally used to refer to abstract/concrete pointing. 486 3.09 59 1.37 nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 236 12 it may be in the form of pointing to an object in the immediate environment. 501 3.19 62 1.44 13 it could be used to represent past action by pointing behind one. 519 3.30 72 1.67 14 it could also be in the form of flicking the finger up and down to describe a particular object. 520 3.31 58 1.34 15 it may involve flicking the finger back and forth to bacon on someone or draw students’ attention in class. 528 3.36 64 1.48 16 metaphoric gesture is a pedagogical gesture, which uses concrete demonstration to describe abstract ideas or concepts 517 3.29 72 1.67 17 metaphoric gesture involves gesturing with the hand in an upward movement to indicate high intelligence. 495 3.15 82 1.90 18 it could also be in the form of a spherical pantomime to represent the idea of wholeness. 521 3.31 64 1.48 19 metaphorical gesture may involve opening the two palms before students to demonstrate emptiness or nothingness. 532 3.38 69 1.60 20 it may be in the form of a sluggish movement to demonstrate dullness or slow learning. 530 3.37 74 1.72 total 10312 62.27 1373 36.33 grand mean (x1) =∑x̅/n =62.27/20 =3.11 grand mean (x1) =∑x̅/n =36.33/20 =1.81 the values above show that while the grand mean for the graduate teachers is above the decision value of 3.00, that of the non-graduate teachers is less than the decision value. this is interpreted as a differential in the mean response of graduate and non-graduate teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures. the mean response of graduate teachers is higher than that of their nongraduate counterparts. it is striking that being a university graduate presupposes some level of exposure and training in teacher effectiveness as well as in how to communicate in the classroom for easy learner’s comprehension. teaching practice affords graduate teacher trainees an factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 237 opportunity to develop their skills as well as be abreast of modern strategies and techniques for effective teaching (national teachers conference report, 2010); a form of training that is not available to their non-graduate counterparts. hypotheses testing hypothesis one-(ho1) – there is no significant difference between the mean response of urban teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures from those of their rural counterparts table 5: z-test of the significant difference between the mean response of urban and rural teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures variables mean (grand mean x̅) standard deviation (sd) z-calculated (zcal ) z-critical (zcrit) decision urban (x̅1) 3.03 11.023 (s1) -1.19 1.96 rejection rural (x̅2) 3.85 12.421 (s2) -1.19>1.96 = rejection applying the decision rule, the tcal is greater than the tcrit hence the null hypothesis is rejected; thus, there is significant difference between the mean responses of urban teachers on the awareness of pedagogical gestures from their rural counterparts. urban and rural dichotomy is based on location and has been found to influence training and capacity building which are necessary for (improved) awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique in lesson delivery. the report of the national teachers conference (2012) captured and addressed this lack of equity. it noted that since all teachers have the same mission there should not be discrimination in terms of location, age, or gender and that equal opportunities should be provided for all for optimum job performance. however, mahdi and al-dera (2013, p71) observe that the location of teachers reflects differences in the use and adoption of ict. thus while “teachers sampled showed no differential in their level of awareness and knowledge of icts, there are differences in terms of urban and rural teachers’ use or adoption of new technologies for teaching” (emphasis is ours). hypothesis two (ho2) – there is no significant difference between the mean response of graduate teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures from those of their non-graduate counterparts. nkechinyere iwe ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 238 table 6: z-test of the significant difference between the mean response of graduate and non-graduate teachers on awareness of pedagogical gestures variables mean (grand mean x̅) standard deviation (sd) zcalculated (zcal ) z-critical (zcrit) decision graduate (x̅1) 3.11 11.46 (s1) 1.80 1.96 acceptance non-graduate (x̅2) 1.81 7.978(s2) 1.80<1.96 = acceptance from the table above, the tcalculated is less than the tcritical hence the null hypothesis is accepted thus: there is no significant difference between the mean responses of graduate teachers from those of their non-graduate counterparts. it could be interpreted that the variable of graduate/non-graduate does not induce a significant difference in the awareness of pedagogical gestures among the respondents. graduate and non-graduate certification seem to not be an issue in teacher awareness of pedagogical gestures because both graduate and non-graduate teachers are exposed to some training that could enable them have knowledge on and be aware of pedagogical gestures as enhancement techniques in lesson delivery. summary and conclusion we have shown that gestures are used among nigerian language teachers in enugu state, and that awareness of pedagogical gestures is high among these teachers. it has been revealed that location and qualification-induced difference influence teacher’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique. some differentials were obtained in the mean responses of teachers across the variables of urban/ rural, and graduate/ non-graduate. the differentials were that rural (r) were more than urban (u) (r =3.85, u =3.03), and graduate (g) more than non-graduate teachers (ng) (g =3.11, ng =1.81). however, when subjected to statistical z-test, the results indicated that the differentials were not significant for qualification hence there were no significant differences in the mean response of graduate and non-graduate teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique. but the differential between urban and rural were found to be significant hence there is significant difference in the mean response of urban and rural teacher’s awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique in lesson delivery. in the case of qualification factors in teachers’ awareness of pedagogical gestures as enhancement technique among english teachers in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 222-243 239 that showed no significant differential, the zcal (1.80 for qualification) is less than the zcrit (1.96) at 0.05 significance level while for location that showed significant differential, the zcal (-1.19) is greater than the zcrit (-1.96) at 0.05 significance 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(2000). mass media research: an introduction. boston, mass: wadsworth, cengage learning. africa journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation vol. 6 no. 1 2017 pages 65-95 vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa thomas e. wals h jr. rotary club of ames, usa hayle y ne ls on iowa state university, usa gre tche n hans on iowa state university, usa brian bore r iowa state university, usa abstract the project report describes a staff-development training program on effective teaching methodologies and english conversation for government schools in tanzania. given this need a training program was provided and funded from rotary foundation and the rotary club of ames district 6000 as a vocational training team (vtt) grant. the objectives of the program were to provide the training program on teaching strategies to staff including improving use of english through dialogue and using donated amazon readers with solar panels. discussio n items of the article include development and authorization of the vtt grant with support from the rotary club of moshi-mwanga, located in the mwanga district of tanzania. the authors, serving as the training team, provide a description of the schools selected for the project along with a report about the implementation of the program at their campus site. evaluation of the training program using an interest survey, preand post-implementation survey, and post evaluation of the schools is discussed. information about the primary goal of the project to train two faculty or staff as instructional coaches to sustain use of teaching methodologies with secondary school staff members is presented. access to the development of strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa (walsh, 2016) is provided with reference of the curriculum used for previous projects in tanzania and published with the ajote (walsh, 2012 and walsh, 2015). keywords: vocational training, rotary foundation, use of english, teacher trainers, tanzania walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 66 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 introduction an ongoing problem facing many teachers and secondary education in tanzania is a teacher shortage in the country created with the opening of government public “community” secondary schools and a required national testing scheme. the teacher shortage has resulted in higher staff turnover in many of the schools and the recruitment of teachers with limited post-secondary education (i.e., a graduation certificate) and formal teacher preparation or training provided with a university teaching diploma. this turnover has been perpetuated by lower student achieve me nt test scores, which are posted online for parent viewing (i.e., on mobile phones) along with the school’s ranking. the shift away from some schools has reduced the amount of tuition money revenue and stifled the ability to pay teachers on a timely basis. this has been compounded with limited delivery of english instruction required at the secondary level. this is a challenge for teaching staff since they speak the national language of swahili along with their local language (e.g., pare) and possibly an additional family tribal language. therefore, teachers may not have the proficiency or confidence to teach their subject entirely in the english language. these issues have resulted in a high number of younger teaching staff at many of the schools with limited curriculum resources and books. attendance data gathered when conducting the program in the pare mountain dioceses schools (walsh, 2015) found that 69% of the teachers had less than four years of teaching experience and teacher preparation students (i.e., student teachers) were recruited to support the staff shortage at the schools. given this need a vtt rotary grant staff development on effective teaching methodologies and english conversation was provided by a team of four trainers to teachers at five secondary schools, in the mwanga district, kilimanjaro region of tanzania. the grant was a partnership between the host rotary club of moshi-mwanga, district 9211 in tanzania, east africa and the international rotary club of ames district 6000. the host rotary club selected the schools receiving the training program, with trainer assignments made by the project team leader (walsh). all schools are government schools except kiriki, owned by the muslim order of usange. the vtt project also included a partnership with powerfilm and kindle, who provided portable solar panels for electrical power to charge the kindle reader e-book touch pads given to each school. project goals and objectives the primary goal of the project was to train two faculty or staff at each school site, with an alternative trainer, to learn the program teaching strategies so they could conduct and continue the training in the future. the goal provided sustainability for the training program and included support resources for teacher trainers, with a monetary stipend for their teaching and classroom coaching provided to staff. the resources would include teacher textbooks and print material to support student performance and achievement. schools were also provided a print copy of the esl student manual and the esl resource book . these esl texts were compiled lesson activities providing practice on common english experiences and daily living word lists. there were three learning skill objectives for the program. one objective was to provide effective teaching strategies on questioning techniques, graphic organizers, cooperative learning, vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 67 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 models of teaching and models based on the criss (creating independence through student owned strategies). a second objective was to improve the teacher’s english through discussion and dialogue activities. a third objective was to provide access to technology and e-books (i.e., english and swahili) through the use of donated amazon kindle fire readers, including donated solar panels for charging, at each school. if available, computer training and support would be provided. vtt grant development and authorization given the circumstances of a younger inexperienced tanzania secondary teaching staff, with limited educational training, seeking funding and approval of a rotary grant to provide an english taught seminar on educational strategies and methodologies was needed. initial efforts in writing the grant began in july of 2014 with support and revision efforts provided from the vtt team, gerald klonglan and mary wells, members of the rotary club of ames global grant committee. stakeholders in tanzania supported the project to address the problems in supporting teachers’ delivery of instruction to improve student achievement and provide educational resources in the secondary schools. alimiya osman, tanzania country grant officer reviewed the grant providing clarification for the proposal with suggestions to improve sustainability of the project. osman then recommended approval to tanzania grant officer stephen mwanje for grant authorization. authorization and support of the project was then given, after completio n of the rotary online application, to the rotary club of moshi-mwanga, the rotary district 6000 committee members, and the rotary international review team. the grant was the first vtt project approved for district 6000, based on this thorough review by the rotary foundation. the vtt was funded $15,000 from district 6000 district designated funds (ddf) and $15,000 from the rotary foundation world fund. essential support to implement the grant was provided by the rotary club of moshimwanga host vtt members who reviewed elements of the draft (e.g., line budget items) and traveled to the selected five schools in the mwanga district for on-site training approval based on a contract of expectations signed by the school headmaster or headmistress. they also traveled to the training sites to receive signatures from school officials, headmasters, and selected trainers to support sustainability of the project. the approval forms were critical to the project since the primary goal of the project was to train two faculty or staff at each school site, with an alternative trainer, to learn the program teaching strategies so they could conduct and continue the training in the future. additional logistical efforts provided by the rotary club of moshimwanga included frequent computer communication and scanning of information about school demographics with map identification of campus sites and completed forms. description of schools selected for the service project information about each of the school sites was gathered by each trainer and recorded in their journal notes. headmistresses and headmasters at each school, with support from staff members, provided trainers with the background about the secondary school. the trainers describe their walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 68 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 school based on their assignments to mandaka / kiriki (walsh), ngujini (nelson), kisangara (hanson), and kirya (borer). mandaka secondary school mandaka is a government school offering free secondary education to tanzania students who successfully completed standard 1-7 i.e., their primary education. the headmistress, mwanaima mnzava, is the administrator for the form 1-4 school. mandaka is a fully funded governme nt school, with a student enrollment of 470 students serving 214 boys and 256 girls, providing student tuition, uniform and book expenses paid for by the government. most students are “day schoolers” who walk to the campus from mwanga, some traveling 13 km from sangara (seven km east of mwanga). a few students, whose parents can afford the expense, have bicycles. the school day begins with students doing cleaning chores and then meeting as a large group for announcements and directions. thirty-three staff members teach at the school and are evaluated twice a year using an eight-page form report. teachers’ pay is increased based on student performance on national exams. pay only decreases if a teacher is absent from work for 3-5 days, unless a medical excuse if provided. basic subjects are taught at mandaka including english, swahili, mathematics, physics, geography, health, biology, chemistry, civics, environmental education, and history. school remedial studies, debate, and sports activities are available for students. class sizes typically range from 20-70 students at the school. the school is currently constructing a girls’ dormitory for at risk girls who may potentially drop out due to early pregnancy. parents at the school have donated 30,000 tsh ($15 usd) with half of the funding achieved for the project. the school receives some money from a cattle pin created for stray animals that wander onto the campus. farmers have to pay the school to get their animals back. amos makala, the regional commissioner of governme nt schools for the kilimanjaro region, visits the construction site for the dormitory. the students’ preparation of the road the day before and painting the trim rock white provides an attractive entrance for makala’s officials, press, and police escort arriving at the school. students line the street for the greeting and exiting of officials. mwanaima presents a speech about the dormitory to the vip people, school staff, students, and community leaders in front of the press camera during makala’s visit. ngujini secondary school ngujini secondary is a government secondary school for forms 1-4. selemani mbaga is the school’s headmaster and math teacher. in total, there are 14 teachers and two school cooks. total enrollment is 215, with 109 boys and 106 girls. classes taught at the school include englis h, math, kiswahili, geography, chemistry, physics, history, biology, and civics. there is one computer and no internet. the school has a small library from which students check out textbooks to study. vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 69 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 each school day begins at 7:00. students clean the campus and tend to the garden until 7:30, when they assemble. during assembly, selected individuals present to the student body a topic they researched. announcements are made before students are dismissed to their classrooms. punishments for being late or failing to wear the school uniform are handled at this time. classes begin at 8:00. four morning classes are followed by a short break, then five more classes until 14:30. lunch is provided at 14:30 before students attend after school activities (i.e. debate, music, prayer, sports) or go home. kisangara secondary school kisangara secondary school is a government school that offers “free” education to students who have completed standard 7 and wish to continue on to form 1-4. students at kisangara, like students from some governmentfunded schools, do not have to pay a school fee but do have to provide their own uniforms, school supplies, and lunch money. kisangara has a total enrollme nt of 611 students with 288 being males and 323 females. students travel from the village and surrounding rural areas to attend kisangara. many are from the low lands while others live up to eight kilometers away in the mountains. most of the students walk to school and very few have bicycles. while the rotary project was in session, students had to arrive to school at 7:00 to do the daily chores of cleaning the schoolyard and the classrooms. they then had a morning assembly and were dismissed to go to class. classes and after school activities ended at 16:30 when students would gather for an end of the day assembly then dismissed to go home. there are 32 teachers that teach various subjects at the school with 29/32 teachers consistently participating in the vtt program. many of the teachers were fairly new to the field, with eight months of experience. the rest of the teachers had from at least three years of experience up to 11 years. most of the teachers live in apartments or in homes with their families within walking distance of campus. the remaining teachers travel slightly farther away from neighboring villages. the headmistress of the school madam severina molloga has been at kisangara for two years and lives next to the school. all teachers are required by the government to do lesson plans and record notes on the lesson. madam molloga meets regularly with the head of the different teaching departments and with the teachers to do evaluations and provide feedback to teachers. basic subjects are taught at the school including biology, history, english, civics, chemistry, physics, math, kiswahili, and geography. the class sizes for these different subject areas ranged from 30-80 per classroom. kisangara, like many other schools, has very few science and math teachers. for example, mr. john tendwa teaches both math and physics for sections a, b, and c for all forms. there is one laboratory to share among all science subjects for all students, which makes it very challenging when doing experiments. with the help of parents the school has been able to start a project (currently on funding pause) to build three new labs for biology, chemistry and physics. they also hope to start a new project to construct a girls’ dormitory on campus. fifty bags of cement have already been donated to the school to start this project. kirya secondary school walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 70 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 kirya is a governme nt school (form 1–4) with a student enrollment of 320 students with 140 boys and 180 girls. most students are “day schoolers” who walk to the campus from the mwanga district lake region. basic subjects are taught at kirya including english literature, kiswahili, mathematics, physics, geography, biology, chemistry, civics, and history. it is not uncommo n for 60 students to attend class. technology is limited for 18 staff members at the school with only a few teachers owning personal computers. there are five female instructors. kirya is uniquely located near one of the largest hydro-electrical dams in tanzania earning the town’s name spillway. despite the local electrical source kirya still strives to innovate new sustainability practices. over the doorway is displayed their motto “education for the future.” kirya was awarded the zayed future energy prize in 2012 for their hard work building a sustainable and environmentally friendly campus. kirya has a $15,000 usd solar power system with 15 batteries that delivers about 3000 watts. this supports the current operating system, based on high costs for electricity from the dam, and burning wood for heat does cooking of most everything. they also have an innovative irrigation system and are analyzing the feasibility of adding a windmill for electrical production. kiriki secondary school kiriki is a private islamic secondary school with its campus situated in a beautiful valley in the northern pare mountains of tanzania. the school is operated by the muslim council of tanzania’s usange branch. the school has a current enrollment of 275 students, 17 teachers, and 11 support staff. most of the students (n=225) reside on campus living in the boys’ or girls’ dormitory. less than 50 students are “day schoolers” who walk to kiriki. while religio us affiliation is not requested for student enrollment the headmaster, mussa mnzava, estimates that about half the students are muslim with the other half affiliated with christian or pagan faiths. school dismisses on friday at noon due to the islam day of worship. during this time, the school christian choir has singing practices. also, on fridays and before or after school academic instruction students remain active with cleaning chores (e.g., sweeping floors), maintena nce activities (repairing the road and water lines), gardening, and cutting firewood. recreation activities include football (soccer), volleyball, netball, and basketball sports. a current challenge for the kiriki and other private schools is declining enrollment due to the government schools now providing “free” (i.e., uniform and books may not be covered) education for secondary or form 1 4 students. according to mnzava, three years ago kiriki had an enrollment of 500 students. other nearby private schools, for example the christian school at shighatini, are experiencing similar enrollment declines. basic subjects are taught at kiriki including math, geography, english, history, kiswahili, biology, chemistry, physics, islamic knowledge, commerce, bookkeeping, advance math, physics for “a” level, and information computer technology. students are required to take seven classes per week and have the option to select up to ten (i.e., three are for elective). one class may be a class offered in islam or christian religion. both classes meet in the same building and time separated by a classroom wall. students planning to take the form 4 national exam are encouraged to take one of the religious classes since one section of the exam is given, based on student selection, on vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 71 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 islam or christian religion. students passing form 4 exam may enroll in the form 5 and 6 program offered at the school. the school site has very good physical plant facilities with equipped science laboratories, including a lab technician available to repair and order equipment, prepare for practicums, and purchase supplies or chemicals. the school has a generator to provide for consistent electric it y, including maintaining computer operations. kiriki’s instructional technology (it) teacher provides computer instruction to students using windows 7 machines with programs on the hard drive, including a self-contained internet system using viva africa. the viva africa system operates a database of text and video programs on educational topics, including an abridged wikipedia database and khan academy instructional videos. computer classes are required for form 1 and 2 students. students learn viva africa and the msoffice program (i.e., word, excel, powerpoint and data bases). form 3 and 4 students can schedule as an elective computer studies and then learn on their own (e.g., apply msoffice programs and research information). implementation of the training program the program trainers logged and reported the overview of seminar meeting events and time with teachers during the school day. trainers spent most of their time providing classroom observations and feedback on the use of teaching strategies when not conducting staff development sessions. the classroom observation feedback and evaluation of teacher strategies form or notes were documented during classroom visitations (refer to table 1). trainers reported greater use and implementation by staff integrating strategies into classroom lessons during their visits at the schools. trainers were then able to provide support and recommendations in use of these various teaching methodologies with the staff. schools were provided copies of english activity and resource books for teacher use with trainers reporting staff at the schools using these resources on a limited individual basis. the trainers describe their experiences in implementing the vtt training program at their school site as follows. mandaka secondary school most goals and objectives of the vtt project were met with less emphasis and instruct io n provided to teachers, on an individualized basis, in english conversation skills. while the sessions were conducted in english and discussion activities modeled correct oral and written usage of the english language, the teaching staff did generally not request specific individ ua l instructional lessons. the english teachers, for potential classroom application, primarily reviewed individually the esl activity and resource books. service time at the school focused on the delivery of the scheduled seminar to teachers on teaching strategies and classroom observations on the implementation of the strategies. seminar sessions met from monday to thursday after school for 12 sessions from 15:00 to 17:00 for a total of 24 hours. one session ended at 16:00, due to a rainstorm in which rain infiltrated the classroom through the windows, with extra time added to the succeeding sessions for make-up. thirty-one staff members participated in the staff development, with an average attendance rate of 18.52 hours. the classroom visitations and individual feedback to teachers promoting the use of strategies walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 72 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 provided additional training support for school participants. individual volunteer use of kindle readers and esl books provided further learning opportunities for the teachers. given the need for some curriculum compacting, due to dismissal on friday at noon for islamic worship and prayer, the core objectives of the project were achieved with a few activit ies modified or deleted due to the limited seminar meeting time. project objectives not covered included interviewing in a cooperative triad and some discussion activities. _________________________________________________________________________ table 1. classroom observation feedback and evaluation of teacher strategies form teacher _______________ school _______________ form _____ date _______________ time ____________ subject _______________ lesson title __________________________________________________________ strategies observed in lesson (✓ evident) 1. coop erative learning: ☐ learning together ☐ think-p air-share ☐ say and switch ☐ round table / round robin ☐ corners ☐ jigsaw ☐ graffiti 2. questioning strategies: ☐ op en-ended ☐ closed form and sup p ly type ☐ “think alouds” ☐ seed maker ☐ anticip ation guide (before / after) ☐ non-verbal student group resp onses (thumbs-up / thumbs-down) 3. grap hic organizers: ☐ time lines ☐ sequence map s ☐ cy cles ☐ venn diagrams ☐ semantic map s ☐ concep t map s ☐ hierarchical array s 4. m odels of teaching: ☐ concep t attainment (two column examp les) ☐ inductive teaching (group ing information) 5. information collection strategies: ☐ information queries ☐ concep t and word detective ☐ reading analy sis ☐ py ramid story theme ☐ reading p lan ☐ information illustrator ☐ one-sentence summary frames ☐ strategies for rewriting ☐ discussion p ositions ☐ comp are and contrast ☐ problem-solution grap hic ☐ semantic feature analy sis (matrices) ☐ two-column note-taking ☐ two-column concep ts ☐ two-column p roblem-solve ☐ k-w-l charts ☐ two-column math p roblem ☐ problem organizer: metacognition 6. comp uter technology usage: ☐ yes if so, which p rogram? ___________________________________________ observation feedback and use of t eaching strategies __________________________________________________________________________________________ conference with instructor: location _______________ date _______________ time ____________ teacher feedback, ideas, and self-evaluation of lesson __________________________________________________________________________________________ classroom observations were a significant part of the vtt project. the classrooms provided information about the content of the national curriculum and insight into the limited student resources. vtt sharing of strategies based on the subject content of instructors was helpful in providing topic ideas using different methodologies discussed in seminar class. forty-eight lesson observations across content areas (refer to table 2) were made for form 1-4 students, with 29/31 seminar participants’ classrooms visited for one or two periods, during the service project. vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 73 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 table 2. classroom lesson observations at mandaka secondary school observation no. subject lesson theme 1. kiswahili – group verbal response of terms and sentences 2. civics – identification and comparison of life skills 3. physics – visual diagrams and information about vectors 4. english – choral responding to poetry literature titled “school election” 5. history – impact of agriculture on food and land area 6. chemistry – volumetric analysis practicum teacher demonstration with student participants 7.english – comparison of traditional and modern structures of a poem 8. geography – national regions in tanzania shown on a map 9. english – following classroom instructions 10. biology – classification of living things 11. history – sources of historical knowledge (e.g., archives and historical sites) 12. english – elements of the forms of the arts (i.e., handcraft, oral, spoken, and written) 13. chemistry – laboratory rules 14. geography – human social activities 15. geography – characteristics of culture 16. geography – small-scale agriculture 17. biology – angiosperms in the plant kingdom 18. english – listening for information from different sources 19. english reading and interpreting “the poor women” (poetry) 20. chemistry – investigating products of hydrogen gas passed over heated metal oxide 21. english – literature element identification for “houseboy” by t. oyano 22. geography – concepts and definitions 22. english – types of oral literature 23. history – interactions among the people of africa 24. biology – stages of growth and development in humans 25. biology – plant and animal movement 26. history – colonization of europeans vs. africans in partition of africa 27. english – comparing present and past tense 28. english – past tense and present continuous using written dialogue 29. civics – comparison of the forms of government 30. civics – indicators of economic development 31. english – literature themes for “houseboy” by t. oyano 32. history – comparison of events for world war i and ii (concept attainment) 33. civics – national symbols 34. kiswahili – pronunciation of the swahili language 35. kiswahili – grouping word groups inductively 40. biology – using standard units of measurement 41. civics – roles of different groups and institutions in promoting our cultural values 42. kiswahili – structure of the language 43. math – algebraic exponents 44. english literature figures of speech 45. english – events on the calendar 46. history – historical sites in east africa 47. geography – introduction to research 48. kiswahili – creating sentences using sentence structure patterns _________________________________________________________________________ during classroom visitations, 30 to 90 minutes in length, notes were recorded about the lesson procedures, teaching delivery techniques, and ideas for improving lesson methodology encouraging use of additional strategies. for some classes assistance to students working in cooperative groups to find information or answer questions was provided. lesson feedback walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 74 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 promoting the teaching strategies included graphic organizers for presenting informat io n, inductively utilizing lecture notes, developing concept attainment comparison t-charts, encouraging use of anticipation guide questions, developing cooperative groups (e.g., assign student roles), and promoting nonverbal feedback (e.g., thumbs up or down voting). individ ua l teacher feedback was provided on the same day of the lesson observation. it was evident that greater use of the teaching strategies was shown during the final week of observations at the school. strategies observed by teachers, integrated into their teaching curriculum, included a concept attainment lesson comparing world war i and ii; t-chart comparison of traditional and modern poetry; graphic organizers (e.g., anhydrous calcium chloride chemistry model); geography concept organizer chart; anticipation guide questions about types of oral literat ure and indicators of economic development; semantic map of national symbols; hierarchical array comparing preand post-natal development; and an inductive lesson on grouping swahili vocabulary words. two seminar participant classrooms were not visited due to teacher absenteeism. ngujini secondary school seminars occurred daily after school except for fridays due to early release of classes for the muslim day of worship. in total, 29.5 hours of seminar instruction were provided. levels of comfort speaking english varied among the teachers, with many being hesitant to voice questions before their colleagues. to overcome this silence, it was found to be most effective to present material first and put teachers in small groups to discuss and develop examples of the strategies. while observing and contributing to their small group discussions, they asked many questions. their questions were explained aloud to the rest of the class, and it was an effective way to create conversation each day. the seminars experienced an initial decrease in attendance after the third day before picking up again in the second week. the drop in attendance may be attributed to their knowledge of the trainer’s limited teaching credentials, as well as to various school meetings tha t coincided with the seminar. this was quickly overcome: a fact, attributed to the success of oneon-one classroom observations and feedback throughout the duration of the program. working with teachers individually allowed to the tailoring of some strategies to specific teaching subjects. for example, it was a stretch to apply some of the information collection strategies to math and science classes. in a future program, a recommendation would include restructuring the seminar materials with scheduling to teach specific strategies to teachers on specific subject areas. doing so might keep teachers more interested as well as free up their busy schedules to allow for the occasional unavoidable meeting that happens during seminar class hours. lesson observations and feedback formed the most important part of the program. every teacher was observed at least twice throughout the duration of the program. for every observation, a classroom observation feedback and evaluation of teaching strategies form was completed and returned to the teacher. immediately after each observation, meetings with teachers were conducted to discuss the feedback form, notes, and recommendations. with every meeting, at least one thing to improve upon was identified with encouragement provided to push teachers’ limits in another area. teachers responded well to the challenges posed and began vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 75 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 trying harder strategies. they seemed to really learn from the feedback and to appreciate it, although initially they seemed uncomfortable with being observed. one example of the benefit of one-on-one feedback after observations is in the teachers’ use of graphic organizers. initially teachers expressed low interest in graphic organizers, stating they already use them as they are encouraged by the government to use graphic organizers. however, in classroom observations provided it was noticed that the teachers either used graphic organizers ineffectively or did not use them at all. there were numerous opportunities to use graphic organizers effectively, so in one-on-one feedback sessions specific graphic organizers were explained as useful to their unique lessons. after explaining the purposes and goals of each graphic organizer strategy, the teachers clearly grasped the strategies. almost every time a fter explaining a strategy in feedback, teachers were thrilled to try using the strategy more effective ly. in practice, the teachers created overly complex diagrams in small font and expected students to read the diagrams from the back of the room and know the information immediately. other times teachers needed to explain to their students how to think about the organizer as well as the purpose and benefit to the students. usually teachers did not ask the students to write the diagrams in their notes. after coaching and at the end of the program, it was frequently noted that graphic organizers were drawn in the notebooks of students. teachers and students ended up really liking graphic organizers and using them frequently and effectively. kisangara secondary school after assessing the interests and needs of the teachers at kisangara, the main objectives of the vtt seminars focused primarily on open discussions of the teaching strategies, includ ing classroom observations, and uses of technology in the classroom. very little focus was placed on individual and small group session work on english conversation skills, although many of the activities required or encouraged this. seminar classes at kisangara were held monday through thursdays from 14:30 to 16:30. weekly exams were given on monday mornings and friday afternoons, because of friday seminars held from 12:00 to 14:00. twenty-eight teachers plus the headmistress of the school signed-up to participate in the vtt program and most were able to attend all sessions. the vtt seminar was held most days with the exception of having to cancel class because of a parent-teacher meeting and a scheduled time to go buy textbooks in moshi. there was also one class that was shortened to allow students participation in debate club. the total number of seminar hours completed was 26 hours. in addition to the seminars classroom observations, feedback was provided as opportunities for the teachers to improve use of teaching strategies. most of the teachers took advantage of this opportunity. many teachers requested multiple classroom observations and were able to discuss feedback in depth to help improve the execution of new strategies being used in the classroom. the teachers were also given the opportunity to use a kindle in the classroom, if interested. many took advantage of this opportunity and were eager to incorporate more technology into their classrooms, especially the science and math teachers. on the last day at kisangara a projector was donated to the school to be used as a teaching aid. a two-hour introductory session was facilitated and teachers were able to test the projector for presenting powerpoint and showing photos and videos. walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 76 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 classroom observations took place in all different subject areas with 25/29 teachers. those who were participating in the vtt program were interested and willing to participate in classroom observations. at the beginning, many teachers were eager to participate in classroom observations, but some teachers were reluctant in having a stranger come in to their classroom and watch them teach. after the first week the fears went away and almost all teachers signed up to have a classroom observation. classroom observations were very beneficial in providing insight to the classroom environment and format. teachers were able to receive feedback based on lessons they had prepared prior to the seminar and ones that they prepared using strategies they were learning in seminar classes. after some time, not only were teachers eager to try new strategies, discussed in seminar, but some of the newer teachers also wanted to try strategies they had studied at the university but had not yet tried in the classroom. the classroom observations were a great way to understand the curriculum being taught and a way to see what strategies would work best for the class sizes and subject content. many discussions took place surrounding the topic of implementation and how to best facilitate the different strategies into the setting of the classroom and how to introduce them to students. many teachers found that students became much more engaged and lessons were more enjoyable when using the differe nt strategies. the following strategies were observed in the classrooms during requested observations : cooperative learning (i.e., jigsaw, corners, think-pair-share, and learning together), venn diagrams, semantic and concept maps, k-w-l charts, and one concept attainment lesson. as the same classrooms and teachers were being observed for a second or third time, the increase in comfort level of both the teachers and students with the new strategies became very significant. kirya secondary school an instructional coach at kirya, provided input in establishing the school's daily schedule for the seminar program and the best time to meet each day. based on his recommendation, discussed during the first seminar class, it was decided to meet at 15:00. teachers would need to be with students, but they rotated ensuring the best attendance possible for the seminar. seminar sessions met on monday to friday most days for 10 sessions totaling 21 hours. sixteen staff members participated in the staff development with an average attendance rate of 15 teachers per session. most goals and objectives of the vtt project were met with the sessions conducted in english and discussion activities modeling correct oral and written usage of the english language. service time at the school focused on the delivery of the scheduled seminar to teachers and classroom observations on the implementation of the strategies. seminar lessons provided instruction on teaching strategies and methodologies. integration of teaching strategies across the curriculum was emphasized with major lesson topic themes developed. reporting of the lesson seminar experience is provided in table 3. _________________________________________________________________________ table 3. lesson seminar report of activities promoting integration across subject areas at kirya • graphic organizers and us e of cooperative learning strategies were introduced in the seminar session. a vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 77 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 cooperative jigsaw, splitting the group into triads, assigned each group a different graphic organizer based on a topic of their choice. the activity unfolded as follows: edwin, rashid, and joctan created a biology venn diagram comparing plants and animals . maria and her two partners created a sequence map about the process of cooking ugali. daniel and his fellow history teachers made a time line of tanzanian history. kelvin, ernest, and mohammed chose to make a two column chart listing the pros and cons of technology in education. each group presented their graphic organizer to the class . to conclude this lesson discussion on how each graphic organizer can be used for any su bject was articulated with the idea that some would be applied more easily in certain situations. • the session involved playing mancala, and encouraging ideas for learning in each subject related to the game. questions were formulated about the game. for example, if player a ends with 17 pieces did player a win or lose? the questions were then posed as discussion items to show the integration possibilities for the mancala activity as follows: 1. mathematics facts – numbers in the game were corresponded to everyday common units and groupings. for example, 48 pieces total, 24 on each side, we related this to 24 hours in a day or the amount of eggs purchased in two dozen. 2. a literature lesson could formulate a written procedure or descriptions of this game. 3. a history lesson may study the uses of this game throughout time because it's very old and was believed by many historians to have been played in ancient egypt during workers breaks from building the pyramids. just like cooperative learning strategies, teachers should look for various methods to create activities into learning opportunities. • the lesson started with the models of teaching using inductive and concept attainment data analysis. the class was divided into two halves to analyze the inductive data set about the maasai and chagga tribes and then group the data set into logical categories. discussion then focused on how inductive data sets can be used to teach each subject. following that activity various types of questions and question writing strategies were analyzed with practice writing questions. • a donated gps device to promote technology for learning was used for instruction. the lesson was introduced by briefly reading through the owner’s manual followed by discussion how the gps relates to each teaching subject as follows: math teachers could use the gps data for elevation equations, distant calculations, and speed and time word problems. geography teachers use it to mark geographic features, their definitions, and relations to each other also learning about longitude and latitude. literature subjects would focus on writing procedures and descriptions for the gps and even reading comprehension of the manual. historically gps devices have been used in exploration and wars. specifically, cattle migration used to interfere with agriculture causing many problems and even armed conflicts. gpss were used to map safe migration routes and make peace between herders and farmers before the lesson a few waypoints, walking from the spillway across the dam, were placed on the gps. as a group the teachers marked a waypoint together in the class named kirya. the class walked to the most southern and northern parts of campus marking the dorms and football field. along the way the walking speeds and directions were analyzed as different teachers took turns handling the device. after returning to the classroom the gps data was used to create a school map, which they compared to th eir existing map. walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 78 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 • the training program continued with a lesson on flying a kite outdoors. participants worked in groups, based on their teaching content area, to evaluate the following curriculum integration activities provided: • mathematics – calculate the area of the kite with a tape measure. • physics – draw a diagram with labels of the kite and flying orientation. • literature – write a procedure for flying the kite. • geography – explain how geographical features relate to kiting. for example, lakes can be a good area for large kites to provide up lift while trees are obstructions that can damage or tangle a kite. • history – list examples of historical events for kiting (i.e., kite boarding invention). students discussed the integration activities in class. _________________________________________________________________________ a meeting with the headmaster at kirya provided support for use of the classroom observation feedback and evaluation of teacher strategies form with additional copies made to promote the use of teacher learning strategies. the classroom feedback forms were used for classroom observations recorded for the following classes at kirya: • chemistry – use of chemical properties • kiswahili – singing songs in swahili and english • civics – keyword identification in reading • kiswahili – reciting phrases • civics – settlement, urban and rural group questioning. the uses of the strategies were observed in these classrooms included think-pair-share, cooperative learning, and use of sematic maps in chemistry class. in the kiswahili class students engaged in cooperative learning activities. in civics students were identifying key words after reading ideas and then rewriting concepts on the board. the civics classes were engaged in cooperative learning together strategies using think-pair-share, concept word detective, discussion positions, open-ended questions, think alouds, seed maker, and two-column strategies (i.e., note-taking, concepts, and problem-solve). kiriki secondary school most of the goals and objectives of the vtt project were met including additional instruction in computer technology (i.e., third objective of project, if available computer training and support would be provided). on an individualized basis, staff was provided instruction in computer technology using application programs on windows 7 hp compaq desktop computers. teachers did not select the use of the esl activity and resource books since the headmaster, mussa mnzava, kept the materials in his office for review and for later use at the school. service time at the school focused on the delivery of the scheduled seminar to teachers and classroom observations on the implementation of the strategies. seminar sessions met on monday to thursday after school for 12 sessions from 15:00 to 17:00. due to kiriki being a private school with most students living on campus (i.e., 225 students in dormitories and 50 day-school walkers) half the staff had assignments after school. therefore, the headmaster divided the staff into two groups with one seminar session meeting on monday and wednesday and the other on tuesday and thursday. this resulted in the staff receiving six sessions for a total of 12 hours of training. given this shortened period of staff development, curriculum compacting and assignments were given to the teachers at the end of each session. sixteen staff members vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 79 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 participated in the staff development with an average attendance rate of 10.2 hours. school was dismissed on friday at noon for islamic worship and prayer. the classroom visitations and individual feedback to teachers provided additional training support for the participants. individual volunteer use of technology (e.g., desktop computers and kindle readers) gave further learning opportunities for the teachers. given the need for curriculum compacting, the core objectives of the project were achieved with a few activities modified or deleted due to the limited seminar meeting time. some homework and advanced reading assignments were given to the teachers to cover more mater ial. project objectives not covered included an article lesson reading about the chagga tribe, the risk taker test, interviewing in a cooperative triad and discussion activities. my absence due to illness for a day and a half resulted in the reduction of one seminar session for each group. classroom observations were a significant part of the vtt project. the classrooms provided information about the content of the national curriculum and insight into the limited student resources with class sizes ranging from 4 to 50 students. vtt sharing of strategies based on the subject content of instructors was helpful in providing topic ideas using different methodolo gies discussed in seminar class. lesson observations were made for form 1-6 students, with all 16 seminar participants’ classrooms visited, including one additional teacher who did not attend the training program. refer to table 4 for the record of lesson observations completed at kiriki. _______________________________________________________________________________ table 4. classroom lesson observations at kiriki secondary school observation no. subject lesson theme 1. english – uses of the dictionary 2. information and computer studies – computer input and output devices 3. geography – map reading and topographical interpretation 4. physics – astronomy 5. english – poetry interpretation “eat more” by joe carrie (1894-1968) 6. math – quadratic equations 7. biology – genetics study of heredity and variation (powerpoint presentation) 8. biology – safety in the environment 9. english – difference between american and british english 10. math – principles of statistics 11. geography – geologic forces affect the earth 12. general studies – cross cutting issues (i.e., land pollution) 13. chemistry – carboxylic acid groups 14. commercial – reading analysis of “passed like a shadow” by bernard mapalala 15. computer lab – introduction to msword processing and file management 16. kiswahili – tree diagramming parts of speech 17. chemistry – organic hydrocarbons and alkane groups 18. math (basic applied) – mode formula calculations for grouped data 19. geography – water management and economic development 20. commerce – production and working capital _________________________________________________________________________ walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 80 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 during classroom visitations for two consecutive periods (80 minutes in length) notes were recorded about the lesson procedures and teaching delivery techniques. ideas for improving lesson delivery were suggested by trainers and shared with teachers to promote integration and use of the strategies. all classrooms were visited for the two period sessions, except one, which had a 40-minute observation period because of a scheduling conflict. some class assistance was provided to students, working in cooperative groups to find information or answer questions. lesson feedback supporting the teaching strategies included extension exercise ideas promoting student rewriting of information rather than copying directly from lecture notes or text, use of nonverbal feedback (e.g., thumbs up or down voting), developing cooperative learning strategies (e.g., think pair-share and graffiti map activity), assigning roles for student work in cooperative groups, incorporating the people bingo activity for instruction, and specific lesson elements suggestions (e.g., use of entry words in dictionary activity and calculations using mode formula). it was evident that greater use of the teaching strategies was shown during the final week of observations at the school. evaluation of the training program staff development interest survey trainers administered the staff development interest survey (refer to table 5) early in the seminar-training program (e.g., session 1 or 2) to assess staff knowledge and interest in use of various teaching strategies. a short formative evaluation was made available to staff to record questions or concerns about the training program on an ongoing basis but were not completed since it was found that teachers were able to ask questions and express concerns directly in class or on an individual basis to the trainers. the trainers also received feedback about the seminar program during scheduled meetings with the coaches. the staff development interest survey given during the first seminar session to participants (n=25) was developed to assess interest in topics to be presented during the seminar program at mandaka. participants rated high interest (i.e., total average scores equal or greater than 4.0) in learning cooperative strategies, question writing skills, models of teaching, and lesson planning. moderate to lower interest (i.e., total average scores equal or lower than 3.9) were found in learning english using discussion activities, teaching with graphic organizers, utilizing information collection strategies, and having the instructor observe the teacher’s classroom. learning and using programs in the computer lab (mean average = 3.0) scores were most frequently rated 1 (n=7) and 5 (n=6). the high deviation of scores may be due to the unavailability of computers at mandaka and interest expressed in learning how to use microsoft word and excel programs (n=11). it was interesting to note that instructors rated their ability to speak and write in the english language moderate to high (mean average = 4.1). participants expressed interest in taking the seminar to improve their teaching methodologies and improve english communication skills. the staff development interest survey was given to 12 teachers (n=12) at ngujini. participants rated high interest (i.e. total average scores equal to or greater than 4.0) in cooperative learning strategies, question writing and problem solving skills, and vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 81 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 writing/planning a lesson plan for use in their classrooms. moderate to lower interest (i.e., total average scores equal or lower than 3.9) was found in learning conversational english with discussion activities, graphic organizers, activity collection strategies, models of teaching, and learning/using computer programs. similar to results at mandaka secondary school, scores for learning and using computer programs were most frequently rated 1 (n=4) and 5 (n=5). ngujini secondary owns one computer, making it difficult to use with students in class, but teachers expressed great enthusiasm for learning how to use excel, word processing, and the internet. teachers expressed interest in taking the seminar to improve their teaching, student success, and english skills. the staff development survey was given out on the first day of seminar to participants (n=29) at kisangara to evaluate interests of what topics should be covered during seminar time. participants rated all but one of the categories as high interest (i.e., total average scores equal or greater than 4.0). out of those the top three were; an interest in question writing strategies (mean average = 4.8), writing and planning a lesson (mean average = 4.9), and learning cooperative learning strategies (mean average = 4.6). the only category that was below 4.0 was learning and using a program in the computer lab, which had high variability between scores with the most frequent being 1 (n=8) and 5 (n=13.) this was interesting _______________________________________________________________________________ table 5. the staff development interest survey and formative evaluation staff development interest survey name __________________________________________ (optional) school: ____________________________ teaching subject content area: ____________________ teaching subject content area: ________________________________________________________ part i. have you taken this seminar before? yes no if so, when? 2006 2008 2011 2014 part ii. rank from 1 to 5 (low to high) or u (undecided) your interest in learning the following topics: low somewhat high undecide d 1 2 3 4 5 u 1. practice in learning conversational english using discussion activities (e.g., opinion surveys). 1 2 3 4 5 u 2. learning cooperative learning strategies for classroom teaching. 1 2 3 4 5 u 3. learning question-writing strategies using different techniques to develop student problem-solving skills. 1 2 3 4 5 u walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 82 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 4. drawing different graphic organizers (e.g., venn diagrams) to share information on the bo ard. 1 2 3 4 5 u 5. learning how to use activity collection strategies for showing and recording information (e.g., two -column note taking and semantic charts). 1 2 3 4 5 u 6. learning about the model of teaching for creating concept attainment (i.e., developing t-charts) and inductive strategies (i.e., grouping facts of information) for teaching. 1 2 3 4 5 u 7. writing and planning a lesson for use in your classroom. 1 2 3 4 5 u 8. having your instructor observe a strategy you are usin g with your students and provide feedback. 1 2 3 4 5 u 9. learning and using a program in the computer lab. if interested, which program? 1 2 3 4 5 u 10. rate your ability to speak and write in the english language. 1 2 3 4 5 u part iii. open-ended questions: 1. why did you decide to take the staff development -training seminar? ______________________________________________ 2. do you have any questions for the instructor or interest in a visitation to your class? _________________________________ thank-you! this will be helpful in planning the seminar activities. responses are kept confidential. formative staff developme nt evaluation directions: if needed please complete and p lace in the container provided. name (optional): ____________ _______________________________________________________ date ____________________ session name or pages ______________________________________ what questions or ideas would you like to have addressed for the next session? ____________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 83 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 because as class continued, it was evident that the teachers all had an interest in incorporating more technology into the classroom. the high deviation, similarly to the other schools, could be due to the unavailability of computers at the school. only kisangara has one computer, which is primarily used by the school secretary. the introduction of the kindle fire into the classroom could have also played a part in the increased interest of technology use. many of the teachers expressed interest in taking the seminar to gain more experience and learn more teaching strategies to implement into the classrooms. some also expressed wanting to be in the seminar to help improve students’ performance in the classroom. at kirya the staff development interest survey was given during the first seminar session to seminar participants (n=14). participants rated high interest (i.e., total average scores equal or greater than 4.0) in learning cooperative strategies, question writing skills, drawing graphic organizers, models of teaching, and lesson planning. moderate to lower interest (i.e., total average scores equal or lower than 3.9) were found in learning english using discussion activities, utilizing information collection strategies, and having the instructor observe the teacher’s classroom. learning and using programs in the computer lab (mean average = 3.09) scores were most frequently rated 1 (n=4) and 5 (n=4). the high deviation of scores may be due to the unavailability of computers at kirya and the fact some teachers have personal computers they use at the school. it was interesting to note that instructors rated their ability to speak and write in the english language moderate to high (mean average = 4.0). participants expressed interest in taking the seminar to gain skills and knowledge in learning teaching strategies (n=10). preand post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey evaluation instruments developed to measure the impact of the seminar-training program included the preand post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey. the instruments have been field-tested based on use with previous seminar offerings at schools in tanzania. generally, teacher responses to the preand post-evaluation: staff developme nt implementation survey showed a general shift, using a five point rating scale, in comparing current practices and anticipated plans to use the teaching strategies at all five schools. the numbers of teachers responding to the preand post-evaluation were as follows: mandaka (n = 28/26), ngujini (n = 10/13), kisangara (n = 29/26), kirya (n = 9/9), and kiriki (n=16/16). refer to tables 6 to review the pre-post evaluation shifts in mean scores. the anticipated changes reported by the training team as most notable for the rating scale were: • kisangara most strategies such as jigsaw and graffiti, round table, graphic • organizers, and concept attainment showed average mean scores of .04 to 1.05. • kiriki the change was most evident in responses for use of jigsaw and graffiti cooperative strategies and teaching students questioning strategies. • ngujini showed moderate increases in use of corners, think alouds, and questioning strategies, as well as an increase reported by teachers in their ability to use the strategies. at all five schools staff reported a decrease in the use of the lecture method from the preto postevaluation. walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 84 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 table 6. preand post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey directions : please circle the number on the rating scale to best describes y our current use and practice of these teaching strategies, which will be p rovided in the staff develop ment english conversation seminar. this will be help ful in evaluating the effectiveness of the seminar activities. resp onses are kep t confidential. thank-you! never rarely s ometimes usually always undecided 1 2 3 4 5 u 1. students learn together in cooperative groups using think-pair-share and say and switch strategies. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.64 post-evaluation mean score = 4.48 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.4 post-evaluation mean score = 4.2 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.32 post-evaluation mean score = 4.56 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 4.13 post-evaluation mean score = 4.11 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.63 post-evaluation mean score = 4.25 2. round table or round robin cooperative strategies are used with students. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.04 post-evaluation mean score = 3.69 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 3.3 post-evaluation mean score = 2.9 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 3.87 post-evaluation mean score = 4.04 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.63 post-evaluation mean score = 3.78 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 2.73 post-evaluation mean score = 3.75 3. corners cooperative strategies or evaluation (i.e., opinion questions) are practiced in my classroom. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.04 post-evaluation mean score = 3.62 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 3.5 post-evaluation mean score = 3.6 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 3.91 post-evaluation mean score = 3.96 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.5 post-evaluation mean score = 3.78 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.67 post-evaluation mean score = 3.69 4. jigsaw and graffiti cooperative strategies are used in the classroom. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.00 post-evaluation mean score = 3.60 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 3.4 post-evaluation mean score = 3.2 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 3.17 post-evaluation mean score = 4.22 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.75 post-evaluation mean score = 3.75 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 2.50 post-evaluation mean score = 3.71 5. “think alouds” and anticipation guides are written for questioning students’ comprehension about reading information. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.12 post-evaluation mean score = 3.69 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 3.9 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.00 post-evaluation mean score = 4.20 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.44 post-evaluation mean score = 3.67 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.36 post-evaluation mean score = 3.60 6. questioning strategies (e.g., true-false supply type and rank order matching) are given to students to evaluate understanding of content information. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 4.16 post-evaluation mean score = 4.40 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.4 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.64 post-evaluation mean score = 4.64 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 4.38 post-evaluation mean score = 4.13 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.44 post-evaluation mean score = 3.57 7. students are taught questioning strategies and assigned to write their own questions. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.32 post-evaluation mean score = 3.83 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 3.6 post-evaluation mean score = 3.5 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.04 post-evaluation mean score = 4.08 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 4.11 post-evaluation mean score = 4.22 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 2.80 post-evaluation mean score = 3.90 8. graphic organizers (e.g., time lines, sequence maps, cycles, venn diagrams, semantic maps, concept maps and hierarchical arrays) are drawn to show information on the board. vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 85 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.15 post-evaluation mean score = 3.36 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.8 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 3.68 post-evaluation mean score = 4.16 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 4.0 post-evaluation mean score = 4.5 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.31 post-evaluation mean score = 3.56 9. concept attainment strategies (i.e., two column examples) are written and shown with my students for teaching. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.11 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.8 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 3.71 post-evaluation mean score = 4.00 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.89 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.38 post-evaluation mean score = 3.86 10. inductive teaching strategies (i.e., categorizing notes on the board) are used with my students for teaching. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 4.04 post-evaluation mean score = 4.0 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.6 post-evaluation mean score = 3.8 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.32 post-evaluation mean score = 4.16 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.78 post-evaluation mean score = 3.67 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.29 post-evaluation mean score = 3.36 11. i can use and teach these strategies (rated above for items 1 to 10) with the materials and resources available in my classroom. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 3.85 post-evaluation mean score = 4.27 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.3 post-evaluation mean score = 4.6 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.52 post-evaluation mean score = 4.65 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 4.22 post-evaluation mean score = 4.11 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 4.00 post-evaluation mean score = 4.19 12. lecture and student note-taking is the primary method used for teaching students course content information. mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 4.04 post-evaluation mean score = 3.67 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 4.7 post-evaluation mean score = 4.3 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 4.04 post-evaluation mean score = 3.81 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 3.56 post-evaluation mean score = 2.78 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 3.69 post-evaluation mean score = 3.38 13. computer technology is used with students when i teach. if so, which program? mandaka pre-evaluation mean score = 1.15 post-evaluation mean score = 1.32 ngujini pre-evaluation mean score = 1.4 post-evaluation mean score = 2.1 kisangara pre-evaluation mean score = 1.15 post-evaluation mean score = 2.95 kirya pre-evaluation mean score = 1.56 post-evaluation mean score = 2.71 kiriki pre-evaluation mean score = 1.64 post-evaluation mean score = 2.40 _______________________________________________________________________________ at kiriki, most revealing was a review of the item tallies showing a frequency of 1 and 2 (i.e., never and rarely) responses made on the pre-evaluation (n=48) compared with the postevaluation (n=10). this difference shows that a significant number of teachers shifted their responses from never to rarely to plans to sometimes, usually, or always use of the strategies. refer to table 7 to review the responses for use of information collection strategies with studen ts at each school. anticipated use of the 18 information collection strategies was reported at most schools overall as “fairly high” depending on the particular strategy selected. strategies most frequently selected were compare and contrast; concept and word detective; reading plan; problem solution graphic; two-column concepts; reading analysis; discussion positions; and twowalsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 86 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 column problem-solve. however, at kiriki teacher planned use of information collectio n strategies was reported as “somewhat moderate to low” 11/18 of the information strategies. it was found at kiriki that teachers tended to select and rate highly the information collectio n strategies used for lesson development planning during the seminar. _______________________________________________________________________________ table 7. preand post-evaluation: staff development implementation survey 14. circle the information collection strategies that are currently being used with your students (pre-/post-evaluation values): a. information queries b. concept and word detective mandaka n= 7/8 mandaka n= 5/12 ngujini n= 0/1 ngujini n= 1/4 kisangara n= 2/3 kisangara n= 1/5 kirya n= 1/3 kirya n= 6/4 kiriki n= 2/3 kiriki n= 5/5 c. reading analysis d. pyramid story theme mandaka n= 14/14 mandaka n= 3/7 ngujini n= 1/5 ngujini n= 0/6 kisangara n= 11/14 kisangara n= 0/1 kirya n= 4/4 kirya n= 1/3 kiriki n= 8/4 kiriki n= 0/0 e. reading plan f. information illustrator mandaka n= 10/13 mandaka n= 4/6 ngujini n= 2/5 ngujini n= 0/2 kisangara n= 5/8 kisangara n= 2/4 kirya n= 2/3 kirya n= 1/4 kiriki n= 6/2 kiriki n= 3/2 g. one-sentence summary frames h. strategies for rewriting mandaka n= 4/5 mandaka n= 6/6 ngujini n= 2/6 ngujini n= 1/5 kisangara n= 3/3 kisangara n= 2/4 kirya n= 1/0 kirya n= 2/3 kiriki n= 2/2 kiriki n= 4/3 i. discussion positions j. compare and contrast mandaka n= 22/22 mandaka n= 16/21 ngujini n= 3/5 ngujini n= 5/9 kisangara n= 14/14 kisangara n= 11/17 kirya n= 7/5 kirya n= 6/7 kiriki n= 8/5 kiriki n= 10/10 k. problem-solution graphic l. semantic feature analysis mandaka n= 5/10 mandaka n= 2/8 ngujini n= 1/4 ngujini n= 0/9 kisangara n= 0/7 kisangara n= 1/3 kirya n= 2/4 kirya n= 1/1 kiriki n= 6/6 kiriki n= 2/2 m. two-column note taking n. two-column concepts mandaka n= 2/8 mandaka n= 10/15 ngujini n= 4/6 ngujini n= 2/6 kisangara n= 2/8 kisangara n= 3/10 kirya n= 2/3 kirya n= 4/3 vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 87 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 kiriki n= 2/6 kiriki n= 4/5 o. two-column problem-solve p. problem organizer: metacognition mandaka n= 6/11 mandaka n= 0/6 ngujini n= 1/3 ngujini 0/1 kisangara n= 1/3 kisangara n= 4/7 kirya n= 1/2 kirya n= 2/2 kiriki n= 2/5 kiriki n= 2/2 q. two-column math problem r. k-w-l charts mandaka n= 2/4 mandaka n= 2/2 ngujini n= 0/0 ngujini n= 0/6 kisangara n= 1/3 kisangara n= 0/12 kirya n= 0/0 kirya n= 4/6 kiriki n= 3/2 kiriki n= 0/1 _______________________________________________ ________________________________ for some schools use of computer technology remained very low on both the preand postevaluations, probably due to the fact these school did not have computers or electricity was not available (e.g., mandaka). at kiriki individual teachers volunteered to receive computer training in msoffice (i.e., word and powerpoint) and use of database (i.e., viva africa and encarta) programs from the trainer and had the support of an it teacher with a functional window computer lab. given the technology resources and computer access, the change at kiriki reported in anticipated computer technology usage was moderately low changing from preto post-evaluation (mean score 1.64 to 2.40). at ngujini there was a small increase (mean score > 0.5) in anticipated use of computer technology. the use of computer technology at kisangara had the largest increase (mean score 1.8), although review of the item responses was very low changing from “never” to “rarely” being reported for anticipated use in the classroom. the increase in use reported at kisangara could be due to some teachers having access to individ ua l laptops, the kindle fire, and lcd projector that was donated to the school. school reports for unanticipated unchanged use of teaching strategies were found for inductive teaching at mandaka and kisangara. the results reported for kirya, showing differences in rating scores comparing the evaluations, were not significantly different possibly due to high score ratings on the pre-evaluations. the trainer reported this might indicate that even before the seminar these teachers knew the value and utility of the teaching strategies. teachers at kirya anecdotally reported a strong willingness to learn and utilize the strategies. other factors could have impacted the preto post-evaluation scores. for example, greater fluency and use of the swahili language might have limited the understanding of the evaluatio n survey items. the small sample size of respondents completing the evaluation may have also affected the findings. additional factors like class size will need to be considered when evaluating teacher planned implementation and use of the teaching strategies. the length of training periods and evaluation schedules, will need to be considered when evaluating teacher planned implementation and use of the teaching strategies. staff development seminar post-evaluation and formative evaluation the teachers at the secondary schools completed an evaluation of the staff development seminar experience, provided by the trainers. this instrument has also been field-tested based on use with previous seminar offerings at schools in tanzania. faculty feedback from the staff walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 88 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 development seminar post-evaluation (refer to table 8) were made at each school with the following number of evaluations completed: mandaka (n = 24), ngujini (n = 13), kisangara (n = 26), kirya (n = 14), and kiriki (n = 16). overall the post evaluation showed strong support for the seminar-training program. mean scores indicate teachers rated the evaluation items highly, while giving more variable ratings for discussion topics, cooperative learning, and use of information collection strategies. teacher open-ended responses identifying most or least useful strategies, overall, varied among the schools. lower mean scores were reported suggesting more time and opportunities to practice strategies. when asked for recommended changes in the seminar teachers most frequently reported the need to provide more staff development and support in learning the strategies. teachers reported the most needed support to improve their classroom teaching were teaching material books or aides and reference books. at ngujini teachers recommended providing the training yearlong to all schools. table 8. staff development seminar post-evaluation at five schools directions: please circle the number which best describes the effectiveness of the seminar in develop ing teaching strategies and english conversation skills using the scale below. this will be help ful in evaluating the seminar activities. resp onses are kept confidential. thank-you! never rarely s ometimes usually always undecided 1 2 3 4 5 u 1. instruction and presentation of the strategies were clearly introduced. mandaka mean score = 4.75 kirya mean score = 4.57 ngujini mean score = 4.4 kiriki mean score = 4.4 kisangara mean score = 4.88 2. adequate opportunity was provided to practice the strategies. mandaka mean score = 4.39 kirya mean score = 4.57 ngujini mean score = 4.1 kiriki mean score = 4.2 kisangara mean score = 4.36 3. cooperative learning strategies are useful to promote english conversation in the classroom. mandaka mean score = 4.78 kirya mean score = 4.71 ngujini mean score = 4.5 kiriki mean score = 4.7 kisangara mean score = 4.85 4. the discussion topic ideas are useful for classroom use. mandaka mean score = 4.04 kirya mean score = 4.31 ngujini mean score = 4.7 kiriki mean score = 4.3 kisangara mean score = 4.68 5. the lesson examples are helpful and provide useful models to promote english conversation. mandaka mean score = 4.5 kirya mean score = 4.21 ngujini mean score = 4.8 kiriki mean score = 4.5 kisangara mean score = 4.58 6. the templates are useful for classroom teaching (e.g., question writing, problem-solution graphic and lesson plan templates). mandaka mean score = 4.42 kirya mean score = 4.07 ngujini mean score = 4.9 kiriki mean score = 4.4 kisangara mean score = 4.42 vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 89 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 7. the activity collection strategies for showing and recording information (e.g., two-column note taking, k-w-l organizers, problem-solution graphic and semantic charts) will be useful for teaching. mandaka mean score = 4.17 kirya mean score = 4.07 ngujini mean score = 4.3 kiriki mean score = 3.75 kisangara mean score = 4.62 8. the instructor was helpful and provided the staff development environment in an open “easy-going” manner. mandaka mean score = 4.55 kirya mean score = 4.57 ngujini mean score = 4.4 kiriki mean score = 4.5 kisangara mean score = 4.85 9. rate the quality and value of the staff development-training seminar in helping to improve my teaching. mandaka mean score = 4.87 kirya mean score = 4.64 ngujini mean score = 4.9 kiriki mean score = 4.25 kisangara mean score = 4.96 10. identify the most useful activities or strategies for your teaching. 11. identify the least useful activities or strategies for your teaching. 12. recommendations for changes and improvement of the seminar and general comments. 13. what is needed the most to support and improve your classroom teaching? _________________________________________________________________________ high ratings were found for instruction and presentation of the strategies, and the overall rating of the quality and value of the training seminar was equally high. the findings from the staff development post-evaluation were substantiated anecdotally by feedback from the headmasters and headmistresses, including rotary club of moshi-mwanga rotary meetings attended by the trainers. tusu tusubira from uganda visited kiriki, during service work by the team leader, and the vtt project school sites to evaluate the rotary grant project. the vtt project was selected randomly as an international grant program for evaluation. based on interviews from the vtt team at the rotary club of moshi/mwanga and school sites (i.e., headmasters or headmistresses, coaches, and teachers) tusu reported strong enthusiasm for the program and “fit” with the national curriculum. according to tusu, teachers and students want to continue using the strategies and students report having gained more confidence with these approaches. tusu will provide a final report to vtt project stakeholders. project sustainability with instructional coaches the primary goal of the project was to train two faculty or staff at each school site, with an alternative trainer, to learn the program teaching strategies so they could conduct and cont inue the training in the future. the primary goal provided sustainability for the training program and included support resources for teacher trainers, with a monetary stipend for their teaching and classroom coaching provided to staff. identified school coaches would then be required to submit reports, using a format guideline, showing intervention with teaching staff on continued use of the teaching strategies. the sustainability reports would include the following suggested teacher interventions: walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 90 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 • classroom observations and feedback to teachers using the “classroom observation feedback and evaluation of teaching strategies” form • demonstration of a strategy in the classroom • conference with a teacher about how to use a strategy • conference with a teacher introducing a strategy (e.g., new staff member) • presentation and teaching with the staff use and demonstration of strategies • conducting a short seminar to staff on teaching strategies and use of the kindle readers. the reports would then be e-mailed by the coaches to tegemea mfanga and the rotary club of moshi-mwanga vtt team who would evaluate the completed files. finally, the reports would be transferred to team leader (walsh) for review by the rotary club of ames vtt team and provided a narrative evaluation confirming payment for the coaches’ stipend by mfanga. the first set of typed log entries showing completed documentation of at least 10 required intervention strategies recorded by the coaches at each of the schools has been completed. the second set of reports, due october 1, 2016, was completed with the third and fourth (final) reports due on april 1 and october 1, 2017. at the time of this writing all schools had successfully completed two reports with two schools incomplete in finishing the third report due on april 2017. school resources provided in the grant included a monetary stipend to purchase textbooks and resources to support student performance and achievement. all school trainers worked with the school coaches and teacher teams to develop a prioritized list of needed books and school resources. at a bookstore in moshi, the trainers and coaches purchased the requested books aligned with the tanzania national curriculum and exams. some additional smaller purchases included medical kit, calculators, and sports equipment for the schools. table 9. examples of logged entry submissions by school coaches supporting sustainability of teaching strategies at the school 1) mandaka secondary school coaches sarah mchomvu and marium kiwanda title: assistance of new teachers.participants: coaches and the new teachers date: 7/3/201616/3/2016 time: 1hour a day location: library activity: the coaches assisted the new teachers (staff and teaching practice teachers) on the modal strategies, which will involve the students more than the use of the lecture method. the coaches and the new teachers met at the library for a week in which the teachers learned on the different ways to use in class such as graffiti, round robin, concept attainment etc. evaluation: the new teachers learned on the ways that can improve students’ participation in the class and they promised to use them in class after the mid -term break. 2) ngujini secondary school coaches teophil nyambo john and shangilia e. masuki activity title/goal: use of graphic organizer (time-line chart) and anticipation guide questions participants: lucia john; history iia and masuki s: trainer time/duration & date: march 8, 2016, 12:3001:50pm vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 91 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 location: classroom activity description/observation: the teacher explains about the strategy and how to use it. lucia introduced the topic and then asked the students to arrange the sequence of the events using the timeline chart. presenting materials using time line chart helps the students to capture well the general order of the events basing on the topic introduced. you could write different statements on the blackboard, which explain different events together with their years and ask students to arrange them in timeline chart to see if they understood well th e strategy. keep trying the strategy and try other strategies, which can be better for your lesson. anticipation guide questions arises the students attentions due to the reasons that make them to think quickly and give out answers freely regardless are correct or not. keep using this will be much helpfully. teacher feedback: madam lucia agrees with my feedback. she is going to try again the timeline chart strategy. 3)kisangara secondary school coaches severina molloga and salma jukulu title: seminar on teaching strategies and evaluation participants: all teachers date:13/09/2016 location staffroom facilitators: severina f. mologa & salma r. jukulu time: 9:20 – 10:40 a.m activities teachers were given a task to select a strategy, which had not been employed in classroom teaching and share it with others facilitators were passing around for checking and assistance the coachers conduct group competition on the strategies evaluation all teachers were satisfied with the seminar and shown awaren ess on the strategies teachers who mastered well teaching strategies will continue to assist other in order to simplify teaching and learning process. 4) kirya secondary school coaches rashid and joctan activity and title goal: practice graphic organizers – concept map in physics class participants: teacher juma and students in form one date: 18/05/2016 time: 1:40 – 03:00 location: classroom activity description: juma used a concept map strategy when elaborating ideas about basic principles of scien tific investigation. he drew a dash symbol to the following step that relates. with this manner he identified steps that involve in scientific investigation starting with observation, puzzling questions, hypothesis, experiment, data collection and analysis, data interpretation, data representation and conclusion. classroom teacher feedback, observation and or evaluation: students followed the concept on the map fast than when the idea is explained in graffiti. 5) kiriki secondary school coaches a. h. h. mbaga and paul epafra title: seminar on how to use a kindles presented by mr. marijani and coaches participants: all teaching staff. date:10th day of march 2016 time:15:10 to 17:00 hrs. walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 92 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 location: it building activities: the trainer showed the participants how to open kindle reader. participants practiced the use of kindle reader. they all learnt how to select textbooks that were saved in a kindle reader. the presenter mr. marijani and the coaches assigned the participants to practices the use of kindle reader. evaluation. teachers were able to open and use a kindle reader. they were also satisfied with the presentation and were comfortable with the result. conclusion and discussion the rotary vtt grant project was overall successful in meeting its primary goals in providing training in teaching methodology through english activities and discussion. some curriculum compacting and modifying (e.g., deleting some discussion activities) was necessary in order to focus on the presentation of teaching strategies to school staff due to time constraints. schools had to reduce training contact hours because of scheduling limitations (e.g., friday afternoon school dismissal for islamic worship and prayer) and availability of the staff. president of the rotary club of moshi/mwanga, omary mbelenje, along with other members expressed support for continuing the vtt program in the future with an ict computer technology-training component included. this recommendation is needed, given the recent internet upgrades in tanzania, however the need to update electricity capacity at the school sites by use of solar panels or an alternative consistent power source will be required. the curriculum program offered using strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa will need to be continually updated and reviewed based on evaluation feedback provided by the teachers. trainer feedback will also be important for improving the seminar training, for example, recommending the restructuring of learning of teaching strategies based on a teacher’s subject area of content instruction. as technology becomes more available at the schools, including increasing access to high speed internet, integration of the lesson activities with use of computers will be necessary. for example, teacher lesson development of graphic organizers and concept attainment charts with an lcd projector viewed by students. survey and evaluation instruments used in the program will need to be tested for construct validity and statistical reliability using test-retest, inter-rater, or interna l consistency estimates. note of appreciation with the leadership of tegemea mfanga and team members gasiano senzighe and dr. mark mvungi of the rotary club of moshi-mwanga the grant was successfully implemented. much success of the project was due to the rotary club of moshi-mwanga in arranging homestays, ground transportation, and administrative tasks supporting the seminar plans for each of the schools selected by their vtt team. continued support was provided by tegemea mfanga who vocational training team (vtt) rotary grant on teaching strategies with conversational english at secondary schools in tanzania, africa 93 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 received sustainability reports from the schools and transferred the documents for evaluatio n with stipend payment to the school coaches on an ongoing basis. the rotary club of ames support of the vtt team gerald klonglan and mary wells provided valuable guidance in development and implementation of the grant. their involvement was critical in writing the initial grant proposal, final report, and article submission prior to departure and after returning from tanzania. the iowa vtt team consisting of hayley nelson, gretchen hanson, and brian borer made the project a success due to their dedication and involvement in preparation meetings before departure for the service work assignment, along with the post followup requireme nts contributing to the grant report. their enthusiasm and effective delivery of the seminar curriculum was evident based on feedback from school personnel and grant stakeholders. lead author’s comment: program and curriculum development the activities and evaluation instruments for the vtt program are based on seminar training experience at the north and south pare dioceses schools in tanzania in 2006, 2008, 2011, and 2014. publications in the ajote (walsh, 2012 and walsh, 2015) about the seminars provided at the dioceses schools can be accessed via the url shown in the references. the curriculum program based on english as a secondary language (esl) teaching experiences in costa rica and chile. the seminar text provided to teachers includes components from staff development training provided by the ames community schools (acs) includ ing criss strategies, models of teaching, and cooperative learning. recent additions to the student guide have included questioning strategies based on development and use with grade six students in the acs extended learning program (elp). some activities were adapted for use in tanzania or developed for reading relevancy (e.g., articles on the massai and chagga tribes). later revisions of the guide have been based on survey data from the staff development course postevaluation and narrative feedback received by seminar participants. the guide used in the training program (walsh, 2016) titled strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa includes a teacher (student) and trainer’s guide. to access the student and trainer’s guide go to the home page description of the training program and type the url @ https://sites.google.com/site/tzteachstratenglish/ring. then select the title link in the side menu window strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa (walsh, 2015). you can then proceed to view or download pdf copies of the text. thomas e. walsh jr. phd references walsh, t. e. (2012). providing staff development in teaching strategies and english language conversation at north pare evangelical lutheran church of tanzania (elct) dioceses secondary schools in tanzania, africa. african journal of https://sites.google.com/site/tzteachstratenglish/ring walsh jr., nelson, hanson, & borer 94 ajote vol. 6. no. 1 (2017), 65 -94 teacher education ajote, 2:2. march 21, 2014 @ https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/article/view/1688 walsh, t. e. (2015). returning to provide staff development in teaching and english language at an evangelical lutheran church in tanzania (elct). african journal of teacher education ajote, 4:2. march 4, 2015 @ https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/article/view/3353 walsh, t. e. (2016). strategies to promote english language conversation in tanzania, africa. unpublished manuscript. https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/article/view/1688 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/article/view/3353 african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9. no.2 2020 pages 23-42 impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria semiu olawale makinde al-hikmah university, ilorin nigeria. abstract this study examined the impact of the flipped classroom on the learning outcome of secondary school students in mathematics in lagos, nigeria. it examined the impact of a flipped classroom package (fcp) on post-test performance (pp) and retention performance (rp) of students in mathematics; it also sought to determine the influence of gender on pp and rp of students towards learning mathematics in the flipped classroom (fc). this is in response to the search for means to reverse the poor performance of students in mathematics o’level west african secondary school certificate examinations. the flipped classroom, an innovative teaching technique, was introduced as a possible corrective that could produce effective student learning engagement and performance. a quasi-experimental design was adopted and 275 senior secondary school (sss) 2 students, 147experimental and 128 as control (conventional) intact classes, constituted the purposive sampled population for the study. three research instruments: flipped classroom package, lesson note and performance test were validated by expects and used for the study. the instruments were also checked for reliability; and the inter-rater reliability coefficient of a developed fc package was 0.79; lesson note, 0.83; and test instrument 0.85. four hypotheses were raised and tested after 6 weeks of the experiment. the results of the findings indicated that the flipped classroom encourages good performance in mathematics and should thus be encouraged in schools for being a student centered learning approach. the study concludes among others that teachers should be encouraged to attend seminars and workshops on the use of the approach for effective performance of the learners. keywords: flipped classroom, performance, retention, learning outcome, information communication technology (ict) semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 24 introduction adequate and qualitative education can only be achieved through effective teaching and learning. employing innovative technology in imparting and acquiring knowledge in educational institutions can facilitate this outcome. nigeria, as a developing country, aims to achieve quality education and its nigerian national policy on education (frn, 2014) stipulates that education should sustain its citizens and society. one critical means deployed for this purpose is ict. students find that information communication technology (ict) facilitates their access to subject information on the internet (u. s. department of education, 2004). yusuf (2006) describes ict as any communication devices or applications like cell phones, television, radio, computer, social networking websites, and satellite systems, among others that are developed as tools for and in support of effective educational delivery. among the teaching strategies developed in the field of education to facilitate more effective teaching and learning with the incorporation of latest technology is the flipped classroom. the flipped classroom refers to a form of blended learning platform where students learn new content online by watching video lectures usually at home, and in reverse, what used to be homework (assigned tasks) is done in class in the presence of teachers. teachers are thereby able to offer more one on one personalized guidance and interaction with learners, instead of lecturing (nwosisi, ferreira, rosenberg and walsh, 2016). the fc is also known as the backwards classroom, reverse teaching, and the thayer method. many online digital resources are associated with the flipped classroom, including, coursera, ted talks, khan academy, and youtube. they provide access to recorded lectures, instructional videos, and at times other interactive elements for teaching and learning. in most cases teachers implementing the fc depend on these resources to provide the lesson content (bull, ferster, & kjellstrom, 2012). teachers searching for content from outside may be helpful for those who lack presentation skills, need an outside perspective to enrich their course, or lack extensive subject knowledge. it has been noted that these large educational video sites are innovations that were not created by established education groups but rather came from outside “to fill the vacuums” that educators had left (tucker, 2012), leaving the possibilities that as this learning model, as it grows may upturn the role of educators. makinde (2017) outlines how the flipped classroom works in lagos, nigeria; observing that due to inadequate internet connectivity and technical impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 25 knowledge, the teachers usually burn their recorded lessons videos to cd/dvd for students to watch offline at home at their convenience. they would then do the assignment (normal takehome problems) in the class where a teacher gives them guidance in their areas of difficulties and monitors their learning progress. in this situation, more time is available for the teacher to attend to individual learners and all learners were encouraged to learn at their own pace. despite the benefit of the flipped classroom, the electricity and other social challenge in nigeria meant that having an android phone or computer system (laptop or desktop) is not enough to make the flipped classroom work. consequently, the flipped classroom method of teaching and learning in lagos, nigeria is the simple offline method in which even learners with little knowledge of technology can adapt. most available recorded cd/dvd videos commonly used in nigeria for primary and secondary school students will only assist a few good students because they do not combine feedback or explanation of ambiguous and difficult concepts covered in the curriculum nor do they include an assessment of students’ understanding. teachers modifications based on learners’ contributions is not possible. hence, subjects like mathematics, english language, and others cannot be adequately understood effectively with merely recorded video clip watching without teacher’s guidance (makinde, 2017). in nigeria, persistence failure in a major subject like mathematics in final examinations dashed many students hope to gain admission into higher institutions. the data of mathematics students in senior secondary certificate examinations (ssce) between 2014 – 2019 in nigeria in figure 1 shows that the learning outcome of students was poor. this demonstrates a requirement for a proactive approach to teaching techniques and methods. semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 26 source: waec office, lagos, (2019) figure1: performance of students in ssce, 2014-2019. figure 1 shows that students’ performance in mathematics was above average in 2014 {1,011,608 (61.97%)} but fell drastically in 2015 616,343(38.68%) and was on average in 2016 (52.97%). it shows that about 50% of the students that sat for the west african senior secondary schools certificate examinations (wassce) do not pass mathematics at the required grade level of at least c6 for admission into tertiary institutions in nigeria between 2015 to 2016. but students performed better in mathematics between 2017 to 2018 and poorly again in 2019. according t o the chief examiners reports for 2014 2019 wassc examinations (waec, 2019), the weak and poor student performance in mathematics was associated with low understanding of the concepts and contents of the major aspect of the mathematics curriculum like trigonometric and geometry. the research quantified that several reasons are responsible for poor mathematics performance of students: poor methods of teaching (olunloye, 2010); lack of assurance in the subject by the students (parson, croft and harison, 2009), gender pressure (amelink, 2009) and bad learning environment (olunloye, 2010). impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 27 literature review numerous researches on the flipped classroom consider the fc to be one of the most effective methods of teaching for better engagement and performance of students in almost all subjects because it claims to be a strategy that creates more time for teacher-time with students in the classroom to deal with difficulties (toppo, 2011; tucker, 2012). according to sams and bergmann, flipped classroom is not about how to use videos in lesson but about how to be best use in-class time with students, an insight calling for classroom teachers at all levels to reevaluate how they teach. the fc approach helps instructors to move away from direct instruction as their primary teaching tool toward a more learner-centred approach (bergmann & sams, 2013). hence, the flipped classroom allows students who missed normal classes to watch the videos of the lessons at their convenient time at home and still able to contribute effectively during the class interactive session when present with the teacher and the classmates. estes, ingram and liu’s study (2014) of the fc in china proposes a model with three segments to it, viz, a pre-class that calls for students attention to the learning materials on the internet or to off the net activities; segments which involve collaborations and cooperation and include students-teacher and students-students interaction in a classroom setting for active learning; and finally, the post-class segments that are managed via the application of computer technologies to actualize assessment, the use, reproduction or transfer of knowledge through the of flipped classroom approach. figure 2. flipping the classroom sample model semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 28 source: estes, ingram and liu (2014) e-learning and social media strategies for lagos state secondary school students in 2012, 2013 and 2014 west african examinations council (waec) conducted examinations, results indicated that 61, 63 and 70 percent of students, respectively, who sat for the examinations failed. also, of 1.7 million candidates who register annually for higher institution examination managed by the joint admission and matriculation board jamb, only 500,000 of get admission in nigerian universities. in response to this consistently poor student performance in senior school certificate examinations, ssce, and unified tertiary matriculation examination, utme, the lagos state government has launched free e-learning or m-learning systems to assist its students in performing better (okebukola, 2015). however, this impressive government response and program have difficulties that should be mentioned. in an okebukola-led research group study on e-learning and social media application in education as innovative strategies for promoting the higher achievement of secondary school students in lagos, a total of 3,441 students and 735 teachers in 320 public and private schools from all the six lagos state education districts were surveyed. the highlights from the findings revealed that though the lagos state government has made a notable investment to make lagos state public schools e-learning ready, only about a quarter of the teachers rated themselves overall to be fully e-learning ready. two-third of the students expressed their confidence in their ability to use ict for learning and above 65 percent frequently use social medial, most especially the facebook, sometimes for learning but mostly for social interaction. above three-quarters of teachers and students rated poor internet connectivity as a major problem to e-learning. on all measures of e-learning readiness, private schools outshine their public counterparts in academic performance. mathematics, biology chemistry, english and commerce are the listed subjects perceived difficult by all teachers and students surveyed (okebukola, 2015). nwosisi, ferreira, rosenberg, and walsh’s (2016) study of the college of westchester, white plains, new york students concluded with the observation that when at least thirty percent of the lecture content is flipped, the flipped instruction concept facilitates interaction among students, and between students and their instructors. flipped instruction leads to better learning impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 29 results. this concept helps students to effectively learn to acquire skill, knowledge, and to show a good attitude towards learning. statement of the problem in recent years, secondary school students in lagos state have returned abysmal results in public examinations. for the four years from 2016 to 2018, osun state was ranked 28th out of 36 states in nigeria by waec (2018). one of the solutions to this problem is to adopt an effective teaching method and the flipped classroom (fc) instructional method is reported to be among the most effective. it provides the teacher more time to spend with students in class on difficult topics (toppo, 2011; tucker, 2012); students who miss classes for one reason or the other can watch the videos of the lessons at their convenient time at home and still be able to catch up with the class (bergmann & sams, 2012). the method encourages thinking in and out of the classroom (jacob & mathew, 2013) and frees up classroom time for teacher-student interactive learning activities. the task the current study set itself was, therefore, to contribute to empirically determine the efficacy of fc for teaching and learning mathematics in senior secondary schools in lagos state and the nation in general. going by the findings of recent studies of e-learning platform in lagos state, internet connectivity and erratic power supply are the major problems of online learning in lagos state (okebukola, 2015). the studies also show that private schools were more responsive to the treatment than were the public schools. they also show that flipped classroom can work without internet, the less demand on technology, making it more appropriate for the context and therefore more preferable than other methods of innovative learning. based on this insight, the current study used offline flipped classroom pedagogy to investigate the impact of learning package “flipped classroom” utilization as a new teaching strategy for mathematics students in the private-owned bridge (day/boarding) secondary schools in lagos, nigeria.11 research objectives the purpose of this research was to examine the utilization and adequacy of a developed fcp on 1 this type of schools accommodates both the boarding and day students learning together in the same school premises during learning period usually between the hour of 8.00am and 4.00pm during the week. the boarders usually return to their hostel where they have the opportunity to continue learning via organized tutorials and peer collaboration. the day students, meanwhile, would leave for their homes. semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 30 senior secondary school (sss) students’ performance in mathematics. the objectives of the study are to: 1. examine the difference(s) between the post-test performance of students taught mathematics with a developed flipped classroom (fc) package and those taught with conventional classroom (cc) in other to determine its adequacy in mathematics teaching in sss in lagos, nigeria 2. determine the difference(s) between the retention performance of sss students taught using a developed fc package and those taught mathematics using the cc in a mathematics class in lagos, nigeria 3. examine the difference(s) between the post-test performance of male and female students taught mathematics using a developed fcp in sss in lagos, nigeria 4. determine the difference(s) between the retention performance of male and female students taught mathematics with a developed flipped classroom in sss in lagos, nigeria research hypotheses the null hypotheses formulated from the research objectives and tested in this study were as follow: ho1: significant difference does not exist between the post-test performance of students taught mathematics with a developed flipped classroom (fc) package and those taught with the conventional classroom (cc) in sss in lagos, nigeria ho2: there is no significant difference between the retention performance of students taught using a developed fc package and those taught mathematics using the cc in sss in lagos, nigeria ho3: significant difference does not exist between the post-test performance of male and female students taught mathematics using a developed fcp in sss in lagos, nigeria ho4: significant difference does not exist between the retention performance of male and female students taught mathematics with a developed flipped classroom in sss in lagos, nigeria. research method the study employed a quasi-experimental design of pre-test and post-test. the learning method (flipped classroom method) was crossed with gender (male and female). the dependent variables impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 31 were retention and post-test performance while the intervening variables were gender. the population comprises of all senior secondary school (sss) students in lagos state, while the purposive sample population was all sss ii private bridged school students from an education district in lagos state, nigeria. the bridge private secondary school was used for the benefit of positive interactive effect expected between the boarders and day student. this class and school type was purposively used because of their enthusiastic readiness to participate in research studies, including this, and because they comprised of students who could afford the technology that will prepare them for their senior secondary certificate examinations (ssce). also, they had been taught mathematics for over one year at the senior secondary school level in lagos. stratified sampling technique was used in grouping the samples along with gender. the students who participated did so voluntarily after the purpose of the research had been made clear to them and their rights made known to them in their schools. the total sample size was 275 students in ss2 of 146 males and 129 females. for the experimental group, 78 male and 69 female students totaling 147 constituted the experimental group while 68 males and 60 females, a total of 128, formed the control group. both groups were picked from intact classes of two bridged (day/boarding) missionary secondary schools from two different education districts in lagos state but of the same curriculum. three research instruments developed by the researcher were used in this study. these are (1) a developed flipped classroom package; (2) performance test in mathematics; and (3) lesson plan/note (ln). all these instruments were subjected to both face and content validity by experts. the instruments were also checked for reliability, the inter-rater reliability coefficient of a developed fc package was observed to be 0.79; lesson note, 0.83; and test instrument was 0.85. the developed flipped classroom package was used in the experimental group classroom. figure 3 and 4 show the screenshot of the flipped classroom package used while the control group participants were subjected to the conventional method of teaching using lesson note only. both are of the same learning contents. semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 32 figure 3: flipped classroom video clip screenshot on “construct of quadratic” figure 4: flipped classroom video clip screenshot on “perfect square” at the end of the six week-experiment, the researcher and two research assistants administered the test instrument on both the experimental and control groups simultaneously. analysis of covariance (ancova) statistics was applied to test hypotheses 1 and 2 on treatment, 3 and 4 on gender at 0.05 significance level using ibm statistical package for social sciences (spss) impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 33 version 20.0 to do all statistical analysis. the application of ancova takes care of the differences between groups before treatment (pre-test). bonferroni pairwise comparison test was conducted to locate the direction of the difference established by ancova. results on hypotheses the hypotheses raised were tested and analyzed as follows. hypothesis one ho1: significant difference does not exist between the post-test performance of students taught mathematics with a developed flipped classroom (fc) package and those taught with conventional classroom (cc). in sss in lagos, nigeria. table 1 and 2 illustrate the analyses of null hypothesis 1. table 1: descriptive statistics’ on the post-test scores for the experimental and control groups group n mean std. deviation flipped classroom 147 30.234 4.7949 convectional class 128 25.268 5.9821 total 275 27.751 5.3885 table 2: ancova result on the post-test performance of the experimental and control groups source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 4375.552a 2 2187.776 124.738 .000 intercept 16571.314 1 16571.314 960.364 .000 pre-test 2892.680 1 2892.680 166.157 .000 group 2482.158 1 2482.158 146.232 .000 error 4613.478 273 17.408 total 194976.000 275 corrected total 8887.030 274 a. r squared = .461 (adjusted r squared = .487). table 1 above shows that the flipped classroom had higher post mean score (m = 30.23, sd = semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 34 4.80) than their conventional classroom (control group) counterparts (m = 25.27, sd = 5.98), using a benchmark of 20.00. results in table 2 for ancova, f (1,275) = 146.232, p=.00. since, the p-value < α-value of 0.05, then, the null hypothesis is rejected; this indicates that a significant difference exists between the performance of students taught mathematics using the flipped classroom and those taught using the conventional method as indicated in the mean and standard deviation. the flipped classroom is more effective than the conventional class system in teaching mathematics to students. hypothesis two ho2: there is no significant difference between the retention performance of students taught using a developed fc package and those taught mathematics using the cc in sss in lagos, nigeria. analysis of null hypothesis two is as illustrated in the descriptive statistics table 3 and the ancova table 4. table 3: descriptive statistics on the retention scores of the group. group n mean std. deviation flipped classroom 147 25.476 5.0237 convectional class 128 20.756 5.3704 total 268 23.310 5.6870 table 4: ancova result on the retention performance of the experimental and control groups. source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 3693.474a 2 1846.737 99.029 .000 intercept 12881.735 1 12881.735 690.770 .000 pre-test 2211.028 1 2211.028 118.564 .000 group 2428.767 1 2428.767 130.240 .000 error 4941.820 273 19.648 total 154251.000 275 corrected total 8635.295 274 a. r squared = .428 (adjusted r squared = .423) impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 35 as illustrated in table 3 the fc group had the higher mean score (m = 25.48, sd = 5.0237), while the cc group had (m = 20.76, sd = 5.3704) using 20.00 as a benchmark. the ancova results shown in table 4 unveils that there was a significant difference; f (1,275) = 130.240, p = 0.000. since the p-value < alpha value of 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected, this indicates that a significant difference does exist between the retention performance of students taught mathematics using fc method and cc method as indicated in the mean and standard deviation. hypothesis three ho3: significant difference does not exist between the post-test performance of male and female students taught mathematics using the fc in sss in lagos, nigeria. the analysis of the post-test performance of students based on gender is as illustrated in table 5 for descriptive statistics and table 6 on the ancova results for the sexes. table 5: descriptive statistics for post-test scores of male and female students in fc group. gender n mean std. deviation male 78 28.45 4.980 female 69 28.42 4.662 total 147 28.44 4.821 table 6: ancova on the post-test scores of male and female students in fc group source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 687.630a 2 343.815 17.962 .000 intercept 18017.406 1 18017.406 898.023 .000 pre-test 687.621 1 687.621 35.923 .000 sex 4.317 1 4.317 .225 .636 error 2718.122 145 19.132 total 120698.000 147 corrected total 3405.752 146 a. r squared = .202 (adjusted r squared = .191) results in table 5 indicates that the male students in the flipped classroom had higher mean score (m =28.45, sd = 4.98) than their female counterparts (m = 28.42, sd = 4.66) using a benchmark of 20.00. however, the higher mean score for the male students did not indicate any significant semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 36 difference in ancova results in table 6, f (1,147) = 0.225, p = 0.636, the p-value > 0.05 alpha value. thus, the null hypothesis that no significant difference exists between the post-test performance of male and female students taught mathematics with fc is accepted. hypothesis four ho4: significant difference does not exist between the retention performance of male and female students taught mathematics using the flipped classroom in sss in lagos, nigeria. the analysis for testing hypothesis two for male and female retention performance in flipped classroom mathematics class are as shown in table 7 for the descriptive statistics and table 8 on the ancova results for sexes. table 7: analysis of retention performance of male and female students in mathematics in fc. gender n mean std. deviation male 78 25.36 5.329 female 69 26.73 5.673 total 147 26.05 5.501 table 8: ancova on the retention test scores of male and female students in fc group source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 487.810a 2 243.905 11.008 .000 intercept 14010.492 1 14010.492 642.316 .000 pre-test 479.680 1 479.680 22.649 .000 sex 1.414 1 1.414 .056 .721 error 3146.356 145 22.157 total 97742.000 147 corrected total 3634.166 146 results in table 7 indicate that the female students in the flipped classroom had higher mean score (m = 26.73, sd = 5.673) than their male counterparts (m = 25.36, sd = 5.3290 with a benchmark of 20.00. however, the higher mean score for the female students reveals a significant difference in ancova results in table 8, f (1,147) = 0.056, p = 0.721. the p-value is higher than the αimpact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 37 value of 0.05; hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected. this implies that there was no significant difference between the retention test performance of male and female students who were taught mathematics with a flipped classroom approach in sss in lagos, nigeria, as indicated in the mean and standard deviation. discussions on research findings the main purpose of the research was to determine the adequacy and utilization of the flipped classroom method on sss students’ performance in mathematics in lagos, nigeria based on the developed model (fc package). findings in table 1 show that the post-test performance of sss students who were taught mathematics with the flipped classroom approach and those taught with the conventional method had the least mean. this shows that students in the flipped classroom setting performed significantly better than those in the conventional classroom. the increase in students’ involvement in classroom activities and learning would have accounted for the better performance of students. also, the results in table 2 unveil that the post-test score was significantly higher for the flipped classroom group than the conventional classroom counterpart. these findings indicate that the flipped classroom approach is effective in enhancing students’ performance in sss in lagos, nigeria. this agrees with the findings of charles-ogan and williams (2015); esperanza, fabian, and toto (2016) and (fulton, 2012) that revealed that the use of flipped classroom model in southern minnesota school in mathematics class resulted in gains in student achievement and engagement. furthermore, table 3 shows a significant difference between the retention test performance of students taught mathematics using a developed flipped classroom package and those taught using conventional classroom method in sss in lagos, nigeria. the significant difference was in favour of the flipped classroom as reflected in table 4. this is in agreement with marcellious (2001); chianson (2008) and iji (2002) who indicated that retention in mathematics is not acquired by mere rote learning but through suitable teaching method like the flipped classroom. table 5 reveals no significant difference in male and female student’s post-test performance when taught mathematics with the flipped classroom method; there was no significant difference between the retention test performance of male and female students who were taught mathematics with flipped classroom approach as shown on table 6. this contradicts and semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 38 challenges the findings of frempbong and ayia (2006) in which female ghanaian students are less successful in learning mathematics due, reportedly, to their low interest, lack of confidence, and low academic expectation. the findings agree rather with abiam and odok (2006) who found no significant relationship between gender and achievement in number and numeration, and algebraic process and statistics for their research subject in nigeria. this implies that the flipped classroom approach to teaching and learning of mathematics is learner friendly, has no gender bias, and is flexible. the findings from table 7 do not support amatobi and amatobi (2013)’s position that the achievement of students in mathematics at the high school level in amurie-omanze in imo state, south eastern nigeria has been reported poor. this may be due to the “bridge” nature of the sample population chosen for this study and the advantage that lagos has as a desirable urban city for good teachers. the findings of this study as reveals on table 8 are consistent with those of bergman and sams (2013) and alverze (2012), and jacob and mathew (2103) that male and female students can perform equally well provided they learn under the same academic condition. hence, the flipped classroom teaching method does not show any gender bias. conclusion effective teaching and learning cannot be established without a proper learning process. the need to continue to re-orientate nigerian classrooms from teacher-centredness to studentcentredness to enhance students’ engagement and boost students’ learning is well recognised. this study provides evidence that the flipped classroom makes teaching and learning enjoyable, effective, and satisfying. this research has established the instructional values of the flipped classroom method of teaching. findings on gender were unique and instructive. the hypotheses on gender revealed that gender did not influence both the retention and academic performance of students when they were taught mathematics with the flipped classroom in sss in lagos, nigeria. students tend to perform better in post-test than retention test period. this result may indicate that although flipped classroom enhanced post-test performance, the effect had receded before the retention test in sss in lagos, nigeria. recommendations based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations are made to redress the problems of mathematics learning in secondary schools in lagos, nigeria: impact of flipped classroom on mathematics learning outcome of senior secondary school students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 39 1. educators should master and adopt the flipped classroom approach because it is a studentcentred learning strategy that actively engages the students; 2. adequate ict facilities should be provided in schools for easy access to boost the application of flipped classroom in schools 3. teachers should be provided with continuous training via seminars, workshops and conferences on the utilization of innovative learning strategies like the flipped classroom. this will enable them to use this approach with expertise. 4. all stakeholders in the education industry should appreciate, support and sustain the use of the flipped classroom in sss in lagos and nigeria as a whole. references abiam, p. o., & odok, j. k. (2006). factors in students’ achievement in different branches of secondary school mathematics. journal of education and technology, 1, 161-168. alverze, b. (2012). flipping the classroom: homework in class, lessons at home. education digest: essential readings condensed for quick review, 77(8), 18-21. amatobi, v. e., & amatobi, d. a. (2013). the influences of gender and attitude differences on students’ achievement in mathematics in nigerian secondary schools: a case study of comprehensive secondary school amurie-omanze in south-eastern nigeria. american journal of research communication: www.usa-journals.com, issn: 2325-4076. amelink, c. t. (2009). literature overview: gender differences in mathematics performance. retrieved from http/www.aweonline.org on 20/05/2011. bergmann, j., & sams, a. 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(2020). influence of social/mass media as a change agent on childhood social pedagogy and achievement. indonesian journal of early childhood education studies, 9(1), 1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/ijeces.v9i1.36259 marcellious, g. (2001). what factors affect retention in the classroom? wakefield high school, arlington county (va) public schools. kenyatta university school of economics (ku) course hero, 1-7. retrieved on november, 27, 2019 from https://gse.gmu.edu/assets/docs/lmtip/vol3/m.gaines.doc nwosisi, c., ferreira, a., rosenberg, w. & walsh, k. (2016). a study of the flipped classroom and its effectiveness in flipping thirty percent of the course content. international journal of information and educational technology, 6(5), 348-351. doi: 10.7763/ijiet.2016.v6.712 okebukola, p. 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(2007). the effects of the classroom flip on the learning environment: a comparison of learning activity in a traditional classroom and a flip classroom that used an intelligent tutoring system. unpublished doctoral dissertation, the ohio state university, america. http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/ijeces.v9i1.36259 https://gse.gmu.edu/assets/docs/lmtip/vol3/m.gaines.doc https://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/01/students-get-e-learning-platform-boost-academic-performance/ https://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/01/students-get-e-learning-platform-boost-academic-performance/ http://www.tribune.com.nig/ https://doi.org/10.1093/teamat/hrp010 https://academic.oup.com/teamat/article-abstract/28/2/53/1662162?redirectedfrom=fulltext https://academic.oup.com/teamat/article-abstract/28/2/53/1662162?redirectedfrom=fulltext semiu olawale makinde ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020), 23-42 42 toppo, g. (2011). ‘flipped’ classrooms take advantage of technology. in usa today 10/6/11, education next: a journal of opinion and research, 11(3). retrieved on november 12, 2014, from https://www.educationnext.org/behind-the-headline-flipped-classrooms-takeadvantage-of-technology/ tucker, b. (2012). the flipped classroom: online instruction at home frees class time for learning. education next: a journal of opinion and research, 12(1). retrieved on november 12, 2014, from http://educationnext.org/the-flippedclassroom/#une.edu/pqdweb?did=2530882881&sid=11fmt=3&clientid=8421&rqt=30 9&vname=pqd u.s. department of education. (2004). national education technology plan. http://www.nationaledtechplan.org/ (retrieved september 28, 2019). west african examinations council, waec. (2019). chief examiner’s report on students’ performance statistics for 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 & 2019. yusuf, m. o. (2006). using the internet for teaching, learning and research in tertiary institutions. the journal of nigerian association of teachers of technology, jonnat, 6(1), 163 – 171. . http://educationnext.org/the-flipped-classroom/#une.edu/pqdweb?did=2530882881&sid=11fmt=3&clientid=8421&rqt=309&vname=pqd http://educationnext.org/the-flipped-classroom/#une.edu/pqdweb?did=2530882881&sid=11fmt=3&clientid=8421&rqt=309&vname=pqd http://educationnext.org/the-flipped-classroom/#une.edu/pqdweb?did=2530882881&sid=11fmt=3&clientid=8421&rqt=309&vname=pqd http://www.nationaledtechplan.org/ teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools damola olugbade1 & oluwakemi olurinola2 1centre for languages and general studies, first technical university, ibadan, nigeria 2department of science and technology education, olabisi onabanjo university, ago-iwoye, nigeria abstract the outbreak of covid-19 pandemic has required schools in nigeria to embrace remote learning using technology solutions, in this case, microsoft teams, to effectively engage students. this study, therefore, aimed to reveal teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning. the descriptive survey research design was adopted. the participants in the study were 51 teachers who were randomly selected using convenient sampling technique. e-questionnaire was used in the collection of data. descriptive statistics of frequency counts, simple percentages, mean and standard deviations were used to analyze the data. results revealed that teachers’ perception of effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading, for teacher and student interaction, and for classroom organisation was very good. the result obtained revealed that microsoft teams was effective in addressing some of the major challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning which includes students being often on other websites and poor student engagement. it was concluded that microsoft teams was effective for smooth interaction between teacher and students. its use enhanced classroom organization and consequently facilitated teaching and learning process. the study encourages wider adoption of the application by schools. keywords: teachers’ perception, microsoft teams, remote learning, learning management system introduction the corona virus pandemic has brought a halt on every sector and sphere of life worldwide. the corona virus popularly known as covid-19 was first discovered in china and soon later spread its tentacle to virtually almost every part of the world. the educational sector which is an important sector of the society has been partially shut down as a result of the covid-19 pandemic; this has african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 265-281 damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 266 led to numerous problems at the various levels of the educational sectors for both teachers and students. innovative e-learning and learning management systems (lms) tools for teaching, learning and evaluation have made strides in providing educators with usable solutions and increasing the ability to use information technology during lockdown. according to the world bank data as of april 3, 2020, over 1.5 billion children are out of school with over 85% countries mandating the closure of schools due to covid-19 pandemic. various countries have adopted different strategies for teaching and learning in the bid to assist students who are out-of-school within the period the schools would remain closed. this calls for remote learning in order not to put teaching and learning in a halt. the integration of educational technology (edtech) to deliver and support remote learning.in almost all cases are being adopted by most schools. the systems of learning online such as (learning management systems, video conferencing) are mostly deployed by middle-and high-income environments while some are adopting other broadcast media like television for delivery as a means of supplementary. within countries, it is however revealed that the demand for distant learning has also made clearly unambiguous digital divides (world bank, 2020). the effects of modern information technology are increasing rapidly, and the icts are part of daily education activity in universities, especially in the education process. new innovative technologies such as microsoft teams and zoom, among others, become useful and effective (seyal, mohd, awg, yussof & rahman, 2017). this means that students can attend classes, anytime it is fixed, anywhere because they do not have to attend a physical class. students can also learn face-to-face via a variety of channels (tv, internet), tutors, classrooms (bielaczyc, 2006 as cited in nassoura, 2012). over time, ict systems, microsoft teams, moodle platforms and other learning management systems (lms), have been adopted by academics, institutes of higher education, and secondary schools, especially during this covid19 pandemic period. this has resulted in diversified education system incorporating remote learning and online courses and tests, as well as a combination of the usual one-on-one lectures and tutoring. universities and secondary schools in nigeria have invested in the provision of resources and technology to prevent disruption to teaching and learning while restrictions due to the pandemic last. during this covid-19 pandemic, most concerns in the educational sector about remote learning have focused on how the instructors/teachers incorporate new technology in their teaching in order to engage students at their various homes. microsoft teams, moodle, and zoom are some teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 267 of the ict platforms through `which students are taught during the pandemic. microsoft teams is a collaborative platform complete with document sharing, online meetings, and many more features which could be useful for remote learning. remote learning occurs when the learner and instructor are separated by distance, therefore cannot meet in a traditional classroom setting. it is an effective way to reach students with resources that would otherwise be unreachable during the school shut down, through a flexible, customizable accessible learning space. a few of the goals of remote learning are to streamline the process for continued learning and to keep school communities connected. although remote learning has the same social dynamics as online delivery its implications are different in that learners rely on the facilitator to bridge the physical distance that separates the participants and ensure that the contents don’t feel static and distance to students. therefore, some of the considerations when working with students remotely would be to use web applications that provide synchronous and asynchronous engagements. some other factors to consider would include bandwidth access, computer access, and students’ emotional conditions. microsoft teams refers to a digital cloud app hub that puts together discussions, meetings, files, and applications in a single lms (learning management system) (microsoft, 2018). tsai (2018) expects microsoft teams to experience the fastest growth in the next two years. 41 percent of organisations plan to use microsoft teams globally by the end of 2020, while microsoft team has 75 million users by april 2020. microsoft teams has been adopted by various schools to streamline the remote learning process. the use of microsoft teams has been said to greatly enhance teaching and learning, teachers’ ability to grade and monitor students’ assignment, classroom organization, and teacher-student interaction (alameri, masadeh, hamadallah, ismail & fakhouri, 2020). effective learning with the use of microsoft teams requires that teachers and students be trained in it. lu (2010) also noted that teachers and student's behaviour using microsoft teams platforms could be influenced by self-efficiency, age, training, and internet availability. also, physical and psychological factors in the microsoft teams environment could either encourage or inhibit the students’ attitude to and performance in learning (zandvliet, 2003 as cited in adewole-odeshi, 2014). these factors and other social factors in remote learning impact on the values which students and teachers share in education, and they should therefore also be considered alongside the technological tools. damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 268 the functional domains required in using microsoft teams could be grouped into affective, cognitive, and psychomotor. the affective domain encompasses the students and teachers’ feelings, emotions, and attitudes concerning microsoft teams. this depicts how they feel about certain microsoft teams capabilities. assignments, screen sharing, white boarding, immersive reading, together mode, lms integration, insight, and so on are just a few of these tools and capabilities available on microsoft teams. the cognitive aspect refers to the academic discourse engagement between the students and teachers when using the microsoft teams platform for acquisition of knowledge and, the final domain, psychomotor, covers teachers and students’ motor skills as well as their ability to coordinate them for efficient microsoft teams engagement. the nature of appraisal and engagement with these functional aspects of the microsoft teams platform could significantly inhibit or enhance remote learning (alabdullaziz, muhammad, alyahya & james, 2011). even though studies have been done on teacher’s perceptions of remote learning, there are not many on the use of microsoft teams for remote learning by teachers in nigeria. this is the gap to be filled by this study. literature review the national center for education statistics (2019) reported that in 2018, about 35 percent (5.7 million) of all undergraduate students in the u.s. enrolled in at least one online course, a substantial increase from 20 percent in 2008. this steady enrollment growth indicates that online learning is no longer a trend, but an integral part of the educational landscape (betts, 2017). online learning benefits both institutions of education and students. online learning, for instance, offers an opportunity for higher education to extend its reach to students who may not be able to regularly come to campus. online learning also provides convenience for students and better options for their courses and degrees to be completed. while several advantages of online learning have been recognized and accepted, concerns have been raised about the efficacy of remote learning. with the current design, online courses are difficult, particularly for students who are not ict inclined, according to a bettinger and loeb (2017) study on online education. the study found that the learning output of such students when taking online courses is worse (e.g. higher dropout rates and lower grades) than it would have been if these same students had taken face-to-face courses. the study also claims that student-instructor contact is the main difference between online and face-to-face courses. students may interpret the lack of interactions in the online classes as corresponding to teachers not being physically present. therefore, the experience of student learning in online learning is very different from that of face-to-face learning, particularly for teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 269 interactions with student teachers, which can adversely affect the performance of students in online learning. in their research, chen, lambert, and guidry (2010) found that the use of microsoft teams has a positive effect on the participation of students and their learning outcomes. bettinger and loeb (2017) propose that emerging innovations such as microsoft teams will help engage students and fulfill their online learning needs. in another recent study conducted by park and kim (2020) on the perception of instructor presence and its effects on learning experience in online classes, the result shows that interactive communication method with the use of teaching aids that are used in online learning facilitates strong relationships between student and instructor and supports the expectations of teacher involvement of students, which ultimately increases student participation and pleasure in online classes. martin and tapp (2019) affirmed that being proactive and taking advantage of resources at their own institution is essential for an online teacher. these authors discussed the teaching of award-winning tutors who used a range of tools, including microsoft teams, webct, canvas, desire2learn, blackboard and moodle, to use both asynchronous and synchronous learning spaces. according to those interviewed, the most significant role of the online teacher was that of the involvement of the facilitator and instructor. participating tutors said that "being there" was important for students and "having a presence on the course site". akgün and akkoyunlu (2013) surmised that technological advancement has been introduced into education in networking and communication and that rich learning environments are becoming qualitatively and functionally more relevant. students play an active and productive role in and during all interactions in fully immersive cscl environments during the discussion process. buelow, barry and rich (2018) surveyed 417 students on how to support online students' learning engagement. their study revealed that certain components of online discussions and assignments are engaging, such as discussions and interactive assignments which are not only "fun" for students but also integrate previous learning and connect to current societal issues. this includes prompting students with thought-provoking questions about “real-world” events and inviting them to share their different viewpoints and create their own perspectives. this allowed students to express a variety of ideas and develop personal perspectives, resulting in more effective learning. sareen and nangia (2020) conducted a study in india on the attitude and challenges faced by schoolteachers in online teaching during covid-19, the study adopted the descriptive survey and the sample size comprised 3550 teachers. the result showed that teachers possess a favourable and positive attitude towards remote teaching. but they lack perceived efficacy in remote teaching, damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 270 and it was also revealed that that they can perform better in the traditional classroom. the finding also revealed that technical problems, lack of in-service training, lack of internet facilities to the students, paucity of appropriate materials, lack of confidence, lack of cooperation from the parents, and striving to follow up students’ learning were some of the challenges encountered by teachers when using microsoft teams for remote learning. todd (2020) conducted a study on us teachers’ perceptions of the shift from classroom to online teaching, and the study adopted the survey research design. result revealed that challenges encountered by teachers using microsoft teams included issues with internet bandwidth, device issues, arranging online examination, preparing stimulating activities, student absence, clarity issues and problems with evaluation. lin and jou (2013) conducted a similar study in turkey on the effects of integrating popular web applications in the classroom learning environment on teaching, student learning motivation, and performance. their study shows teachers complaints during remote learning with web applications to include problems of insufficient time, it not being user friendly, connectivity difficulties, and poor student participation. the authors affirmed that the use of the application could enhance teaching and learning if those inhibiting factors could be curbed. alameri, masadeh, hamadallah, ismail and fakhouri (2020) conducted a study on the perception of e-learning platforms (moodle, microsoft teams and zoom platforms) on academic achievement during covid-19 pandemic and revealed that the use of microsoft teams and moodle were every effective in teaching and learning as both platforms enhance academic achievement of the students. teachers with prior computer experience and exposure to new technologies had a very positive attitude toward e-learning, believing that it improves teaching effectiveness. the problem statement owing to the covid-19 pandemic, schools have had to embrace remote learning, therefore the need for a technology solution to effectively engage students remotely. among many technology solutions being used by teachers for remote teaching and learning is the microsoft teams platform, the scarcity of research on its use for remote learning, especially in the context of developing countries like nigeria has prompted the need to investigate its effectiveness as a technology solution adopted by schools for remote learning during the pandemic. therefore, this study is focused on assessing the effectiveness of microsoft teams as used by teachers for remote teaching. teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 271 purpose of study the purpose of the study is to gain insights into teacher’s perceptions of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for remote learning. the specific objectives are to: i. explore teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading ii. investigate teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for teacherstudent interaction iii. examine teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for classroom organisation; and iv. examine the perceptions of the effectiveness microsoft teams for addressing the challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning. research questions 1. what are teachers’ perception of the effectiveness microsoft teams for assignment and grading? 2. what are teachers’ perception of the effectiveness microsoft teams for teacher-student interaction? 3. what are teachers’ perception of the effectiveness microsoft teams for classroom organization? 4. what are teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness microsoft teams for addressing the challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning? methodology research design descriptive survey research design was adopted in the study. popoola (2016) affirmed that this type of design describes a condition or phenomenon as it exists naturally without any manipulation. it entails the systematic and scientific gathering of data or information from population by means of a scale opinion questionnaire or personal interview. this method is desirable because it is found useful in the collection of data on phenomena that cannot be directly observed. damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 272 population the population of the study comprised 51 teachers who were selected randomly in two states in southwestern nigeria. the two states were oyo and ogun. teachers in some schools in urban areas in oyo and ogun states were selected for the study because they had continued to engage their students remotely during the lockdown and school closure using microsoft teams. sample size and sampling technique the sample size consisted of 51 teachers who were used in the study by adopting the convenience sampling technique for oyo and ogun states. two private and two public schools were selected in the two states using stratified sampling technique. the convenience sampling technique was used as it was not possible for the researchers to have direct access to the entire population due to covid-19 pandemic. total enumeration technique was used to ensure robust participation of all the teachers in the study. this technique was adopted because the population is not too large and can easily be managed by the researcher. the use of total enumeration technique is in line with the position of rule of thumb of bryman (2003) who posits that the use of this technique arises when the respondents for the study is not too numerous. hence, the entire population of the teachers was used as sample size. data collection the study made use of an online questionnaire to collect data. this instrument was created using microsoft forms. the equestionnaire was tagged “teachers perception on the effectiveness of microsoft teams”. the questionnaire consisted of two parts; section a was used to obtain demographic characteristics of the respondents and section b was comprised of 22 items that generated answers to the four research questions. the response format ranged from 1 = not applicable, 2 = not effective, 3 =somewhat effective, 4 = effective and 5= very effective. the instrument’s reliability was carried out using the test re-test method. and cronbach alpha calculation was used for testing the questionnaire’s accuracy and the gotten value was 0.82. method of data analysis data were analysed using the following statistical tools: i. descriptive statistics of frequency counts ii. simple percentages teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 273 iii. mean and standard deviation. results variables frequency percentage gender female male 14 37 27.5 72.5 where do you teach? higher education secondary primary pre-primary 9 31 8 3 17.6 60.8 15.7 5.9 level of competence with instructional technology expert advanced intermediate beginner 18 23 8 2 35.3 45.1 15.7 3.9 years of teaching <5 years 5-10 years 10-15 years >15 years 5 10 14 22 9.8 19.6 27.5 43.1 table 1: demographic characteristics of the respondents table 1 showed that male (72.5%) respondents were more than the female (27.5%). more males participated in the study than their female counterparts. secondary school teachers had a larger population of respondents (60.8%) when compared with teachers teaching in higher institutions (17.6%), primary level (15.7%) and pre-primary level (5.9%). in addition, their level of competence with instructional technology varied from experts (35.3%), advanced (45.1%), intermediate (15.7%) and beginners (3.9%). experts had the highest population of respondents (35.3%) and the beginners had the least number of participants (3.9%). the respondents had different years of teaching experience. respondents with >15 years of teaching had a larger population of participants (43.1%) whereas, respondents with < 5 years of teaching had the least number of participants (9.8%). damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 274 research question 1: what are teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading? s/n items 1 2 3 4 5 x sd 1 record keeping of assignment 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%) 10 (9.6%) 13 (25.5%) 25 (49%) 4.14 1.06 2 tracking process of assignments 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%) 11 (21.6%) 15 (29.4%) 22 (43.1%) 4.06 1.05 3 checking assignments 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%) 10 (19.6%) 17 (33.3%) 21 (41.2%) 4.06 1.03 4 giving feedback on assignment 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%) 11 (21.6%) 20 (39.2%) 17 (33.3%) 3.96 0.99 average mean: 4.06 key: 1 = not applicable, 2 = not effective, 3 = somewhat effective, 4 = effective and 5= very effective table 2: summary of teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading table 2 revealed teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading. the result showed that record keeping of assignment =x( 4.14) was ranked highest with the mean score and was followed in sequence respectively by tracking process of assignments and checking assignments =x( 3.14) and lastly, giving feedback on assignment =x( 3.96). it could be inferred that teachers’ perception of effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading is very good with an average mean of 4.06. research question 2: what are teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for teacher-student interaction? s/n items 1 2 3 4 5 x sd 1 replacing whatsapp groups 2 (3.9%) 4 (7.8%) 12 (23.5%) 19 (37.3%) 14 (27.5%) 3.76 1.07 2 using the announcement features 1 (2%) 1 (2%) 12 (23.5%) 13 (25.5%) 24 (47.1%) 4.14 0.98 3 facilitating communication 3 (5.9%) 8 (15.7%) 14 (27.5%) 26 (51%) 4.23 0.93 teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 275 4 sending anytime messages 1 (2%) 1 (2%) 10 (19.6%) 24 (47.1%) 15 (29.4%) 4.00 0.87 5 having live class session 1 (2%) 9 (17.6%) 13 (25.5%) 28 (54.9%) 4.31 0.91 average mean: 4.08 key: 1 = not applicable, 2 = not effective, 3 = somewhat effective, 4 = effective and 5= very effective table 3: summary of teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for teacher and student interaction table 3 revealed teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for teacherstudent interaction. the result showed that having live class session =x( 4.31) was ranked highest with the mean score and was followed successively by facilitating communication =x( 4.23), using the announcement features =x( 4.14), sending anytime messages =x( 4.00) and lastly, replacing whatsapp groups =x( 3.76). it could be inferred that teachers’ perception of effectiveness of microsoft teams for teacher-student interaction is very good with an average mean of 4.08. research question 3: what are teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for classroom organisation? s/n items 1 2 3 4 5 x sd 1 upload of class materials 1 (2%) 6 (11.8%) 14 (27.5%) 30 (58.8%) 4.43 0.78 2 video uploads 3 (5.9%) 10 (19.6%) 14 (27.5%) 24 (47.1%) 4.16 0.95 3 taking quick quizzes 2 (3.9%) 9 (17.6%) 20 (39.2%) 20 (39.2%) 4.14 0.85 4 tracking attendance 1 (2%) 8 (17.6%) 22 (43.1%) 19 (37.3%) 4.16 0.78 5 use of lms 3 (5.9%) 4 (7.8%) 11 (21.6%) 20 (39.2%) 13 (25.5%) 3.71 1.11 6 enabling group work/projects 2 (3.9%) 2 (3.9%) 8 (15.7%) 20 (39.2%) 19 (37.3%) 4.02 1.03 average mean: 4.10 damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 276 key: 1 = not applicable, 2 = not effective, 3 = somewhat effective, 4 = effective and 5= very effective. table 4: summary of teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for classroom organization table 4 revealed teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for classroom organisation. the result showed that upload of class materials =x( 4.43) was ranked highest by the mean score and was followed successively and respectively by video uploads and tracking attendance =x( 4.16), taking quick quizzes =x( 4.14), enabling group work/projects =x( 4.02) and lastly, use of lms =x( 3.71). it could be inferred that teachers’ perception of effectiveness of microsoft teams for classroom organisation is very good with an average mean of 4.10. research question 4: what are teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness microsoft teams for addressing the challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning?? s/n items 1 2 3 4 5 x sd 1 no students involvement 14 (27.5%) 1 (2%) 22 (43.1%) 6 (11.8%) 8 (15.7%) 2.86 1.37 2 students often on other websites 6 (11.8%) 7 (13.7%) 23 (45.1%) 9 (17.6%) 6 (11.8%) 3.04 1.13 3 no individual student space 12 (23.5%) 4 (7.8%) 20 (39.2%) 9 (17.6%) 6 (11.8%) 2.86 1.30 4 not user friendly for students who are not ict inclined 20 (39.2%) 4 (7.8%) 8 (15.7%) 12 (23.5%) 7 (13.7%) 2.65 1.53 5 not user friendly for teachers 18 (35.3%) 2 (3.9%) 10 (19.6%) 11 (21.6%) 10 (19.6%) 2.86 1.58 6 unable to make teaching friendly 18 (35.3%) 3 (5.9%) 10 (19.6%) 11 (21.6%) 9 (17.6%) 2.80 1.55 7 took time to adjust 13 (25.5%) 7 (13.7%) 10 (19.6%) 12 (23.5%) 9 (17.6%) 2.94 1.46 key: 1 = not applicable, 2 = not effective, 3 = somewhat effective, 4 = effective and 5= very effective. table 5: summary of challenges encountered by teachers when using microsoft teams for remote learning teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 277 table 5 revealed the challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning and how using microsoft teams addresses these challenges. the results showed that msteams use is effective in addressing the challenge of students often on other websites =x( 3.04) which ranked the highest mean score and was followed successively by the time it took to adjust =x( 2.94), while no students involvement, no individual student space and not user friendly for teachers had a mean of =x( 2.86), followed by =x( 2.80) on the challenge of ‘unable to make teaching friendly’ and lastly, not user friendly for students =x( 2.65). it could be inferred that microsoft teams was effective in addressing some of the major challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning included; i.e., students often surfing other websites, not non-teacher user friendliness, students non engagement, and lack of individual student space. discussion of findings the result obtained from research question 1 revealed that teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for assignment and grading is very good. this means that the use of microsoft teams was effective for assessing students’ assignments and grading. in addition, if teachers have good perception towards the use of microsoft teams, it could make their classes more interesting by having a logical and good presentation of their lessons. the finding supports that of buelow et al (2018) who reported that certain aspects of online discussions and interactive assignments engaging, especially those that prompted students with thought-provoking questions that relate to real-world situations and invited students to share diverse opinions and develop personal perspectives. the result obtained from research question two revealed that teachers’ perception of effectiveness of microsoft teams for teacher-students interaction is very good. the finding lends credence to park and kim (2020) who reported in their study that the interactive communication method that is used in online learning facilitates strong engagement between student and instructor and supports the expectations of teacher involvement of students, which ultimately increases student participation and pleasure in online classes. the result obtained from research question three revealed that teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of microsoft teams for classroom organisation is very good. this means that microsoft teams helps to improve classroom organization which in turn enhances teaching and learning. the finding validates akgün and akkoyunlu’s study (2013) that technological advancement has been introduced into education in networking and communication, and that rich learning environments are becoming qualitatively and functionally more relevant. the finding also damola olugbade & oluwakemi olurinola ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 278 corroborates research findings of alameri, masadeh, hamadallah, ismail and fakhouri (2020) who reported that the use of microsoft teams and moodle were every effective in teaching and learning as it enhances academic achievement of the students. teachers with prior computer experience and exposure to new technologies had a very positive attitude toward e-learning, believing that it improves teaching effectiveness. students self-studying and academic performance was significantly positively affected by the use of e-platforms during covid-19 pandemic. the result obtained from research question 4 revealed that microsoft teams was effective in addressing some of the major challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning which included; students being often on other websites, no students involvement, and unable to make teaching friendly. this could be due to the fact that microsoft teams as a digital hub has the capacity to place all applications used by students with the teams platforms limiting the need to have students leave the application to other website, putting together discussions, not getting feedback from students on the use of microsoft teams, files and applications in a single lms (learning management system). the finding supports todd (2020) who reported that other challenges encountered by teachers using microsoft teams included issues with internet bandwidth, device issues, arranging online examination, preparing stimulating activities, student absence, clarity of methods and evaluation among others. the finding also lend credence to lin and jou (2013) who conducted a study on integrating popular web applications in classroom learning environment and its effects on teaching, student learning motivation, and performance in turkey and reported that some of the challenges encountered by teachers during remote learning with the application of web included; time, not being user friendly, poor network, and low student involvement. the authors stressed that the use of the web application could enhance teaching and learning if those inhibiting factors could be curbed. conclusion and recommendations the emergence of covid-19 has caused a massive change in education with the creation of new educational norms such as the full adoption of remote teaching and learning with the use of microsoft teams and other online applications. it is worth stating that teachers see the worth of integrating microsoft teams into teaching and learning for increased performance. it is clear that the adoption of microsoft teams leads to smooth interaction between teacher and students enhances effective classroom organization which consequently heightens the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. however, some of the challenges encountered by teachers and students in the process of remote teaching and learning include students often surfing other teachers’ perception of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning in southwestern nigerian schools ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 265-281 279 websites, the application not being user friendly for teachers, and lack of students’ involvement among others. from this study, the perception is that microsoft teams was effective in addressing some of these challenges due to the fact that microsoft teams as a digital hub puts together discussions, meetings, files and applications in a single lms (learning management system). it is hereby recommended that there should be more awareness given to the effectiveness of the use of microsoft teams for remote learning for greater adoption of this application by schools. adequate and continuous training for teachers should be conducted on the use of microsoft teams to make remote learning effective. also, school management and government should intensify their effort in providing quality internet access/connection to teachers and students at an affordable rate as this would enable remote teaching to continue with ease during pandemic periods when physical classes are not feasible. on a regular basis, schools should ensure that access is given to high-quality remote education resources and they should embark on some form of monitoring of the quality of remote learning provided by teachers. schools should set clear expectations on how regularly teachers will go through works and assignments by ensuring that they provide feedback to students. in addition, government support for remote learning programs should be focused more on student-teacher interactive platforms. references adewole-odeshi, e. 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(2003). e-learning: a study on secondary students’ attitudes towards online web assisted learning. international education journal, 5(1), 11-19. https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=80 https://doi.org/10.28945/4611 untitled ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 110 a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria dr. fernanda soares, kirsten galisson1 family health international 360 (fhi 360), 1875 connecticut avenue nw, washington, dc 20009, usa & dr. mindel van de laar1 maastricht graduate school of governance / united nations university – merit, maastricht university, boschstraat 24, 6211 ax maastricht, the netherlands abstract in the bid to improve teaching quality and promote an approach to teacher development that is grounded in the context in which teachers are inserted, professional learning communities (plcs) have become a popular alternative model of teacher professional development in many countries. plcs, however, have been more widely studied in high-resource contexts. in a recognition that existing conceptualizations from the western literature may not reflect how plcs are functioning in developing countries, this research aims to inductively create a typology of plcs that incorporates elements that might be specific to these countries, with a focus on sub-saharan africa in general and based on the cases of equatorial guinea, ghana and nigeria in particular. this study employs a multimethod approach, encompassing document analysis, semi-structured interviews with plc experts and expert validation. the resulting typology categorizes plcs into three models; autonomous, structured and scripted. 1 f. soares: family health international 360 (fhi 360), 1825 connecticut avenue nw, washington, dc 20009, usa; (e-mail: fsoares@fhi360.org)(telephone: +1.202.629.6415); k. galisson: family health international 360 (fhi 360), 1825 connecticut avenue nw, washington, dc 20009, usa (e-mail: kgalisson@fhi360.org) (+1.202.884.8990); & m. laar, van de: (e-mail: mindel.vandelaar@maastrichtuniversity.nl, https://www.merit.unu.edu/about-us/profile/?staff_id=1332) (telephone +31-43-3884660). african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9. no.2 2020 pages 110 143 110 a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 111 this typology of plcs is further integrated with dimensions previously proposed by the western literature to form one cohesive conceptual framework. by acknowledging plc variability, we are able to incorporate into a framework modes of plc operation that are specific to our case countries, and possibly to sub-saharan african and lowand middle-income countries more generally. keywords: professional learning communities, teacher professional development, subsaharan africa section i: introduction in efforts to improve teaching quality and promote an approach to teacher development that is both social and contextual (du plessis & muzaffar, 2010), many countries have recently started to implement alternative models of teacher professional development, such as professional learning communities (plcs). plcs move professional development beyond the acquisition of new knowledge and skills (vescio, ross & adams, 2007) to improvement of classroom practice through collaboration among teachers (dufour, 2004). plcs emphasize collaboration and reflection among a group of teachers, as a way to expose them to new ideas and practices so they can improve on their pedagogy through a process of critical inquiry. plcs have become a “hot topic” in many developing countries as they hold considerable promise for teachers’ capacity building for sustainable improvement in education quality (stoll et al., 2006). nonetheless, the literature on plcs has typically focused on the experience of teachers in western countries (toole and louis, 2002) and plcs in developing countries have received limited attention. while recent research on plcs in particular in south africa is growing (brodie, 2019; feldman, 2020; ndlovu, 2018, mhakure, 2019) mainly contributions remain theoretical in nature, and largely absent for the rest of africa. plcs in developing countries may operate in different ways reflecting their unique context, society and culture. plcs in developed countries, for example, emphasize teachers’ autonomy and authority in making decisions regarding the processes, agenda and objective of their learning communities. previous research, however, has indicated that developing countries trying to improve low-functioning education systems should focus on introducing highly specific fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 112 approaches to instructional change (piper et al., 2018). so, while teachers’ autonomy is a key element of plcs in developed countries, developing countries may adopt more prescriptive approaches to promoting effective instructional change, to ensure plcs are not reinforcing and maintaining existing traditional substandard practice rather than changing it (stoll et al., 2006). recognizing that existing conceptualizations from the western literature do not reflect how plcs function in developing countries, this research creates a typology of plcs that incorporates elements specific to these countries, using case studies of equatorial guinea, nigeria and ghana. first, we conducted a review of existing plc conceptualizations available in the western literature analyzing their points of convergence, divergence, limitations and gaps. subsequently, through a qualitative approach consisting of document analysis that covers all sub-saharan african countries and semi-structured interviews with practitioners from our case study countries we obtained an indepth understanding of how plcs are designed and implemented in sub-saharan african countries. we then integrated a typology of plcs that emerged from our qualitative research in sub-saharan africa countries with dimensions previously proposed by western literature into one cohesive conceptual framework. to validate and refine this framework, we held discussions with practitioners involved in education programs with a plc component from the three case study countries.2 the final framework can guide policy-makers and practitioners in the design and promotion of collaborative structures by accounting for elements specific to developing countries, and to sub-saharan african countries in particular. section ii: review of plc conceptualizations research on plcs is still in early stages of theory building (sleegers et al., 2013) and there is no broad consensus in the literature on a definition of plc (lomos, 2011; vescio, ross, & adams, 2007; stoll et al., 2006). however, most definitions agree that plcs involve a group of teachers sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an ongoing, reflective, collaborative, inclusive, learning-oriented, growth-promoting way (stoll and louis, 2007; stoll et al., 2006; toole and louis, 2002; mitchell and sackney, 2000;). it is assumed with plcs that knowledge is situated in the daily experiences of teachers and is best understood through critical reflection with others who share the same experience (vescio, ross & adams, 2007; buysse et al., 2003). the literature 2 the practitioners were selected based on their knowledge of plcs in one of the case study countries, but their expertise also includes implementation of plcs in other countries in sub-saharan africa and in other continents. a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 113 debates whether plcs emerge organically in schools with effective principal and teacher leadership or if there is a place for top-down initiatives to create plcs (kruse & louis, 2007). hence, it is still an open question whether effective plcs necessarily result from spontaneous teacher action or can as well be produced by reforms or education programs proposed by local or national education authorities. the hargreaves and fullan (1992) earlier warned that collaboration is better when it is not contrived. once plcs are functional, however, one key point the literature emphasizes is teachers’ empowerment and authority to make decisions regarding both the content and processes of their plcs (vescio et al., 2008; huffman & jacobson, 2003; supovitz, 2002; englert and tarrant, 1995). it is also assumedin the literature that plcs will occur mainly within the school as the primary unit of effective change (kruse & louis, 2007). there are several plc conceptualizations, with similarities as well as points of divergence. most incorporate three main components: (i) specific characteristics or dimensions that reflect the essence of successful plcs (stoll et al., 2006; bolam et al., 2005; bryk et al., 1999; hord, 1997, newmann, 1996; kruise and louis, 1993); (ii) factors supporting or inhibiting plcs creation and sustenance (atteberry & bryk, 2011; geijsel et al., 2009; stoll et al. 2006; bolam et al., 2005; mclaughlin & talbert, 2001; mitchell & sackney, 2000; bryk et al., 1999; kruse and louis, 1993); and (iii) phases of development or stages of maturity of plcs (bolam. et al. 2005; fullan, 1991). three main differences underlie the existing conceptualizations. first, they consider different essential characteristics (also called dimensions) of plcs. appendix i highlights the characteristics-dimensions considered essential by different conceptualizations established since 1993. initial conceptualizations proposed by kruise and louis (1993) and newmann (1996) focus on five key elements of plcs: shared norms and values, focus on student learning, reflective dialogue, deprivatization of practice and collaboration. table 1 provides definitions for each of these five characteristics. later studies built on this initial conceptualization to propose additional essential characteristics while maintaining some or most of the original five characteristics. while scholars may consider different essential dimensions, there is a congruence around the five essential characteristics originally proposed by kruse and louis (1993) and newmann (1996). only a few quantitative studies from western contexts have explored empirically the five characteristics, all of which confirmed them as critical to plcs (bolam et al., 2005; bryk et al., 1999; louis & marks, 1998). fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 114 table 1: definition of five essential characteristics of professional learning communities shared norms and values staff share beliefs about children and their ability to learn, beliefs about the proper roles of teachers, parents, and administrators, and beliefs concerning the use of time and space within the school. focus on student learning staff members have a sustained and undeviating focus on student learning. focus on student learning reflects the idea that plcs should not simply ensure that students are taught but plcs should also ensure that students learn. reflective dialogue recurring dialogue holds practice, pedagogy and student learning under scrutiny. it implies both self-critique and institutional-critique as teachers work towards discoveries concerning their own learning and practice. de-privatization of practice teachers practice and talk about teaching in public ways. it includes not only peer observation of practice and feedback, but also opened dialogue about individual teachers’ practices where teachers share their successes and learn from their disappointments. collaboration involves teachers sharing expertise and working together to produce materials and activities for improved curriculum and pedagogy. sources: kruise and louis (1993) and newmann (1996) second, conceptualizations differ on which supporting or inhibiting factors are considered and how they are categorized3. categories emphasized in the literature include external factors, internal factors, organizational factors, structural conditions, school context and school composition. third, the same element may be conceptualized in different ways. an element may be considered an essential characteristic in one conceptualization and as a supportive factor in another one. for example, having mutual trust-collegial relationships is considered an essential characteristic by stoll et al. (2006), as a supportive condition by kruse and louis (1993) and hord (1997) and as an organizational factor by bryk et al. (1999). limitations of existing conceptualizations 3 factors highlighted in the literature include: national policy framework (bolam et al., 2005), policy decisions (stoll et al. 2006), school size, (bryk, 1999), school leaders support plcs and share leadership (geijsel et al., 2009; bolam et al., 2005; mitchell & sackney, 2000; bryk et al., 1999; kruse and louis, 1993), trust, respect, support and inclusive membership (atteberry & bryk, 2011; mclaughlin & talbert, 2001; stoll et al., 2006; bryk, 1999; kruse and luis, 1993) racial diversity, gender composition, workforce turnover (bryk, 1999), availability of resources in the school, such as time and space to meet, information and materials (atteberry & bryk, 2011; stoll et al. 2006; mitchell & sackney, 2000), physical proximity (kruse & louis, 1993), communication structures (kruse & louis, 1993) and individual factors, such as personal career interest, experience of stress, antipathy to change and willingness to trust colleagues (bolam et al., 2005). a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 115 despite the advances in plc conceptualizations, some limitations obtain. first, the multidimensional nature of plcs and interrelatedness of the different dimensions is not often wellconceived in the literature, contributing to limited conceptual clarity and focus (sleegers et al., 2013). with the exception of huffman & hipp (2003), few authors have attempted to explicitly identify how the different dimensions of plcs are inter-related. the multidimensional nature of plcs has also often been overlooked and only a few studies define plcs partly in terms of educators’ personal capacity, while attention has been paid more to the dimensions of plcs that underlie the interpersonal capacity of educators (sleegers et al. 2013). mitchell and sackney (2000) and sackney et al., (2005), who focus on three interdependent capacities personal, interpersonal, and organizational, are exceptions in this regard. sleegers et al. (2013) built on the previous work by mitchell and sackney (2000) and sackney et al., (2005) to propose a conceptual model describing these three capacities and added eight underlying dimensions from the literature on plcs. the level of personal capacity within plcs is described by reference to two dimensions of active and reflective construction of knowledge and currency. dimensions underlining the interpersonal capacity include shared values and vision, collective learning, and shared practices. the three dimensions that underlie organizational capacity include, 1) resources, structures and systems; 2) relationships and climate; and 3) stimulating and participative leadership. most of the plc literature is conceptual in nature. there is limited validation of existing conceptualizations in high-resource contexts (excepting by sleegers et al. 2013; bolam et al., 2005; bryk et al., 1999; louis & marks, 1998) and almost no validation in low-and middle-income countries with the exception of zhang and pang (2016) and lee et al (2011) that explore the characteristics of plcs in chinese setting. another limitation of the literature is that it has largely focused on the experience of teachers and plcs in western countries, most notably the united states, england and the netherlands. the scarcity of published plc research in english from nonenglish speaking countries has been acknowledged by toole and louis (2002) still, some findings from this previous research on plcs in low-and middle-income countries are worth highlighting. recent studies on south-africa include a study on teacher collaboration by abrahams (1997); teacher agency by brodie (2019), professional learning in private higher education in south africa (conje and blitzer, 2019), and pre-teacher professional learning experiences during rural teacher practice (nkambile and mukeredzi, 2017). the potential benefits of the use of peer learning and plcs in south africa is reflected in the council on higher fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 116 education publication which states for instance that “research findings indicate that many academics learn through engagement with peers from their departments and disciplines. [….] this means that effective professional development should acknowledge the importance of communities” (council on higher education, 2017, p. 74). beyond south africa, we only found one study in ghana on collaboration between academics and teachers, based on action research, by pryor (1998) covering an african case. outside of africa, there is a paper on constructivist approaches to promote teachers learning (which included learning communities) in mexico, by tatto (1999); and avalos’ (1998) study in chile of teachers participating in teachers professional groups. this emerging literature, however, focuses more on the interaction between plcs and the broader cultural, political and education contexts in which they are inserted, rather than on how plcs operate (an exception being the study by avalos, 1998). hence, it is not possible to make generalizations about plc functioning in low-and middle-income countries from this literature base. studies by tatto (1999) and avalos (1998) indicate that both in chile and mexico plcs did not result from spontaneous teacher action (as it most commonly is the case in developed countries), but rather emerged as part of broader educational reforms that were proposed by educational authorities to the schools. despite this top-down approach avalos’ (1998) findings suggest that the “contrived collegiality” approach can in fact lead to a culture of collaboration between the teachers. in the conclusion to his large literature study on mathematics teacher professional learning in south africa, ndlovu (2018) also proposes plcs as a bottom-up sustainable teacher driven alternative of learning and highlights that “the notion of plcs has been embraced at the policy level by both the department of basic education (dbe) and the department of higher education and training dhet) in the integrated strategic planning framework for teacher education and development (dbe and dhet 2011)”. yet implementation of such communities in practice may be difficult, due to the lack of skilled personnel. tatto (1999) also highlights the difficulties in developing and sustaining plcs under mexico’s top-down structure of authority in the educational system. similarly, pryor (1998) mentions how the authoritarian and hierarchical systems in ghana may affect teachers’ lack of a sense of their own agency, making any critical reflection on classroom practices irrelevant. similarly, brodie (2019) stresses the importance of having agency in choice to stay or leave the plcs for mathematics teachers in south africa. abrahams (1997) emphasizes how apartheid ideology, based on separation, segregation, a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 117 inequality and authoritarianism, permeated the cultures of the schools in south africa that took part in his study. feldman (2020) highlights how plcs could be introduced and be made to function in the post-apartheid landscape. some of these initial studies seem to indicate that “the empowering values inherent in the notion of professional learning community may conflict with a nation's most basic cultural values or recent political past” (toole & louis, 2002, p. 273). another issue is that in many low-and middle-income countries, and in sub-saharan africa countries in particular, the initial preparation teachers receive is highly teacher-centered, and extremely didactic and focused on direct transmission of knowledge (akyeampong et al., 2013; altinyelken, 2010; pryor, 1998). this may make teachers’ ongoing reflection on their practices and collaboration more challenging due to a discrepancy between the type of preparation they receive to become a teacher and the skills required for effective teachers’ collaboration in a plc. most existing conceptualizations consider plcs as a school-based, organic initiative. they do not account for plcs that are explicitly and purposefully designed as a part of broader educational reform policies and programs. there is limited discussion on the various ways that schools and school systems might implement a plc in accordance with the characteristics thought to be essential to it. hence, existing conceptualizations offer little guidance to practitioners and policy makers. this is problematic in the context of low-and-middle income countries, as plcs often originate and are an integral part of education systems-policies and-or education development programs. although the western literature highlights a common set of essential plc characteristics, in practice plcs in developing countries vary greatly in their design. this variability related to plc designs, however, is not currently accounted for by the existing literature. given the potential for differences in conceptualization and implementation of plcs in developed and developing settings, and the limited literature on plcs in less-developed contexts, this study inductively creates a typology of plcs that incorporates elements that might be specific to these countries, with a focus on sub-saharan africa. section iii: methodology this research builds on a multi-method data collection and analysis approach, encompassing document analysis, semi-structured interviews and validation sessions. plc document collection and content analysis formed the basis of this review. the literature acknowledges that information and insights derived from documents can make valuable contributions to a knowledge base fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 118 (bowen, 2009). however, although documents have been recognized as important sources in overall qualitative research and specifically in theory-building (glaser & strauss, 1967), it cannot replace other kinds of data (atkinson & coffey, 2004). in our specific case, we cannot learn from documents how a plc actually operates on a day-by-day basis. thus, we used semi-structured interviews for triangulation – to validate our findings from the document analysis and add missing perspectives originating from the interview sources. to validate the typology, we conducted discussion sessions with practitioners in plcs. document search we used document analysis for systematically reviewing and evaluating documents on plcs in sub-saharan african countries. our inclusion criteria were any project or policy document detailing the design of a plc, with a specific focus on sub-saharan african countries; and documents describing plcs primarily at the primary education levels4, though we did encounter examples that included both preschool and primary. we adopted a two-stage approach to search for plc documents. because in sub-saharan africa plcs are often part of education programs promoted by international non-profit organizations in partnership with ministries of education, during the first-stage, we contacted key development organizations working in the education field explaining our study and soliciting documents that fell within our inclusion criteria. in a second stage we conducted a broader internet search using specific key words5. semi-structured interviews upon completion of the document analysis, we conducted semi-structured interviews with four fhi 360 practitioners working on the design and implementation of projects with a plc component. we adopted a purposive and convenience sample selection approach: (i) we focused 4 the choice to focus on primary education follows a shift in donor priorities in recent years from promoting school attendance to improving quality of education at early grades. plcs have become more prevalent at the primary education level in sub-saharan africa, as investments in improving teaching quality through preand in-service teacher professional development are often completed with a plc component. 5 given there is no common agreed nomenclature for plcs in the field, we included in our search the following key words, together with “sub-saharan africa”: communities of practice, teacher learning circles, communities of inquiry, professional networks, critical friends groups, study groups, teacher research collaboratives, norms of collegiality, teachers’ collaboration with colleagues, professional community, learning community, and teacher networks. a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 119 on individuals directly involved in the same programs from which many of the documents for the prior stage were drawn; and (ii) we only selected fhi 360 practitioners, as the relationship of the authors with organization facilitated the interview process6. the purpose of the interviews was to triangulate information and assess whether our findings from the document analysis was perceived similarly or differently by the practitioners. the semi-structured interviews allowed us to explore in further depth specific aspects that emerged in the document analysis. finally, through the semistructured interviews we asked to what extent plcs incorporate the five core characteristics highlighted in the literature. for the questions on the core characteristics, we asked the interviewees to rate the strength of the each of the five characteristics in their plc through a series of questions using a scale of 1 – 37. at the end, we were able to calculate an average score indicating the overall strength of the plc. validation sessions with practitioners the document analysis and semi-structured interviews informed the design of an initial plc typology and a plc framework. subsequently, we conducted seven discussion sessions with nine fhi 360 practitioners on plcs guided by semi-structured questions to establish theoretical validity. although the typology was informed by the experience of sub-saharan african countries we included in the discussion sessions practitioners of plcs in africa who had experience of plc in african countries as well as in latin american countries to benefit from their cross-continental practical experience on the topic. in total, we conducted six plc validation sessions, with practitioners working on projects in equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria. we conducted one additional session with a senior technical staff who oversees a portfolio of projects. the practitioners participating in the sessions consented verbally before the meeting. the authors took notes of the discussions and analyzed it afterwards. 6 all practitioners being from fhi could potentially result in a bias. however, their participation in the semistructured interviews was not meant to build the plc conceptualization. rather, their role was to give meaning to the conceptualization developed from the document review and inform us if something was missing from review. because of the role the semi-structured interviews played in this research, it is unlikely that our sample selection approach resulted in any bias. 7 the scale for questions related to the core characteristics as follows: the project 1) does not recognize this practice under the plc design or promote it, 2) recognizes this practice under the plc design but does not consistently promote it, 3) explicitly recognizes and consistently promotes this plc practice. fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 120 data analysis we adopted an inductive content analysis approach to analyze the documents and the interview notes according to those themes that emerged from the data from repeated examination and comparison. we adopted a two-stage analytic strategy. in the first stage we analyzed the documents using an inductive approach to identify patterns in the data by means of thematic codes (bowen, 2009; corbin & strauss, 2008). the recognized patterns within the data and the themes that were identified became the categories for analysis (fereday & muir-cochrane, 2006). by employing an inter-comparison of documents (constant comparison), we identified and described salient patterns. in this process, we looked for substantive significance—consistency of themes across documents (and not necessarily its frequency). this inductive coding approach allows themes to emerge directly from the data, capturing elements of plcs that may be unique to sub-saharan african countries and hence not previously considered by existing conceptualizations. in the second stage we developed and defined codes based on close reading of the document and notes to represent the identified themes (greg et al., 2012). subsequently, all text was coded using the code-list. in this second stage the data was abstracted further using grounded theory technique. we compared and contrasted themes, identifying structure among them (bernard & ryan, 1998). in this process, we analyzed how key themes were inter-related and sorted them into models (or generic categories) with similar content, generating a plc typology. we checked the typology again against the data to ensure that our interpretation is supported and grounded in our data (greg et al., 2012; bernard & ryan, 1998). section iv: findings our document search resulted in 36 documents representing eight programs with a plc component in seven countries in sub-saharan africa; democratic republic of congo, equatorial guinea, ghana, nigeria, senegal, south africa and tanzania, as well as documents from the international network for education in emergencies (inee), which are available for use in many contexts. seven out of the 36 documents were found via internet search, while the remaining were shared by the nonprofits we contacted. four main development organizations (family health international 360, international rescue committee, chemonics international and vvob education for development), in partnership with national or local education authorities, produced the documents included in the analysis. types of documents reviewed in the process are: plc a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 121 design documents, plc guidelines, plc guides or plc manuals, project proposals, project design documents, policy briefs or white papers describing plcs. the documents’ length ranged from 1 to 282 pages with an average length of 32 pages. most often these documents were issued by ministries of education or other local education authorities or by development organizations with education programs in sub-saharan africa. appendix ii provides a list of the documents reviewed. certain plc elements consistently appeared in most or all documents reviewed, but with a lot of variation. table 2 highlights the themes that emerged from comparing shared elements across documents. the first theme is the type of grouping. plcs’ grouping (who can participate in the plc) is a recurring theme. but plcs are organized in different ways in different countries; some plcs are school-based and only include teachers from the same school while others are comprised of teachers from a cluster of geographically close schools. within school-based or cluster-based plcs, we also observe variation regarding teacher inclusion based on grade (some plcs only include teachers for specific grades while others involve teachers of all grades, i.e., class or year), and subject (some plcs are focused on mathematics or language while others do not make a distinction). frequency of plc meetings, meeting length (or duration) and size of plc group also consistently appeared in most documents reviewed, but with a lot of variation (e.g., recommended meeting frequency varied from weekly to monthly; meeting duration varied from 30 minutes to 8 hours). also, some plcs offer incentives to teachers’ participation, although the type of incentive varies greatly (from financial incentives, such as a travel stipend, to professional incentives, such as professional development credit). the type of material used to guide the plc meetings varied in their level of structure and prescriptiveness. the theme “material” emerged by analyzing the materials themselves rather than by looking for recurring patterns in the text of the documents. scripted materials are those materials that pre-define the topics of each plc meeting, specific activities to be conducted within the meetings, and how the meetings should be facilitated. if the material is less prescriptive and only includes step-by-step approaches or suggested topics of discussion, we classify them as “guidelines.” some of the plcs under analysis did not have a set of materials to guide the discussion, which was left entirely to the plc members to decide. facilitation was a recurring but variable theme across the documents. some plcs have a facilitator responsible for leading the technical discussion (who usually receives prior training), while in others, the facilitator is responsible for administrative aspects (taking attendance, registering notes, scheduling meetings, fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 122 etc). we call the former a “technical facilitator” and the later an “administrative facilitator.” we also observe cases where the facilitator plays both roles, or where there is no designated facilitator and teachers in a plc take turns in facilitation responsibilities. table 2: main themes from plc document analysis type of grouping • school-based (plcs comprised by teachers from the same school) or cluster-based (plcs comprised by teachers from a group of schools that are geographically nearby) • organized by grade level, subject or mix of both meeting frequency • weekly, bi-weekly and monthly meetings meeting length • meetings from 0.5-8 hours group size • depends on the # of teachers in school or cluster. • range of 2 to 70, average size is 20 material • scripted materials with pre-defined topics of discussion and approach. • meeting guidelines with step-by-step approaches or suggested topics of discussion • no set materials incentives • travel stipend (for cluster-based) • food/refreshments • basic supplies (notebooks, pencils, etc) • professional development credit facilitation • technical facilitators. • administrative facilitators (taking attendance/notes). • facilitators may or may not receive prior training. • no designated facilitator. external expert • may or may not involve specialist input in subject/pedagogical knowledge to enhance the technical discussion. professional development • plcs as stand-alone • plcs part of a broader professional development program source: own data the semi-structured interviews confirmed the themes and patterns found in the initial document analysis. table 3 summarizes the findings from the semi-structured interviews. during the interviews, we explored the main themes from the document analysis in each of the four project examples. this data also helped us to confirm the classification of each plc model. in addition to showing the variation across the themes listed above, table 3 shows the overall score for the core characteristics of each plc example. all four examples were in a mid-range of 2, which meant that they recognize a particular practice linked to the core characteristic, but are not consistently implementing it in the plc. this could also be because all four of the plcs examined a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 123 were relatively new and part of teacher development projects that brought the plc component to teachers’ practice. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 124 table 3: plc classification based on document analysis and semi-structured interviews for four projects ghana learning nigeria rana equatorial guinea, prodege senegal, passerelles plc terminology school-based inset meetings weekly school meetings teacher circles/networks pedagogical cluster core characteristics8 shared norms and values 2.6 2 3 3 focus on student learning 2 1.5 2.5 2.5 reflective dialogue 2.5 2 2 2.5 deprivatization of practice 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.3 collaboration 2 1.6 1.3 2.3 average score (1=low, 3=high) 2.3 1.9 2.2 2.5 structural varying features type of grouping school-based school-based cluster-based school-based and cluster-based meeting frequency weekly weekly bi-monthly monthly meeting length 1 hr 1 hr 4 hrs 1-2 hrs group size (average) 4-10 4-8 20-30 varies material scripted materials meeting guidelines meeting guidelines meeting log scripted materials meeting guidelines coaching rubric incentives professional development credit none • travel stipend • basic supplies • professional development credit none facilitation • technical and administrative facilitator • no training • head teacher or volunteer teacher • technical and administrative facilitator • receives training • lead teacher • technical and administrative facilitator • receives training • experienced teacher • technical and administrative facilitator • receives training • experienced teacher or director external expert none none none for specific subject content area professional development part of a broader tpd program part of a broader tpd program part of a broader tpd program part of a broader tpd program supporting conditions • leadership support • leadership support • built in meeting time • leadership support • leadership support • built in meeting time phases of development implementation (structure is institutionalized in system) implementation implementation initiation9 model scripted to structured source: own data structured scripted structured 8 the scale for questions related to the core characteristics is as follows: the project 1) does not recognize this practice under the plc design or promote it, 2) recognizes this practice under the plc design but does not consistently promote it, 3) explicitly recognizes and consistently promotes this plc practice. 9 the passerelles project was just initiating at the time of the interview. answers are based on the intended design of the plc and are not a reflection of what had been occurring. thus, the plc is still in an “initiation” phase of development even though the core characteristics reflected in the design are strong. a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 125 interviewees confirmed the variation in type of groupings, as half of the examples they offered had school-based meetings and half cluster-based meetings. all the plc examples from the interviews originated from broader teacher development program, but the composition of the groups varied like what we saw in the document analysis. for example, all teachers in grades 1-3 in the nigeria reading and numeracy activity (rana) program, who received training in literacy and numeracy through the program, participated together in the weekly meetings. in the plcs promoted by the program for educational development of equatorial guinea (prodege), all primary and preschool teachers, regardless of grade-level, were grouped together in geographic clusters as part of a national pedagogical certificate program. in terms of the meeting frequency and length of meeting, the interviews also confirmed variation. from the interviews, we find that the less frequent the meetings (monthly or bi-monthly as opposed to weekly) led to longer meeting times. equatorial guinea’s bimonthly plc meetings are four hours long, while ghana, nigeria and senegal promote one to two-hour weekly meetings. group size also varied greatly across the examples from the interviews and were largely driven by the number of teachers participating in the teacher professional development (tpd) program in a school or geographic area. the interviews allowed us to deepen our understanding of the use of “materials”, specifically the types of materials used, the level of structure and whether or not a material can be categorized as “scripted.” all cases discussed in the interviews used either a material that provided basic guidelines for the meeting, such as in nigeria and senegal; or a heavily scripted material, such as in the case of ghana and equatorial guinea. in terms of the “facilitation” characteristic, all the plc examples from the interviews did have a facilitator, but the type of facilitator and designation level of training varied. for example, in ghana, the facilitators received no prior training on their facilitation role, while in nigeria, senegal, and equatorial guinea, the facilitators all received training through the projects. facilitator could be head teachers, lead teachers or volunteer teacher from the group. the interviews allowed us to understand more deeply the influence of incentive or its absence on the plc model as a supporting condition. knowing what supporting conditions can foster teachers’ participation in plcs is helpful for ministries of education, donors and education practitioners to consider when designing education reforms or teacher professional development programs. for example, in ghana, the interviewee spoke of the importance of receiving professional development credit for initiating plcs and keeping the teachers motivated to continue fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 126 their participation. in equatorial guinea, the teachers receive several incentives (travel stipends, professional development credit, and basic supplies) in order to encourage participation in the plcs. on the other end of the spectrum, in nigeria and senegal, no incentives are provided, and the lack of an incentive was not mentioned as one of the barriers or challenges to the teachers’ consistent participation in the plcs. the findings seem to indicate that offering an incentive at the onset might help to establish or create a demand for plcs in an education system. however, if the incentive is removed, the plc might end if the teachers do not have the intrinsic motivation to meet. during the semi-structured interviews, we also explored the supporting conditions and barriers for establishing and sustaining plcs. for senegal, the interviewee stressed the importance of building positive interpersonal relationships with the teachers as an enabling factor for establishing as well as sustaining a plcs. the document analysis, and specifically the training materials and plc guides from various projects, also revealed that many of the programs stressed the importance of building a cohesive peer support group from the onset by incorporating specific team-building exercises in the facilitator training or plc meetings during the first sessions. another interviewee stressed the importance of building in enough time for training the facilitators in order to ensure the success of plcs. the training needs to be practical and purposeful for teachers to be able to lead successful meetings, particularly under a non-scripted model, as in the case of nigeria. in the second stage, we abstracted the data further to identify key determinants of the internal plc dynamic and of teachers’ level of autonomy. we compared and sorted a few themes into three emergent conceptual categories of plcs. we defined three models of plcs that can explain practices in sub-saharan africa, namely the autonomous plc, the structured plc and the scripted plc. table 4: emerging typology: three models of plc autonomous plcs. material (no external materials provided). incentives (no incentives). professional development (stand-alone). structured plcs. material (structured steps; general guidelines). incentives (stipend/incentive may be provided). professional development (may be stand-alone or part of a broader professional development program). scripted plcs. material (highly scripted guides). incentives (stipend/incentive may be provided). professional development (part of a broader professional development program). source: own data a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 127 according to the autonomous model teachers identify their own starting points, learning needs, the focus and objectives of their learning (so they can focus on issues important to them), as well as the pace and scope of the plc. autonomous models of plc tend to emerge organically and naturally within schools (hence are not part of structured professional development interventions). they do not rely on external materials to guide or dictate the discussions and do not provide incentives to teachers, who are self-motivated to participate. the documents analyzed did not contain an example of a fully autonomous model. nonetheless, descriptions of how plcs function from the western literature indicate that this model is dominant in high-resource contexts. in the structured plc model, teachers receive materials highlighting a structure or series of steps to guide their dialogue within the learning community. teachers may or may not receive financial or other sorts of incentive to participate. structured plcs can be a stand-alone intervention (e.g., promoted by a ministry of education or other local education authority through the provision of guidelines), or they may be part of a professional development initiative, where the plcs serve to reinforce and contextualize knowledge-practices taught as part of the broader program. in this model, teachers maintain some level of autonomy, but within the proposed structure. plcs in nigeria, for example, follow a six-step approach to each 60-minute meeting, consisting of: 1) opening: letter sound movement or song (3 minutes) 2) discussion: a weekly success (2 minutes) 3) discussion: a weekly challenge (5 minutes) 4) practice: one instructional skill (letter blending, reading aloud, etc.) (10 minutes) 5) practice lesson for the upcoming week (30 minutes) 6) feedback on practice lesson (5 minutes) within this proposed structure, teachers can choose the topics for weekly successes and challenges and which instructional skills they would like to practice. plcs in south africa also promote a structure, but for a series of meetings, as opposed to each plc meeting (table 5). plcs start with meetings focused on access and motivation and gradually, as members start to get to know each fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 128 other, move on to meetings focused on constructing knowledge together and critically reflecting and inquiring. table 5: plc structure in south africa: stage 2 stage 3 stage 4 stage 5 focus access & motivation socialization information exchange knowledge construction development (reflection) approx. duration 2 meetings 2 meetings 4 meetings variable variable activities facilitating access icebreakers discussing rules getting to know each other. develop shared understanding on plcs. developing mission & vision presenting and discussing results of individual tasks. exchanging teaching resources discuss questions for enquiry development of resources in effective work teams. lesson study error analysis exploring the use of new materials and technologies source: professional learning communities: a guideline for south african schools in the third plc model, scripted, plcs receive scripted materials that pre-define the objective, focus, topics, learning exercises and dynamic of the meetings and sometimes frequency with which meetings should take place. in this model materials are stand-alone so that teachers can facilitate their own learning and reflection using the scripts provided. scripted plcs reinforce knowledge-practices taught by a broader professional development program or act as channel for promoting instruction associated with curriculum reforms. as with structured plcs, they may or may not provide incentives for participation. equatorial guinea and ghana are countries where scripted plcs are practiced. in equatorial guinea, the program for educational development (prodege) developed scripted guides that dictate the agenda and activities for the four-hour bimonthly meetings. the plcs are part of a national teacher professional development program in which the preschool and primary teachers who successfully complete the requirements receive a pedagogical aptitude certificate. given the requirements of the teacher professional development (tpd) program, all the content for the meetings is pre-defined in order to cover the required content of the program which is divided into four thematic areas. for example, the guides for the first thematic area of the tpd program guide the teachers through a series of scripted activities related to basic pedagogical theory that supports active learning methodology, which is the backbone of the prodege intervention. the three thematic areas that follow are subject-specific: pedagogy of mathematics, language and social and natural sciences. since teachers are grouped by either preschool-level or primary-level, prodege developed specific guides for each education level following the same thematic area. the types of activities in the guides vary from a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 129 reading a text and discussing what was learned in groups or pairs, to sharing related practical classroom examples with peers and planning together how the teachers will apply the new knowledge in their own classrooms. the hope is that the certificate will motivate teachers to participate in the plcs, connect teachers who were previously isolated, and create peer support networks nationwide that can be sustained beyond the project. similarly, in ghana, the learning project initially provided scripted materials that dictate the topic, content and timing of each plc meeting. the ghana materials developed for plc meetings define a specific topic related to early grade reading instruction for each week, and lead teachers through activities, such as discussion, planning, with their suggested timing for each hourlong meeting. the content reinforced the training in early grade literacy that teachers had received and helped facilitate discussion on the new methodology. the meeting guides offered prompts for facilitators to follow in order to help guide each meeting. given the highly scripted nature of these materials used at the onset of the project, ghana plcs can be categorized as scripted. however, the semi-structured interview revealed that changes between models can occur in practice. during implementation of the ghana learning plc model, the project team found that many teachers did not participate in the meetings or did not use the meeting materials consistently. thus, later in the project cycle, the learning project released revised plc materials for meetings that took on a more structured approach in order to give teachers more flexibility in choosing the topics most relevant to them for discussion with peers. this change signals a move from the scripted model to a more structured model. section v: an integrated conceptual framework of plcs in this section, we present the conceptual framework of plcs that integrates the plc typology and varying features of plc that emerged from our qualitative research in sub-saharan africa countries with key elements proposed by the western literature. it includes a five-dimension framework that integrates the three dimensions from the academic literature (core characteristics, supportive conditions and stages of maturity) with two new dimensions found in our qualitative research in sub-saharan africa countries research (plc model and structural varying features). these dimensions can be visualized in figure 1 as the five circles. while each structural varying feature may or may not be important in explaining plcs in sub-saharan africa, the type of model is essential to understanding their design and operation. fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 130 figure 1: framework of professional learning communities at the very center of the framework are the core characteristics of plcs, which are the characteristics any plc should have to be successful, regardless of the model or specific design it adopts. they refer to the five essential characteristics that received the most support in the western plc literature: shared norms and values; focus on student learning, reflective dialogue, deprivatization of practice, and collaboration. although in our document analysis does not show much evidence of the five core characteristics in sub-saharan africa plcs, the semi-structured model revealed that these characteristics are being implicitly considered in the design and implementation of the plcs. we maintain the five characteristics in the framework but acknowledge that further empirical tests in the context of low-and middle-income countries are needed to better understand their role in plcs in these countries. plc models are directly related to the types of materials and the extent to which these materials influence the level of plc autonomy and structure. by categorizing plcs into three different models and acknowledging their variability in this aspect, the framework incorporates a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 131 modes of plc operation that are specific to sub-saharan african countries, and possibly to low and middle-income countries more generally. the autonomous model, which emphasizes teachers’ autonomy and authority in making decisions regarding the processes, agenda and objective of their learning communities, is the dominant model in developed countries. the autonomous model, however, does not reflect how plcs operate in sub-saharan african countries, where highly structured or scripted learning communities guided by pre-developed materials prevail. while the three models—scripted, structured and autonomous—are defined by their overall level of structure and outside influence on the community (usually through materials), specific features of plcs can vary greatly within any model. the third dimension of our framework refers to structural varying features; the different elements associated with how plcs are designed that might vary across plc models. the features included in our framework refer to the themes that emerged from the document analysis, presented in table 2: (i) type of grouping; (ii) meeting frequency and length; (iii) group size; (iv) guiding materials; (v) facilitation; (vi) incentives for participation; (vii) professional development; and (viii) external expert. the fourth dimension of the framework refers to the phases of development and reflects plcs’ evolving and fluid, rather than static, nature (stoll et al., 2006; fullan, 1991). it recognizes that sustainability of plcs within schools or among clusters of schools depends on how well staff can sustain their efforts and how embedded plcs are into the culture of their schools (or cluster of schools) (huffman & hipp, 2003). the framework incorporates three phases of change proposed by fullan (1991): initiation, implementation and institutionalization. this dimension is directly related to the plc core characteristics of our framework and reflect their level of development and institutionalization within a school or cluster of schools. some schools or clusters of schools may be at very early stages of developing the characteristics of a plc or may be further along in the implementation process. in an institutionalized plc, the five characteristics become embedded into the culture of the school or cluster of schools. constituting part of the fifth dimension are the different supportive conditions related to organizational factors, structural conditions, and overall context. supportive conditions are external factors that may enable or inhibit the creation, development, ongoing management and sustainability of plcs (bolam et al., 2005). as such, although internal plc characteristics may foster or hinder plc work (e.g., mutual trust, plc composition related diversity and background), in this dimension we focus on external factors only. included are factors that seem particularly fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 132 relevant to the sub-saharan african context. a first supportive condition is built in meeting time: if teachers do not have meeting time built into the school calendar, there is a risk that meetings or other forms of collaboration will be canceled or will not take place. time for plcs’ meetings “cannot be simply tacked onto the ends of already tiring school days” (kruse & louis, 1993, p. 16) and teachers must be able to consistently allocate time to such meetings. building time into the school calendar for plcs to meet can result from school-level organization decisions or enactment of policies at the system-level. a second condition is physical proximity and-or devoted space. teachers that are part of cluster-based plcs may find it easier and may be more motivated to travel and meet if the meeting location is close by. for school-based plcs, having physical spaces devoted to faculty meetings may increase teacher contact and minimize interruptions. a third often-cited condition is leadership support. principal and headteachers play a key role in creating a school culture that fosters and generates opportunities for collaboration among teachers and continuous learning (although they cannot ensure it will happen). a fourth condition that may be especially relevant for lowand middleincome countries is school size. small schools can constitute engaging work environments that facilitate the communication flow (bryk et al., 1999). schools that are too small, however, may not have enough teachers to collaborate in school-based plcs. this may be the case for some multigrade schools in rural parts of sub-saharan africa. the final condition refers to central and local policies. central and local policies may provide incentives for continued professional development (cdp) or credit towards it, may affect resource allocation to schools, may or may not allocate a certain number of hours for teachers’ planning and collaboration, and may change the focus away from collaboration by placing emphasis on performance measured by student achievement. validation sessions with practitioners after developing this draft framework, we conducted discussions with staff who had direct experience working on projects that implemented plcs to solicit their feedback on the “fit” of the framework to the context in which they work. overall, the practitioners agreed that the framework developed represented plc operations well, and they validated the categories included in the frame. school leadership support was a condition highly emphasized by practitioners as a critical one for enabling and sustaining plcs in sub-saharan africa. one individual mentioned that “school principals play a critical role in supporting teachers’ participation within plcs.” a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 133 when discussing the plc model phases and some varying features, practitioners highlighted that a scripted plc model guiding participants may be beneficial for initiating plcs, while the ultimate goal for sustainability purposes would be for plcs to become fully autonomous in order to be institutionalized. the practitioners also mentioned that in terms of the type of grouping, clusterbased plcs that build on an established education system’s organizational structure (e.g., schools already grouped together for administrative purposes) may help sustain the plc without the outside support of a project or professional development program. one element not previously considered in the framework was brought up. according to one interviewee: we should consider adding to the typology what activity occurs during the plc meetings. for example, do teachers use the time to look at student work, develop lesson plans, model lessons, conduct peer observation, or is time used just for reflection? while the feature “activities” did not emerge from the document and interview analysis, further research is needed to investigate if indeed this is a relevant component of plcs that should be integrated into the framework. section vi: discussion in this paper we propose a typology of plcs’ that captures three plc models – autonomous, structured and scripted – accounting for modes of plc operation in sub-saharan african countries. although we aimed to develop a typology that reflects how plcs function in lowand middle-income countries, and especially in sub-saharan african countries, the final typology also holds for developed countries. while in lowand middle-income countries the structured and scripted models of plc prevail, in developed countries the autonomous model is more commonly found. indeed, the western literature highly emphasizes teachers’ autonomy and the importance of teachers’ ability to make decisions regarding the processes of their learning communities. we can also find structured models of plcs in developed countries, although less frequently. our document analysis revealed that within any of the three models, specific features of plcs can vary greatly, so we also account for structural varying features, which refer to all the distinctive features associated with how plcs are designed that might vary across plcs. there are also key differences between high and low-resource contexts in terms of structural varying fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 134 features that the typology incorporates. for instance, while plcs are described in the literature almost exclusively as a school-based initiative, in developing countries they often originate and are an integral part of education systems and-or education development programs. we integrate our typology of plcs and corresponding structural varying features with key elements proposed by the western literature, forming one cohesive conceptual framework. the framework is organized around five interrelated plc dimensions, three of which emerge from the western literature (core characteristics, supportive conditions and phases of development) and two (plc models and structural varying features) are based on a document review of plcs in sub-saharan african countries and semi-structured interviews with practitioners, validated through discussion sessions with practitioners. our purpose with this framework is to improve conceptual clarity around the multidimensional nature of plcs and guide policy-makers and practitioners on the design and promotion of these collaborative structures. this study considers the experience of a sample of sub-saharan african countries with a focus on primary education. in order to expand the validity of our typology into other settings, more research is needed that explore other regions of the world and other educational levels (e.g., secondary and tertiary). nonetheless, we believe this study provides further insights into how plcs currently function in developing countries and gives support to the development of plc’s conceptual foundations accounting for the reality in these countries. finally, by proposing specific models according to which we can classify plcs in a clear and consistent manner, we open the door for comparative analysis across different plcs and different settings. we acknowledge a few limitations of this study and of its final framework. first, the documents reviewed may not include all existing documents on plcs in sub-saharan africa. local, regional or even national governments in sub-saharan africa might have independently developed documents on plcs without the support of international organizations that are not available online. additionally, only four development organizations shared documents on plcs with us. this may be because plcs are a relatively new approach in the field of international education. second, we adopted a convenience sample selection approach to the semi-structured interviews and validation sessions. because we only included fhi 360 practitioners, we may be missing potentially different views and perspectives of experts working in other organizations. finally, although we include the five core characteristics highlighted by the western literature in a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 135 our framework, there is a lack of studies investigating their relevance in low-resources contexts and even the empirical evidence-base in high-resources contexts is limited. further research is warranted to investigate the extent to which these characteristics are reflective of the experience and functioning of plcs in lowand middle-income countries. despite these limitations, the proposed integrated framework offers opportunity for future research to disentangle the relationships between the five dimensions and test empirically how these dimensions are inter-related. we need to better understand the role played by each dimension in promoting the five core characteristics in order to design strong plcs. for instance, which of the three plc models is most effective in promoting the five plc core characteristics? and does this relationship between plc model and core characteristics vary according to phases of development? is it more beneficial to have scripted approaches when initiating a plc versus an autonomous model for more mature, stronger, plcs? the structural varying features may also play an important role in strengthening the five core characteristics. for example, does having a trained facilitator stimulate (or hinder) the development of any of the five core characteristics? the framework also allows for more research on which the plc model can be most effective in producing different types of instructional change. the literature distinguishes between reformation versus transformation of practice (lee et al., 2018; philpott & oates, 2017; servage, 2008). reformation of practice involves aligning individual practices with prescribed norms or existing mandated goals (philpott & oates, 2017). transformation of practice involves questioning goals and empowering teachers to be “… producers of pedagogical knowledge rather than solely consumers and implementers” (philpott & oates, 2017, p. 213). we need to further understand if scripted plcs can effectively lead to transformation of practice or if they are more likely to work as vehicle for implementation of authority-endorsed change or mandates (lee at al., 2018). finally, since plcs are imbedded in a social, political, cultural and economic context, the typology opens the debate on which plc model is best for different settings. in contexts characterized by high power distance, hierarchy and authoritarian education systems, which plc model can more effectively facilitate changes in instructional practice? in such contexts, does the scripted model reinforce existing power dynamics or can it be helpful in moving towards real collaborative structures? another question that arises is which plc model is more suited for different levels of teacher capacity? when there is low teacher instructional capacity and/or low teacher ability to actively and reflectively construct knowledge about teaching and student fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 136 learning, which plc model can be more helpful in filling these gaps? there are still many questions to be answered around the optimal design and implementation of plcs in different contexts. the new empirically based typology and integrated conceptual framework presented in this study provides a way to classify plcs in a clear and consistent manner to facilitate future comparative analyses across different plcs and different contexts. by building on this foundation, we can more efficiently and effectively realize the potential of plcs to strengthen teachers’ instructional practices and improve educational outcomes. references abrahams, m. 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(2016). exploring the characteristics of professional learning communities in china: a mixed-method study. the asia-pacific education researcher, 25(1), 11-21. fernanda soares, kirsten galisson, & mindel van de laar. ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 110-143 142 appendix i: essential characteristics-dimensions of professional learning communities highlighted by the literature shared values, norms, vision focus on student learning collective responsibility reflective dialogue reflective professional inquiry deprivatizing practice shared personal practice collaboration collective learning and application normative control group, as well as individual, learning is promoted mutual trust inclusive membership openness, networks and partnerships socialization of new professional members shared and supportive leadership physical conditions and human capacities kruise & louis (1993) x x x x x newmann et al. (1996) x x x x x hord (1997) x x x x x bryk et al (1999) x x x x x bolam et al (2005) x x x x x x x x stoll et al. (2006) x x x x x x x x a typology of professional learning communities (plc) for sub-saharan africa: a case study of equatorial guinea, ghana, and nigeria ajote vol. 9 no.2 (2020), 111-143 143 appendix ii. document analysis country project/ organization documents reviewed democratic republic of congo opportunities for equitable access to quality basic education (opeq) / international rescue committee (irc) • white paper: teacher learning circle case study: (post)crisis katanga province, drc; irc (2014). • frisoli, p. (2014). teachers’ experiences of professional development in (post)crisis katanga province, southeastern democratic republic of congo: a case study of teacher learning circles (dissertation), university of massachusetts. • final report on the impact of the opeq intervention in the democratic republic of congo. (draft) nyu and irc, (2016). democratic republic of congo accelerating access and learning in the drc (accelere!) project / chemonics international • the accelere! continuing professional development program (fhi 360 program document). equatorial guinea program for educational development of equatorial guinea (prodege) / fhi 360 • teacher learning circle guides for areas 1 – 4, 16 guides (2018). • módulo de formación docente para la acreditación docente: competencias de la docencia transformadora en preescolar y primaria (teacher’s module for diplomado in-service teacher training program.) (2018). • profads technical paper (paper that describes structure of prodege teacher development programs) (2017). ghana usaid partnership for education: learning / fhi 360 • usaid partnership for education: learning: school-based inset guide (2017). • usaid partnership for education: learning: coaching/school-based inset resource guide. (2017). • usaid partnership for education: learning: coaching/school-based inset facilitator guide (2017). nigeria reading and numeracy activity (rana) / fhi 360 • proposal for fhi 360’s expanded scope of work in nigeria, gep 3/ eac, unicef nigeria (2017) • rana final report (2018) • meeting log form for rana teachers senegal passerelles / fhi 360 • facilitator guide south africa department of basic education / vvob • professional learning communities: a guideline for south african schools. (2015). https://southafrica.vvob.be/sites/southafrica/files/professional_learning_communities_a_guideline_for_sout h_african_schools_0_0.pdf tanzania wekeza project / international rescue committee (irc) • trainer’s toolkit: learning to read in a healing classroom • teacher learning circles (tlcs) meeting notes format • organizing and implementing teacher learning circles: school-based toolkit other international network for education in emergencies (inee) • the facilitator’s guide • peer coaching toolkit, level 1 tlcs only • peer coaching toolkit, level 2 tlcs plus classroom observations https://inee.org/resources/teachers-crisis-contexts-peer-coaching-pack https://southafrica.vvob.be/sites/southafrica/files/professional_learning_communities_a_guideline_for_south_african_schools_0_0.pdf https://southafrica.vvob.be/sites/southafrica/files/professional_learning_communities_a_guideline_for_south_african_schools_0_0.pdf https://inee.org/resources/teachers-crisis-contexts-peer-coaching-pack issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 78-95 pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho tebello tlali orcid: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1570-3369 national university of lesotho tebello58@gmail.com. abstract previous research suggests that new teachers have more negative ethical perceptions than their senior counterparts. however, there is limited research on teachers’ perceptions regarding the relevance of professional ethics in the contemporary world. hence this study sought to explore the extent to which pre-service teachers in lesotho consider professional ethics to be relevant. a qualitative approach was adopted and kohlberg’s (1987) moral development theory was used as the theoretical framework for the study. data were generated with the use of both semi-structured and focus-group interviews. forty-six (n 46) final-year bachelor of education (bed) students were purposively selected to take part in this study. sixteen (16) were interviewed individually, while 30 were interviewed in three focusgroups of ten participants each. the findings are that the participating pre-service teachers had mixed feelings about the relevance of professional ethics of teachers. some emphasised the importance of a teachers’ code of ethics while others indicated that some of the regulations were outdated. the position taken in this paper is that teacher professional ethics are timeless. these are meant to protect the interests of different stakeholders in education as well as the image of the teaching profession. key words: ethics; professional ethics; ethical responsibility; pre-service teachers; kohlberg moral development theory introduction and problem statement teaching has been described as a noble profession (bhusnar, 2018). according to kahraman and celik (2020), teachers are considered to hold an important role in societies. they are regarded as the key agents of education as well as the selfless role models for the learners https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 79 (genc, 2019; sharma, 2020). some scholars even describe teaching as a moral project or a moral craft (maxwell & schwimmer, 2016; al-disi & rawadieh, 2019; eren & soylemez, 2020). this signifies the magnitude of ethical responsibility ascribed to teachers. however, the issue of whether the teaching profession is as respectable as it ought to be remains dubious (dimkpa, 2015). the status of the teaching profession has been scrutinised in previous research and the disregard for teacher professional ethics has increasingly become topical (bhusnar, 2018; kahraman & celik, 2020). the misconduct attributed to some teachers in the lesotho context has continually compromised the public perception of the teaching profession (lesaoana, 2011). this remains a concern for the different stakeholders who wish to retain the integrity of this profession. the lesotho’s ministry of education and training (moet) acknowledges that without ethical teachers, most of its strategic goals would not be attainable. the teaching service regulations (moet, 2002) stipulates a range of misconducts teachers should refrain from. these include: (1) being convicted of any criminal offence involving moral turpitude; (2) using one’s position as a teacher to further private or party political aims or to encourage disobedience or resistance to the laws of lesotho; (2) conducting oneself improperly in official capacity or in any way that affects adversely one’s performance of duties; (3) absence from duty without good cause; or (4) disclosure of the contents of any examination paper or providing answers to any person prior to or at an examination, or interference in any other manner with the conduct of examinations. irrespective of the provisions made in the teaching service regulations (moet, 2002) and codes of ethics (moet, 2011), some teachers still infringe upon the regulations and continually get involved in unethical conduct such as absenteeism, examinations fraud, substance abuse and learner abuse. this view is further underscored by lesaoana (2011, p. 8), who explains that “while there are teachers who fully abide by the rules and regulations of the teaching profession, there are also those who do not perform their duties effectively and efficiently”. this lack of professionalism is a cause for concern for all stakeholders, especially the teacher training institutions (ttis). as one of the concerned ttis, the national university of lesotho (nul), through the faculty of education, seeks to augment its programmes. the nul’s strategic goal is to produce ethically competent teachers who also exhibit commitment to their career (nul, 2013). pre-service teachers are expected to develop competence to differentiate between tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 80 ethical and unethical behaviours, and act accordingly (gelmez-burakgazi & can, 2018). conversely, it seems that graduates complete their teacher training with only a vague understanding of what is expected of them. previous research suggests that new teachers have more negative ethical perceptions than their senior counterparts do (gelmez-burakgazi, can & coskun, 2020). however, there is limited research on pre-service teachers’ perceptions regarding the relevance of professional ethics in the contemporary world, hence the necessity to unearth any misconception with a view to mitigating them. consequently, the current study sought to explore the perceptions of the lesotho pre-service teachers in order to establish whether they perceive teacher professional ethics as relevant in the 21st century or not. the study was therefore guided by the following objectives: • to explore pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in the 21st century • to suggest mitigation strategies for any misconceptions that may be uncovered by the findings theoretical framework this study is anchored in kohlberg’s (1987) moral development theory as defined by al-disi and rawadieh (2019; 2020). kohlberg developed a three-level model in which he describes the following stages of the ethical domain: (1) the pre-conventional level: the individuals’ sense of morality is controlled from outside the self. for example, a child is guided by the rules made by the authorities such as the parents and teachers. (2) the conventional level: one's sense of morality is dependent on personal and social relationships. for example, a child continues to accept the authorities’ rules while he/she has also developed an understanding that the rules are crucial in maintaining healthy relationships and societal order. (3) the post-conventional level: one’s sense of morality is defined in terms of mature and abstract principles and values. this level is regarded as the principled level of moral reasoning (kretz, 2014; kipper, 2017; al-disi & rawadieh, 2019; 2020). according to thoma (2014, p. 348), “kohlberg’s moral stages are described in terms of cognitive operations that directly describe the structure of moral thinking”. while the neokohlberg movement sought to advance kohlberg’s original theory by adopting the notion of pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 81 schemata development in defining the process of moral growth, the underlying supposition is the same, namely that ethical maturity is achieved through a dynamic and gradual process, spanning from childhood into adulthood (han, dawson, thoma & glenn, 2019). this implies that an individual can progress through the different moral development stages due to their maturation of cognitive ability, as well as exposure to social, cultural, educational and religious influences (kretz, 2014; thoma, 2014; chowdhury, 2016; gelmez-burakgazi & can, 2018; ye & law, 2019; chan & chen, 2020). this theory provides a comprehensive framework for research on pre-service teacher ethical dispositions. opportunities need to be created in order for pre-service teachers to introspect on their own ways of thinking, doing and being. this introspection creates a meaningful opportunity for them to recognise the complexity and multiplicity of the perks of the teaching career (chapman, forster & buchanan, 2013). while ethical dilemmas are bound to arise due to the morally rich sub-roles that exist within the relationships between teachers and the different stakeholders, teachers are expected always to uphold high moral standards (sharma, 2020). the guiding supposition of this study is that a matured ethical domain is prerequisite to becoming a teacher. teachers are expected to operate at the post-conventional level of the ethical domain. they should also have the ability to apply the highest level of cognition and reflective practice (kipper, 2017; walters, heilbronn & daly, 2017). whenever teachers are confronted with moral dilemmas, they ought to retrieve knowledge from their ethical schemata to make spontaneous decisions about what is ethical or not (al-disi & rawadieh, 2019; al-disi & rawadie, 2020). this is more so in the fast paced 21st century where teachers cannot afford to be sluggish in their moral decisions. literature review for the purpose of this paper, the literature was reviewed on conceptualisation of ethics and professional ethics, the importance of teacher professional ethics and the place of teacher professional ethics in the 21st century. conceptualisation of ethics the concept ethics signifies the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual (sultana, 2014). the etymology of the word 'ethics' can be traced to the greek language. this word was derived from the greek term ethos or ethikos, which stand for ‘existence style’, ‘seeking a path of wise action’, ‘character’, or general human moral dispositions (sultana, tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 82 2014; chowdhury, 2016). the concept of ethics is also described as a sub-discipline of philosophy that focuses on the nature of morality (sultana, 2014; chowdhury, 2016). this sub-discipline is concerned with the prescription of norms and standards for human conduct. as an academic subject, ethics seeks to probe the reasoning behind human morality. such philosophical scrutiny and exploration justifies individual moral choices and actions (sultana, 2014; chowdhury, 2016). the ancient philosopher, aristotle, outlined human moral character in the terms: virtuous collection of appetites, desires, emotions and feelings for building an admirable character. aristotelian character education is still relevant in teachers’ professional ethics as it underscores self‐discipline (chowdhury, 2016). professional ethics ethics are universally accepted and are applicable both in personal and professional life (sharma, 2020). generally, ethics can be classified into two categories, namely theoretical ethics and applied ethics (gulcan, 2015). theoretical ethics comprise normative ethics, descriptive ethics and meta-ethics, while applied ethics refer to professional ethics (abidin & zahrin, 2018). normative ethics include the values and virtues that formulate the basis for judging whether the performed action is right or wrong. descriptive ethics include human ethical beliefs, whereas meta-ethics explore the philosophical reasoning behind actions. professional ethics, on the other hand, denote how ethics are applied in a particular professional milieu (mcpherson, forster & buchanan, 2019). according to sultana (2014), professional ethics denote a set of standards adopted by a particular professional community. these are regulated by standards often referred to as codes of ethics. a code of ethics is crucial, since it sets the boundaries within which a profession should operate (sultana, 2014; abidin & zahrin, 2018). in addition, bhusnar (2018, p. 205) indicates that “professional ethics incorporate the individual, authoritative and corporate benchmarks of conduct expected of professionals”. it needs to be clarified that there would be no profession without such ethical foundation (abidin & zahrin, 2018). the importance of teacher professional ethics ethical issues permeate every aspect of school life and they are always at play in all the teachers’ actions. the complexity of the school environment places great demands on teachers to make countless spontaneous moral judgements in all their activities (boon & maxwell, 2016; mcpherson et al., 2019). an environment that nurtures positive learning hinges on ensuring harmonious co-existence among the various stakeholders, namely the pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 83 learners, parents, colleagues and educational authorities (boon & maxwell, 2016). it is therefore crucial to cultivate professional ethics as a cornerstone for providing a respectful, safe, warm, and friendly school context (gelmez-burakgazi, can & coskun, 2020). marica (2013) typifies teachers’ ethical role as two-pronged since it involves being both a moral agent and a moral trainer. this indicates that the teaching profession is undoubtedly charged with enormous ethical responsibility. as a result, those in this profession cannot afford to be found lacking in ethical competence and leadership (marica, 2013; bhusnar, 2018). teachers are expected to uphold the highest ethical standards in their relationships, especially with the learners (gelmez-burakgazi et al., 2020). teachers’ conduct is obviously always under scrutiny. the society constantly makes judgements about teacher behaviour (gluchmanova, 2017). at school as well as outside the school setting, teachers are seen as the embodiment of ethical standards such as integrity, care, trust, dress code and prudent societal relationships (sultana, 2014; dimkpa, 2015; gelmez-burakgazi & can, 2018; devika & dilip, 2019). developing ethically intelligent teachers is fundamental since they are entrusted with relaying knowledge, skills and moral aptitudes to their learners. it is necessary to sensitize teachers about the ethical responsibility that comes with this profession. pre-service teachers can be supported in various ways in their moral or ethical development (chapman et al., 2013; eren & soylemez, 2020). firstly, pre-service teacher education should include obligatory courses in teacher professional ethics (walters et al., 2017; genc, 2019). secondly, teacher ethics should be advanced through in-service programmes such as workshops around real-school-life ethical issues (boon & maxwell, 2016). thirdly, teachers can be guided and supported through ethical codes and regulations developed by various national teaching service commissions. the aforementioned strategies play an important role in the ecology of professional self-regulation and they may protect the image of the teaching profession (maxwell, 2017). the codes of ethics also seek to maintain recognition for this profession (walters et al., 2017; gelmez-burakgazi & can, 2018). in this regard, the need to equip pre-service teachers with professional ethical codes and standards cannot be overemphasised (gelmez-burakgazi et al., 2020). teacher professional ethics in the 21st century tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 84 the 21st century is described in terms of globalisation, modernization and the fourth industrial revolution. educational institutions ought to promote the 21st century core competencies such as collaboration, digital literacy, critical thinking and problem solving as well as universal literacy (dimkpa, 2015; gluchmanova, 2015; jan, 2017; tican, 2018). in this milieu, teachers are expected to become change agents in advancing 21st century knowledge and skills. among other things they need to be well grounded in technology use (dimkpa, 2015, jan, 2017; tican, 2018). needless to say, life in the 21st century is fast paced and so should be education. teachers face new challenges that come with this era. as indicated by gluchmanova, (2015, p. 120), “the new characteristics of the globalised world and its accelerated process of modernization have caused the society to face situations considered unthinkable”. the question then remains: is there a place for teacher professional ethics even in the changing times? chowdhury (2016) highlights that in the past, religions had a prominent influence on society, and there were no questions about the importance of ethics. with the advent of modern science and technology, the societal and religious landscape shifted. consequently, this has led to deterioration in moral education. chowdhury (2016) indicates that the secular ideologies are becoming predominant in modern societies, and questions are being raised from individuals, groups and institutions about the legitimacy of character education. this position is further underscored by sharma (2020), who observes that modern education is significantly different from the traditional one. character development no longer has as much value, as it used to have in the tradition education system. the realities of the fast paced 21st century warrant humanity to revive its moral fibre. there are persistent concerns about the corrosion of the human morality and values in the postmodern society. as put by marica (2013, p. 477), there is a perceived “moral crisis in today’s world, [which include:] an education crisis, a family crisis, and a school crisis”. obviously, these crises individually and collectively contribute to an ongoing vicious circle of a global moral crisis. thus, the collapse of the traditional family and society is correlated with the crisis in the schools and vice versa. marica (2013) also indicates that even though there are no instant solutions to the global moral crises, the school can still serve as the mainstay for the restoration of morality. research design and methodology pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 85 the study is qualitative by nature, and it is situated within interpretivist paradigm. a descriptive research design (cohen, manion and morrison, 2011) was adopted to explore the perceptions of pre-service teachers regarding the relevance of teacher professional ethics in the 21st century. descriptive designs also seek to understand the meaning or definitions that the participants have constructed. cohen et al. (2011) add that the process through which meaning is attributed to a phenomenon can also be reflexive by nature, thereby compelling the participants to reflectively interrogate and redefine their own perceptions about a particular phenomenon. semi-structured and focus-group interviews were used to generate data. these methods are usually used together in qualitative research to enhance the richness of the findings. semi-structured interviews, on the one hand, allowed for the collection of in-depth data. this style of interviewing also allowed probing for clarification of certain issues (greeff, 2011). on the other hand, focus-group interviews were based on the assumption that group interaction would produce a wide range of responses, while at the same time allowing the pre-service teachers to freely give their views in a less intimidating platform (cohen et al., 2011). selection of participants and ethical considerations the population of the study consisted of 162 final-year students in the bachelor of education (b. ed) programme. this programme focuses on training the teachers for secondary and high school levels. students are taught various pedagogical courses, such as (1) introduction to educational foundations, (2) critical issues in education, and (3) philosophy of education. while the topics related to teacher professional ethics are included in the above courses, they also permeate other courses offered in the programme. the final-year group was purposively selected, since it was considered to have accrued a comprehensive theoretical knowledge about these topics, as opposed to their junior counterparts. the participants were requested to volunteer to take part in individual interviews and the number was not pre-determined. sixteen (16) participants volunteered to be individually interviewed, using semi-structured interviews, while 30 participants were interviewed in three focus-groups of 10 participants each. ultimately, a total of forty-six (n 46) participants were interviewed. the reason for following up semi-structured interviews with focus-groups was to supplement the data collected from individual interviews and to ensure crystallization of the data collection methods (cohen et al., 2011). tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 86 ethical issues were observed by seeking permission from the relevant structures of the nul, and informed consent was sought from the participants. none of the participants were coerced into taking part. it was also made clear that the participants were free to opt out if they so wished. confidentiality and anonymity were observed by ensuring that none of the presented findings could be linked to any of the participants (strydom, 2011). the participants were allocated pseudo-codes to disguise their identity. for instance, the 16 individual interview participants were labelled as ii (individual interviews) a to p; whereas the focus-group participants were labelled on the basis of their respective groups as fg (focus-group) fg1-a to j; fg2-a to j and fg3-a to j. all audio tapes and their transcriptions were safely locked away with the intention to destroy them after five years. findings the interviews were transcribed verbatim and inductive codes were used to analyse the data (merriam, 2009). several issues emerged from the interviews with pre-service teachers on whether teacher professional ethics were still relevant in the 21st century or not. due to the intersecting themes, the findings from the semi-structured and focus-group interviews were synthesised and reported together in this section. the findings include the five constructs, namely (1) integrity of the teaching profession; (2) teachers as role models; (3) appearance and dress code; (4) social life; and (5) teacher-learner relationships. integrity of the teaching profession the finding revealed several views about the relevance of teacher professional ethics in the 21st century, especially in relation to the integrity of the profession. the participants made the following comments: i. lately teachers are losing their identity by hiding behind ‘human rights’. they say they are free to do whatever they want. they overlook the fact that they could be breeching teacher professional ethics (ii-b). ii. teachers’ misconduct should be rebuked in order to maintain social respectability of this profession (ii-d). iii. a school is a place for learning and not for harbouring thugs. teachers should familiarise themselves with the teaching service regulations so that they can be aware of what is expected of them (ii-p). pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 87 iv. teacher professional ethics offer an excellent framework that stipulates the dos and don’ts within the education fraternity. however, some of the stipulations are too strict. they should relax a bit (fg1-a). v. lately learners are taught virtually. this means that teachers and learners do not interact physically. therefore, there is no need to emphasise ethics (fg2-c). vi. teacher professional ethics provide a moral compass for teachers. teachers need to protect their reputation so that they can be taken seriously (fg3-h). vii. if prospective teachers feel like they are not able to abide by the rules, they should just leave the profession instead of ruining its reputation (fg3-j). as can be seen from the foregoing findings, some participants asserted that teacher professional ethics have lost their value due to virtual teaching and learning. however, the majority of the participants felt that teacher professional ethics are still relevant, since they protect the integrity of the teaching profession and they also provide moral direction for teachers. teachers as role models the participants had diverse views on the issue of whether teachers should be considered as role models for the learners or not. this is what they had to say: i. teachers are role models of their learners directly or indirectly. we must always model learner behaviour and lead by example (ii-b). ii. as teachers, we are role models to our learners; therefore, we should be mindful of whatever we do. we must practice what we preach (ii-d). iii. teachers should keep integrity everywhere they go. i believe teacher behaviour has impacts on the learners (ii-h). iv. the issue of considering a teacher as a role model is totally insane. at the end of the day, the learners have their own choices regardless of all the efforts that teachers make in trying to act as role models (fg1-c). v. this is a bit unfair and it’s asking too much from teachers. it feels like imprisonment whereby teachers’ moves are being monitored (fg2-e). the above findings indicate that pre-service teachers have mixed feelings about being entrusted with the responsibility to become the learners’ role models. some of them felt that it was an honour whereas others felt that it was unfair and burdensome. appearance and dress code tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 88 the participants also deliberated on teachers’ appearance and dress code; they put their views as follows: i. dress code is very vital for an ethical teacher. teachers should have admirable dress sense, no tight and revealing clothes. teachers should not dress like they are going to a club (ii-a). ii. teachers should avoid dressing in the latest trends especially similar to their own learners. this is a big no! embracing fashion is cool but teacher clothes should be age appropriate (ii-b). iii. the prescribed formal dress code helps us to avoid drawing the learners’ attention to us hence destructing their concentration (ii-d). iv. i think the dress code is oppressive and backward. we are still young and dressing formally makes us look old (ii-j). v. these ethical codes are a nightmare. if i stay in this profession i will definitely end up losing myself. the formal dress code is just not my style (fg1-b). vi. the issue of dress code causes a lot of discontentment since it restricts teachers to wear their stylish clothes. the kind of clothing prescribed for teachers can make us look too boring and old fashioned (fg2-f). vii. not all the rules need to change with times. so why should the teaching ethics change? take an example of the nursing profession; nurses wear the uniform but they don’t complain. why are teachers complaining (fg3-b)? the above views indicate that some pre-service teachers embrace the idea of a specific dress code. however, others are totally against the dress code prescription. they describe it as backward, old fashioned and oppressive. social life some views regarding how teachers ought to conduct their professional and personal lives also emerged. the participants voiced the following concerns: i. teachers’ professional and personal lives have to be separated. it seems that the stakeholders are intrusive and inconsiderate that teachers are human too (ii-n). ii. even though teachers are in the spotlight twenty-four seven, they still need to live their lives fully. if a teacher needs to go partying with friends, they should just go and have fun. remember ‘all work and no play makes jack a dull boy' (fg1-e). pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 89 iii. whatever happens outside the school premises has got nothing to do with the school. this is the teachers’ personal space and they should be given that freedom to do what they like, with no judgements (fg3-h). iv. as a teacher, one feels that their right of freedom is being trotted down as every time they worry about who may be looking at what they are doing (fg3-j). in the above findings, the participants expressed how unfair it was for society to intrude and monitor teachers’ social and private life. they argued that teachers are human too. teacher-learner relationships the participants also touched on the most controversial issue of whether or not teachers can have intimate relationships with the learners and the following opinions came up: i. teachers who have love affairs with the learners jeopardize the integrity of their profession. this creates an environment which is not conducive for learning because the teacher would have infringed on his or her professionalism (ii-k). ii. i vehemently condemn teacher-learner love affairs. teachers use such affairs to their advantage. they should be abolished completely (ii-o). iii. teacher-learner relationship should be allowed. as long as the learner is over the age of eighteen, i don’t see any problem because someone who is over eighteen is an adult and can make informed decisions (fg1-c). iv. some of the learners are my age-mates if not older. so i can date them provided this does not affect the work environment (fg3-n). from the above findings, it can be noted that some pre-service teachers differ in their views about whether or not teachers should have intimate relationships with the learners. there are those who feel that the codes of ethics are unfair, especially on young teachers. discussion and recommendations the findings indicate varying opinions about whether or not teacher professional ethics are relevant in the 21st century. some participants say that teacher professional ethics have lost their significance due to the changing times and the use of virtual teaching and learning modes. nevertheless, the majority emphasised that teacher professional ethics are relevant since they protect the integrity of the profession and provide moral direction for teachers. as indicated in the literature, codes of ethics are crucial in setting the boundaries within which teachers should operate (sultana, 2014; maxwell, 2017). it is important to preserve teacher tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 90 professional ethics in order to build a solid foundation for teacher practices and conduct. as clarified in the literature, without such ethical foundation, the profession would continue to lose its recognition and value (abidin & zahrin, 2018). based on this position, it is recommended that teacher education providers and the concerned stakeholders should continue to reinforce the importance of the teaching professional ethics. the participants expressed disparate feelings about being entrusted with the responsibility to become the learners’ role models. while some thought that it was an honour to be seen in that light, others felt that it was too much to expect of them. as indicated in the literature, unlike other professions, being a teacher comes with enormous responsibility, namely that of being simultaneously a moral agent as well as a moral trainer. hence the teachers have to be mindful of the moral images which they project through their own conduct (marica, 2013). according to the literature, it is necessary to sensitize prospective teachers about the moral responsibility involved in the teaching profession, so that they can make informed choices (chapman et al., 2013; genc, 2019; sharma, 2020; eren & soylemez, 2020). the position held in this study is therefore that those seeking to pursue the teaching profession need to accept from the onset that being a role model comes as an indispensable part of the package. the different stakeholders should advance career guidance that enlightens prospective teachers about the perks of this profession. lately, some of the young upcoming teachers have been dissatisfied with the formal dress code that is recommended in this profession. some describe it as backward, oldfashioned and oppressive. others even confess that they might leave this career for fear of losing themselves due to the dull dress code. nonetheless, there are still those who embrace the idea of dressing formally and being as presentable as possible. they are of the view that this will help them to project a respectable image of themselves. as indicated in the literature, teachers always have to reflect on their appearance and ask themselves: “is it befitting for a teacher to be dressed this way” (sultana, 2014; dimkpa, 2015). the most critical issue is that teachers spend most of their time with children or teenagers who are at their most impressionable age. hence it is recommended that teachers should strive to look as decent as possible to avoid drawing the learners’ attention away from the core business, namely the teaching and learning. the participants also expressed how the teacher professional ethics infringe on their social and personal lives. they felt that this is unfair and the fact that they, too, are human is overlooked. it needs to be highlighted that whether one likes it or not, teacher conduct is pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the relevance of teacher professional ethics in contemporary lesotho ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 91 always under scrutiny. as indicated in the literature, unlike other professions, the public always makes judgements about teachers’ conduct (gluchmanova, 2017). teachers are seen as the epitome of ethical standards, both at school and outside. this also emanates from the fact that teachers are entrusted with the most impressionable minds of the learners. one way or the other, teachers’ actions have a replicating effect on the learners. hence, it is recommended that teachers should accept their public position and display ethical responsibility regardless of time and place (marica, 2013, bushnar, 2018). while some participants felt that the codes of ethics were unfair, especially on young teachers, others appreciated the importance of these regulations, as far as inappropriate teachers-learner relationships are concerned. the moet (2002; 2011) stipulates that a teacher should maintain a professional relationship with learners and should not use their position to take advantage of the learners in any way. accordingly, a teacher who gets involved in an intimate relationship with a learner commits a punishable misconduct. as indicated in the literature, such a teacher not only lacks integrity, but also brings the teaching profession into disrepute (sultana, 2014). the position taken in this study is that there should be no excuses as far as teacher professional ethics are concerned. a teacher has to be mature enough to know what is right and what is wrong. it is important, therefore, for the different stakeholders to reinforce teacher professional ethics, with a view to protecting the learners and the image of the teaching profession (walters et al., 2017; gelmez-burakgazi & can, 2018). conclusion as explained in this paper, the 21st century world faces serious moral degradation. a need for various stakeholders to take part in rebuilding societal moral fibre cannot be overemphasised. as postulated by marica (2013), the moral collapse poses a great challenge for the school to serve as the mainstay for the restoration of morality. this calls for teachers to provide moral leadership. however, they will not be able to do so if they lack the requisite moral maturity and intelligence. as supported by the kohlberg’s (1987) moral development theory, the underlying assumption is that teachers ought to be ethically mature. they have to operate at the post-conventional level of the ethical domain. this is even more important in the fast paced 21st century. thus, teachers are required – now more than ever – to show ethical leadership and serve as the lifeline for societal ethical restoration. references tebello tlali ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 78-95 92 abidin, n.a.z. & zahrin, z. 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(2019). pre-service teachers' perceptions of teacher morality in china. teaching and teacher education, 86(0), 1-13. integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms jayaluxmi naidoo university of kwazulu-natal south africa abstract culturally based activities embedded within indigenous knowledge, in general, may be used to support the teaching of mathematics in multicultural classes. the article reflects on research that has been conducted with twenty-five post-graduate students studying mathematics education at one university in kwazulu-natal, south africa. these post-graduate students were also practicing mathematics teachers at schools. the study explored the use of indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities by post-graduate students in schools while teaching mathematical concepts. the theory of realistic mathematics education framed this qualitative, interpretive study which used a questionnaire, lesson observations and semi-structured interviews to generate data. qualitative data were analysed inductively and thematically. the findings reveal that the participants needed to understand indigenous knowledge to integrate culturally based activities in mathematics lessons. secondly, culturally based activities established on indigenous knowledge scaffolded mathematics lessons and promoted the understanding of mathematical concepts to make learning more meaningful and relevant. thirdly, this study provides examples of good practice to support teachers in integrating classroom activities and activities outside the classroom, ensuring that mathematical concepts learned in classrooms are not done in isolation but take into account learners’ authentic experiences in various settings. finally, by integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in the mathematics curriculum, learners interacted and engaged more freely within the educational context. similar studies could be conducted at universities internationally. implications for mathematics teachers, mathematics teacher educators and mathematics curriculum developers globally are discussed. keywords: culturally based activities, curriculum, indigenous knowledge, integration, mathematics, teachers issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 17-36 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 18 introduction before the advent of democracy1, learners were exposed to an apartheid2 regime (naido, 2006); mathematics and science were not considered important subjects for black, indian, or coloured3 learners to pursue. thus, most learners in south africa experienced a substandard education system (khuzwayo, 2005). hence mathematics and science were seen as the gatekeepers to upward social mobility whereby global participation was encouraged for the privileged white race group. with one national curriculum, all south african learners are required to learn the same mathematics regardless of the school they are attending, the colour of their skin or the background from which they come. the national curriculum and assessment policy statements (caps) creates a hurdle for learners who are not exposed to english as their home language or learners who rely on indigenous knowledge in their daily lives. in south africa, poor learning outcomes and dismal performance in mathematics (moloi, 2013) appear to be immune to remediation. adopting a democratic orientation to governance in the country and implementing numerous curriculum changes have not halted the recurring history of failure over the past two decades (spaull, 2013). many attempts have been made to improve educational outcomes: building more schools, improving amenities and access to schools, in-service training programmes, and redesigning the curriculum. however, the gains in black schools continue to be marginal. statistics indicate that pass rates are improving, but the pass rate is disappointing when quality is factored in (spaull, 2013). unequally resourced schools (adler, 2013) and inadequately qualified teachers (sapa, 2013; talbert-johnson, 2006) are associated with poor learner performance. also, impoverished home conditions (kotze & strauss, 2006), large class sizes (khuzwayo, 2005) and second or third language learning (alexander, 2005; setati & adler, 2001; setati, 2005; vandeyar, 2003) is associated with poor learner performance in mathematics. literature supports integrating culturally based activities and indigenous knowledge within school curricula (bogopa, 2012; mosimege, 2003; paraide, 2005). these studies have 1 democracy refers to a form of government in which power is vested in the people and exercised directly by the people under a free and fair electoral system. a democratic society is characterised by the equality of rights and privileges for all people in that society. 2 apartheid was a system of racial segregation in south africa enforced through legislation by the ruling national party from 1948 to 1994. under apartheid the rights of the majority black inhabitants were partial and afrikaner white minority rule was maintained. 3 the apartheid legislation classified the people of south africa into four racial groups: black, white, coloured and indian. integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 19 exhibited the positive effects of teaching and learning through the use of culturally embedded activities. for example, mosimege (2003) has shown that mathematical games embedded in local knowledge enhanced the teaching and learning of mathematics. in a study by kaya and seleti (2013), the power of using local expertise in promoting positive learning outcomes was revealed. as is evident, by considering the implications of blending culturally based activities and indigenous knowledge in education, teachers may create a platform for learners to construct knowledge that is meaningful and relevant to their lives (van wyk, 2002). additionally, research (govender, 2019; khupe, 2014; moji & hattingh, 2008; mudaly & ismail, 2013; van wyk, 2002) focusing on the strengths of integrating indigenous knowledge within science classrooms has been conducted. these studies have illustrated that learners successfully learned and understood complex science concepts and processes by drawing on indigenous knowledge in the science classroom. furthermore, research (bogopa, 2012; moloi, 2013; mosimege, 2003; mudaly, 2018; nkopodi & mosimege, 2009) has been conducted on the use of indigenous knowledge and indigenous games in mathematics classrooms. based on the findings of these studies, learners were more enthusiastic and motivated when drawing on indigenous knowledge to learn complex mathematical concepts. other research (moloi, 2013; nyaumwe, 2006; paraide, 2005; seehawer, 2018) has exhibited that learners are exposed to educational contexts that are relevant by integrating indigenous knowledge within the school curriculum to their lives, thereby enriching teaching and learning. nevertheless, there is still a need to explore if other forms of culturally based activities could be integrated with the mathematics curriculum to support mathematics learning. hence, this study aimed to respond to the main research question: how is indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities integrated into south african mathematics classrooms? exploring culturally based activities educational contexts are fluctuating (anthony & walshaw, 2009; pyper, 2017) due to teachers who are diverse in their backgrounds and learners who are diverse in their experiences, culture, needs and aptitudes. if teachers want to improve learner performance, there is a need to ensure that educational contexts and instruction are relevant to the learners. one way of doing this is to incorporate culturally based activities when necessary to complement the value added to education (moloi, 2013). the growing need for educational access for all leads learners to expect the use of culturally based learning experiences within their educational contexts (offorma, 2016). jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 20 culturally based activities are embedded within the learners’ culture (doganay, 2013) to make lessons meaningful (hand, 2012). within diverse educational contexts, culture is an important component to consider. culture has many definitions and affects everything one does in society. due to the diverse nature of society, there are many cultures in one society. thus culture is not necessarily genetically inherited, but it is a shared meaning of values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour by members of a society (idang, 2015; imada, 2008; matsumoto, 2007). the participants in this study included culturally based activities embedded in learners’ indigenous and prior knowledge during their lessons. these activities were relevant and meaningful to the learners within their classrooms, enhancing learning (moji & hattingh, 2008). linking mathematics education, indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities mathematics is practised by all cultures as a human activity (moloi, 2013), particularly in the 21st century, where classrooms are diverse concerning learning styles, race, culture and ability levels. mathematics teachers must draw on a range of resources to support the development of mathematical concepts within their educational contexts (anthony & walshaw, 2009; lipka et al., 2005; umugiraneza, bansilal, & north, 2018). one such resource is the use of prior knowledge. including previous knowledge in any curriculum is important to bridge the gap between formal concepts and processes with concepts and processes learners already know (moji & hattingh 2008). including culturally based activities within the classroom assists in exposing the value of culture to learners (mcglone, 2008; samuels, 2018). different mathematical concepts identified in various culturally based activities can be related to geometry and algebra in mathematics (nkopodi & mosimege, 2009). research (mosimege, 2003) has shown that most indigenous people are aware of mathematical concepts, for example, estimation, symmetry, patterns and geometry, since these concepts are used in various cultural artefacts4 and activities. artefacts are important tools that may link what is taught in formal contexts with what exists outside these formal contexts (kaino, 2013). indigenous knowledge (ik) is the knowledge that is local and exclusive to a specific culture or society and is considered as valued knowledge by researchers in the field (mosimege, 2003; nkopodi & mosimege, 2009). the interest in indigenous knowledge is growing internationally and nationally (paraide, 2005). nationally, policy documents have motivated for the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of mathematics (moloi, 2013). 4 artefacts in this study refer to cultural or historical objects made by people. integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 21 internationally, research conducted in alaska (barnhardt, 2005); sought to restore a traditional sense of place while simultaneously widening and developing the educational experience for all learners. other international research (bruchac, 2014; lilley & paringatai, 2013; mcgloin, marshall, & adams, 2009; smylie et al., 2003) conducted in the united states of america, canada, new zealand and australia; focus on understanding and debating the use of indigenous knowledge. these studies were conducted to show how indigenous knowledge increased learner participation, performance and interaction within classrooms. at the same time, research (kaino, 2013; nyaumwe, 2006) conducted in parts of africa; focused on using traditional artefacts to complement traditional and modern knowledge during teaching. in these african-based studies, mathematical concepts, such as numeric patterns, geometric patterns, and geometry concepts, were taught and consolidated through culturally based activities. these studies suggested that the successful teaching and learning of these mathematical concepts was enhanced by using learners’ prior knowledge embedded within their culture. these studies illustrate how indigenous knowledge may be structured to demonstrate the relationship to mathematics school topics. moreover, research (bogopa, 2012; govender, 2019; khupe, 2014; moji & hattingh, 2008; moloi, 2013; mosimege, 2003; mudaly & ismail, 2013; mudaly, 2018; nkopodi & mosimege, 2009) has shown that integrating indigenous knowledge in the curriculum has had a positive, supportive role in both science and mathematics education. these studies have shown that learners can relate what they experience outside the classroom to concepts taught in class through indigenous knowledge. these studies have exhibited that when learners’ traditionally acquired knowledge was valued in a formal educational context, they were more enthusiastic about learning new ideas and concepts linked to their prior knowledge. this approach to teaching means that learners reflect on traditional prior knowledge to enhance the learning of concepts taught in class (kaino, 2013). in this way, learners feel that they are active contributors rather than passive receivers (naido, 2006). thus, using culturally based activities in mathematics classrooms increases the meaning and relevance of mathematical concepts for learners (mcglone, 2008). similarly, research within mathematics education has focussed on the use of games embedded within indigenous knowledge. however, there is a need to interrogate the use of culturally based activities more substantially within mathematics education. as is the case in science education, researchers (khupe, 2014; moji & hattingh, 2008; mudaly & ismail, 2013) jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 22 have shown that tapping into learners’ traditional knowledge of concepts, procedures and processes have complemented the learning of school science topics. so too, many multifaceted culturally embedded processes and procedures could complement the learning of school mathematics topics. for example, while embedded within african culture, basket weaving or hut building activities also incorporate ideas of school mathematics. these school mathematics topics include length, geometry, symmetry, volume, area and measurement. thus, this article aims to enhance awareness of how post-graduate students used culturally based activities to strengthen mathematics teaching within their classrooms. using realistic mathematics education as a theoretical framework realistic mathematics education (rme) is a framework for the teaching and learning of mathematics. based on mathematics instructional theory and curriculum, this pedagogical framework was initially introduced and developed by the freudenthal institution in the netherlands in the 1970s (hirza, kusumah, & zulkardi, 2014; stemn, 2017). rme uses realworld contexts to encourage and stimulate the effective teaching and learning of mathematics to become pertinent within the educational context (arsaythamby & cut, 2014). thus, the principles of rme focus on the need for mathematics to be relevant and realistic to be of value to learners (van den heuvel-panhuizen, 2003). the need to demonstrate the importance of learning mathematics is significant. for this to occur, mathematics teachers need to be encouraged to develop the necessary pedagogic skills required to relate mathematics and the specific educational context within which they teach (barnes & venter, 2008). so too, learners need to be encouraged to construct meaningful mathematical knowledge. hence, within the ambits of this theoretical framework, the educational context requires supporting learners’ active involvement in constructing significant mathematical knowledge instead of the passive acquisition of mathematical information (stemn, 2017). similarly, rme is entrenched in the understanding of mathematics as a human activity. learners need to be provided with the opportunity to rediscover mathematics by creating real-world situations or mathematical associations and procedures that have meaning for them (cobb, zhao, & visnovska, 2008). hence, within the domains of rme, mathematical knowledge is viewed as a human construction. mathematics learning is regarded as a cultural creation that advances from several activities (cimen, 2014). the rme framework was significant in this study since the participants valued indigenous knowledge, authentic, real-world contexts, games and cultural artefacts to integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 23 encourage learners to learn mathematics. the use of real-world objects and contexts that are familiar to learners can support the learning of mathematics (d’entremont, 2015). the use of authentic indigenous games within the teaching and learning process allows learners to experiment with and combine regular processes and number skills in an encouraging educational context that is neither intimidating nor uninteresting (barnes, 2005). research methodology this qualitative, interpretive study explored post-graduate students’ integration of culturally based activities in mathematics classrooms. the interpretive paradigm is strengthened by observation and interpretation and attempts to understand phenomena through the meanings one assigns to them (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2011). thus, each participant’s responses were interpreted to make meaning of the data produced. the study included a questionnaire administered to post-graduate students, lesson observations and semi-structured interviews to generate qualitative data. the study was based at one university in kwazulu-natal (kzn), south africa. the participants were post-graduate mathematics education students and were also mathematics teachers at schools in kzn. each participant differed concerning age, race, gender, teaching experience and professional development. forty-two post-graduate mathematics students were invited to participate in the study. twenty-five post-graduate mathematics students responded positively to the invitation. eight participants were selected at random to participate in the pilot study, and for the main study, the remaining 17 (nine females and eight females) participated. the teaching experience of each participant varied from 5 years to 14 years of teaching at schools within different social contexts. issues of ethics gatekeeper access was obtained from the participating university’s research office. each teacher who registered for a post-graduate programme in mathematics education (2014-2019) was informed about the processes involved in the study. the right to withdraw without prejudice from the study at any time was explained to all participants. data generation the questionnaire comprised section a which required the participants to provide their biographical data. section b of the questionnaire consisting of four questions revolving around indigenous knowledge and the use of culturally based activities within the mathematics classroom. after analysing each questionnaire, ten participants were invited to participate in lesson observations and interviews. the ten participants were purposively selected because jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 24 they met various criteria. these criteria included context, teaching experience, professional development and pedagogic strategies used. additionally, based on an analysis of the questionnaire, each selected participant had the knowledge, skills and experience of using culturally based activities in their mathematics classroom. the participants who were observed teaching and who were subsequently interviewed are shown in table 1. table 1: participants who were observed and interviewed number name number of years of teaching experience present qualification 1. collin 9 honours in education 2. dean 14 master’s in education 3. fatima 8 honours in education 4. indira 6 honours in education 5. lungi 8 honours in education 6. musa 8 post graduate certificate in education 7. pam 11 bachelor of education 8. themba 9 bachelor of education 9. wanda 13 master’s in education 10. xolani 10 honours in education the lesson observations focussed on the different culturally based activities the participants used in their classrooms. subsequently, a semi-structured interview was conducted in a location selected by each participant. the choice of the location was planned so that each participant would be at ease. each interview started with similar questions, followed by questions probing individual responses to culturally based activities in the mathematics classroom. each interview lasted approximately 45 minutes. data analysis the qualitative data gathered was analysed using thematic coding. interviews and lesson observation schedules were transcribed, and data were coded into themes. data analysis in the integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 25 form of coding and categorising themes was based on the study’s theoretical framework, i.e. realistic mathematics education (rme). the relationship between the data generated and realworld contexts to support the teaching and learning of mathematics within the educational context (arsaythamby & cut, 2014; van den heuvel-panhuizen, 2003) were examined. data analysis included the following steps: firstly, open coding was used to ensure acquaintance with the data and classify codes after inspecting the qualitative data; secondly, all data were perused, and codes were processed into themes. the data that were related to each other were grouped into themes. thirdly, the themes were scrutinised to warrant that all codes within each theme revealed a connection. finally, member checking was undertaken to confirm the findings’ accuracy and provide participants with the chance to clarify their responses. findings based on the data generated and analysed, it was noted that all participants used indigenous knowledge to develop culturally based activities for their respective lessons. based on the analysis of lesson observation schedules and interview transcripts, five main themes were identified. the themes are reflected as follows. participants understanding of indigenous knowledge all participants exhibited knowledge of indigenous knowledge (ik) and reflected on how this knowledge assisted them in developing culturally based activities for their mathematics lessons. collin indicated that ik is . . .local knowledge possessed by a particular [people] group in a specific area. . . [which is] . . . not learned at school. . . .[and is] . . . passed on from generation to generation… indira mentioned the value of ik for teaching and learning as . . . undocumented knowledge used by different people [groups that is] passed to the next generation [and that] is related to one’s culture [and they] can be helpful in [planning] lessons. . . indigenous knowledge is perceived to be knowledge gained from experiences, as claimed by lungi, . . . [ik is] learned from the culture and traditions over time. . . [it is knowledge taken from the experiences of people and their interaction with the environment. . . jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 26 musa maintained that indigenous knowledge is important and relevant for contemporary classrooms as it was . . .used in the past by our ancestors. . .[and is] still applicable in our classrooms. . . pam supported the notion that ik instilled good values and morals, that ik helps in . . .understanding the world through folktale, games and drawing. . .[and in] inculcating morals and values. . . .[ik is] knowledge unique to a culture. . . these findings are significant since they reveal the participants understanding of ik. based on their knowledge of ik, the participants valued and encouraged the use of ik in their mathematics classrooms. this exhibited that the participants believed that using ik supported the teaching and learning of mathematics. the importance of using indigenous knowledge in the mathematics classroom the participants were observed using indigenous knowledge (ik) in the classroom during the lesson observations. the use of ik assisted in making the mathematics being taught more understandable to the learners, as indicated by collin, [using] examples with indigenous knowledge [in the class room]…engage[s] learners [and helps learners to] apply the knowledge in the academic context. beadwork can be used to study patterns in mathematics. the counting of cattle using stones [is another example of how ik can be used in the classroom] each participant developed and used culturally based activities established on ik to supplement the lessons being taught, as is evident in dean’s response that . . .learners from different cultures. . .share their knowledge. . .this helps with understanding… lungi supported this view and provided an example from her teaching, . . .when teaching geometry. . .indigenous knowledge [is] used [as a] starting point. learners share their traditional knowledge. [when] teaching them new applications for maths in life, [we discuss] shape and structure of dwellings. [examples of ik we discuss includes] indian rice art as well as henna [and] african games. . . moreover, pam used ik when introducing new topics in mathematics i use ik to introduce new topics. . . [we use] african games, dibeke, morabaraba. . . integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 27 wanda used ik to show the link between ik and school knowledge . . .to demonstrate lines of symmetry, tessellations, properties of 2d and 3d objects [and] to link [with] school knowledge. [i show] the relevance of mathematics. . . [i.e., that] maths is all around us. [we discuss the] traditional ways of telling time [by using ik] games. . . for these participants, it was important to use ik to support their teaching of mathematics. in addition, the participants made the mathematics being taught relevant and fun for their learners by using ik games and real-world examples of what learners experience in their contexts. the importance of integrating indigenous knowledge in the mathematics curriculum the participants agreed that integrating indigenous knowledge in the mathematics curriculum assisted in teaching key mathematical concepts. this is evident in xolani’s response, [ik] must be incorporated in teaching and learning, [using ik] help[s] learners and teachers to start from what they know to [move] to the unknown. . . the participants acknowledged the importance of introducing sections with the knowledge that learners already possessed. indira remarked, it [using ik] can open the mind of the learner. . . mathematics is not foreign. . .we usually do [mathematics] in our everyday life . . . [i] start from the known and then move to the unknown. . .ik is the building block of our day to day learning collin also indicated that the class was more talkative [interactive] because they knew the mathematics being taught. . . the responses from the participants provided valuable information on the importance of integrating ik in mathematics classrooms. the findings showed that using ik bridges the gap between existing knowledge and new knowledge. moreover, a more interactive and engaging mathematics educational context emerged by integrating ik in the mathematics classroom. using indigenous knowledge to develop culturally based activities for the mathematics classroom each participant developed their own culturally based activities when teaching mathematics. collin reported, jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 28 my class is aware of how their family counts the village cattle using stones…i came up with a class task based on this way of counting. . .i extended this activity to discuss place value and placeholders in algebra… fatima valued the use of ik games and indicated, [in the classroom we discuss]many indigenous games that [the learners] are aware of. . . .we use this knowledge to formulate our class activities together. . . .i used this when teaching measurement. . . lungi used indigenous art and other resources to support her culturally based activities for mathematics african art have lots of mathematics. . . .[in class, we] use pictures and videos when looking at and comparing the properties of different maths shapes in the classroom. . . pam used indigenous jewellery when teaching geometry activities: african and indian jewelry [we] use . . . as our basis for discussing the orientation and naming of geometry shapes or patterns in mathematics. . . . sometimes, they [the learners] bring things from their own home . [our] discussions [are] based on these objects. . . what was evident from the findings was that using ik to develop culturally based activities supported the teaching and learning of mathematics. through the use of these activities, mathematical concepts were not abstract; they became meaningful. mathematical concepts became more relevant, and learners linked everyday objects embedded in their culture with the mathematics taught. the benefits of using culturally based activities in the mathematics classroom the ten participants (see table 1) were observed teaching in their classrooms. subsequently, each of these participants was interviewed. the interview focussed on the participants’ use of culturally based activities in their teaching of mathematics. what was evident was that the use of learners’ own examples and experiences assisted in the understanding of mathematical concepts. collin explained that examples were provided by the learners. . .place value and place holders were discussed. . . different size stones were used. . .to show tens and units. . .we discussed how beadwork is done [by] identifying patterns [and]developing rules for number integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 29 patterns in maths. . .[the whole] class participated [and]they understood the content and related [them] to their own experiences. . . ik and culturally based activities in the mathematics classroom were appreciated since learners could relate to what was being taught because they had prior knowledge of this content. dean used cultural objects that learners brought from home to support the teaching and learning of mathematics. he indicated that learners discussed geometric patterns and shapes [and] line of symmetry. . . . [they] rotated the shapes on a cartesian plane [they] translated [and] shapes were transformed. . . . [l]earners could identify with the concepts [by] using their examples and their artefacts. . . when teachers used real-world examples founded in the learners’ cultural contexts, there was more interaction in the mathematics classroom. this notion is supported by themba [we discussed] how they plant and how they know when to plant. . . .i gave them problems to solve based on using time in mathematics. . . in addition, games embedded in culture was beneficial when teaching concepts in data handling in mathematics. fatima indicated that for the data handling lesson, the class provided examples of their games. . . . rules were explained by the learners, tally tables were introduced to record scores, [and] the final scores for each team were tabulated, and then graphed by using a bar graph. . . using culturally based games is equally important when teaching problem-solving in mathematics. lungi indicated they [learners] like playing their own games [for] problem-solving in maths. . . . they first played the game [and] then worked on writing down steps for problem solving. . . . the contexts of each problem were also relevant to the class; real-world contexts were used. . . pam similarly used culturally based games for teaching measurement in mathematics. pam reported: we spoke about hopscotch. [this game helps with] judging distances and measuring. . .[hopscotch] relates directly to measurement in the curriculum. . . .[the whole] class could relate to the maths content, [hence,] they were active in the lesson. . . . we moved jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 30 to a discussion on area and perimeter of the geometric shapes that are used when playing hopscotch. . . from these findings, it was evident that there were benefits to using culturally based activities in mathematics classrooms. culturally based activities supported the teaching and learning of mathematics and encouraged an interactive mathematics educational context. through discussions founded on culturally based activities, learners related their existing knowledge to new knowledge. in this way, the abstract nature of mathematical concepts was removed, mathematics became meaningful and relevant to these learners. discussion the qualitative findings provide evidence of the integration of culturally based activities in mathematics lessons by post-graduate students. firstly, to integrate culturally based activities in mathematics lessons, the participants needed to understand indigenous knowledge. in this study, the participants understood indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities. they valued the use of learners’ prior and indigenous knowledge in the classroom so that the mathematics being taught was realistic and relevant to the learners (hand, 2012; moloi, 2013). thus, these participants embraced the views of rme by focusing on using practical, real-world examples embedded within the learners’ culture as they taught mathematics (van den heuvelpanhuizen, 2003). secondly, the participants acknowledged the importance of using indigenous knowledge in the mathematics classroom since they used culturally based activities established on ik to support the teaching and learning of mathematics. this notion is supported by research (doganay, 2013). the use of activities embedded in the learners’ culture promotes understanding concepts and makes learning more meaningful (hand, 2012). thirdly, the importance of integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in the mathematics curriculum allowed learners to interact and engage more freely within the educational context. this social interaction supported the learners’ active involvement in constructing meaningful mathematical knowledge instead of passively acquiring mathematical information (stemn, 2017). the learning of mathematics became realistic and relevant for the learners. mathematical knowledge became a social construction, and mathematics learning was a cultural creation that progressed from several interactive activities (cimen, 2014). fourthly, the participants discovered that using indigenous knowledge to develop culturally based activities for mathematics supported learners in mathematics learning. culturally based activities enriched the meaning and relevance of integrating indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities in south african mathematics classrooms ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 31 mathematical concepts for the learners (mcglone, 2008). also, it was evident that by constructing culturally based activities, the participants had the necessary pedagogic skills to make mathematical concepts relevant for their learners (barnes & venter, 2008). finally, the benefits of using culturally based activities in the mathematics classroom assisted learners in demonstrating aspects of their culture that were relevant to each mathematics lesson. learners felt valued because the teacher actively involved them when choosing examples to use in the class. the culturally embedded games assisted learners in demonstrating aspects of their culture that were relevant and realistic to each mathematics lesson. similarly, research (nkopodi & mosimege, 2009) has shown that integrating indigenous games in the classroom supports the teaching and learning of mathematics. conclusion this qualitative, interpretive research was conducted at one university in kwazulu-natal, south africa. participants were observed teaching mathematics and were subsequently interviewed to respond to the main research question: how is indigenous knowledge and culturally based activities integrated into south african mathematics classrooms? participants in this study understood what indigenous knowledge meant; they valued integrating indigenous knowledge in the mathematics classroom and curriculum; they successfully developed culturally based activities for mathematics. also, participants appreciated the benefits of using culturally based activities in the mathematics classroom. what was apparent in each participants’ classroom was that their learners were actively participating in the lessons. additionally, the learners worked collaboratively during each lesson. the findings of this study have implications for mathematics teachers, teacher educators and curriculum developers. further studies on a larger scale for exploring the integration of culturally based activities in mathematics classrooms are needed. opportunities for future research could include qualitative studies conducted at several universities within different provinces in south africa. similar studies could also be conducted at universities internationally. further quantitative studies could also be undertaken nationally and globally to explore the integration of culturally based activities in mathematics classrooms. this would be beneficial for increasing the knowledge base in the field in south africa and globally. jayaluxmi naidoo ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 17-36 32 references adler, j. 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(2003). the jagged paths to multicultural education: international experiences and south africa’s response in the new dispensation. south african journal of education, 23(3), 193-198. enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle teshager ali1 , aweke shishigu2, solomon belay faris3, & sutuma edessa3 addis ababa university, ethiopia. abstract the study investigated the effect of integrating traditional medicine (tm) concepts with grade 9th microorganism and disease topics on students’ attitude towards biology. the study used a quasiexperimental pretest, posttest non-equivalent group design. two intact classes were selected in chiro district of oromia regional state, ethiopia. the first class belonged to the treatment group where tm contents are integrated through 5e’s learning cycle with the topic microorganism and disease and the second was assigned as comparison group learning the same biology unit on microorganisms and disease using the usual approach. biological attitude questionnaires (baq) was administered for both groups as preand post-tests. the findings showed that the integration of tm with the school biology enhanced students’ attitude towards biology as compared with teaching the topics without integration. keywords: traditional medicine, microorganism and disease, 5e’s learning cycle, attitude towards biology. 1 phd student in the department of science and mathematics education, ethiopia. teshagerali123@gmail.com 2 assistant professor in mathematics education, institute of educational research (ier), addis ababa university, ethiopia. awekeu@gmail.com 3 assistant professor in biology education, department of science and mathematics education, addis ababa university, ethiopia. solomon.faris@gmail.com 3 associate professor in biology education, department of science and mathematics education, addis ababa university, ethiopia. sutuma2002@yahoo.com issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 144-163 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 145 introduction the ethiopian government has given great emphasis to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) education. accordingly, a ratio of 70:30 has been advocated, i.e., to enrol 70% of students in science and technology fields (moe, 2012). this emphasis on science and technology was designed to help fill the gap for the scarcity of professionals in the construction, industry, and health care sectors. however, these objectives have not been fulfilled due to lack of competency on the part of the graduates in creating jobs and most ethiopian graduates of stem remain unemployed. this has caused the development of negative attitudes towards science and technology fields in students thus further aggravating the problem of lack of interest in science education (mulatie, 2018). students’ attitudes towards science influence their interest to study science. this affects the amount of time and effort they exert on learning/studying science, a factor which ultimately determines their academic successes (mulatie, 2018). research in science education has indicated that positive students’ attitude towards science is one of the factors that contributes to meaningful learning of science because students bring significant expectations into classrooms (alzahrani, 2016). attitude towards science can be favorable or unfavorable feelings about science as a school subject (sitotaw & tadele, 2016). the study of attitude as a construct has gained much popularity in science education research as students’ attitude towards science can affect their academic performance (osborne, simon, & collins, 2003). studies show that students are not excited by the manner that science is taught in ethiopian high school classrooms; it does not consider worldview differences nor connect their indigenous knowledge with the school science (mekuria, et al, 2018,). this disconnect and lack of context negate the development of student’s positive attitude towards science subjects. since science is presented within a western cultural context without being related to students’ everyday life, students’ interest, motivation, and enjoyment are often reduced (hussaini, foong & kamar, 2015). thus, this study investigated the role of the integration of tm with school biology in enhancing the attitudes of students by applying cultural border crossing (cbc) approach. there are no extant empirical studies on how the integration of ik tm influenced students’ attitude towards biology in ethiopia and elsewhere. thus, this is a pioneering study that focused enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 146 on investigating how students’ positive attitude towards biology can be enhanced by integrating ik with the school biology using cbc approach. it starts off with the assumption that the integration of tm with school biology can foster students’ participation, interaction, discussion, cooperative learning, and practical activities so that their attitude towards the subject may improve. applying various teaching-learning methods and relating students to their everyday life is important to enhance positive attitude towards science (alemu, 2013). the interaction of students with tm concepts as cognitive tool, and with their peers, teachers, and the regular study material may bring a positive change in their attitudes towards biology (alemu, 2013). ethiopia’s education and training policy (etp) encourages teachers to employ a constructivist and learner centered approach to teach science (etp, 1994). this approach aimed to increase students’ motivation and engagement. it helps them participate actively in constructing meaning out of their learning experience by connecting what they are learning with what they already know. tm serving as prior knowledge when integrated with school biology should thus enhance students’ understanding of the subject and improve their attitude towards it. how students perceive the learning environment can affect their attitudes towards biology. if the classroom environment addresses worldview differences through bridging school biology with indigenous knowledge, students may develop a positive attitude towards it. the study undertaken by cimer indicated that teaching biology in a manner that connects the topics with students’ everyday lifeworld helps them develop a positive attitude (cimer, 2012). research in south africa also confirmed that motivation and participation of students increases when ik practices are integrated into school science (cameron, 2007; manzini, 2006). this study investigated whether the integration of ik with school biology plays any role in enhancing students’ positive attitude towards the subject. the study employed cultural border crossing (cbc) as a framework for and bridge to biology education: students’ ik was the bridge, prior knowledge of tm and the worldview it embedded, which was linked with school biology. the approach aimed at facilitating a smooth border crossing between ik and school biology to facilitate students developing a positive attitude towards the subject. methodology teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 147 to achieve the goal of the study, a quasi-experimental pre-test, post-test non-equivalent control group design was employed. this design helps to control various extraneous variables. a total of 177 students (88 in the treatment and 89 in the comparison group) participated as intact classes from two high schools in chiro district, oromia regional state, ethiopia. the two groups had been taught the same topics (microorganism and disease) as presented in a grade 9th biology textbook. the teacher who taught the experimental group took a three-day training on how to integrate the indigenous knowledge on tm with the biology topics using the 5e’s instructional model. the comparison group were taught the same biology topics without integrating the ik but using the usual approach. the intervention lasted for six weeks after which the questionnaires were administered to both groups as post-test. the biology attitude questionnaire (baq) consisting of seven components was used as instruments of data collection. the reliability of the baq using cronbach’s alpha was 0.91. the tool was also reviewed by a panel of experts in the area to ensure face and content validity. our use of theoretical background and literature review serves to address construct validity. to ensure that the treatment group received all the aspects stipulated in the design, the procedures followed within the 5e learning cycle were as follow: o during the engagement stage students were given scenarios depicting a particular disease together with how tm healers diagnose the same ailment by prescribing a certain type of tm with a specified dosage to take apply at specific time interval. this was to get the students engaged. o during the second, explore stage, students were given points of discussion to discuss in groups and to debate. here they manipulated specific medicinal plants and discussed which part is used as medicine, how drugs are extracted, and how dosage is regulated including how the drug is administered into the body. this helped students to identify the strong and weak sides of the tm practices compared with modern medicines. this helped them to discuss the drawbacks of tms and how to improvements might be made. the teacher acts as cultural brokers and facilitates discussion as he went round each group. o in the explain stage, the students explained what was discussed in the explore stage. the teacher presented the science topic about a specific microorganism, its modes of enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 148 transmission, and measures to control the disease and tried to make a link with the traditional perception about diseases and their traditional treatment options. o in the elaborate stage the teacher allowed students to reflect on their understanding of how medicinal plants are important in curing particular diseases and compared the mechanism of control with the biomedicine. o finally, students’ understanding of the biological concepts was evaluated. results descriptive data analysis and interpretations a preliminary analysis and interpretation were made to understand the nature of data set obtained from both the pre-testsand post-tests to check assumptions and make ready for the appropriate inferential statistical tools. descriptive statistics were generated to examine the extent to which the assumptions of the statistics were satisfied. the statistical assumptions explain when it is not justifiable to perform a specific inferential statistical test. the type of inferential statistical tool planned to compare the treatment and comparison groups based on their mean score on the baq test scores was independent samples t-test. however, this statistical tool is used based on some basic statistical assumptions which include: (1) independent measurement, (2) the dependent variables should be normally distributed in each group and (3) there are equal variance (homogeneity of variance) of the dependent variable across the groups (pallant, 2005). independent measurement was assured in the research design by selecting intact classes of the respective schools and each set of participants is tested under only one treatment condition. in addition, each group was subjected to same questionnaire at same time. the normal distribution was checked using skewness. levene test was also used for further analysis of the homogeneity of variances of the data sets. teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 149 table 1. descriptive statistics summary related to the scores on baqpre and baqpost for the treatment and comparison groups group variable n mean sd min. max. skewness kurtosis treatment baqpre 88 157.56 16.49 117 185 -.382 -.512 baqpost 88 185.50 16.72 153.00 227.00 .306 -.400 comparison baqpre 89 153.56 14.02 126 187 .027 -.678 baqpost 89 170.40 12.97 143 212 .237 .162 baqpre: biology attitude questionnaire pre-test baqpost: biology attitude questionnaire post-test descriptive statistics were generated using exploratory data analysis technique to get the basic information on mean score, variation (the range of scores) and normality of the data sets obtained from pre-test and post-test. the mean score of the treatment group on the baqpre (m=157.56, sd =16.72) was almost equal to the mean score of the comparison group (m = 153.56, sd =14.02). these results revealed that the two groups were having almost equal level of attitude towards biology before the intervention. thus, any difference which would occur in the post-test results between the treatment and the comparison groups would be accounted for by the effect of the intervention. after the intervention had been carried out, a baq post-test covering the planned topics was given for the two groups immediately after. as it can be noticed in table 1, mean score of the treatment group on baqpost (m=185.50, sd = 16.72) was greater than the mean score of the comparison group (m=170.40, sd=12.97). however, it is too early to give a conclusive idea based on these results without undergoing inferential statistics. in addition, results obtained from the exploratory data analysis outputs provided in table1 were used to check some of the statistical assumptions for the independent samples t-test. the main statistical assumption that was used to check from these outputs was normality of the dependent variables in each group. the skewness of the variables was used for checking normality. from the outputs provided in table 1, it can be seen that all of these variables have skewness values between -1 and 1. these results show that the variables in each group were at least normally distributed; the baqpre and baqpost at least approximately normally distributed in each enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 150 group and were more like scale variables. hence, it was justifiable to use the independent samples t-test to compare means of the two groups on these variables. inferential statistics and interpretations table 2. independent samples t-test analysis to compare the treatment and comparison groups on baqpre variable group n m sd t df d p baqpre treatment 88 157.56 16.49 1.74 175 .26 .084 comparison 89 153.56 14.02 the above table shows a pretest on attitude scale to determine base line equivalence of the two groups. an independent samples t-test was computed to determine if a difference existed in the attitude towards biology between the treatment and comparison groups. the result shows that there was non-significant mean difference in baqpre scores between the treatment and comparison groups (t (175) = 1.74, p > .05, d = .26). this indicates that the two groups were in the same status with regard to their attitude towards biology before the intervention. therefore, any difference after the intervention can be attributed to the presence of the intervention provided that other confounding variables are controlled. attitudes of students towards biology ho-2: there is no significant difference in the mean scores of students’ attitude towards biology taught by integrating traditional medicine contents with school biology using the 5e’s learning cycle model compared with those taught the biology topic using the usual approach. table 3. independent samples t-test analysis to compare the treatment and comparison groups on the baqpost. group n m sd t df d p treatment 88 185.5 16.72 6.71 163.94 1.02 .000 comparison 89 170.40 12.97 teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 151 an independent t-test was conducted to compare students’ attitude towards biology post-test scores for the treatment and comparison groups. the value of levene’s test of equality of variance was significant (p < .05) and hence the statistics for equal variance not assumed was considered. the result displayed in table 3, revealed that the mean score of the treatment group (m=185.5, sd=16.72) is significantly greater than the mean score of the comparison group (t (163.94) = 6.71, p < .05, d = 1.02). this was manifested in the effect size of d = 1.02, which was larger than typical (cohen, 1988). this shows the treatment group possess better attitude towards biology than the comparison group after the intervention. the integration of tm with school biology was therefore effective in learning biology topics than otherwise. since the treatment group was not different significantly from the comparison group on the baqpre, the implication is that the two groups were in the same status regarding their baqpre before the intervention. therefore, the difference can be ascribed to the integration of ik with school biology. hence, we can conclude that the null hypothesis of non-significance difference in the mean scores of the two groups regarding attitude variable was rejected and the alternative hypothesis that there is significant difference in the mean scores between the treatment and the comparison groups on attitude towards biology was accepted. this indicates the integration of ik with biology topics improves students’ attitudes towards biology. the components of baq is presented in table 4 to see variability withing the construct. table 4. descriptive statistic summary of the components of biology attitude pre-test scores for the treatment and comparison groups group variable n mean sd min max skewness kurtosis treatment upre 88 25.27 4.98 15 39 .192 -.061 mppre 88 24.91 4.42 14 39 .242 .328 ipre 88 37.15 6.18 22 49 -.343 -.622 dpre 88 19.14 3.71 11 28 -.196 .099 tspre 88 19.28 3.46 10 27 .075 -.051 lapre 88 11.95 2.55 5 20 .188 -.802 fcpre 88 12.57 2.95 6 20 -.026 -.352 enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 152 comparison upre 89 23.74 3.95 13 34 -.335 -.114 mpre 89 26.33 4.05 15 38 .141 .353 ipre 89 37.45 5.58 26 51 -.154 -.559 dpre 89 18.35 2.87 11 24 .033 -.583 tspre 89 17.69 3.12 11 25 .132 -.411 lapre 89 12.60 2.76 6 19 -.196 -.452 fcpre 89 11.02 2.36 5 17 .063 .141 upre: usefulness pretest tspre: teacher support pretest mpre: motivation pretest lapre: laboratory activity pretest ipre; interest pretest fcpre: future career pretest dpre: difficulty pretest descriptive statistics were generated using exploratory data analysis technique to get the basic information on mean scores, variation (the range of scores between the maximum and minimum) and normality of data sets obtained from attitude component pretest scores. table 4 provides the descriptive statistic summary related to the upre, mpre, ipre, dpre, tspre, lapre and fcpre for the treatment and comparison groups. as can be observed from the table, the means scores on the attitude components between the treatment and comparison groups showed very slight variations on these variables before the intervention. students in the treatment group had more positive attitude towards the usefulness of biology (m=25.27, sd=4.98) than the comparison group (m= 23.74, sd = 3.95). the comparison group demonstrated somewhat greater motivation (m = 26.33, sd = 4.05) than the treatment group (m = 24.91, sd = 4.42) before intervention. the treatment group had the same interest (m = 37.15, sd = 6.18) with the comparison group (m = 37.45, sd = 5.58) before the intervention. the treatment group (m = 19.14, sd = 3.71) feel difficulty in biology learning equivalent to the comparison group (m = 18.35, sd = 2.87). the consideration of teacher’s support for biology learning was slightly greater teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 153 for the treatment group (m = 19.28, sd = 3.46) than the comparison group (m = 17.69, sd = 3.12). the attitude of students towards learning biology supported with laboratory activity was almost at the same status (m = 11.95, sd = 2.55) with the comparison group (m = 12.60, sd = 2.76). the perceptions of the students in the treatment group on the contribution of biology for future career was slightly greater (m = 12.57, sd = 2.95) than the comparison group (m = 11.02, sd = 2.36). based on these results, there were viable variations on some of the attitude components before the intervention. but these pre-existing variations can be treated as natural since there was no random assignment of students in the two groups. however, we have statistical mechanisms that can be used to control the pre-existing variation between the groups on these variables. in addition to these values, results obtained from the descriptive data analysis outputs provided in table 4 were used to check for some of the statistical assumptions for the independent samples ttest. the skewness of the variables was used for checking normality. the result shows that all the attitude components had skewness values between -1 and 1. these results tell us that the variables in each group were at least normally distributed. thus, it can be assured that attitude components were at least approximately normally distributed in each of the groups, and they were more like scale variables. hence, it was justifiable to use the independent samples t-test to compare the means of the two groups on all of the data obtained from the pretest scores of the attitude components. table 5. independent samples t-test analysis summary to compare the treatment and comparison groups on the pretest. variable group n mean sd t df p d upre treatment 88 25.27 4.98 2.268 175 .025 .34 comparison 89 23.74 3.95 mpre treatment 88 24.91 4.42 -2.224 175 .027 .34 comparison 89 26.33 4.05 ipre treatment 88 37.15 6.18 -.341 175 .733 .05 comparison 89 37.45 5.58 enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 154 dpre treatment 88 19.14 3.71 1.581 175 .116 .24 comparison 89 18.35 2.87 tspre treatment 88 19.28 3.46 3.230 175 .001 .48 comparison 89 17.69 3.12 lapre treatment 88 11.95 2.55 -1.60 175 .111 .24 comparison 89 12.60 2.76 fcpre treatment 88 12.57 2.95 3.846 166.130 .000 .25 comparison 89 11.02 2.36 an independent sample t-test presented in table 5 shows the difference obtained on each of the attitude component before the intervention. the result shows that there were non-significant mean differences on the ipre between the treatment group (t (175) = -0.341, p > 0.05). similarly, there was no statistically significant mean difference on the dpre between the treatment group (n = 88, m = 19.14, sd = 3.71) and the comparison group (n = 89, m = 18.35, sd = 2.87, t (175) = 1.581, p > 0.05). these results revealed that the treatment and comparison groups were in the same status with respect to the ipre and dpre. the result also shows that there was non-significant difference on the lapre between the treatment group and the comparison group (t (175) = -1.60, p > 0.05, d = 0.24). but there was a significant mean difference in the upre favoring the treatment group (t (175) = 2.268, p < 0.05, d = 0.34). the mean difference of mpre (t(175) = -2.224, p < 0.05, d = 0.34), was significant favoring the comparison group but the mean difference of tspre (t (175) =3.230, p <.05, d = .48), fcpre (t (166.130) = 3.846, p < .001, d =.25) is found to be statistically significant the reason the treatment group showed a better result. thus, the treatment group demonstrated favorable attitude than the comparison group on these three attitude components, namely, usefulness, teacher support, and future career and the comparison group is better in motivation component. students’ variations on these variables before the intervention is no cause for panic since such variation on the pretest can be managed by undergoing further statistical analysis (anova), while comparing the groups on post test scores for the variables. thus, ancova was teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 155 used to compare the mean difference of the two groups on the upost, mpost, tspost, and fcpost using the upre, mpre, tspre, and fcpre as covariates. table 6. descriptive statistic summary of the components of biology attitude post-test scores for the treatment and comparison groups. group variables n mean sd min max skewness kurtosis treatment upost 88 31.14 3.49 23 38 -.239 -.446 mpost 88 28.78 4.45 17 38 .025 -.248 ipost 88 42.03 6.03 31 55 .356 -.66 dpost 88 24.72 3.55 17 30 -.292 -.851 tspost 88 21.88 2.86 16 30 .135 -.171 lapost 88 15.94 2.49 7 20 -.612 -.651 fcpost 88 14.76 2.91 6 20 -.612 .253 comparison upost 89 28.63 3.17 22 36 .204 -.519 mpost 89 25.93 4.36 17 38 .177 -.04 ipost 89 38.55 5.30 29 51 .334 -.316 dpost 89 21.38 3.85 13 30 .106 -.663 tspost 89 21.07 3.36 14 28 -.110 .424 lapost 89 15.10 2.51 9 20 -.192 -.103 fcpost 89 14.06 2.98 6 18 -.639 -.293 table-6 provides the descriptive statistic summary related to the upost, mpost, ipost, dpost, tspost, lapost, and fcpost for the treatment and comparison groups. as it can be observed from the mean scores on attitude components between the treatment and comparison groups, we can see big variation on most of the variables in favor of the treatment group and the variation was nearly equal on some of the other variables. the treatment group demonstrated a positive attitude towards the usefulness of biology (m=31.14, sd=3.49) than the comparison enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 156 group (m=28.63, sd=3.17). students in the treatment group are highly motivated in learning biology (m=28.78, sd=4.45) than the students in the comparison group (m=25.93, sd=4.36). the treatment group was more interested (m= 42.03, sd=6.03) than the comparison group (m = 38.55, sd=5.30). likewise, the comparison group showed some difficulty in learning biology (m=21.38, sd=3.85) than the treatment group (m=24.72, sd=3.55). the attitude of the students in the treatment group towards teacher’s support for effective learning of biology (m=21.88, sd =2.86) is nearly equal to the comparison group (m=21.07, sd=3.36). the attitude of the treatment group in learning biology in the laboratory activity (m=15.94, sd=2.49) was nearly equal to the comparison group (m=15.10, sd=2.51). similarly, the attitude of students in the treatment group towards the importance of learning biology for future career (m=14.76, sd=2.91) was nearly equal to the comparison group (m=14.06, sd=2.98). these result shows that the comparison and treatment groups are situated at different positions regarding most of the attitude components towards biology after the intervention. the mean scores of the two groups on the ipost showed variation in favor of the treatment group. in addition to these, the results obtained from the exploratory data analysis provided in table 6 were used to check for some of the statistical assumptions for the independent samples ttest. the main statistical assumption that was used to check from these outputs was normality of the dependent variables in each group. all of the variables in the attitude components had skewness values between -1 and 1. thus, it is clear that the attitude components were at least approximately normally distributed for both groups and they were more like scale variables. hence, it was justifiable to use the independent samples t-test to compare statistically the mean difference of the two groups on all of the data obtained from the post-test scores of the attitude components. table 7. independent samples t-test analysis summary to compare the treatment and comparison groups on the attitude components of ipost, dpost and lapost variable group n m sd t df p d ipost treatment 88 42.03 6.03 4.082 175 .000 .61 comparison 89 38.55 5.30 dpost treatment 88 24.72 3.55 5.987 175 .000 .90 comparison 89 21.38 3.85 teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 157 lapost treatment 88 15.94 2.49 .026 175 .026 .34 comparison 89 15.10 2.51 table 7 provides the summary of independent samples t-test on ipost, dpost, and lapost for the treatment and comparison groups. the result of the study shows that there was statistically significant mean differences on the ipost between the treatment group (t (175) =4.082, p < 0.05). in addition to the information on the statistical significance outcome, the effect size can also provide information on the magnitude of the difference between levels of the independent variable with respect to the dependent variable. the effect size for the ipost was found to be d = .61, which was larger than typical. this result revealed the treatment group performed better than the comparison group. this shows that the integration of tm with school biology was more effective than learning biology topics without integrating tm in fostering the interest of the students in biology. similarly, there was statistically significant mean difference on the dpost (t (175) =5.987, p < 0.05). this result was manifested in the associated effect size of d = .90, which is larger than typical according to cohen (1988). this result revealed that the integration of ik with school biology highly minimized the students’ perception towards the difficulty of biology. likewise, students in the treatment group preferred to learn biology supported by the laboratory activity (t (175) =2.242, p < 0.05, d=.34). to compare the two groups on the remaining attitude components (upost, mpost, tspost and fcpost); analysis of covariance (ancova) was used considering the upre, mpre, tspre and fcpre as covariates. ancova typically provides a means of statistically controlling for the effect of continuous or scale covariate on the independent variable in predicting the dependent variable. to eliminate the bias of the treatment effect that results from the measurement error inherent in the pre-test when studying non-equivalent groups, using a reliability corrected ancova model to adjust the pretest for measurement error is essential. the ancova has statistical assumptions that increase the validity of the results obtained from it. these are independent measurements, normal distribution, homogeneity of variances and homogeneity of regression slopes. the assumption of independent measurements was addressed during the research design and data collection stage. as it is displayed in table 6, the normality and enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 158 homogeneity of variances of upost, mpost, tspost and fcpost were checked using skewness value, kurtosis and levene test. the assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes is one of the most important assumptions and it can be checked with an f test on the interaction of the independent variables with the covariate. if the f test is significant, then this assumption has been violated. in the interaction of the pre-tests and the post-tests of the four cases, the f test obtained was non-significant. hence, the assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes was not violated for group*upre (p=.463), group*mpre (p = .246), group*tspre (p = .751) and group*fcpre (p=.925). thus, these data sets were qualified for using the ancova. table 8. analysis of covariance for upost, mpost, tspost, and fcpre as a function of the groups, using the upre, mpre, tspre, and fcpre taken as a covariate source ss df ms f p eta2 upre 12.996 1 12.996 1.170 .281 .007 group 250.546 1 250.546 22.563 .000 .115 error 1932.132 174 11.104 mpre 90.470 1 90.470 4.770 .030 .027 group 411.379 1 411.379 21.691 .000 .111 error 3300.023 174 18.966 tspre 251.452 1 251.452 8.121 .005 .045 group 555.698 1 555.698 17.947 .000 .094 error 5387.468 174 30.962 fcpre 189.19 1 189.19 24.80 .000 .125 group .435 1 .435 .057 .812 error 1327.52 174 teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 159 the results displayed in table 8 indicates that after controlling for the upre, mpre, tspre and fcpre, there were significant differences between the treatment and comparison groups on the upost (f (1, 174) = 22.563, p < 0.05), mpost (f(1, 174) = 21.691, p < 0.05) and on the tspost (f(1, 174) = 17.947 , p < 0.05). to the contrary, there was non-significant difference on the fcpost between the treatment and comparison groups (f (1,174) = .057, p > 0.05). as is evident from table 8, 11.5% of the variances on the upost, 11.1% of the variances in the mpost, and 9.4% of the variances in tspost between the treatment and comparison groups were explained by the independent variable being considered. therefore, the integration of tm with school biology was effective than learning biology without integrating tm in influencing these attitude components towards biology in favor of the treatment group except fcpost. this shows that the integration of tm with school biology significantly improved attitudes of students towards biology. the integration of tm with school biology improved the general attitudes of students towards biology. therefore, the null hypothesis of no significance difference was rejected and the alternative hypothesis of there is significance difference between the two groups in terms of the six attitude components except fc is accepted in favor of the treatment group. hence, in terms of influencing attitudes of students towards biology, the integration of tm with the school biology played a very important role. discussions of the findings evaluation of the overall attitudes of students between the treatment and comparison groups showed that both groups have positive attitudes towards biology before and after the intervention. however, comparison of the two groups based on post-test mean scores indicated that students in the treatment group showed a more positive attitude towards biology than the comparison group. the analysis of data showed significant mean difference between the two groups when post-baq responses were compared. when the group that received instructions based on the integration of tm with school biology was compared with the group that received instructions without integration of tm, the result was in favor of the treatment group. this indicated that integration of tm with school biology was better in enhancing a positive attitude towards biology. if students understand the link between what they learn at school and their everyday life enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 160 experiences, they can understand its relevance. the result of the study shows that understanding the relevance of what students learn helped them develop a positive interest in learning biology which is consistent with the findings of (zinyeka, 2014; erinosho, 2013). moreover, integrating ik with school biology helped students to understand the usefulness of biology to their life, result that is in line with that of (alemu, 2013). research by erinosho also confirmed that through integration of indigenous knowledge into the subject, students can understand the usefulness of biology which in turn triggers their interest and motivation to enhance their attitude (erinosho, 2013). krogh and thomsen (2005) applied the concept of cultural border crossing in research and found it as key predictor of attitudes towards science. research showed that students in nonwestern countries faced difficulties in crossing cultural borders while learning science (webb, 2014). these difficulties in crossing cultural borders are barriers to positive attitude of students towards science. to alleviate such problems the ik of the community has to be integrated with school biology to facilitate border crossing. when students crossed cultural borders smoothly, they can understand biological concepts which in turn can improve students’ attitude towards biology. the assumption is that the integration of ik with the school biology can foster students’ participation, interaction, discussion, cooperative learning, and practical activities which altogether contribute to improve their attitude towards the subject. using a diversity of teachinglearning methods and involving students in student-centered learning by drawing on and validating their relevant prior knowledge is important to improve their attitude towards science (alemu, 2013). manganye (1994) referenced a study conducted in united kingdom that showed that students’ experience and prior knowledge influence their attitude towards science. this supports the position that integrating students’ ik with school biology as their everyday life experience and prior knowledge would play an important role in increasing the usefulness of biology and in improving attitude. on the other hand, low interest in learning biology could be due to lack of relevance of biology to student’s everyday life, the alienation of biology from the society, and the prevalence of isolated scientific facts in the teaching process (alemu, 2013). according to several studies, students’ attitudes towards science can also hinder their career choices (alemu, 2013; manganye, 1994; nasr & soltani, 2011). the above ideas indicated teshager ali, aweke shishigu, solomon belay faris, & sutuma edessa ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 161 that attitude of students towards science/biology can determine their job preferences. this means that when students develop positive attitude towards science/biology, they are likely to choose science/biology related careers. thus, among the factors which need to be considered in determining job preferences, students’ attitude toward science is worth mentioning. furthermore, it was found that the way science is taught by relating the topics to students’ everyday life contributed to enhancing attitudes towards biology. conclusions and recommendation. integration of ik with school biology facilitated smooth border crossing for the students by creating a favorable classroom environment. smooth border crossing could be a factor that affects students’ attitude towards the subject. this was because favorable learning environment and students’ involvement to cross cultural borders between the two forms of knowledge has an important influence upon student attitudes toward biology. this approach has the potential to motivate students to engage in meaningful learning. the integration of indigenous knowledge into science curriculum is effective in improving students’ attitude towards biology. additionally, as indigenous knowledge has science embedded in it, it provides solutions to many real-life problems. although there are several qualitative studies concerning the integration of ik into science curriculum, there is scarcity of quantitative data regarding the role of indigenous knowledge in improving the attitude of students towards biology/science. hence, we hope that this article can provide useful insights concerning integration of indigenous knowledge with school biology to improve students’ positive attitude towards biology. finally, it is recommended to integrate ik with science subjects as it enhances students’ attitude towards the subject and can play a role for understanding the concepts under study. we also like to recommend that future research might focus on assessing the challenges of integrating ik with science subjects in different cultural settings. author contribution • shager ali was responsible for writing the draft background and literature review. he was also involved with field data collection and data analysis. • aweke shishigu was responsible for writing the research report and for reviewing the entire section for completeness and consistency. enhancing students’ attitude towards biology through the integration of traditional medicine and 5e’s learning cycle ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 144-163 162 • solomon belay faris was responsible for writing the research report and for reviewing the entire section for completeness and consistency • sutuma edessa was responsible for writing the research report and for reviewing the entire section for completeness and consistency references alemu, y. 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(2014). the epistemological basis of indigenous knowledge systems in science education (doctoral dissertation, university of pretoria). class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools fer coenders1, nuno gomes2, rola sayegh3, isaac kinyanjui4, aurelle noutahi5, nissi madu6 1 university of twente, the netherlands 2 nuclio, portugal 3 imc, germany 4 e-limu, kenya 5 etrilabs, republic of benin 6 cchub, nigeria**1 abstract inquiry based learning (ibl) is a form of active learning, often used in stem education to promote conceptual learning and to acquire scientific investigation skills. this paper reports on a study in which teachers in kenya, nigeria and the republic of benin implemented ibl embedded in online and offline inquiry learning spaces (ils) in their classes using the go-lab platform (https://www.golabs.eu). after a brief description of the ibl methodology, of lab work and in particular virtual labs for stem education, of the process of preparing teachers to use ibl in class, and of the context of this study, we highlight the methodology used, and finally report our results. these show that the introduction and class enactment of a digital inquiry based learning platform such as go-lab in africa (i) is possible, although challenging, (ii) does lead to student learning, (iii) for this to take place teacher training is necessary, (iv) the digital infrastructure is **12. núcleo interactivo de astronomia, são domingos de rana, portugal, http://nuclio.org; 3. information multimedia communication ag, saarbruecken, germany, www.im-c.com 4. elimu elearning company limited, nairobi, kenya, http://e-limu.org 5. educational technology and research international, cotonou, benin republic, http://etrilabs.com 6. co-creation hub, lagos, nigeria, http://cchubnigeria.com african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 9 no. 2 2020 pages 1-22 https://www.golabs.eu/ http://nuclio.org/ fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 2 present in the schools though minimal and fragile, and (v) a local partner needs to provide assistance when required. key words: inquiry-based learning; stem education; digital learning environment; go-lab. introduction science and technology is becoming increasingly important in our society. to learn about science and technology is therefore essential for today’s students. at a student personal level, this helps them to participate as informed members in society, and the scientific ways of thinking and skills help them in making personal decisions based on evidence. at societal level it will help to cater for sufficient, well-educated practitioners in these areas (bybee, 2013). hence there is a compelling need for appropriate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) education, even at secondary school level (de meester et al., 2020). in order to stimulate deep conceptual learning, inquiry based learning (ibl) in which students engage in the scientific process, is often used in stem education (national academies of sciences, 2019, 2020). the introduction of ibl in africa faces a number of challenges. the lack of laboratories and science equipment in schools, and insufficient trained teachers to use ibl, are two of the main obstacles. one possible way to overcome the first obstacle is to replace (part of) the hands-on labs by virtual ones in a digital environment (gillet et al., 2019). this paper recounts the outcomes of class implementation of digital labs and simulations in an ibl environment in secondary schools in three african countries: kenya, nigeria, and the republic of benin. participants ‘reactions, teacher learning, organisational support, class implementation, and student learning will be reported. conceptual framework inquiry based learning a meta-analysis of undergraduate stem education shows that active learning is by far more effective than traditional lecturing (freeman et al., 2014). inquiry based learning (ibl) can be seen as a specific form of engaged or active learning (de jong, 2019). in engaged learning, students perform meaningful activities with the learning content, and go beyond the information that is offered to them. in ibl, students are presented a scientific question and by performing investigations or collecting data, they are going to find an answer to this question. based on the results of the investigations, students infer what this means for the subject domain (vorholzer, class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 3 von aufschnaiter, & boone, 2020; xenofontos, hovardas, zacharia, & de jong, 2020). in contrast to traditional teaching where students often confirm knowledge, in ibl students construct meaning. ibl is not effective when the entire process is left to the students (de jong, 2019); students need to be given the appropriate level of control (lazonder & harmsen, 2016). finding the right balance between student and teacher (system) control is not simple (bevins & price, 2016) and this balance depends heavily on the educational contexts and cultures (national academies of sciences, 2018): what are the practices students normally engage in, what competences do students have, and what expertise do teachers have, how is learning assessed. analysis of pisa data has shown that the more open forms of ibl resulted in a more positive attitude towards science, and an increased interest and enjoyment in science, whereas the more closed teacher-centred forms of ibl led to higher knowledge scores (cairns & areepattamannil, 2019). the authors of the last study call for addressing each of the different domains (conceptual, epistemic, social, and procedural), and to allow for an appropriate level of guidance of students. (see also the work of kirschner, sweller, & clark, (2006), explaining why minimal guidance does not work). so, to assist students develop interest and enjoyment in science along with acquiring specific content knowledge, the degree of openness is crucial. lab work there is vast evidence that student learning outcome using non-traditional laboratories (virtual and remote) is at least equal to those using traditional labs (hands-on) (dalgarno, bishop, adlong, & bedgood, 2009; rowe, koban, davidoff, & thompson, 2018; rutten, van joolingen, & van der veen, 2012). dalgarno (2009) and colleagues report on studies exploring the effectiveness of a virtual environment based on a chemistry laboratory as a tool to prepare university chemistry students studying at a distance and it was found that the environment was able to be effective as a tool for familiarizing students with the laboratory. rutten (2012) and his team reviewed literature from the past decade and indicated that their review provides robust evidence that computer simulations can enhance traditional instruction, especially as far as laboratory activities are concerned, even though, in most of this research the use of computer simulations has been approached without consideration of the possible impact of teacher support. rowe (2018) and colleagues evaluated student experiences in online laboratory courses. students were surveyed about their satisfaction and perceptions of usability and learning in both hands-on (at home) and computer-based simulation (virtual) labs in a variety of natural science courses. the majority of fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 4 survey respondents felt their online laboratory experience was the same as or better than their prior experiences in the traditional setting. brinson (2015) carried out a comprehensive review of empirical studies comparing learning outcome achievement using traditional hands-on labs and non-traditional virtual and remote labs, and found that student achievement across all outcome categories (brinson distinguished: knowledge and understanding, inquiry skills, practical skills, perception, analytical skills, and social and scientific communication) is equal to or higher in nontraditional labs. virtual labs have several advantages over hands-on labs: they are cheaper as no labs nor equipment is required, have less environmental impact (no waste), and students have unlimited access and can easily repeat experiments. preparation before, and cleaning and clearing after a lab, are also different when using virtual labs. hands-on labs are necessary to master manual skills, like using glassware, pipettes, materials, and equipment. especially in times of curriculum renewals, the discussion about the need of lab work and its effectiveness in terms of student learning flares up. this also happened after the introduction of the k-12 science framework (council, 2012) in the usa. the discussion seems to revolve around terminology and epistemic agency (furtak & penuel, 2019; larkin, 2019; miller, manz, russ, stroupe, & berland, 2018; osborne, 2019). furtak and penuel (2019) argue that students “should engage in scientific inquiry, but with the priority of embedding those experiences in iterative cycles that will lead to the explanation of phenomena “. osborne (2019) emphasises the “minds on” aspect, and stresses that argue and critique activities are indispensable for scientists and engineers. in this discussion the tension is to mediate between students’ experiences and the knowledge of the disciplines we want them to learn. larkin (2019) contends that public understanding of science education is important and that any communication about this will fail if affective factors, “which are highly activated when discussing science and science education publicly”, are not considered. virtual labs and go-lab combining virtual and remote labs with ibl has resulted in the go-lab platform. in this platform (www.golabz.eu), digital labs from different sources, such as the phet labs, amrita, molecular workbench, chemcollective, have been brought together. however, this platform is not just a repository of labs, but it also houses a collection of apps and so-called inquiry learning spaces (ilss). an app is a small software tool that can help students in their inquiry process, such as the http://www.golabz.eu/ class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 5 ‘hypothesis scratchpad’ to assist students to formulate a hypothesis, the ‘table tool’ to assist in organizing experimental data, or the “input box” as a simple note taking tool (https://www.golabz.eu/apps). an inquiry learning space (ils) is a personalized learning environment for students, consisting of a virtual (or remote) lab, several apps to scaffold student learning, and multimedia material to connect the learning to a context, such as videos, images, external links, and articles. an ils follows an inquiry cycle. the default inquiry cycle comprises of the phases orientation, conceptualization, investigation, conclusion, and discussion (pedaste et al., 2015). these are also used in nigeria and in the republic of benin. the ministry of education in kenya decided to use the 5e phases, that is: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, evaluate. teachers can configure the inquiry cycle they want to use to their own needs in go-lab. ilss are developed by local teachers, and this is vital as they know their students’ needs and interests and understand the educational context and culture at school. teachers therefore also understand what the appropriate level of student guidance in an ils should be. and the teachers understand at what level the questions and assignment in the ils have to be formulated (tawfik, graesser, gatewood, & gishbaugher, 2020). when developing an ils, teachers can start from scratch, or they can copy an existing ils from another teacher from the go-lab website and modify this before using it with their students. the quality of labs, apps and ilss has been given specific attention at the go-lab website: a “rate and comment” function with a five-point scale is available for this. the use of digital labs on the go-lab platform can also be seen in terms of using lab work which is quite common in the natural sciences (ton de jong, linn, & zacharia, 2013). the effectiveness of ‘normal’ lab work however needs to be improved (millar & abrahams, 2009), especially with respect to the use of sufficient “minds on” activities to strengthen cognitive processes. the go-lab platform is very well suited to incorporate “minds on” activities in an ils. the teachers teachers still play a critical role in the success of their students (national academies of sciences, 2019, 2020). introducing go-lab in stem education will affect the role students and teachers play in class. teachers no longer transmit knowledge but engage students actively in learning science and mathematics. this requires teacher preparation before (van uum, peeters, & verhoeff, 2019), and support during class implementation. in order to be successful, teachers need to acquire specific pedagogical content knowledge (pck) (shulman, 1986). pck can be seen as https://www.golabz.eu/apps fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 6 an amalgam of content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of the curriculum, knowledge of the students, and knowledge of assessment practices (gess-newsome, 1999, 2015; magnusson, krajcik, & borko, 1999). in order to describe the way teachers integrate ict skills into their teaching, technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck) has been introduced (koehler & mishra, 2013). a study conducted by mtebe & raphael (2018) in tanzania showed that teachers confidence level in tpck is lower than that in content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. a study in 30 secondary schools in kenya revealed that teachers do not feel well prepared for ict integration at school (mwangi & khatete, 2017). a similar study among mathematics teachers in kenya confirmed this, and the author recommends intensive training during pre-service and in-service (amuko, 2015). the teachers involved in go-ga need to acquire pck about inquiry based learning (ibl), how this relates to doing lab work and practical activities, and the pedagogies that can be used to effectively teach in the ibl spirit. and on top of this pck, teachers also need to become familiar with the go-lab digital ecosystem (ton de jong, sotiriou, & gillet, 2014) in order to develop the ilss they are going to use with their students (the tpck). to make the situation even more complex, successful class implementation further requires a proper digital infrastructure at school, which means having sufficient computers or laptops for class use and having stable and fast internet connectivity when using the ilss online. so, it is not surprising that even after intensive teacher preparation, there might be some hesitation from the side of the teachers to bring their newly developed knowledge and skills into the actual classroom practice (fullan, 2007). as teachers in class use routine actions, changing these is complex (schön, 1983) and teachers will first need to unlearn their previous “repertoire”. preparing teachers is therefore seen as a process, not just an event, it takes time (fullan, 2007). different models have been developed to visualize such complex teacher learning (clarke & hollingsworth, 2002; coenders & terlouw, 2015), and these models also apply to learning how to deal with inquiry based learning in a digital environment. the context of this study this paper reports the findings of a study in which teachers implemented an inquiry learning space (ils) using the go-lab platform in their classes. the study was part of go-ga, a project funded by the european union (https://go-ga.org), and was conducted in kenya, nigeria and the republic of benin. the go-ga consortium consisted of five partners in five european countries, and three https://go-ga.org/ class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 7 partners in africa, one in each of the target countries. in a first study that is not the scope of this paper, only teachers who had internet at school where invited to join. in this study, teachers in schools without internet were encouraged to participate. to facilitate this, an offline viewer had to be developed, this was done by the consortium. this offline viewer will enable students to use a computer to go through the inquiry learning space (ils) in class without having an internet connection. as a first step, teachers developed the ils for their students online. they subsequently downloaded this ils into the offline viewer. back at school, teachers installed the offline viewer and the ils on each computer or laptop their students were going to use. and students could now work on the ils without an internet connection. before ils class implementation, the teachers received training: first an introductory course in ibl, and then an intensive three-day seminar with two main components: (a) how to develop an ils using the go-lab ecosystem, and (b) how to implement an ils in class. most teachers implemented the personally developed ils in class at their school. some however used an ils developed by a colleague. during class implementation teachers were supported through a teacher implementation manual, available on paper and as a pdf, an online helpdesk, and email. additionally, teachers could communicate with each other and the support staff through a whatsapp group. this study investigated what happened when teachers implemented an (offline) ils in class. because teacher training was an essential feature of this innovation, the following five levels to evaluate teacher professional development were used (guskey, 2000): 1) participants’ reactions; 2) teacher learning; 3) organisation support & change; 4) participants’ use of new knowledge and skills: class implementation; 5) student learning outcomes. method participants all teachers participated voluntarily. in kenya, 26 teachers participated, in nigeria 33, and in benin 13. these teachers taught 83 ils classes to over 2400 students. instruments as schools without internet participated, it was not possible to use online evaluation instruments to evaluate the outcome of this study. instead paper and pencil questionnaires to gather data from teachers and students were used. these questionnaires were administered at the end of an ils fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 8 class. in addition, a class implementation report was compiled, and brief teacherand student interviews immediately after class were conducted. to get an idea of the magnitude of change for teachers and students, questions about ‘normal’ class practices were included in the student questionnaire. as a result, the questionnaires contained five categories of questions: class use, teacher satisfaction and preparedness, student satisfaction and learning, pedagogical issues, and ‘normal’ class practices. for each of these categories, questions were formulated. the teacher questionnaire contained 16 questions; all were multiple choice or factual questions (for example “how many male students were in class?”). for two multiple choice questions teachers were requested to explain their answer (for example “please indicate what you are not satisfied with”). the student questionnaire consisted of 14 questions. four of these were about ‘normal class practices’. all questions except one were multiple choice. in this open question, students were requested to indicate what they had learned in their ils lesson. the class observation report items were factual (for example: “did the lesson start on time and could the students finish on time”). for the teacher and the student interviews a concise interview guide was prepared. the interviews were recorded. all materials were translated into french to accommodate the teachers and students in benin. procedure on the day of a class implementation, a local go-ga staff member visited the school. there were two main reasons for this: a) to assist the teacher with the last preparation of the computers or laptops, and b) to do the evaluation, that is to administer the paper and pencil questionnaires, to conduct the interviews at the end of the lesson, and to compile the class implementation report. the answers to the paper and pencil teacher questionnaires where digitized. a randomly chosen number of the student questionnaires, filled in by student groups in kenya and by individual students in nigeria and benin, was digitized per class. when possible, randomly selected individual students were interviewed whenever possible, while the rest were filling in questionnaires, this to avoid interrupting classes. when possible, the teacher was also interviewed. for each implemented ils class, a teacher evaluation questionnaire was received: for kenya 27, for nigeria 40, and for benin 16. the numbers of student evaluation questionnaires received were: for kenya 103 (filled in by student groups), for nigeria 473, and for benin 209. not all teachers class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 9 could be interviewed: in total 10 teacher interviews from kenya, 14 from nigeria, and 11 from benin were received and analyzed, 35 in total. interviewing students proved challenging, mainly because insufficient time after class to conduct the interviews as students had to rush for a next class. the following numbers of student interviews were received: ten from kenya, two from nigeria, and six from benin, 18 in total. as the number of interviewed teachers and students was limited, these data were used to triangulate the data from questionnaires and the class observation reports. data analyses the following were data that could be used: 83 teacher evaluation questionnaires, 785 student evaluation questionnaires, 59 class observation reports, 35 teacher interviews and 18 student interviews. for data analysis, the following strategy was used: first, all teacher and student evaluation questionnaires were digitized to an excel form. subsequently, these data were analysed using descriptive statistics. the answers to the open student question, about what they had learned, were categorised using grounded theory principles (gibbs, 2018). this resulted in several categories such as: specific content, easier to understand, more fun/enjoyable interesting, computer use, research skills. for the purposes of validation, similar questions from the teacherand the student questionnaire were compared. for the same reasons, similar questions from the questionnaire were compared to the class observation report. with respect to the interviews: the first step was to transcribe the audio or video recordings. the data were then summarized using descriptive statistics. results and conclusions first a few general data. in kenya, 26 teachers taught 27 ils classes using 22 different ilss to 938 students, 455 male and 483 female, in 19 schools. in nigeria, 724 students, 293 male and 431 female, in 17 schools were taught 40 ils classes by 33 teachers using 8 different ilss. in the republic of benin: 13 teachers taught 16 ils classes using 10 different ilss to 754 students, 418 male and 336 female, in 9 schools. in summary, in all three countries, 83 ils classes were taught by 72 teachers to 2416 students in 45 schools, using 40 different ilss. as expected, most of the teachers used an offline ils (kenya 85%; nigeria 89%; benin 100%). the data show that class practice in this ils lesson was not so different from a ‘normal’ class: fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 10 doing assignments was rather common: 97% of the kenyan students did assignments in class at least regularly, and all students at least regularly at home. in nigeria, 84% at least regularly in class and 94% at least regularly as homework. for benin, the numbers are: 87% in class and 95% at home. practical lab work was quite common: in kenya 97%, in nigeria 59%, and in benin 72% of the students do this at least so now and then. this means that setting up and performing an experiment is not new to students. however, although doing assignments and practical work were activities students had regularly performed in a ‘normal’ class, the ils class was different because it was an inquiry-based lesson on the computer: computer-based learning was new for large numbers of students (kenya 42%; nigeria 66%; benin 67%). the rest of the results will be reported using the five levels indicated above: participants’ reactions; teacher learning; organisation support and change; participants’ use of new knowledge and skills: class implementation; student learning outcomes. participants’ reactions how satisfied were the teachers and the students about this ils lesson? most teachers were satisfied with the lesson, kenya (88%), nigeria (82%) and benin (62%). some teachers were also interviewed about this, 34 in total, and 90% of these teachers were very positive. teachers in benin experienced quite a few technical problems, for example, due to the use of outdated operating systems causing the computers to crash. almost all students responded to have liked the ils lesson, and this was confirmed by their teachers who also thought that their students liked the lesson. even in benin more than 90% of the students indicated to have liked the lesson. the conclusion is that both the teachers as well as the students appreciated the ils lesson. this is an important first indicator for a successful class implementation. teacher learning teacher training and preparation should lead to teacher learning. in this study we asked the teachers after they had taught the ils in class how well prepared they felt, whether they understand inquiry based learning, and what ils they had used; whether one they had developed themselves or one from a colleague. here are the results: how well prepared to teach did the teachers feel? all kenyan teachers felt well prepared to teach the lesson. in nigeria, 80% felt well prepared and the rest felt somewhat prepared. in benin 77% of the teachers felt well prepared, 15% a bit, and class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 11 one teacher (8%) did not feel prepared at all; this last teacher had not attended the teacher preparation program but was invited by a colleague at school to teach the lesson. almost all teachers indicated that they understood the principles of inquiry based learning themselves. although self-reported by teachers, this result is encouraging as it means that teachers felt comfortable to assist their students in a way that suits ibl. ils development. teachers could develop the ils they wanted to use themselves, they could use one from a colleague, or they could use one from the go-lab repository. this last option was not used by these teachers. we noticed that in kenya, the ilss were mainly developed by the teachers themselves (88%); in nigeria by 30%; and in benin by 50%. this shows that many teachers used an ils developed by a colleague teacher, especially in nigeria and benin. the reason seems to be that most teachers were based in a so-called stem cell school, in which all teachers of stem subject regularly meet to discuss educational issues (see also “organization support & change” below). level of teacher proficiency in developing student learning materials as these teachers during their initial pre-service teacher training were educated to become teachers and not specifically to become developers of student learning material, a substantive part of the teacher training in this study was devoted to assisting them to develop an ils. one of the important aspects in an ils is the clarity of the instructions for students. do the students understand the instructions (know what to do) and are they able to do this? on this, we noticed that in kenya, 61% of the students responded that the instructions were very clear; in nigeria, 63%; and for benin 50%, with a difference between small (49%) and larger (66%) student groups in benin! larger student groups rated the clarity of the instructions in the ils higher. this apparently contradictory result might be related to the fact that their ils session was more teacher-led and there was more discussion. after having used the ils in class most of the 34 interviewed teachers were able to give suggestions for improvements: in kenya, these improvements were mainly related to the developed ils, like a different introduction for the students or more questions to make them think about phenomena. these suggestions were within the power of the teachers themselves; they can make these changes. in nigeria, the suggestions varied from having more apps and labs available for an ils, to having fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 12 more symbols for mathematical operations. these suggestions were related to the go-lab infrastructure and not to their own developed ils. however, for benin the improvements were mainly related to the digital infrastructure. the schools had computers running on old operating systems, and the number of devices in class was also limited. in conclusion: • it is important that the teachers develop the ils themselves since they understand their students, are familiar with the (educational) culture, know the curriculum that has to be taught, and know-how and with what type of tests or exams the students will be assessed. • according to both the students and the teachers, there is room for improvement of the ilss. for example, the clarity of the instructions can be improved. as developing student learning material was new to most teachers, they will need a few cycles of development, implementation, and reflection te become better developers. • is seems important to tailor the training program even more to the teachers’ needs and competences, as one of the observations was that teachers differ greatly in computer literacy. additionally, when it comes to the development of student learning material, teachers differ strongly, with some having no experience with this at all. a few teachers had already started to use ibl with their students, however, for most this was totally new. moreover, with respect to the use of practical work, and the use of student cooperative learning, teachers had very diverse experiences and competences. organisation support and change support from the school administration and from colleagues is seen as a condition to use an innovative approach in class. we noticed that support at school level was present as almost all headteachers supported ils class implementation. • teachers in so-called stem schools, schools where teachers of the stem subjects regularly meet to discuss educational issues related to their subject, are used to collaboration within their schools. in nigeria, most participating schools were stem schools, and this is reflected in the data: 40 ils classes were taught by 33 teachers at 17 schools, only using 8 different ilss. this means that they shared the teaching resources, in this case the ils. in benin, where class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 13 stem cells at schools were also introduced, we noticed a similar trend (see also teacher learning above). • to assist teachers before, during, and after implementation, four sources were available: a teacher implementation manual (tim) was distributed and used during teacher training, a whatsapp group within each country was set up, teachers could us the online go-lab helpdesk (chat), and teachers could request for assistance through e-mail. the tim was used during the training and served as a reference manual when teachers were back at their school. through the whatsapp group teachers could solicit for advice, even when back at school, from their colleagues. • most teachers used the teacher implementation manual (kenya 23 out of 26 teachers; nigeria 20 of the 33; benin 12 of the 13). • whatsapp group support came second (in kenya 8 teachers indicated to have used it; in nigeria 3; and in benin 8). • the online helpdesk and the e-mail option where used very little, only 8 times in total by all teachers. this is not surprising as most schools did not have internet, and communication through chat or e-mail using a phone is not easy. in conclusion: school support, from the headteacher and colleagues, are prerequisites for implementing and sustaining an innovation. more stem teachers participating in one school stimulates implementation. additionally, when students can use ilss in more stem subject classes, they become more familiar with inquiry based learning, and will gradually develop the competences for this approach. also, support, in the form of a teacher implementation manual and a whatsapp group, during teacher training and when teachers are back at school, is essential. teachers’ use of new knowledge and skills: class use the training program the teachers followed before class implementation focussed on understanding ibl, the development of an ils, and what to do in class (teachers and students). the training was therefore geared towards ultimate class use. the main observations during class use were that the number of devices per group varied strongly. • up to 4 students in a group is considered workable, when a group has more students than 4 it is impossible for each of the students to fully participate in the work. in this study we noticed fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 14 that, for kenya, just more than half of the groups consisted of up to four students; for nigeria this was 63%; and for benin it was only 33%. this means that the group size in most countries was rather high, too high for effective learning. it is necessary to explore alternatives, such as having only half of the students work on the ils in class and let the others take on other activities, and then swap in the next period. or use one computer plus a projector, and go through the ils with the whole class, a teacher-led ils class. the teacher can ask small student groups to discuss each specific task in the ils, and then assist students to formulate a response as a class. • class size varied widely. in kenya, the average class size was 35 students, in nigeria 18, and in benin 47. when we take the number of 4 students per group as a starting point (see above), this means that in benin at least 12 per class devices are required! • the use of a digital platform for teaching and learning where the students are in control, also means that the teachers must take up a different role. in class, the teachers o monitored groups (kenya 20 teachers (out of 26); nigeria 26 (out of 33); benin 12 (out of 13), o answered questions (kenya 13 teachers; nigeria 22; benin 10), o explained content to the class (kenya 11 teachers; nigeria 25; benin 3), o explained the procedure to the class (kenya 8 teachers; nigeria 24; benin 8). o ideally explaining content or the procedure to the whole class should not be necessary (or only occasionally) as the ils should connect to students’ prior knowledge, and the instructions in the ils should explain the procedure clearly. • what kind of assistance did the teachers have to provide, with the content, with computer use or with the inquiry process. our data reveal that teacher assistance was provided in the following way: o in kenya 70% of the students responded to have needed help; even 85% of the teachers indicated this: 31% required help with content, 35% computer use and 19% for ibl. o in nigeria 57% of the students indicated to have needed help from their teacher; even 85% of the teachers said to have helped the students: 55% related to the inquiry process, 25% related to content and 5% to computer use. o in benin 75% of the students indicated to have needed help; according to the teachers even 95%: 50% for computer use, 38% the inquiry process and 6% for content. class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 15 we noticed clear differences between the three countries. in benin most of teacher help was for computer use, this might also be related to the issue of computers with outdated operating systems. • quite a few teachers in kenya (52%), nigeria (37%) and benin (56%) experienced problems in class; like not working ilss offline (because of technical problems), or because parts of ilss were not working properly offline. we do not know whether these problems emerged because of technical issues related to go-lab, to the use of computers running on old operating systems, or to improper use of apps and labs. • technical problems were reported by students in kenya (29%), nigeria (31%), and benin (56%), such as misfunctioning of the technique, due mainly to crashed or very slow computers. in conclusion: teachers were able to successfully use an ilss in class. the teacher implementation manual and the whatsapp groups were used to find, or to solicit for, support. they were able to connect seamlessly with students’ prior and prerequisite knowledge in the ils, both with respect to content as for computer use, will make student learning less dependent on teacher assistance, and boost students' sense of agency. as ibl was new to students, the level of student support in the ils needs to be higher. when students gain more experience with ibl, this scaffolding in the ilss can gradually be reduced. better alignment of the teacher training with the local context, such as the number of available devices and the computer literacy of teachers and students, will also strengthen class implementation. an example of this is paying explicit attention during the teacher training to those pedagogies that most likely will be used in the classrooms (like the example above, to effectively use one computer plus a projector in class). student learning outcomes an innovative approach must yield at least as much knowledge and skills in students as the pedagogies used before. one of the indicators for student learning is whether they were able to finish the work, and whether they were able to write down what they had learned. we noticed that: • with respect to finishing the ils, most students in kenya finished the ils (95%). in nigeria this was 85%; and in benin this was lower, 80%. this might be caused by classes starting late fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 16 due to technical problems with the computers as was reported above and due to computer crashes. • students mentioned to have learned specific content (kenya 40%; nigeria 61%; benin 42%). examples of what students mentioned are, “atomic structure, what are isotopes and examples of isotopes”; “ohm’s law”; “i have learned to construct a graph of tangent, cosine and sine”; “i learned how plants grow with the help of photosynthesis”. • students mentioned that it was easier or more fun (kenya, 50%; nigeria 10%; benin 39%). examples of answers are, “i learnt that using computers to learn actually made it easier to learn”; “i learnt that using computers in learning is a very fun aspect of learning and also helps in expanding our knowledge on the topic”; and “ the simple and more interesting way of learning chemistry”. although we did not actually assess students’ knowledge gains through a summative test, the fact that the students were able to indicate what they had learned, and the fact that a large number of students mentioned content gains, can be seen as an indication of student learning. so, the conclusion is that class use did lead to student learning. however, this can certainly be enhanced through improvements in the ils. discussion the infrastructure the use of inquiry based learning in a digital infrastructure (go-lab) presupposes a few things. first, the users, both teachers and students, need to have a basic understanding of computers. second, schools need to have sufficient computers available with up-to-date operating systems and anti-virus programs. when these presuppositions are met, ils class implementation would be more effective. teachers were not trained to develop learning material for their students. therefore, developing an ils needs to be made as simple as possible so that the teachers can focus on the content instead of the infrastructure. it is imperative that local teachers need to develop the ils themselves (national academies of sciences, 2020). what can be left to students in an ils and what needs to be given or supported is not a simple matter, as this also heavily depends on what students are used to. this means that the context determines the amount of scaffolding in an ils. it is however important that students are given the appropriate level of control in an ils (bevins & prince, 2016; de jong, 2019; lazonder & harmsen, 2026). class experiences with inquiry learning spaces in go-lab in african secondary schools ajote vol. 9 no. 2 (2020),1-22 17 teacher participation and commitment for the participating teachers this study entailed two innovations at the same time, the introduction of a student-centered ibl pedagogy (vorholzer et al., 2020; xenofontos et al., 2020) in which the student groups determine the pace, the order of going through an ils, and the way they want to collaborate in their group, as well as the use of a digital environment (ton de jong et al., 2014) in a complex school context. we noticed that for quite a few teachers, class implementation was especially challenging. there are different reasons for this but the main uncertainty for teachers was how the students were going to react. the teachers’ confidence level is important (amuko, 2015; mtebe & raphael, 2018; mwangi & khatete, 2017). also important in this are students’ computer competency levels, how they perceive inquiry-based learning, and how they collaborate. and of course, whether the students will be able to understand the tasks in the ils. class introduction of an ils poses challenges for the teachers themselves as well. when lecturing and explaining content, they have the control of the class, but when students are given the control, what do the teachers have to do? what are their new roles in class, and how can they execute these roles? how can they be trained for these new roles? so, preparing teachers for this is not simple, it is certainly not an event but a complex process (author, 2015; fullan, 2007). it will take time. local partner it was necessary to have a member from the local partner present at school on the day of the ils class. this member assisted in setting it all up and served to encourage the teachers to scale the hurdles that came up. without the presence and support from these local partners, teachers would probably have cancelled or postponed many ils classes. finally, this study showed that the introduction and class enactment of a digital inquiry based learning platform in each of the three african countries is possible and does lead to student learning. for this to take place it is important to train the teachers, to make sure the digital infrastructure at school is present, and it helps a lot when a local partner can provide assistance when needed. acknowledgment this work was funded by the european union’s horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the grant agreement no 781012. we are greatly indebted to the teachers in kenya, nigeria fer coenders, nuno gomes, rola sayegh, isaac kinyanjui, aurelle noutahi, & nissi madu ajote vol. 9. no 2 (2020), 1-22 18 and the republic of benin who took part in this adventure. they participated voluntarily, without external incentives. their sole reason to participate was to improve their students’ education. references amuko, s. 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(2020). inquiry-based learning and retrospective action: problematizing student work in a computer-supported learning environment. journal of computer assisted learning, 36(1), 12-28. retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jcal.12384. doi:10.1111/jcal.12384 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09738-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-019-9818-z https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-018-9691-1 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jcal.12384 adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa sunday itasanmi1, morakinyo akintolu2, & mathew t. oni3 1dept of adult education, university of ibadan, nigeria. 2unesco chair on open distance learning, dept of educational foundations, university of south africa. 3dept of early childhood and educational foundations, university of ibadan, nigeria. abstract this study reported a survey conducted to assess the job satisfaction level among adult literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa. the study adopted a quantitative approach and data was collected from eighty-six (86) adult literacy facilitators (nigeria-50 and south africa-36) randomly selected from oyo state, nigeria and king cetshwayo district, kwazulu-natal province, south africa. a structured questionnaire validated by experts and pilot-tested among primary school teachers serves as the research instrument. data collected from the study were analysed using frequency count, simple percentages, mean, multiple regression analysis and t-test. results revealed that adult literacy facilitators' job satisfaction level in the two countries is on average. provision of a positive working environment in terms of improvement in the infrastructural facilities in the literacy centre was ranked first amongst others as ways to improve the job satisfaction of literacy facilitators. there was, however, no statistical difference in job satisfaction among literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa. therefore, it was concluded that conscious effort must be made at mapping out strategies to improve literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction to enhance adult literacy delivery in the two countries. keywords: adult literacy, facilitator, job satisfaction, nigeria, south africa, oyo state, kwazulu-natal province 1. introduction work is an essential part of an individual’s life as it takes a substantial part of the productive time of the individual with a hopeful desire to either fulfil personal desires or family needs. satisfaction, on the other hand, refers to how an individual feels after a need is satisfied. job african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 325-345 sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 326 satisfaction is defined as the level to which a worker has a sense of job stability, career growth and a comfortable work-life balance. thus, it describes the favourableness or otherwise with which an employee views their jobs, and this often occurs when job requirements are suited to the wants and expectations of the workers (misha, 2013). ukessays (2018, para. 1), defines job satisfaction as the emotional response of a worker to different job-related factors occasioned by "finding pleasure, comfort, confidence, rewards, personal growth, and various positive opportunities, including upward mobility, recognition and appraisal did on merit with monetary value as compensation". in other words, workers’ job satisfaction describes an attitudinal element of workers towards their job and this is dependent on the perception of the degree to which they like or dislike the job (akinwale and george, 2020). job satisfaction is perceived to be directly linked to workers’ productivity and general well-being. therefore, it implies “doing a job one enjoys, doing it well and being rewarded for one’s efforts” (aziri, 2011, pp. 2). job satisfaction literature is dominated by two theories, namely, two-factor theory, and expectancy theory. the two-factor theory propounded by herzberg, mausner and snyderman (1959) posit, on one hand, that job satisfaction is prompted by the existence of motivating factors (elements of the work) and job dissatisfaction is a result of the absence of hygiene factors (elements of the context of work). the expectancy theory proposed by vroom (1964), on the other hand, hypothesizes that workers’ evaluation of job satisfaction is dependent on the inconsistency between expectation from the work and what is received. thus, the extent to which expectations matches with real achievement is what is called job satisfaction (miao, komil ugli fayzullaey and dedahanov, 2020). job satisfaction of workers is influenced by many factors such as the nature of work, salary, career advancement opportunities, work conditions, organization management and workgroups (pervin and kabir, 2011; aziri, 2011). according to glisson and durick (1988, cited in miao, et al., 2020), three factors predict the job satisfaction of workers. the first factor is related to the nature of the job tasks carried out by the workers, and the second factor is related to the nature of the organization in which work is done, while the third factor is centred on the nature of the individual that performs the task. other determinants of job satisfaction include quality and quantity of work, satisfaction with payment, technology, individual differences, nature and style of supervision, recognition and benefits, prior expectations, promotional opportunity and fairness, leadership, social interaction (miao, et al., 2020). whatever way job satisfaction and its determinants are conceived, its importance to workers’ productivity and the general development of an organization cannot be overemphasized. it is adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 327 the main factor when it comes to the efficiency and effectiveness of an organization. studies have shown that job satisfaction is significantly linked to employee productivity, loyalty, or absenteeism. a worker, who receives rewards considered equitable and commensurate may likely feel satisfied and motivated to perform better. generally, a satisfied employee is very likely to be creative and innovative in the discharge of his or her duties. according to sharma and jyoti (2009), the more satisfied an employee is, the more the propensity to come up with breakthroughs that allow the organization to grow and change positively with time and adapt to the ever-growing yearnings of its stakeholders. education is the basic building block of every society. it is the single best investment countries can make to build prosperous, healthy, and equitable societies. it is a basic human right and a necessary condition for the sustainable social and economic development of any nation (unesco, 1994). literacy is a component of basic education and a foundation for lifelong learning. the importance of literacy acquisition to individuals, communities and societies cannot be overemphasized. access to literacy education serves as a springboard not only for enhancing human capabilities to eradicate poverty but also to “facilitate the achievement of environmental and ethical awareness, values, and skills consistent with sustainable development and effective participation in decision-making” (united nations., 2007; institute for statistics (uis), 2010). countries and international and multilateral agencies have made concerted efforts at achieving literacy education for all. however, the world is still home to 773 million illiterate adults, the majority of whom are women and 258 million out of school children and youth (unesco., 2019; unesco., 2020). large inequalities exist globally in literacy achievement notably between sub-saharan africa and the rest of the world (roser and ortiz-ospina, 2018). sub-saharan africa has one of the lowest adult literacy rates in the world with a literacy rate of 61% and the number of the illiterate population continues to grow. fourteen (14) of the twenty-two (22) countries with literacy rates below 60% in the world are in sub-saharan africa (unesco, 2007). all nations seek ways of improving the educational attainment of their citizens and how to make their students and learners achieve high academic outcomes. this is no less so in subsahara african countries. researchers, educators, and policymakers are all in search of factors and strategies that can produce or enhance a better educational system. central to a successful educational system is the quality and quantity of the teachers (literacy facilitators inclusive) and attracting and retaining these teachers. understanding the factors essential to teachers’ job sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 328 satisfaction for optimal performance must therefore be understood as multidimensional. it is equally critical for ensuring teachers’ performance and commitment and for the general effectiveness of the educational system (sharma and jyoti, 2009). oxenham (2004), noted that the quality and effectiveness of any adult literacy programme depends on the facilitators who teach or interact with the intended beneficiaries of the programme. job satisfaction for the literacy facilitators implies the capacity of their work to meet their personal needs even as they improve their job performance (ololube, 2006). adult literacy facilitators come from diverse backgrounds and while some are engaged in literacy teaching as full or part-time literacy professionals, very many are volunteer workers with varying levels of education and experience. according to warkineh, rogers and danki (2017), literacy facilitators in developing nations include full-time school teachers and employees of governments or non-governmental organizations (ngos) who teach adults outside their main working hours or are required to teach adults as part of their professional duties. in some countries, contract staff are engaged to teach adults, however, most of the facilitators teaching in literacy centres are local people with no formal teaching qualifications and are engaged either as part-time or on a casual basis. although most are rewarded, it is often pittance and irregular (warkineh, et al. 2017). muthii (2012) therefore concludes that the general working condition of most literacy facilitators needs attention as they lack good conditions of service, including a good career prospect. mccaffery, merrifield and millican (2007) observe that literacy facilitators remain one of the least supported groups of educators globally as they receive little or no regular remuneration for their job, lack job security, and they seldom enjoy training opportunities and ongoing professional support. this often affects their discharge of responsibility to the teeming adult learners who require their expertise to guide their learning process (mccaffery, et al., 2007; muthii, 2012; oyelami and alokan, 2019). poor work conditions for adult literacy facilitators continue to diminish their performance which in turn has a devastating impact on literacy promotional efforts, especially in developing countries where the adult illiteracy rate is very high (uis, 2010; oyelami and alokan, 2019). limited educational opportunities for illiterate adults negatively affect the prospects of sustainable development since illiterates lack the capacity of contributing meaningfully to the development of the nation at large. unless a drastic measure is taken to understand the state of job satisfaction of literacy facilitators and its determinants, all efforts at raising the bar of adult literacy provision especially in sub-saharan africa will remain adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 329 inconsequential. hence, the critical role that adult literacy could play in reversing the trend and consequent need to seriously engage with and understand the job satisfaction needs of these teachers in africa. this study, therefore, investigates the job satisfaction level and its determinants among literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa, the two leading countries in sub-saharan africa. it seeks to contribute to the sparse empirical studies on the job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in these two countries. 1.2 research questions the following research questions guide the conduct of the study: 1. what is the job satisfaction level among adult literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa? 2. what are the possible ways of improving the job satisfaction level of adult literacy facilitators in the two countries? 3. what is the joint contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status, and ownership of literacy centre to job satisfaction of literacy facilitators? 4. what is the relative contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status, and ownership of literacy centre on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators? 5. what is the difference in job satisfaction between literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa? 2. adult literacy provision in nigeria and south africa 2.1 the nigerian situation adult literacy provision in colonial nigeria was dominated by christian missionaries whose principal intention was to promote religious literacy. while the northern part of the country was served by quranic schools and islamic clerics serving as facilitators who exposed learners to arabic literacy, the southern part of the country had the christian missionaries who exposed the people to western education. the british colonial governments eventually took over from the missionaries when the colonial officer recommended a national literacy campaign in its memorandum on education policy in british tropical africa in 1946. between 1952 and 1960 independence of nigeria, the regional governments initiated policies aimed at developing their education sectors in their domains. for instance, the western and eastern regional governments sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 330 initiated universal primary education (upe), and the northern regional government opted for free primary and adult literacy as a strategy in their war against ignorance (yusuf, ladan, idris and halilu, 2013). the above efforts constituted the bedrock for adult literacy development in the country after independence. an adult literacy institute was established in ibadan in 1963 by unesco for manpower development of adult educators, an event that gave a significant impetus to literacy promotional effort in the country. in 1982, the federal government launched a 10-year national mass literacy campaign followed by a directive that all states in the country should establish an agency for mass education. in 1990, the national commission for mass literacy and non-formal education (nmec)was established in the country. this was followed in 1991 by the establishment of the national mass education commission and in 2000, universal basic education was established, which act opened literacy opportunities for all (yusuf, ladan, idris and halilu, 2013; chieke, madu, and ewelum, 2017). presently, adult literacy provision in each nigerian state is coordinated by an adult and non-formal agency established by the states. for example, in oyo state, agency for adult and non-formal education (oyo aanfe) was established in 1987 and took off in 1988. its core vision was eradicating illiteracy among the citizenry of the state and providing continuing education opportunities for early school leavers as well as economic empowerment through exposure to skills acquisition. the agency collaborates with relevant ngos and donor agencies to implement programmes that bear on literacy promotion and life-skills development for the people. the two major categories of literacy programmes providers in the state are the ngos/faith-based literacy centres, on the other hand, and government literacy centres, on the other. the state's agency coordinates all academic activities in all the literacy programmes for adult and non-formal education (oyo state agency for adult and non-formal education. n.d.). 2.2 the south african situation adult literacy education in south africa dates to the late seventeenth century, but it became significant in the twentieth. before the beginning of the 20th century, adult literacy provision in south africa was limited being an offshoot of missionary provision of western education to the people. until the overthrow of the apartheid in south africa, its government discouraged and discriminated against the majority black population, creating obstacles to their education. bantu education act promulgated in 1953 was the foundation of the apartheid education adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 331 system in south africa. the act handed the education control frameworks to the state. thus, educational provision to black people became an imprisonable offence unless it is in a government registered school (aitchison, 2003). this produced an astronomical increase in the population of functional illiterates in the country. to curb the high and growing rate of illiteracy, some religious, political, and non-governmental organizations such as christian churches, the bureau of literacy and literature and ‘operation upgrade’ established night schools and literacy classes in many parts of the country, much of which efforts were frustrated by government insistence on the exclusion of black people from acquiring education and training so that they would remain at the lower rungs of the economy as a cheap source of labour (aitchison, 2003; addae, 2016). this was the hallmark of the apartheid regime (ocampo, 2004). in 1994, the apartheid regime ended and the national unity government opened educational opportunities to all to meet the critical need for rapid socio-economic development of the country. the new regime enacted and began the implementation of a policy for equitable access to education for all irrespective of sex, gender, and race. in 1995, the department of education established the directorate for adult basic to coordinate adult basic education activities as part of the government's show of commitment to the provision of adult literacy to the people. the massive and coordinated efforts of the department of education led to the establishment of adult literacy centres across all provinces of the country. adult basic education and training in south africa is organized under six different learning areas drawn from twelve learning subjects. these include language, literacy and communication, mathematical literacy, mathematics and mathematical sciences, human and social sciences, natural sciences, technology and economic management sciences. some of the subjects that adult learners can choose from are languages, mathematics, numeracy, business economics, biology, accountancy, geography, and history. to add value to the certificates awarded to adult learners, the south african qualifications authority (saqa) made various levels of adult basic education and training (abet) equivalent to those of the formal school system. 2.3 comparison of adult literacy education between nigeria and south africa the goal of adult education in the two countries was to empower people with survival skills of reading, writing and arithmetic and to provide functional literacy skills through remedial education, further education, and vocational training. the history of adult education in nigeria and south africa are similar. it evolved from missionary activities. after independence, the coordination of adult and basic education was centrally controlled with autonomy granted to sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 332 sub-national governments or states to organize and administer adult education to local people. however, while access to literacy education is constitutionally guaranteed in south africa, it is restricted to primary schooling in nigeria and it is not constitutionally guaranteed. because of the bantu act in south africa that deprived people of access to education during apartheid government, adult education is consciously promoted to bring in those that have been deprived of educational access but nothing is being done by the nigerian government in this regard (zulu, n.d.). though nigeria gained independence before south africa, it is estimated that nigeria has over forty-one million illiterates (literacy rate62%), compared to five million illiterates (literacy rate87%) in south africa (unesco institute of statistics. a & b, 2017). a cursory look at abet (https://www.abet.co.za/) and nmec (https://www.nmec.gov.ng/) websites, indicates that adult basic education is more coordinated in south africa compared to nigeria. for instance, the abet website gave a clear philosophy of the agency as regards adult and basic education in south africa, provided detailed information on available literacy centres to learners, various examinations, government roles etc., while the nmec website only showcases general information for the public consumption. this could be taken as a reflection of the respective value placed on adult literacy promotion in each of the countries. 3. methodology a survey research design was adopted for this study. the general population of the study consisted of adult literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa but the study targeted adult literacy facilitators in oyo state, nigeria and king cetshwayo district, kwazulu-natal province, south africa. eighty-six (86) participants were randomly selected (nigeria 50 and south africa-36). a structured questionnaire titled "adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction questionnaire" was validated by experts and pilot-tested among primary school teachers. a cronbach's alpha coefficient of 7.0 was obtained for the questionnaire. the questionnaire focuses on three domains: demographic, job satisfaction, and the improvement of adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction. data collected from the study were analysed using descriptive statistics of frequency count, simple percentages, mean and inferential statistics of multiple regression analysis and independent sample t-test. to answer research 1, the average mean was calculated based on the respondents’ scores against each job satisfaction item multiplied by the scores under each likert scale point. the decision on adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction level was determined using the following criteria; average mean ≤ 2= low; average mean >2 ≤ 3= average; and average mean>3= high. for research question 2, the mean score of items in ‘ways of improving adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction’ were https://www.nmec.gov.ng/ adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 333 ranked according to the mean value of each item. research questions 4 and five were answered using multiple regression analysis while t-test was used to answer research question 5. 3.1 limitation of the study because the target populations derived from a state and province in nigeria and south africa respectively, the study sample is not nationally representative of the general population of both countries; hence, the results of the study should be interpreted cautiously in this light. 4. results rq1: what is the job satisfaction level among adult literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa? table 1: job satisfaction among adult literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa s/n item description sa (%) a (%) d (%) sd (%)  1 my job as an adult literacy facilitator is compatible with my experience 22 (25.6) 53 (61.6) 8 (9.3) 3 (3.5) 3.09 2 the literacy organiser provides the opportunity for professional growth 20 (23.3) 53 (61.6) 3 (3.5) 10 (11.6) 2.97 3 the job provides good opportunities for promotion 14 (16.3) 43 (50.0) 17 (19.8) 12 (14.0) 2.69 4 i have freedom of decision to perform my task as a facilitator 18 (20.9) 56 (65.1) 8 (9.3) 4 (4.7) 3.02 5 my job position and responsibilities are clearly defined 11 (12.8) 57 (66.3) 14 (16.3) 4 (4.7) 2.87 6 i have sufficient professional authority and autonomy at work 8 (9.3) 47 (54.7) 25 (29.1) 6 (7.0) 2.66 7 my work as a facilitator is not stressful 5 (5.8) 40 (46.5) 30 34.9) 11 (12.8) 2.45 8 i get the necessary information to perform my job as a literacy facilitator 13 (15.1) 54 (62.8) 16 (18.6) 3 (3.5) 2.90 9 my salary as a literacy facilitator is fair and sufficient 1 (1.2) 18 (20.9) 38 (44.2) 29 (33.7) 1.90 sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 334 10 my salary is higher than my peers in other literacy centres 5 (5.8) 11 (12.8) 34 (39.5) 36 (41.9) 1.83 11 the literacy centre has a clear policy regarding salaries and allowances 4 (4.7) 17 (19.8) 36 (41.9) 29 (33.7) 1.95 12 the number of facilitators available is sufficient to run the literacy centre without overloading me 10 (11.6) 30 (34.9) 27 (31.4) 19 (22.1) 2.36 13 the classroom amenities (chair, environment, toilet etc) are available, comfortable and safe 8 (9.3) 36 (41.9) 26 (30.2) 16 (18.6) 2.42 14 there is no shortfall in the financial resources of the centre 3 (3.5) 22 (25.6) 33 (38.4) 28 (32.6) 2.00 15 there is a collegiality and team spirit with colleagues 24 (27.9) 50 (58.1) 9 (10.5) 3 (3.5) 3.10 16 work relations are satisfactory in the literacy centre 21 (24.4) 54 (62.8) 9 (10.5) 2 (2.3) 3.09 17 there is good interpersonal communication and cooperation among stakeholders in the literacy centre 14 (16.3) 53 (61.6) 16 (18.6) 3 (3.5) 2.91 18 activities in the centre are coordinated and integrated 13 (15.1) 51 (59.3) 21 (24.4) 1 (1.2) 2.88 19 there is an opportunity for socialising with colleagues 17 (19.8) 44 (51.2) 23 (26.7) 2 (2.3) 2.88 20 my immediate supervisor treats facilitators fairly 16 (18.6) 60 (69.8) 6 (7.0) 4 (4.7) 3.02 21 my immediate supervisor uses positive feedback with facilitators 18 (20.9) 56 (65.1) 10 (11.6) 2 (2.3) 3.05 average mean = 2.66 table 1 presents results on the level of job satisfaction among adult literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa. the results revealed that adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction levels in the two countries are on average (average mean = 2.66). results showed that based on the mean scores of their responses, facilitators in the two countries have a high level of satisfaction in terms of collegiality and team spirit with colleagues (mean=3.10), job adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 335 compatibility with experience (mean=3.09), work relations (mean=3.09), feedbacks from supervisor (mean=3.02), and treatments from their supervisor (mean=3.05) as well as the freedom of decision to perform as facilitators (mean=3.02). also, the table revealed that adult literacy facilitators have an average level of satisfaction with opportunity for professional growth (mean=2.97), interpersonal communication and cooperation among all stakeholders (mean=2.91), getting the necessary information to perform their job (mean=2.90), coordination and integration of activities in the centre (mean=2.88), the opportunity for socialization (mean=2.88). equally, they have an average level of satisfaction with clearly defined job positions and responsibilities (mean=2.87), opportunities for promotion (mean=2.69), a sense of professional authority and autonomy at work (mean=2.66), stress-free nature of their work (mean=2.45), available infrastructure (mean=2.42), and the sufficiency of facilitators to run the literacy centre (mean=2.36). however, adult literacy facilitators in the two countries have a low-level satisfaction with financial resources availablity to the centre (mean=2.00), with the policies regarding salaries and allowances (mean=1.95), fairness in salary for facilitators (mean=1.90), comparison of facilitators’ salary with their peers in other literacy centres (mean=1.83). rq2: what are the possible ways of improving the job satisfaction level of adult literacy facilitators? table 2: ways of improving adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction s/n items sa (%) a (%) d (%) sd (%)  rank 1 providing a positive working environment, i.e. improvement in the infrastructural facilities in place in the literacy centre 32 (37.2) 40 (46.5) 10 (11.6) 4 (4.7) 3.16 1st 2 giving due reward and recognition to adult literacy facilitators 26 (30.2) 43 (50.0) 13 (15.1) 4 (4.7) 3.06 4th 3 regular review and prompt payment of compensation 28 (32.6) 36 (41.9) 17 (19.8) 5 (5.8) 3.01 6th 4 improvement in the general welfare of literacy facilitators 26 (30.2) 45 (52.3) 11 (12.8) 4 (4.7) 3.08 3rd 5 allowing facilitators to contribute their ideas in content planning and general management of the literacy centre 31 (36.0) 43 (50.0) 5 (5.8) 7 (8.1) 3.14 2nd 6 provision for professional training and career advancement 28 (32.6) 39 (45.3) 12 (14.0) 7 (8.1) 3.02 5th sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 336 7 provision for good performance bonuses 24 (27.9) 40 (46.5) 12 (14.0) 10 (11.6) 2.91 9th 8 supportive evaluation and supervision of literacy facilitators 19 (22.1) 53 (61.6) 6 (7.0) 8 (9.3) 2.97 8th 9 promotion of literacy facilitators as at when due 23 (26.7) 46 (53.5) 10 (11.6) 7 (8.1) 2.99 7th 10 promotion of good interpersonal relations among all stakeholders in the literacy centre 27 (31.4) 49 (57.0) 5 (5.8) 5 (5.8) 3.14 2nd table 2 shows results on ways of improving adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction. provision of a positive working environment in terms of improvement in the infrastructural facilities in the literacy centre was ranked first based on the mean score of their responses followed by facilitators’ contribution to content planning. general management of the literacy centre and promotion of good interpersonal relations among all stakeholders in the literacy centre was jointly ranked 2nd as the best ways to improve job satisfaction of literacy facilitators. improvement in the general welfare of literacy facilitators, giving due reward and recognition to adult literacy facilitators, making provision for professional training and career advancement, and regular review and prompt payment of compensation were ranked 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th respectively. also, promotion of literacy facilitators as at when due, supportive evaluation and supervision of literacy facilitators and provision for good performance bonuses were ranked 7th, 8th and 9th respectively as ways to improve facilitators’ job satisfaction. rq3: what is the joint contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status and centre ownership on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators? table 3: summary of multiple regression on the joint prediction of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status, and ownership of literacy centre on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators r=.526 r2=.770 adj. r2=.963 std. error=8.66305 model sum of squares df mean square f sig. (pvalue) remark regression residual total 805.198 2101.358 2906.556 7 28 35 115.028 75.049 21.533 .020 sig. as indicated in table 3, it was revealed that the linear combination of the joint prediction of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status and ownership of adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 337 literacy centre and job satisfaction of adult literacy facilitators (f (7/28) = 21.533, p < 0.05). the result yielded a coefficient of multiple regression of r=0.526 and multiple r-square of 0.770. the result also revealed that adjusted r2=0.963; indicating that about 96.3% of the variance was accounted for by the independent variables. this implied that there is a joint prediction of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, and marital status and ownership of literacy centre on adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction. q4: what is the relative contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status, and ownership type of literacy centre on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators? table 4: summary of multiple regression on the relative contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status, and ownership of literacy centre on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators variable unstandardised coefficients standardised coefficients t sig. (p-value) remark b std. error beta (β) (constant) age sex academic qualification years of service nature of service marital status ownership type 33.835 1.528 2.951 4.065 0.521 2.300 .581 2.866 12.801 2.018 5.431 2.210 1.513 4.508 2.457 2.361 .179 .091 .334 .073 .089 .049 .200 2.643 10.757 .545 11.840 .344 .510 .236 11.214 .013 .046 .590 .008 .733 .614 .815 .023 sig. not sig. sig. not sig. not sig. not sig. sig. table 4.10 shows the unstandardised regression weight (ß), the standardized error of estimate (seß), the standardised coefficient, the t-ratio and the level at which the t-ratio is significant. as indicated in the table, academic qualification (ß=0.334, t= 11.840, p < 0.05) was tested significant on the job satisfaction among adults literacy facilitators followed by ownership (ß=.200, t= 11.214, p<0.05) and age (ß=.179, t= 10.757, p<0.05) have relative contribution while sex (ß=.091, t= .545, p>0.05), years of service, (ß=.073, t= .344, p>0.05), nature of sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 338 service (ß=.089, t= .510, p>0.05) and marital status (ß=.049, t= .236, p>0.05) have no relative contribution to job satisfaction among adults literacy facilitators. this implies that academic qualification, ownership type of literacy centre and age contribute to the relative job satisfaction of facilitators. in contrast, sex, year of services, nature of service and marital status have no relative contribution. rq5: what is the difference in job satisfaction between literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa? table 5 showing t-test of difference in literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa variable location n mean sd df. t-cal t-crit p job satisfaction south african 36 59.50 9.464 84 .432 1.960 0.667 (p<0.05) not significant nigeria 50 58.76 6.409 total 86 table 5 revealed that there was no significant difference in the job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa. it was observed that the t-calculated value was less than t-critical values (t-cal= .432 < t-crit =1.960), (p>0.05). this implies that there is no significant difference. while there is a slight mean difference as south africa got a high mean value of 59.50 than nigeria’s mean value of 58.76. however, it can be concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in the job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in the two countries. 5. conclusion observations 5.1. discussion the study revealed that adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa is at the average level. results of this study showed that literacy facilitators in the two countries have a high level of satisfaction with the level of collegiality and team spirit they have with regard to colleagues, general work relationships with stakeholders, experience, compatibility with the job, positive feedback from supervisors, and freedom of decision to perform role as literacy facilitators. they are, however, not satisfied with issues related to salary and available facilities in the literacy centre. this result lends credence to the findings of nnadi (2016) that literacy facilitators operate in an unconducive learning environment and lack adequate reward systems, required teaching resources, in-service training programmes and that they are been adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 339 sidelined in the decision-making process. these may have contributed to the facilitators’ ineffectiveness and poor performance which ultimately affect literacy promotional efforts and the high rate of illiterate population in africa (nnadi, 2016). emmanuel and akonor’s (2017) study show that workers are more likely to give their best performance when satisfied with their remuneration. this enhances their motivation and gives them a sense of security. on the other hand, when workers remunerations are discouraging, they tend to underperform. this result also corroborates previous research findings of mbah (2014), efe and obiagelli (2016) and nakpodia (2011). the result of this study also revealed that improvement in infrastructural facilities, facilitators’ contribution to content planning and general management of the literacy centre as well as promotion of good interpersonal relations among all stakeholders in the literacy centre are major ways of improving job satisfaction level of the facilitators. this result is consistent with the submission of teixeira, amoroso and gresham (2017) that infrastructural facilities like conducive classrooms, laboratories, reading materials, and equipment are crucial elements of the learning environment. a high-quality infrastructure enhances better instruction, improves learner's learning outcomes, and reduces attrition rates, among other benefits (teixeira, amoroso and gresham, 2017). also, this result resonates with the assertion made by mbah (2014) that to improve adult literacy delivery, a conscious effort must be made to enhance facilitators’ capabilities through adequate training, proper supervision, and right incentives. it was further stated that adequate infrastructures, facilities, instructional materials and required resources must be provided to enhance the effective operation of adult literacy centres (mbah, 2014). the result of the study further revealed that there is a joint contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status, and ownership of literacy centres on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in the two countries. this implies that the demographic characteristics of the facilitators jointly predict their job satisfaction level. on a relative scale, while academic qualification, ownership type of literacy centre and age have a significant relationship to job satisfaction of facilitators, sex, year of services, nature of service and marital status have no significant relative contribution to their job satisfaction. the reason academic qualification, ownership of literacy centre and age have a significant positive relationship to job satisfaction of literacy facilitators is not far-fetched. the higher the academic achievement of an individual, the more the value they placed on education and the more the sunday itasanmi, morakinyo akintolu, & mathew t. oni ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 340 propensity to help those who are at the lower level of the educational ladder to attain a basic level of education (murunga, 2019). also, ownership type of literacy centres plays a significant role as those that were government owned hardly get the right attention because of the low priority accorded adult literacy compared to those championed by a non-governmental organization and international development partners. the ngos understand the critical needs of literacy education and put forth significant effort and resources to make learning worthwhile for their learners and the facilitators. equally, age plays a significant factor in the job satisfaction of an employee; it was observed that older workers tend to be more satisfied with their jobs than younger workers partly due to their having had long career in the job (burks, n.d). lastly, the study revealed that there was no significant difference in the job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in nigeria and south africa as facilitators’ responses in the two countries indicated they have similar work experience and satisfaction levels. though south african facilitators have a slight high mean score than nigeria’s, the difference is not significant. this high mean value recorded for south african's facilitators could be because of better coordination of literacy centres by the regulating authority in south africa compared to nigeria where such coordination needs to be braced up. 5.2. conclusion this study has shown that adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction level in nigeria and south africa is at average. the facilitators indicated that provision of a positive working environment, promotion of active contribution to content planning and general management of the literacy centre by facilitators as well as promotion of good interpersonal relations among all stakeholders in the literacy centre are the best ways to the improve job satisfaction of literacy facilitators. it also established that there is a joint contribution of age, gender, qualification, year of services, nature of service, marital status and ownership type of literacy centre on job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in the two countries. while academic qualification, ownership type of literacy centre and age have a significant relative contribution to job satisfaction of facilitators, sex, year of services, nature of service and marital status have no significant relative contribution to facilitators' job satisfaction. a comparative assessment of facilitators’ job satisfaction between nigeria and south africa shows that there was no significant statistical difference in the job satisfaction of literacy facilitators in the two countries. the conclusion from the study is therefore that conscious effort must be made at adult literacy facilitators’ job satisfaction in nigeria and south africa ajote vol.10.1 (2021), 325-345 341 mapping out strategies to improve literacy facilitators' job satisfaction to enhance adult literacy delivery in the two countries. 5.3 recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. there must be a total overhauling of facilities in adult literacy centres in the two countries and facilitators must be well remunerated. 2. facilitators must be given adequate professional training and must be promoted as at when due to enhance their career advancement. 3. facilitators must be actively involved in content planning and general management of literacy centres. 4. consideration must be given to educational qualification and age during facilitators' recruitment for their potentials to be fully utilized. 5. ngos, cbos and international development partners must be empowered and encouraged to play an increasing role in adult literacy provision and delivery. 6. the government in the two countries must give adult literacy education its deserved priority and invest heavily in it to achieve the sustainable development goals. author contribution • sunday itasanmi: study design, data collection, statistical analysis, data interpretation, and manuscript preparation and review • morakinyo akintolu: study design, data collection, statistical analysis, and manuscript preparation • mathew t. oni: data interpretation, & manuscript preparation and review references addae, d. 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https://www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/approaches/a%20comparative%20analysis%20of%20the%20south%20africa%20curriculum.pdf analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ato kwamina arhin,1 jonathan essuman,2 & ekua arhin3 1,2 faculty of education and communication sciences, aamusted, kumasi, ghana 3department of education, ola college of education, cape coast, ghana abstract adhering to the rules governing the writing of multiple-choice test items will ensure quality and validity. however, realizing this ideal could be challenging for non-native english language teachers and students. this is especially so for non-native english language teachers because developing test items in a language that neither they nor their students use as their mother tongue raises a multitude of issues related to quality and validity. a descriptive study on this problem was conducted at a technical university in ghana which focused on item writing flaws in a communication skills test. the use of multiple-choice test in ghanaian universities has increased over the last decade due to increasing student intake. a 20-item multiple-choice test in communication skills was administered to 110 students. the test items were analyzed using a framework informed by standard item writing principles based on the revised taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing guides by haladyna, downing and rodriguez (2002). the facility and discrimination index (di) was calculated for all the items. in total, 60% of the items were flawed based on standard items writing principles. the most violated guideline was wording stems negatively. pearson correlation analysis indicated a weak relationship between the difficulty and discrimination indices. using the discrimination indices of the flawed items showed that 84.6 % of them had discrimination indices below the optimal level of 0.40 and above. the lowest di was recorded by an item with which was worded negatively. the mean facility of the test was 45%. it was observed that the flawed items were more difficult than the non-flawed items. the study suggested that test items must be properly reviewed before they are used to assess students’ knowledge. keywords: discrimination index, facility, flawed item, multiple-choice item issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 121-143 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 122 background multiple-choice items (mcis) are one of the most commonly used item types for classroom assessment (haladyna & rodriguez, 2013). because of its widespread use in the classroom multiple-choice items are highly indispensable regarding testing students at all levels of education. there is hardly any subject that cannot use mci. test results are often used to make decisions that determine the future of students and teachers. it is, therefore, imperative that mcis are properly handled at the construction, administration, scoring and in analyzing the test scores. moreover, increasing enrolment in ghanaian tertiary institutions, multiple-choice items (mcis) have become the preferred mode of assessing students because of the greater ease and speed of grading of multiple-choice questions compared with other testing formats. they also cover a wide scheme of work or syllabus adequately. when assessing a large population of students, it will be very difficult to ignore multiple-choice items (mci). in 2015, the gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education for ghana was 16.2 %. the gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education in ghana increased from 0.7 % in 1972 to 16.2 % in 2015 growing at an average annual rate of 28.47%. this indicates a substantial growth in students’ intake at the tertiary level in ghana. due to increasing student intake many faculty members have resorted to the use of multiple-choice items to meet students’ assessment needs. previously, mcis were rarely used in our tertiary schools. restricted response type of test items dominated mid and end of semester examinations because students’ enrolment was not as high as today. essay was the ideal means of assessing students’ knowledge. the challenge now is how to construct good quality mcis that have minimal flaws to elicit the knowledge possessed by the students. essay test items are relatively easy to construct compared to mcis. multiple-choice item is made up of the stemwhich possess the problem to be resolved, a set of options that consist of the key and distractors, respectively, the answer and the options that suggest the wrong alternative to the test taker. mckeachie (1999) notes that multiple-choice test is a staple of higher education because it provides an efficient and effective measure of student learning. the acceptance of multiple-choice test has increased over the years, partly due to improvements in technology in scoring multiple-choice items quickly and easily. the multiple-choice test is also highly reliable across scorers, unlike essay tests. for these reasons and others (frederiksen, 1984), many educators consider the multiple-choice format as an optimal method of testing. however, multiple-choice tests have spawned substantial controversy mainly because questions of this analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 123 type are limited to measuring recall of knowledge. despite all the weaknesses associated with it, multiple-choice (mc) tests are preferred in educational settings in ghana. the teacher’s aim in crafting mcis is not to confuse students, but to yield scores that accurately reflect the extent to which students have obtained an acceptable working knowledge of the content. it is worthy to note that students who pass a poorly designed test, may not necessarily possess adequate knowledge of the topic and this may constitute a real threat to their future academic progression. well-constructed multiple-choice items represent a versatile assessment tool with the potential to assess students for sufficient evidence of the knowledge of the tested content (rush, rankin and white, 2016). a required characteristic of a multiplechoice item is its power to be able to discriminate between the test takers who have learnt the material they are being tested on and those who have not learnt it. the discrimination index can differentiate between students of different ability levels. poorly constructed mcis also contain cues that allow students to guess the correct answer without prerequisite knowledge (downing, 2002). it is time-consuming and energy-sapping to construct an item that is good enough to discriminate among testees. according to rush, rankin and white (2016), it takes about 20 to 60 minutes to couch a quality multiple-choice item free from errors. despite the importance of classroom assessment, studies suggest some deficiencies in teacher-made tests, (mehrens and lehmann, 2009). according to lane et al. (2016), most teachers craft flawed items that measure the ability to recall basic facts and concepts. some effects of item-writing flaws on students are; items may be easier or more difficult than intended, clues that will allow unprepared students to guess the correct answer and unnecessarily complex or esoteric test items prevent prepared students from demonstrating their knowledge (case and swanson, 2002; downing, 2005). a poorly constructed item can inflate or deflate the student's score on a test and this represents a false picture of the student's performance. also, these flaws are capable of clouding the results obtained from the test. the effect of the clouding of results is that it changes the interpretation of the results and it contributes to unwanted evidence getting into the test data. there are many factors to consider when evaluating the quality of mc items. firstly, one can examine the extent to which items conform to widely accepted item-writing guidelines, such as avoiding negatively worded items and avoiding the use of longer options as the answers. writing mcis without following the guidelines can result in lowering the quality of individual items and the test as a whole (downing, 2005; tarrant & ware, 2008). ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 124 specific research-based principles guide the development of effective mcis (downing & haladyna, 1997; haladyna, 2004). the use of these research-based principles makes item writing a science. in a review by haladyna, downing and rodriguez (2002) a taxonomy of 31 item-writing principles, based on an analysis of 27 current educational measurement textbooks and 27 empirical research papers, have been identified. deviation from established itemwriting principles may result in a decrease in validity evidence for tests (downing, 2002). items that violate one or more of the standard items writing principles—flawed items—tend to produce construct irrelevant easiness which refers to a contaminating influence on test scores that tend to systematically increase test scores for a specific examinee or a group of examinees; construct-irrelevant difficulty does the opposite. it systematically decreases test scores for a specific examinee or a group of examinees (haladyna, downing, 2004). these effects are called construct-irrelevant variance (civ). similarly, multiple-choice test items tend to have high grading reliability, however, creating valid mc items that perform reliably is difficult and requires skill to do that properly (pellegrino, chudowsky & glaser, 2001). many teachers usually have little to no formal training regarding appropriate assessment practices. for example, most pre-service teachers in ghana take a three-hour course in assessment in schools which is woefully inadequate to prepare them for the enormous task ahead of them. in addition to a lack of training, another reason is creating mc items can be difficult because there are numerous ways to lessen an examination's validity based on how it is designed. although multiple-choice items are commonly used in tertiary institutions and other levels of language instruction and other subject areas in ghana, there has not been enough evidence about the item analysis of multiple-choice tests in the area of communication skills. it is important to note that “the quality of a test largely depends on the quality of the individual items” (oluseyi & olufemi, p.240). therefore, this study attempts to fill this gap by answering the following research questions: (1) what is the difficulty level (item facility) of each item on the communication skills test? (2) what is the discrimination index (item discrimination) of each item on the communication skills test? (3) what is the relationship between the facility and the discrimination index of the item on the communication skills test? the present study was undertaken in the first semester of the 2019/20 academic year to assess some item writing flaws observed in a communication skills test in a technical university in ghana. the observed flaws were, "longer sentences as answers among the options", "use of negative words", "starting a statement with a blank" and "options not arranged analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 125 in alphabetical order". these flaws are capable of introducing testwiseness in the answering of the test by students. testwiseness is defined as a student's capacity to utilize the characteristics and formats of a test and/or the test-taking situation to receive a high score (millman, bishop and ebel, 1965). flawed test items are capable of providing test-wise cues to the items, thereby distorting the true performance of the student. given the widespread use of mcis in tertiary educational settings, it is practically important to look carefully at the quality of the mc items on classroom tests, and this was the specific purpose of this study. evaluating the quality of mc items involves many factors. firstly, one can examine the extent to which items conform to widely accepted item-writing guidelines, such as avoiding negatively worded items and avoiding the use of longer options as the answers. writing mcis without following the guidelines can result in lowering the quality of individual items and the test as a whole (downing, 2005; tarrant & ware, 2008). secondly, analyzing the responses from testees is another approach used in the research presented here. specifically, we analyzed a teacher-made communication skills test administered to first-year it students at a technical university in ghana and focused on how students score on the flawed items were affected by two major characteristics of mc items: facility and discrimination index. methodology participants all 110 respondents were first-year undergraduate students pursuing a degree in information technology education. these students were purposively selected because the instructor agreed to allow us to use his test items for the study. the test was conducted at a technical university in ghana. to ensure fairness, students were informed ahead of time to prepare for the test. instrument the test consisted of 20 multiple-choice test items. the test items were used to assess students’ communication, paragraphing and writing skills. the topics covered in the test constituted what had been taught in that semester. the items had four options, one of them being the correct answer and the other three being distractors. one of the items had only two options because it was a true/false item. in scoring the test no penalty was employed for guessing and the correct answer was awarded a mark of 1. thus, the maximum possible score of the test was 20 and a minimum of 0. a copy of the test is included as an appendix. ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 126 time period and procedure data was collected during the first semester of the 2019/20 academic year. the test was conducted under examination conditions. the test was administered by the english language instructors of the university and the students were supposed to answer the questions in 25 minutes. data analysis students’ responses from the mcis were analyzed using microsoft excel. the mcis were analyzed to obtain the facility (p-value), the discrimination index (di), and distractor analysis for all non-correct options. the kuder–richardson formula (kr-20) was used to assess the internal reliability of the test scores. data was analyzed based on the three research questions. research questions #1 and #2 were answered using microsoft excel template for the facility and discrimination indices. research question #3 was answered using pearson product-moment correlation. item evaluation procedure there are several methods available for evaluating multiple-choice items. specifically, for this study, the aim was to determine which items exhibited the best quality in terms of option performance. the evaluation consisted mainly in inspecting the facility and discrimination indices for each test item. the result of the examinees’ performance in the test was used to analyze the facility and the discrimination indices (di) of each multiple-choice item. the facility is calculated as a percentage of the total number of correct responses to the test items. it is calculated using the formula p = 𝑅 𝑇 , where p is the facility, r is the number of correct responses, and t is the total number of responses (which includes both correct and incorrect responses). according to hotiu (2006), the p (proportion) value ranges from 0 to 1. when multiplied by 100, the p-value converts to a percentage, which is the percentage of students who got the item correct. the higher the p-value, the easier the items. this means the higher the facility, the easier the item is understood to be. it needs to be conceptualized that a p-value is a behavioural measure. instead of explaining the facility in terms of some intrinsic characteristic of the item, the facility is defined in terms of the relative frequency with which those taking the test choose the correct response (thorndike, cunningham, thorndike, & hagen, 1991). analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 127 the item di is the point biserial correlation between getting the item right and the total score on all other items. the discrimination index is the point biserial correlation between item score and corrected total score. this was computed using a microsoft excel sheet. the advantage derived from using this procedure is that it provides a more accurate assessment of the discrimination power of items because they take into account the responses of all students rather than just high and low scoring groups. discrimination index reflects the degree to which an item and the test as a whole are measuring a unitary ability, values of the coefficient will tend to be lower for tests measuring a wide range of content areas than for more homogeneous tests. item discrimination indices must always be interpreted in the context of the type of test which is being analyzed. the higher the di the better the test item discriminates between the students with higher test scores and those with lower test scores. according to haladyna and rodriguez (2013) guidelines for evaluating mc items based on classical test theory is provided in table 1. table 1: guidelines for evaluating test items (adapted from haladyna & rodriguez, 2013, p. 350) results in this study, the flawed items were more difficult than non-flawed items measuring the same content. the mean test score was 9. the lowest score was 3 and the highest was 15. a quick synopsis of the test results showed that 12 of 20 items were flawed when assessed in the light of the standard item forms. this represents 60% of the items. this observation was based on the revised taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing guides by haladyna, downing and rodriguez (2002). it is known that teacher-made tests are filled with a lot of flaws. four kinds of flaws were observed namely, longer option as the answer, negatively worded item, options not arranged in alphabetical order and starting with a blank. the frequently violated rule was 'negatively worded item', there were 8 out of 12 flawed test items. the reliability estimate for the test measured by kr-20 was 0.41. according to rudner and schafer (2002), a teachermade assessment needs to demonstrate reliability coefficients of approximately 0.50 or 0.60. type difficulty discrimination comment 1 .60 to .90 above .15 ideal item; moderate difficulty and high discrimination 2 .60 to .90 below .15 poor discrimination 3 above .90 disregard high-performance item; usually not very discriminating 4 below .60 above .15 difficult but very discriminating 5 below .60 below .15 difficult and non-discriminating 6 below .60 below .15 identical to type 5 except that one of the distractors has a pattern like type 1, which signifies a key error ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 128 the facilities for the test items ranged from .17 to .86. the mean facility for the test was 45% that is p = 0.45. the optimal facility for a classroom teacher-made test is .63. comparing the optimal value with a facility for the test indicates that the test was difficult. a possible reason for the difficult nature of the test could be because 60% of the items were flawed. items 1and 2 were very easy compared to the optimal facility for classroom achievement tests. odukoya et. al (2018), observed that majority of the items used in a private university in nigeria (about 60 out of the 70 items fielded) did not meet psychometric standard (of appropriate difficulty and distractive index) and consequently need moderation or deletion. approximately, 86% of the items failed to meet the suitable psychometric properties. the current shows that 12 out of 20 items were flawed when assessed in the light of the standard item forms. this represents 60% of the items. this therefore, collaborates the study by odukoya et al. (2018) which suggests that the teachers need to improve their item writing skills. one danger associated with flawed items is that they introduce errors into the student’s test score thereby making the difference between the observed score and the true score wider. it is these same results filled with errors that will be used to provide certificates for the students. this, therefore, calls on all involved in crafting of test items especially, mcis to be abreast of the currents suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items. table 2: item properties item type of flaw facility discrimination index q 1 longer option as the answer .86 .09 q 2 negatively worded .70 .17 q 4 negatively worded .66 .10 q 4 options not arranged in alphabetical order .66 .10 q 5 starting with a blank .58 .40 q 6 negatively worded .46 .11 q 7 negatively worded .33 .11 q 9 negatively worded .45 .15 q 10 starting with a blank .49 .17 q 15 negatively worded .46 -.02 q 16 negatively worded .39 .08 q 18 negatively worded .33 .22 analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 129 discussions longer option as the answer responses should be similar in length, the shorter the better (if one option is much longer than the others, students will assume that is either the correct answer or blatantly the wrong answer, which gives them better odds at “guessing”. responses differ in length because the teacher would like to add qualifying phrases to make sure the keyed option is correct. many novices and experienced test constructors make this mistake to respond free from disputations (haladyna & downing,1989). test-wise students look for the “longest responses” to choose as answers during tests when they are unsure of the correct option. making the responses almost the same length reduces the bias of such items and improves the validity of the measurement. the item analysis showed that the item was very easy. a total of 86 % of the students answered the item correctly. the facility of the item was .86. the distracters for these items were not good enough to discriminate among the students. figure 1: an example of an item with the longer option as the answer from the test is: q.1 communication is a universal activity because it……………… a. is a credible source of data collection b. create the right atmosphere of dialogue c. enables people to give out or receive information d. is therapeutic response key is c according to haladyna and downing (1989), 8 of 9 studies suggest that using long correct options makes items easier; q.1 shows no difference. this study shows that the item with a longer option as the answer was the easiest of the 20 items used for the test. in this study, this particular item was the first and it can be argued that the first few items on a test be easier to avoid students losing confidence. this agrees with the notion regarding the arrangement of test items, that easier items start, put the difficult items in the middle and conclude with the easy items. in as much as a test developer will fulfil this condition, they should not compromise on item writing rules to justify the wrong. ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 130 it recorded a p-value of .86 and this validates the rule that the long options are often selected as the answer. this finding, therefore, collaborates with haladyna and downing (1989). also, this item was less discriminatory between knowledgeable and nonknowledgeable students (di=0.09). board and whitney (1972) as cited in haladyna and downing (1989) posit that low-achieving students were inclined to take advantage of the option-length clue, whereas higher achievers do not. higher achievers are disadvantaged when such items are prevalent in a test. it is, therefore, important that tests are rid of these items. starting a question with a blank the stem can be written in two forms as a question or partial sentence that requires completion. research comparing these two formats have not demonstrated any significant difference in test performance (violate, 1991, haladyna, 1999, masters et al 2001). to facilitate understanding of the question to be answered, it is recommended that if a partial sentence is to be used, a stem with parts missing either at the beginning or in the middle of the stem should be avoided (haladyna, 1999). it is recommended that the blank should be towards the end of the stem or sentence. it is natural that when conversing with someone you do not start with a blank for the other person to fill in. this does not make the communication effective. therefore, starting a stem or sentence with a blank distorts the meaning of the question and makes it difficult to answer. from the test, questions 5 and 10 started with a blank and recorded facility of .58 and .49 respectively. from table 1 it is obvious that their facilities are not within the range of ideal items. an example of an item that starts with a blank is: q.5 …………………………...are to move the reader to make a particular choice or to take a particular course of action. a. expository paragraphs b. mainstream paragraphs c. narrative paragraphs d. persuasive paragraphs the key is d the distractor analysis of item 5 indicates no selection for option c. in the entire test, item 5 was the only item that recorded a zero selection for an option. this particular option c was analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 131 rendered implausible and unattractive even to the lower achievers because the item began with a blank. three options for this particular item would have worked well instead of padding the question options that did not work. because putting options a and b together results in less than 40%, clearly the options were not plausible at all. on the contrary, item 5 which started with a blank recorded a discrimination index of 0.40 among all the 20 items which are considered as the optimal level of di for multiple-choice test items. even though item 5 is flawed based on the guidelines for writing mcis, its item indices were all excellent (p=.58, di=.40). this finding does not conform to outcomes from other studies indicating that beginning the stem with a blank cannot discriminate well between the high achievers and lower achievers. also, this finding does not conform to outcomes from other studies indicating that beginning the stem with a blank makes the item difficult. however, with all the excellent item characteristics for item 5 it clearly violates the 'cover options test'. an important indicator of a well-written mci, according to many writing guidelines, is that the question should allow testees to formulate a correct response without needing to first look at the available options – a criterion commonly referred to as the 'cover options test' (case and swanson, 2002). this guideline is violated by beginning a stem with a blank hence the respondent needs to fit in the options one after the other before the correct option can be selected. negatively worded items in this study, 7 of 20 items were constructed in the negative sense. cautiously, these items can be deemed as difficult based on the established range of p-values considered excellent, that is 40% and 60%. item 15 which was constructed negatively recorded a discrimination index of -.02. a negative value indicates an inverse relationship between the item and test performance. a total of 55 students got the item wrong. this makes the item difficult. this study is not consistent with harasym, price, brant, violato and lorscheider (1992), who posited that negatively couched items stems were less difficult. the seven negatively worded items in this study recorded low discriminatory indices. these items were confusing for the higher achievers but rather favoured the lower achievers. a survey of authors’ guidelines on multiple-choice items showed that 63% are in favour of wording items positively, 19% were in support of using negatively worded items and 19% did not discuss this (haladyna, downing and rodriguez, 2002). dudycha and carpenter ( 1973) speculated t h at a negative orientation i n the stem makes the item more difficult because this requires a negative-to-positive shift ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 132 in mental orientation t o answer questions. the purpose of mcis is to measure the achievement of learning objectives thus to achieve instructional validity, a teacher must test what has been taught and since most learning objectives are not stated negatively, it means that writing items in the negative will not help the teacher to test students’ knowledge on what has been taught. negatively worded stems should only be used when a student knows what to avoid or what is not the case. most often, students l e a r n what to do and what is the case, and thus item stems should be positively worded (harasym, price, brant, violato & lorscheider, 1992). a student who reads very fast may miss the ‘not’ keyword and, consequently, the entire meaning of the question. however, negatively couched items are useful when necessary to measure an appropriate objective (e.g., what is not correct) and with negative words (at least, except and not) are underlined, highlighted, boldface, italicized and capitalized to caution the individual taking the test. it is also important to word each option positively to avoid forming double negative with the stem. there are some legitimate uses of negative terms, such as the case of medications or procedures that are contraindicated; this use may be legitimate in that “contraindication” is a straightforward concept in health care domains. q. 15 which of the following is not a feature of a good note? a. descriptive b. readable c. reflects the source d. understandable the key is a options arranged in order (alphabetical or sequential) one of the most ignored multiple-choice item writing guidelines is to arrange options in alphabetical, chronological, or conceptual order. the purpose of this guideline is for easy reading and to make options appear attractive to the test taker. options can be arranged in either ascending or descending order. it becomes difficult to observe this guideline especially, for novice teachers when the options are in sentences. also, it is not easy to obey this, because analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 133 observing this guideline could create a discernible pattern for the correct options on a test. in analysing these two items, it was valuable to look at the discrimination index (di) and distractor analysis was important. the di indicates the relationship between performance on an individual item and performance on the overall test. the discrimination index (di) was .01 for item q4. the di indicates that q4 falls below the range where the items are to be rejected or improved. arranging options in an order is not considered important by most class teachers when constructing items, but the indices obtained from this study shows that it must be considered seriously. the p-value for q4 was .66. an example of the item with options not arranged in alphabetical order is: q4. the concluding paragraph has the following functions except to…….. a. introduce new research idea b. refer to cause or effect of issues c. summarize main ideas d. suggest solutions to issues the key is a the first two options were correctly ordered, but option (d) should have come before option (c). correlation between the difficulty index and discrimination index a pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the facility and the discrimination index. there was a positive correlation between the two variables, r = 0.162, n = 20, p = 0.496. the maximal discrimination (d =0.4). a scatter plot (figure 1) represents the relationship between the difficulty index (p) and discrimination index (d) of 20 mc items. the plot is not linear, rather very scattered in shape which indicates a weak relationship between the difficulty index and discrimination index. increasing difficulty indices do not correlate with increases in the discrimination index. it is seen from the scatter plot that only three items (15 %) recorded negative discrimination. ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 134 table 1: correlation between facility and discrimination index discrimination index facility discrimination index pearson correlation sig (2-tailed) n 1 20 .162 .496 20 facility pearson correlation sig (2-tailed) n .162 .496 20 1 20 recommendations for improvement there are many innovative and easy ways to implement strategies that can help teachers improve their knowledge and skills in constructing mcis. for example, team item writing by way of leveraging the expertise of colleagues and senior faculty members can help construct well-composed test items. new faculty must be oriented toward constructing mcis and be -0.20 -0.10 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 correlation between discrimination index and facility d is c ri m in a ti o n i n d e x facility / difficulty index analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 135 assigned to experienced hands. another strategy is 'nudging' and 'shoving' where distractors are easily manipulated to alter an item's facility. according to quaigrain and arhin (2017), the appropriate quality of mci is based on the presence of quality distractors. this assertion collaborates with the suggestion of moving from the traditional four or five option responses to three options because this will assuage the challenges of producing more than two plausible distractors without affecting students’ performance. on the other hand, reducing the number of options tends to increase students’ chances of guessing which is better than padding the options with non-functional distractors. teachers must understand that crafting multiple-choice items is both science and art. both science and art are to be employed fully to get efficient items that will produce valid results. test items must be solely written based on learning objectives so that the teacher will know what exactly each item measured. this in a way will reduce the flaws in the items and will ensure instructional validity. jozefowicz, koeppen, case, galbraith, swanson and glew (2002) posit that teachers spend substantial time planning their lectures and course materials for students and insufficient time is allowed for test preparation and review before administration. consequently, many tests are administered to students without adequate pretest to check the quality of the items. before a test is administered, a review by an examinations review board whose members have adequate knowledge in item writing can eliminate flawed items. conclusion the purpose of the study was to analyze the responses obtained from a communications skills test in terms of facility and discrimination indices. overall analysis of the items, show that most of the items were idealthe items had acceptable facility and discrimination indices based on the guidelines for evaluating test items (haladyna & rodriguez, 2013, p. 350). on the other hand, some items were not ideal. these items were found to need revision to improve the discriminatory power and the quality of the examination. it is worth noting that firmly following the guidelines for writing multiple-choice test items can reduce the number of flawed items on a test. some teachers who write multiplechoice items are either ignorant or find it too laborious to use the guidelines. as a result, you find items on a test being flawed. the guidelines serve as a compass to the item writer to his destination without missing out. the ultimate aim of all item writers is to have good items that will produce valid test scores. after all, students who pass a poorly designed exam, although ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 136 they do not possess adequate knowledge of the content of the examination, may constitute a real threat for themselves and society at large. studies show that tests with item writing flaws tend to disadvantage high achieving students and lower their test scores (tarrant & ware, 2008). contrastingly, tests with item writing flaws can improve the grades of weaker students, who are not familiar with the content of the test (nedeau-cayo et al., 2013; tarrant & ware, 2008). we, therefore, are of the view that, in contrast to these undisputed views of authorities, using flawed mcis can play a valuable role in the development (and not simply in the measurement of academic performance) of students' critiquing abilities. thus, students become active observers of the learned materials and objectives of the lessons taught. this will help in the development of multiple-choice items and making them stand the test of time and become robust. but this will come at a cost to both teachers and students. finally, the findings of this study have significance for practising teachers and test developers in that particular care should be taken when selecting or crafting new items to achieve an accurate measurement of students' behaviour. also, item analyses should be utilized to improve already existing test items. assessment implications on the strength of the findings made from this study using mcis should begin with preparation of test blueprint that carefully adheres to the rules for writing multiple-choice items. thereafter all items should be pre-tested, analysed, and subjected to item moderation to augment the overall content and construct validities. these processes will require the input of subject and psychometric specialists. to ensure that faculty uses quality test items in our tertiary institutions, it implies that these processes be established as statutory quality assurance procedures. in sum, anytime a teacher is deciding on a test, the following must be carefully considered to ensure maximum gains from the test: (a) the test's specific purpose: the traditional assumption is that tests are used to determine whether students have learned what they were expected to learn or the level or degree to which students have learned the material. beyond this, the tests’ purpose might be that the teacher intentionally plans to improve students’ performance or plans to help students estimate what they are capable of doing outside the classroom. hence, pre-testing students to determine their previous knowledge before introducing a new topic is an important teaching strategy. teachers are analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 137 aware that continuously assessing students enables them to adjust their instruction appropriately. (b) what kind of information is required from the test results: test results provide vital information to both the testee and teacher. the teacher must consider what type of information the test scores is to provide to the student. (c) the impact of test results on students: test results must have a positive impact on students. the test results should provide feedback that will motivate students to learn and improve their learning. author contribution • ato kwamina arhin: introduction, literature review, data analysis, discussion, and conclusion. • jonathan essuman: literature review, methodology and conclusion. • ekua arhin: data analysis, discussion and conclusion. references alderson, j. c. (2000). assessing reading. cambridge: cambridge university press. case, s. m., & swanson, d. b. (2002). constructing written test questions for the basic and clinical sciences. 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(2006). twelve steps for effective test development. in. s. m. downing & t. m haladyna (eds.), handbook of test development (pp. 3–25). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. http://www.nbme.org/publications/item-writing-manual.html ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 138 downing, s. m., & haladyna, t. m. (1997). test item development: validity evidence from quality assurance procedures. applied measurement in education, 10, 61-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame1001_4 ebel, r. l., & frisbie, d. a. (1991). essentials of educational measurement (5th ed.) englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall. frederiksen, n. (1984). the real test bias: influences of testing on teaching and learning. american psychologist, 39, 193-202 haladyna, t. m. (1999). when should we use a multiple-choice format? paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, montreal canada. haladyna, t.m & downing, s.m. (1989). validity of a taxonomy of multiple-choice item writing rules. applied measurement in education, 2:1, 51-78, http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame2014_4 haladyna, t. m. (2004). developing and validating multiple-choice test items (3rd ed.). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. haladyna, t. m., downing, s. m., & rodriguez, m. c. (2002). a review of multiple-choice item-writing guidelines for classroom assessment. applied measurement in education, 15, 309-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame1503_5 haladyna, t. m., & downing, s. m. (2004). construct-irrelevant variance in high-stakes testing. educational measurement: issues and practice, 23(1), 17–27. haladyna, t. m., & rodriguez, m. c. (2013). developing and validating test items. new york, ny: routledge. haladyna, t. m. & downing, s. m. (2004). construct-irrelevant variance in high-stakes testing. educational measurement: issues and practice harasym, p. h., doran, m. l., brant, r., & lorscheider, f. l. (1992). negation in stems of single-response multiple-choice items. evaluation and the health professions, 16(3), 342–357. http://doi:10.1177/016327879201500205 jozefowicz, r. f., koeppen, b. m., case, s., galbraith, r., swanson, d., & glew, r. h. (2002). http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame1001_4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame2014_4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame1503_5 analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 139 the quality of in-house medical examinations. academic medicine, 77, 156-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200202000-00016 lane, s., raymond, m. r., haladyna, t. m., & downing, s. m., test development process. in s. lane., m. r. raymond., & t. m. haladyna (eds), handbook of test development (pp. 3-18). new york: routledge, 2016. mckeachie, w. j. (1999). teaching tips: strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (10th ed.). boston: houghton mifflin. masters, j. c., hulsmeyer, b. s., pike, m. e., leichty, k., miller, m. t., & verst, a. l. (2001). assessment of multiple-choice questions in selected test banks accompanying textbooks used in nursing education. journal of nursing education, 40, 25-32. mehrens, w. a. & lehmann, i. j., measurement and evaluation in education and psychology. new york: harcourt brace college publishers, 1991. millman, j., bishop, c. h., & ebel, r. (1965). an analysis of testwiseness. educational and psychological measurement, 25, 707-726. nedeau-cayo, r., laughlin, d., rus, l., & hall, j. (2013). assessment of item-writing flaws in multiple-choice questions. journal for nurses in professional development, 29, 52– 57. odukoya, j.a., adekeye, o., igbinoba, a.o.& afolabi, a. (2018). item analysis of university wide multiple choice objective examinations: the experience of a nigerian private university. quality & quantity 52, 983–997 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-04992 oluseyi, a. e., & olufemi, a. t. (2012). the analysis of multiple-choice item of the test of an introductory course in chemistry in a nigerian university. international journal of learning, 18(4), 237-246. doi:10.18848/1447-9494/cgp/v18i04/47579. pellegrino, j., chudowsky, n., & glaser, r. (2001). knowing what students know: the science and design of educational assessment. washington, d. c.: national academy press. quaigrain, k & arhin, a.k. (2017). using reliability and item analysis to evaluate a teacher http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200202000-00016 ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 140 developed test in educational measurement and evaluation, cogent education, 4:1, 1301013 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2017.1301013 rudner, l. m., & schafer, w. d. (2002). what teachers need to know about assessment. washington, dc: national education association. retrieved from http://echo.edres. org: 8080/nea/teachers.pdf rush, b. r., rankin, d. c. and white, b. j. (2016). the impact of item-writing flaws and item complexity on examination item difficulty and discrimination value. bmc medical education 16:250 doi 10.1186/s12909-016-0773-3 tarrant, m., & ware, j. (2008). impact of item-writing flaws in multiple-choice questions on student achievement in high-stakes nursing assessments. medical education, 42, 198206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2007.02957x thorndike, r. m., cunningham, g. k., thorndike, r. l., & hagen, e. p. (1991). measurement and evaluation in psychology and education (5th ed.). new york, ny: macmillan. violato, c. (1991). item difficulty and discrimination as a function of stem completeness. psychological reports 69(3 p11):739-743 (march, 2021). ghana-gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education https://knoema.com/atlas/ghana/topics/education/tertiary-education/grossenrolment-ratio-in-tertiary-education https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2017.1301013 http://echo.edres/ https://knoema.com/atlas/ghana/topics/education/tertiary-education/gross-enrolment-ratio-in-tertiary-education https://knoema.com/atlas/ghana/topics/education/tertiary-education/gross-enrolment-ratio-in-tertiary-education analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 141 appendix department of languages education mid-semester examination paper title: communication skills duration: 25 mins paper code: gpd 111 index number: …………………………… class: …………………………………... answer all the questions on the question paper. 1. communication is a universal activity because _________________ . a. it is a credible source of data collection b. it creates the right atmosphere of dialogue c. it enables people to give out or receive information d. it is therapeutic 2. which one of the following does not constitute one of the reasons why we communicate? a. to establish relations b. to persuade c. to share information d. to test the efficacy of words 3. non-verbal communication largely involves the use of _________________ . a. cues b. posters c. symbols d. vision 4. the concluding paragraph has the following functions except _______________ . a. to introduce new research idea b. to refer to cause or effect of issues c. to summarize main ideas d. to suggest solutions 5. _______________________ are to move the reader to make a particular choice or to take a particular course of action. a. expository paragraphs b. mainstream paragraphs c. narrative paragraphs d. persuasive paragraphs 6. paragraphs can be distinguished according to the following except ____________ . a. function b. length c. position d. unity 7. which one of the following is not a major drawback in effective communication? ato kwamina arhin, jonathan essuman, & ekua arhin ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 142 a. distortion b. faking attention c. noise d. semantic distraction 8. new perspectives are discovered when the author _______________ the work. a. edits b. proofreads c. simmers d. writes 9. a group of students were given a topic to write for an assignment. the students have to go through the following stages except __________________ . a. drafting b. prewriting c. revision d. submission 10. ________________ is a reading technique that aims at understanding and obtaining of a story or text. a. close reading b. scanning c. skimming d. studying 11. the final step in the pre-writing stage of the writing process is _______________ . a. brainstorming b. clustering c. editing d. outlining 12. the stage in the communication process where the recipient seeks the correct meaning of the message is called _____________ . a. channelling b. decoding c. feedback d. interpretation 13. the use of siren by the police, fire service or ambulance to suggest urgency of the situation is an example of a. haptics b. kinesics c. objectics d. oculesics 14. converting an idea into written or spoken form of language is called __________ . a. decoding b. encoding c. ideation d. interpretation analysis of item writing flaws in a communications skills test in a ghanaian university ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 121-143 143 15. which of the following is not a feature of a good note? a. descriptive b. readable c. reflects the source d. understandable 16. all the following are ways of writing notes except ________________ . a. detailing b. headline c. paraphrasing d. spidergram 17. which of the following reading techniques is employed at the survey stage of the sq4rs method? a. browsing b. drifting c. scanning d. skimming 18. which of the following is not a negative reading habit? a. fixation b. regression c. stress d. vocalization 19. the type of reading that is undertaken for academic and professional purposes is ___ . a. diving b. extensive reading c. faster reading d. intensive reading 20. any paragraph that lacks coherence would lack unity. a. true b. false competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions rose moindi & bernard nyatuka kisii university, kenya. abstract education systems worldwide are shifting to knowledge-based curricula with emphasis on the learners’ acquisition of relevant competencies. entrepreneurship education was introduced in tertiary institutions in kenya in 1999 to produce entrepreneurs, including preparing graduates for the world of work. however, limited studies have focused on the assessment of acquisition of such competencies, especially in entrepreneurship education. this study was designed to examine the effectiveness of assessment modes used in entrepreneurship education in imparting requisite competencies among students in tertiary institutions in the country. the study adopted a cross-sectional research design. a total of 412 students selected from three tertiary institutions were involved in the study. data were collected using questionnaires and analysed quantitatively using descriptive and inferential statistics. the study showed that written examinations were the most commonly used mode of assessment of entrepreneurship education, followed by projects and attachment. the study revealed that there is no significant difference in the influence of the mode of assessment as adopted in the different tertiary institutions in fostering the acquisition of competencies (f ratio<f critical) (0.835<3.02). however, when the requisite competencies were compared, the study showed that the mode of assessment adopted enhanced acquisition of ideas and opportunities (0.313 units) and resources (0.364 units) competencies more compared to the into-action competencies (0.249 units). to enhance the acquisition of relevant competencies, the study recommends adoption of different appropriate modes of assessment in entrepreneurship education. keywords: assessment, competence, entrepreneurship education, tertiary institution introduction to produce graduates with the requisite competencies in their areas of specialization and world of work, the world’s education systems have been shifting from the traditional lecture-based issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 100-120 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 101 curriculum to a knowledge-based one (hassanein, 2021). since tertiary institutions have a crucial role in supplying to the labour market competent workforce (chukwurah & akpo, 2019), there is need to provide a kind of curriculum that imparts to their students the required competencies. according to hassanein (2021) and chukwurah and akpo, (2019), the crucial evidence of the relationship between tertiary education and development manifests in the institutions' teaching and learning function. assessment of the learning outcomes is an important function in the teaching and learning process (lile & bran, 2014, bhatti, doghan, saat, johari & alshagawi, 2021). it is on this backdrop that the current study sought to assess the effectiveness of the modes of assessment adopted in tertiary institutions in assessing entrepreneurial competencies in one of kenya’s counties. entrepreneurship education is taught to students in both universities as well as technical institutions as a means of enhancing graduate self-employment (mshenga, okello, ayua, mwangi, jabu & mungai, 2020; ngigi, gichunge & orero, 2020). however, a study by yusoff, zainol, and ibrahim (2015), on the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in malaysian public institutions of higher learning showed that universities produced many graduate entrepreneurs, but did not attract them to being entrepreneurs, compared to those from the technical and vocational education training (tvet) institutions. this implies that tvet centres in malaysia have been able to inculcate students with entrepreneurial competencies better in comparison to the universities. the success of entrepreneurship programmes in malaysia, according to rahim, kadir, abidin, junid, kamaruddin, lajin, buyong, and bakri (2015), was attributed to the fact that in addition to the compulsory entrepreneurship education course, the students are exposed to many entrepreneurial activities such as seminars, short courses, conferences, and related events within the duration of the study which enable them to link course content with entrepreneurship. while these studies observed the students’ activities within the duration of the study, they did not consider the effectiveness of the modes of assessment that were adopted to assess entrepreneurship education in these institutions. studies have shown that entrepreneurship education can build on entrepreneurial competencies (bacigalupo, kampylis, punie & van den brande, 2016; european union, 2017; mccallum, weicht, mcmullan, & price, 2018; chukwurah & akpo, 2019). however, the challenge is how effective tertiary institutions are in assessing entrepreneurial competencies. for instance, the study by masemola (2013) on the assessment of competencies acquired by alumni students in the university of south africa showed that 41.4% of them were not equipped with entrepreneurial skills, 54% needed practical knowledge of how to start a rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 102 business, and 15.3% who were already self-employed lacked the necessary skills in running their enterprises. this study indicated that there was a deficit in the orientation of students to being entrepreneurs. on the other hand, gibb (2005) observed that learners are expected to write down their own objectives in a bid to reflect and do a self-assessment at the end of the learning process. while assessment could be done at any point of the learning process, this would be an integral aspect of gauging whether learning took place (bhatti, doghan, saat, johari & alshagawi, 2021; shirandula, 2021). limited studies have focused on the assessing students acquired competencies. literature review kenya introduced the competence based curriculum (cbc) as a new system of education in 2016. its 6-6-3 structure replaced the 8-4-4 system (kenya institute of curriculum development (kicd, 2016). in the cbc, competencies have to be assessed by use of questionnaires, rubrics, portfolio, rubrics, projects, journals, anecdotes, records, oral questioning, rating scale, learners profile, written tests and observation schedules (kicd, 2016). the kicd observed that these modes of assessment present to the learner conducive environments for learning. these assessment modes are aligned with kenya’s vision 2030 development blueprint which calls for a curriculum that develops learner’s entrepreneurial competencies in addition to the identification and nurturing of talents (republic of kenya, 2014). whilst the kicd has recommended these modes of assessment as being ideal in enabling students to acquire competencies, there is need to assess their effectiveness in tertiary institutions, a focus of this study. assessment of students in entrepreneurship education has often posed a challenge (mwasalwiba, 2010; lokoko, rankhumise, & ras, 2012). for instance, the analysis of different journals that was conducted by mwasalwiba (2010) on the assessment of entrepreneurship education revealed that little attention had been dedicated to how to measure the overall effectiveness of this unit by individuals and society. on the other hand, lokoko, rankhumise and ras (2012) observed that the lack of generally accepted measures was due to the different factors characterising entrepreneurship education such as the target group. entrepreneurship education, for instance, is not only taught to students in formal education alone but also to persons in the non-formal education or in business. this study sought to compare the effectiveness of the formal type of entrepreneurship education that is taught to diploma students in selected tertiary institutions in kenya. competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 103 studies in kenya have shown that entrepreneurial competency is measured by assessment of entrepreneurship education which is largely theoretical (calhoun, davidson, sinioris, vincent & griffith, 2002; republic of kenya, 2019). however, etzkowitz and viale (2010) observed that there is need to link what is taught in school with what is happening in the industry as in a triple helix society. the kenyan government introduced the competencebased education and training (cbet) as a means of testing a variety of student’s competencies, especially during industrial attachment (republic of kenya 2018; republic of kenya, 2019). in this mode of assessment, students in tvets are assessed by both internal and external verifiers who are trained to national standards by the tvet curriculum development assessment and certification council (cdacc) (republic of kenya, 2018). thus, students in an institution would be assessed together at an appropriate time. accordingly, each student is assessed when they feel that they are ready to minimise re-seats (republic of kenya, 2018). the current study focused on third-year students at kisii university (ksu) and two tvet institutions; kisii national polytechnic (knp) and keroka technical institute (kti). for both knp and kti, students had been exposed to the industrial attachment at the end of both their first and second years of study and this placed them in a position to identify the competencies required in the industry. on the other hand, students in the universities are assessed by their lecturers who are the internal verifiers as universities are autonomous. a comparative analysis of the modes of assessment adopted in the tvet institutions as well as the universities would provide useful information regarding entrepreneurial competency acquisition. kenya has a centralised system of education. the epistemological reason for a centralised education system is to reinforce national strength (bray & kai, 2014). this consequently produces products that have similar qualifications. however, education at the post-secondary level is mixed as the tvet institutions are controlled by the national government through semi-autonomous agencies such as the kicd and kenya national examination council (knec), while universities are autonomous, including the control over their own examinations (republic of kenya, 2012b; kaane, 2014; republic of kenya, 2016). the entrepreneurship education curriculum in the country was introduced in the tertiary institutions in late 1999 and developed within the framework of the international labour organisation (ilo) and united nations development programme (undp) in a bid to create persons with entrepreneurial competencies (republic of kenya, 1988; undp, 2009; farstad, 2002). diploma examinations in universities are a combination of continuous assessments rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 104 whose marks are combined with an internal terminal examination for each unit at the end of the semester (republic of kenya, 2012b). on the other hand, national examinations are conducted at the end of each module or academic year through a final external examination conducted by the knec in both national polytechnics and technical training institutes (republic of kenya, 2012b). this difference in assessment has been observed to create disparity in the qualification of diploma graduates (republic of kenya 2012a; republic of kenya, 2005). a comparative analysis of the model of assessment of entrepreneurship education would provide information on the effective mode of assessment of competencies to be adopted by tertiary institutions. statement of the problem entrepreneurship education is considered as a precursor to the industrial development of any country. this explains why this unit has been incorporated in diploma courses in different tertiary institutions (bacigalupo., kampylis, punie, van den brande, 2016; wang, yueh & wen, 2019; hassanein, 2021). effective acquisition of competencies is integral to providing a competent labour force for the country (hassanein, 2021). in a bid to assess competences, different modes of assessment have been adopted by different institutions (republic of kenya, 2014; shirandula 2021). this study sought to determine the effectiveness of modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education in enabling students to acquire the required competencies. study objectives 1. to determine the influence of the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education on acquisition of requisite competencies. 2. to compare the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted in the different tertiary institutions in fostering students’ acquisition of requisite competencies. hypotheses ho1. there is no significant difference in the influence of modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education in fostering students’ acquisition of the requisite competencies. ho2. there is no significant difference in the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted in the different tertiary institutions in fostering students’ acquisition of the requisite competencies. competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 105 theoretical framework the study adopted the entrepreneurship competence framework (entrecomp framework) (bacigalupo, kampylis, punie, van den brande, 2016). the entrecomp framework builds a bridge between the worlds of work and education and encourages active participation in all economic and societal areas, allowing citizens to turn ideas into actions, creating value, not just for oneself (teneva, 2018). the framework has three competence areas (ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action); with each competence area having five competencies (see figure 1). figure 1. entrecomp wheel (source: bacigalupo, kampylis, punie, van den brande, 2016) each competence has associated learning outcomes. according to bacigalupo, kampylis, punie, van den brande, (2016), the learning outcomes are statements of what a learner knows, understands, and can do after learning. these statements can be used for educational planning and curriculum development. this is because the learning outcomes help to design the mode of assessment (proitz, 2010). the entrecomp framework sets out a set of expected learning outcomes in each competency (mccallum, weicht, mcmullan, & price, 2018). this study adopted the framework and used the associated learning outcomes to rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 106 compare the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in respect to the mode of assessment as adapted in three tertiary institutions in kisii county, kenya. methodology the study adopted a cross sectional research design. according to kesmodel (2018) and maninder (2016), this design is ideal in obtaining a holistic understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. the research design was appropriate in assessing the experiences of respondents with similar exposure at a given point in time. the assessed students had been exposed to entrepreneurship education while undertaking their diploma course. in the process of undertaking their course, different modes of assessment were adopted. the research design was appropriate in establishing the effectiveness of the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education in enabling trainees to acquire competencies. this research design was considered to be appropriate in determining the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in imparting the requisite competencies among third-year students in the 2019/2020 academic year in the three selected tertiary institutions in this study. population this study targeted all third-year diploma students in selected public tertiary institutions (ksu, knp and kti) in kisii county. the three institutions were a national university, a national polytechnic, and an institute of technology, respectively. these institutions offered similar diploma courses to students where entrepreneurship education was taught. according to bray and kai (2014), an ‘intranational’ system of education is a situation where different systems of education are observed in the same country. they further observed that when comparing systems of education, researchers would be able to identify elements which converge and diverge despite having common overreaching frameworks. purposive sampling was used to identify diploma courses (personnel /human resource management, supply chain/stores and supplies management, business management/business administration, and information communication technology/information technology) since they are offered in the selected institutions in the 2019/2020 academic year. this study sought to assess the effectiveness of the mode of assessment of entrepreneurship education that were adopted in these institutions. competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 107 the study targeted 180 students at ksu, knp (220) and kti (230) in the 2019/2020 academic year. the sample size for students in each target population or tertiary institution was determined using glenn’s (2012) sample size determination formula which is presented below. in the equation, n is the total population of students in an institution, n is the sample size for each institution and, e is the level of precision which was 0.05. using this formula, the sample size for students in the three institutions was calculated as follows: 124, 142 and 146 students in ksu, knp and kti, respectively. selection of participants proportionate sampling, which involves dividing a population into sub-populations and then applying the random sampling technique for each of them (deshpande & grime, 2019) was used. since this study constitutes three target populations (ksu, knp and kti), each was divided into sub-populations, comprising four courses (it/ict, human/personnel resource management, supply-chain/store management, and business management/administration). proportionate sampling was adopted in the process of selecting the final subjects proportionately from the different sub-populations or courses. instruments to determine the prevalence of a particular trait among respondents, kesmodel (2018) has recommended the use of questionnaires. the student’s questionnaires comprised of five-point likert scale items. according to jamli and salim (2019), the likert scale would be appropriate in the process of collecting data from a large group of respondents. in this study, a total of 412 questionnaires were distributed by the researcher to three institutions (124 in ksu, 142 in knp, and 146 in kti). the student’s questionnaire was divided into two sections. the first section sought to identify the modes of assessment adopted in the institutions, as well as the persons responsible for the setting and marking of the examinations. the second section of the questionnaire comprised of five-point likert scale items regarding the related competencies. the likert scale items were adopted from the entrecomp model (bacigalupo, kampylis, punie, & van den brande, 2016). analytical framework rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 108 inferential statistics were used to form a database from which to infer characteristics concerning the population (kothari, 2014). inferential statistics involved the use of regression analysis and anova. in this study, simple regression equation was used to find the relationship between each independent variable and the dependent variable (saunders, lewis & thornhill, 2007). regression analysis allowed an examination of the relationship between several individual independent variables on one dependent variable. to assess the extent to which the modes of assessment adopted in the different tertiary institutions were effective in fostering students acquire the requisite competencies, a regression equation was developed. cmoe = β1moe1 + β2 moe 2 + β3 moe 3 where: cmoe – required competencies linked to the mode of assessment. moe1 denotes aspects of modes of assessment to ideas and opportunities component of entrepreneurship competency moe2 denotes aspects of modes of assessment associated with the resources component of entrepreneurship competency moe3 denotes aspects of modes of assessment associated with the into-action component of entrepreneurship competency β1, β2, and β3 are coefficients of moe1, moe2, and moe3 variables denoting the number of times competency will change if any variable is changed by 1 unit. to establish the effectiveness of modes of assessment on required competencies, a regression analysis of cmoe on moe1, moe2 and moe3 was conducted. data collection procedures the reliability condition was met by use of test-retest which was separated with a three weeks’ time interval from 17th september to 8th october 2019. according to christodoulou, kalokairinou, koukia, intas, apostolara, dalas, and zyga (2015), the three-week period was long enough to prevent learning or recall. criterion validity ensures that the method of measurement matches the criterion the researcher intends to measure (rahim, mohamed, masrom & amrin, 2018). to achieve this, they have recommended that items in the questionnaire be based on the existing knowledge. competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 109 rowley (2014) suggested the adoption of items from published work since they have already been validated. thus in this study, the items in the likert scale were adapted from the entrecomp model developed by bacigalupo, punie, and brande (2016) as well as mccallum, weicht, mcmullan, and price (2018). in kenya, the national commission for science, technology and innovation (nacosti) was put in place following the enactment of the science technology and innovation act, 2013 (republic of kenya, 2013) to oversee the overall code of conduct that governs the way research is carried out. this study adhered to the nacosti requirements that include observing such ethical considerations as confidentiality of the data collected as well as anonymity of the study respondents. the questionnaires were administered to the respondents at both the pilot stage and the main study. administering of the questionnaires was conducted during the official working days (monday to friday) and hours (8:00 am to 4:00 pm) at the convenience of the respondents in their respective institutions. the questionnaires were then collected once the respondents had filled them. findings modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted the study sought to identify the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted in different tertiary institutions. an analysis of the student's responses is presented in figure 2. figure 2: modes of assessment adopted in tertiary institutions source: current study 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 attachment business plan assignment cats examination kti knp ksu rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 110 figure 2 shows that cognitive (continuous assessment tests (cats), assignments, and examinations) as well as operational structures (attachment and business plans), were adopted in the assessment of students in the three tertiary institutions. the majority of students observed that they were exposed to assignments and cats which are categorized as cognitive structures (calhoun, davidson, sinioris, vincent & griffith, 2002; zimmerman, 2012). according to sessional paper number 1 of 2019, students in the tvet institutions (in this case knp and kti) are required to go for a compulsory attachment every academic year to expose them to the industry experience (republic of kenya, 2019). this could have contributed to more students in knp (59%) and kti (41%) stating that attachment was a mode of assessment compared to the students in ksu (15%). effectiveness of mode of assessment in competency areas in this study, students were asked to indicate the extent to which the mode of assessment that was adopted in their institution fostered their acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies. these statements were grouped into three competency areas: ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action. competencies in ideas and opportunities were spotting opportunities, and creativity, while those in the resource competence area were mobilized resources and financial and economic literacy. finally, competencies in the into-action competence area were to do with working with others. table 1 shows the summary of the regression equation output. table 1 mode of assessment effect on acquired competencies coefficients standard error t stat p-value regressio n statisctic moe1 0.313 0.041 7.664 0.000 moe2 0.364 0.044 8.192 0.000 moe3 0.249 0.043 5.826 0.000 multiple r 0.96 r square 0.927 source: current study from the above model, the required competencies associated with modes of assessment can be estimated using the following equation. cmoe = 0.313moe1 + 0.364moe 2 + 0.249moe3 (r 2 = 92.7%, r = 0.96) competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 111 in table 1, the coefficients column shows that all aspects of modes of assessment associated with ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action competency areas positively affect the acquired competencies. this implies that any positive change in moe1, moe2, and moe3 brings about a positive change in the acquisition of the required entrepreneurship competencies. for instance, a unit change in aspects of modes of assessment associated with ideas and opportunity while other factors are held constant will change the acquired competencies by 0.313 units. similarly, a unit change in aspects of modes of assessment associated with resources while other factors are held constant will change the acquired competencies by 0.364 units. similarly, a unit change in aspects of modes of assessment associated with into-action competencies while other factors are held constant would change acquired competencies by 0.249. thus, the modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions effectively influenced the acquisition of resources and ideas, and opportunities competencies more than the into-action ones. this result is similar to the study that was conducted by rahayu, wijijayanti, and agustina (2019) which showed that the mode of assessment adopted in evaluating entrepreneurship education lacked aspects measuring change of attitude but rather focused on the subject matter. this could be attributed to the fact that the modes of assessment adopted required students to recall what was taught in class. the p-values of 0.00 > 0.05 suggest that moe1, moe2, and moe3 (ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action) are significant in explaining the effect of mode of assessment on the acquisition of the requisite competencies. the r2 value of 92.7% change in cmoe (mode of assessment) can be explained by changes in ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action (moe1, moe2, and moe3). this means that 92.7% of changes in the mode of assessment can be explained by moe1, moe2, and moe3 (changes associated with ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action). the regression analysis results show a very strong positive relationship (r = 0.96) between the mode of assessment and fostering entrepreneurial competencies (moe1, moe2, and moe3). this indicates that an improvement in the mode of assessment will positively foster the student’s entrepreneurial competencies. ho1. there is no significant difference in the influence of modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education in fostering students’ acquisition of the requisite competencies. rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 112 to assess the first hypothesis, an anova was carried out to determine the extent to which the mode of assessment fosters the acquisition of the acquired competencies. the results of this analysis are presented in table 2. table 2 mode of assessment in fostering competency areas df ss ms f f crit regression 3 1379.86 459.95 1622.74 0.00 residual 378 107.14 0.28 total 381 1487 source: current study from the results in table 2 above, (f ratio > f critical) [f 3, 378) =1622.95 > 0.00]. this shows that there is a significant difference in the extent to which mode of assessment of entrepreneurship education was effective in fostering the acquisition of the requisite competencies (ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action competencies). this suggests that the modes of assessment adopted fostered the acquisition of competencies differently. ho2. there is no significant difference in the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted in the different tertiary institutions in fostering students’ acquisition of the requisite competencies. to examine effectiveness of assessment modes among the three institutions, an anova for the average responses was carried out. the results that were obtained from the respondents are presented in table 3. table 3 effectiveness of mode of assessment per institution source of variation ss df ms f p-value f crit between groups 1.244 2 0.622 0.835 0.435 3.02 within groups 281.439 378 0.745 total 282.682 380 source: current study from the results in table 3, the f value is less than f critical (0.835 < 3.02) implying that there is no significant difference in the mode of assessment in the three institutions. this means that although students were exposed to different modes of examinations, cats, assignments, attachment, and project writing, there was no significant difference in the extent competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 113 to which these modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions fostered the acquisition of competencies. the p-value (0.435 > 0.05) was greater than 0.05, hence it can be concluded that the modes of assessment in the three institutions (ksu, knp, and kti) are not statistically significantly different at 5% significance level (p < 0.05). therefore, despite the fact that different modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions, there was no significant difference in their influence in fostering acquisition of competencies. discussion the modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions ranged from the use of continuous assessment tests (cats), assignments, examinations, and attachment to project writing. while cats and assignments were adopted as formative modes of assessment in knp and kti, in ksu, cats and assignments were used for both formative as well as summative assessment. this is because in knp and kti, assignments and cats were used to measure how much the students had learned so that they could be assisted to improve their learning, a situation that was described as an “assessment for learning” (bhatti, doghan, saat, johari & alshagawi, 2021; shirandula, 2021) in ksu, the cats and assignment marks were not only used to improve the student’s learning but were also included in the final score for grading purposes. this inferred that in ksu, formative assessment or “assessment of learning” was adopted right from the beginning of the unit. regression analysis of the second objective showed that the modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions played a significant role in assessing entrepreneurial competencies r2=92.7% and an r-value of 0.96. this implies that 92.7% of the aspects of assessment of entrepreneurship education influence the acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies. however, analysis of the three competence areas as described in the entrecomp model (mccallum, weicht, mcmullan, & price, 2018) showed that the modes of assessment adopted influenced the acquisition of competencies on ideas and opportunities (0.313 units) and resources (0.364units) competencies more compared to into-action competencies (0.249 units). this implies that the modes of analysis favoured assessment of recall aspects of learning which comprised of ideas and opportunities as well as resources compared to the manipulative aspects (into-action). this would affect acquisition of into-action set of competencies which is important in creating a competent entrepreneur to the job market (boldureanu, ionescu, bercu, bedrule-grigorut,ă & boldureanu, 2020; mccallum, weicht, mcmullan, & price, 2018). rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 114 in knp and kti, the final examination comprised of marks from project writing and from industrial assessment in addition to the last examination that was conducted by knec. thus, while in ksu cats and examination marks provided a final score in entrepreneurship education, sit-in examination, industrial attachment and project writing scores provided the final tally in entrepreneurship education assessment in both kti and knp. this difference in the modes of assessment adopted showed a significant difference in the acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies in the three institutions (ideas and opportunities, resources and into action) {(f value > f critical) (1622.74>0.00)} in these institutions. anova of student responses showed that the p-value was {(p-value > 0.05), (0.435>0.05)}. this suggests that despite the students being exposed to different examinations by knec and the respective universities, the extent to which these modes of assessment fostered acquisition of competencies in the three institutions were similar. this is because there was no significant difference in the extent to which the modes of assessment influenced the acquisition of competencies. this implies that there is a need to not only include more aspects of assessment, but also improve on the current modes used to enable the students view assessment as a learning process. more often than not, students consider passing examinations as the ultimate purpose of assessment (kadir, abidin, junid, kamaruddin, lajin, buyong, & bakri, 2015). there was need to adopt exhibitions as a mode of assessment to enable students to showcase their unique competencies in entrepreneurship education. limitations and recommendations of the study in this study, data was collected by use of questionnaires. however, whilst questionnaires are appropriate in drawing information from a large number of respondents, individualised information from the respondents cannot be obtained (creswell, 2014). additionally, the scope of the study was confined to students in the business and ict departments in three tertiary institutions in a county in kenya. furthermore, the study was limited to the influence of the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education in fostering acquisition of competencies in three competence areas. to foster acquisition of the requisite competencies among students, the study recommends that different appropriate modes of assessment in entrepreneurship education be used. the following recommendations for further studies are made: 1. assess the effectiveness of the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted in fostering acquisition of competencies not covered in this study. competency-based assessment in entrepreneurship education in kenya’s tertiary institutions ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 100-120 115 2. assess the effectiveness of modes of assessment as adopted in other courses which were not included in this study. 3. conduct a similar study to a broader geographical area, population as well as using a combination of instruments. author contribution • dr rose moindi was responsible for writing the literature review component of the study as well as the collection of the data from the study respondents. she was also involved in the analysis and reporting of the data. • dr bernard nyatuka was responsible for ensuring that the study complied with the relevant study ethical considerations and/or policies as well as regulations. he was also responsible for ensuring the validity and reliability of the research instruments as well as data collected. rose moindi & bernard nyatuka ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 100-120 116 references ait 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(2021). evaluation methods of entrepreneurship education and acquisition of entrepreneurial skills among hospitality students. journal of technical education and training.v13(4) teneva, i. (2018). entrepreneurial competences: comparison of proacademy and entrecomp. [master’s thesis in educational leadership, tampere university of applied sciences]. https://www.thenesus.f1/bitstream/handle/10024/158476teneva_irena.pdf united nations development programme undp, (2009). human development report 2009. overcoming barriers. retrieved from http://hdr.ufp.org. yusoff, m. n. h., zainol, f. a., & ibrahim, m. d. (2015). entrepreneurship education in malaysia’s public institutions of higher learning—a review of the current practices. international education studies, 8(1), 2015 issn 1913-9020 e-issn 1913-9039 wang, s., yueh, h. & wen, (2019), how the new type of entrepreneurship education complements the traditional one in developing entrepreneurial competencies and intention. the psychology and education of entrepreneurial development. psychol., 13 september 2019 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02048 zimmerman, b. j. (2013). from cognitive modelling to self-regulation: social cognitive career path. educational psychologist, 49(3), 135-147. doi:10.1080/00461520.2013.794676. https://www.thenesus.f1/bitstream/handle/10024/158476teneva_irena.pdf http://hdr.ufp.org/ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02048 newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa charmaine helena iwu cornerstone institute, south africa abstract this study was undertaken with the aim of understanding how newly qualified female teachers perceive teaching practicum in the south african context. teaching practicum is a vital component of the initial teacher education (ite) programme because it enriches future teachers’ knowledge, skills and abilities towards a lifelong career in the teaching profession. teachers make valuable contributions to the growth of any nation as they help produce future leaders. it is therefore necessary to have a competent teaching workforce to improve pass rates as well as reduce dropout rates among learners. the study took the qualitative deductive premise making use of semi-structured interviews to collect data from more than 30 novice teachers. key words, which helped in the identification of themes, were distilled from the responses. a core overall finding of the study point to a mix of experiences benefits and shortcomings which not only affect the development of prospective teachers but also have profound implications for both policy enhancement and implementation. regarding policy enhancement and implementation, it is suggested that universities and schools where novice teachers are posted for teaching practice should have good relations for support advancements. in this case, it is advised that the novice teachers should be exposed to critical mentoring opportunities to allow for clearer understanding of the real classroom scope. this study believes that for this to be fruitful, schools should among others be well-equipped. suggestions for further research are also flagged. african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10 no.1 2021 pages 38-69 newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 39 keywords: teaching practicum, education and training, initial teacher education, foundation phase, novice teachers, newly qualified teachers, trainee teachers, mentoring introduction it has been commonly reported that south africa’s basic education is in crisis (mckeever, 2017; kubow, 2018; essack & hindle, 2019). foundation phase teaching is seen as a critical supply chain that can reduce some of the problems that have been reported (sayed & mcdonald, 2017; schaffler et al 2019), which include poor pass rates, high dropout rate among learners and unpreparedness of those who access institutions of higher learning (ramrathan, 2017; mlachila & moeletsi, 2019). other solutions have however been suggested for these problems. among them is an increase in the number of qualified teachers (mzuza et al 2014; mlambo & adetiba, 2020). worryingly, there is a low uptake of teaching as a career (mlambo & adetiba, 2020). this is even more disturbing when one considers the rate at which teachers exit the profession in search of greener pastures ((de villiers, 2017; mlambo & adetiba, 2020). a seemingly more viable option is to try and provide adequate (quality) training to those who are studying towards becoming teachers (musset, 2010). quality training goes beyond classroom teaching in institutions of higher learning (kolb, 2015; köksal, 2019). teaching practicum is one way of enriching the learning experience of future teachers (kolb, 2015; iwu, 2019). it is considered a vital component of the initial teacher education (ite) programme because of its capacity to influence future teachers to embrace the teaching profession. this component provides prospective teachers with the relevant knowledge and experiences to deal with teaching in a real classroom. in line with understanding how those in training to become teachers, specifically foundation phase teachers, are sufficiently inspired and encouraged to remain in the profession of teaching, this study sought the views of newly qualified female foundation phase teachers regarding the teaching practicum. a foundation phase teacher is expected to promote a learner’s social, emotional and intellectual development (schaffler et al 2019). if this is not done during the early stages of a child’s learning experience, according to robinson (2016), the learner is bound to experience serious developmental challenges. robinson goes further to advise teacher training institutions to strengthen their teacher education programmes so that teachers of foundation phase learners are charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 40 well-equipped for the task. a similar call was made in 2009 by kiggundu and nayimuli who suggested a review of ite programmes for the benefit of those on teaching practicum. therefore, it is important to ensure meaningful teaching practicum experiences in south african ite programmes. if those in training are not sufficiently exposed to positive experience during teaching practicum, interest in the teaching profession will continue to dwindle (korthagen, 2016). this is especially instructive for south africa considering the urgency to produce high quality teachers not only for their diverse classrooms but also to stem the low pass rates and high dropout rates (mateus et al, 2014; ramrathan, 2017; du plessis &mestry, 2019; mlachila & moeletsi, 2019; muremela et al 2020). literature review the goal of this study was to understand how newly qualified female teachers perceive the teaching practicum in the south african context. to achieve this, the researcher needed to determine the benefits and disadvantages of teaching practicum. owing to this, this section presents the benefits and shortcomings of teaching practicum. thereafter, a conceptual framework drawn from literature is presented. benefits of teaching practicum as a component of ite teaching practicum prepares prospective teachers for the teaching profession by enhancing the necessary knowledge and skills for the classroom. it is an important learning opportunity for newly qualified teachers to appreciate the role and process of conducting the business of teaching (aglazor, 2017). several benefits accrue from exposing newly qualified teachers to a ‘real’ classroom. quality practice learning experiences in real classrooms contribute to student teachers’ development as well as help to cement an interest in the profession. according to pham et al (2020), novice teachers gain both emotionally and physically from the interactions with students. these gains were related to considerable progress in classroom management skills. interestingly, gravett and jiyane (2019) argue that these gains are only possible in a well-functioning school. a well-functioning school may be characterized as one with quality infrastructure (alzahrani, et al. 2016), effective school management and leadership (leithwood, 2016), considerable attempt to realise the mission and vision of the school (kirk & jones, 2004), well-trained teachers who can serve as mentors or supervisors (kriauciuniene & targamadze, 2019), and many other factors. newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 41 essentially, stakeholders in teacher education such as policy makers, school governing bodies and educators emphasise the need for sound leadership and management practices for the purpose of improving student teacher outcomes (harris, 2004). overall, the concept of a well-functioning school hinges on outcomes and achievements (feng, 2007; ganihar & hangal, 2008) which means that the schools where the student teachers are posted for teaching practice must exemplify good teaching practices, have a good stock of expert teachers and quality infrastructure to facilitate the achievement of outcomes. shortcomings of teaching practicum as a component of ite despite the benefits discussed above, researchers (for example pham et al, 2020; lestari, 2020) have pointed to some serious shortcomings of teaching practicum. pham et al (2020) found “inadequate duration and inappropriate timing” (p.29) to have impeded newly qualified teachers’ capacity to enjoy a positive experience. a study by lestari (2020) in indonesia found that newly qualified teachers had negative emotions at the start of the program. the feelings of negative emotion are associated with unpreparedness (sulistiyo, et al. 2017) which in some cases relate to poor supervision and school choice (pham et al 2020). these, according to the authors do not bode well for a pleasurable experience during teaching practicum. the absence of quality teachers and good infrastructure especially in poorly funded schools also add to the shortcomings of teaching practicum. gravett and jiyane (2019) found the absence of teaching aids as displeasing to the novice teacher. this was against the backdrop of the student teachers looking forward to proper guidance and mentoring from the teachers at the school where they were posted. mentoring student teachers during teaching practicum is an important element for confidence boosting. in south africa, supervision of student teachers takes the form of regular visits by faculty to the schools where student teachers are posted. kanjee (2018) reported that student teachers felt that their lecturers needed to visit them more often for the purpose of providing clarity in cases where they were confused. this somewhat confirms what kriauciuniene and targamadze (2019) said regarding the necessity for mentoring and supervision for student teachers. conceptual framework charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 42 this study considers the role of teaching practicum in preparing prospective teachers in the south african context. in this regard and drawing from literature, four conceptual elements are considered significant. figure 1: conceptual framework adequate curriculum considering the varying nature of how teacher education is structured, the length of time and requirements for successful completion, supervision, feedback as well as the assessment of student teachers (kanjee, 2018), the curriculum for teacher education and training has undergone some necessary reviews since 1994. govender (2018) argues that the curriculum for educators is fundamental to the success of society and thereby consistently experiences reform and change. the dhet [department of shaping teaching practicum adequate curriculum sufficient facilities constant feedback lecturer & mentor support newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 43 higher education and training] (2017:10) defines curriculum “as a statement of intended outcomes to be achieved, what knowledge content is to be acquired, which competencies and skills are to be developed, and the levels of performance that are expected from students. it defines what is to be taught, what students must learn and what is to be assessed.” with this in mind, it is understandable why a review of the curriculum for teacher education is necessary especially if one considers that the many curriculum changes since south africa gained independence has been catastrophic (maharajh et al 2016). with the goal of finding new ways for inclusive education in south africa post-apartheid especially with reference to blacks, curriculum policy change was necessary (schmidt, 2017). therefore, the intention to do away with the apartheid era ‘borrowed’ policy of outcome-based education (obe) was aimed at introducing curricula that addressed local knowledge forms (fomunyam, & teferra, 2017; mckay, 2018), “stress an integrated and inclusive curriculum that embraces diversity” (schmidt, 2017, p. 370), while at the same time encouraging local and community participation in school administration (maharajh et al, 2016). the current curriculum comprises the curriculum and assessment policy statement (otherwise known as caps). maddock and maroun (2018) aver that the caps centres on quality and content knowledge and how learners are able to achieve higher standards of performance. even though caps has been hailed as transformative and helpful in engaging local knowledge, it has been plagued by poor implementation and teachers’ lack of understanding of the real intent of the policy (maharajh et al 2016). a working curriculum is one that produces a wholesome individual who is prepared to face a real classroom. this is the view of dgmt (2018) who acknowledges that the weakness of teacher training stems from a curriculum that does not have the input of teachers and so fails to fully prepare a teacher in training who ultimately struggles during teaching practice. in this regard, govender (2018) calls for the integration of educators in curriculum reform which botman (2016) believes will benefit teacher training. maserow (2015) argues differently that the quality of current teachers and existing teaching practicum cannot be improved through teacher training and teaching cannot be improved, save by improving the quality of current teachers and teacher practices. in other words, simply looking at curriculum reform will not bring out positive charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 44 outcomes for teaching practicum. quality teaching is a function of several support systems including mentoring for new teachers entering the profession (kanjee, 2018; gravett & jiyane, 2019). this view suggests that to realise an effective teaching team, teachers should also be involved in the process of curriculum reform, to transform the way they teach in practice thus, influencing teaching practicum positively. this view seems to be shared by botman (2016) who is of the view that to become a teacher requires a good knowledge of how to study, teach, learn and even entertain in the classroom. an adequate curriculum for teaching practicum should consider multi-cultural classrooms that necessitate effective communication competency. even though multi-cultural intolerance is common in south africa, koen and ebrahim (2013) explain that multi-cultural environments facilitate a strong appreciation of the different backgrounds, language, communication, social values, beliefs of people by foundation phase learners thereby reducing the level of difficulty they face teaching in diverse classrooms. afterall, teaching practicum comprises a range of programmes for learning, communicating and developing the necessary competencies, experiences, skills and knowledge for the real classroom. sufficient facilities adequate resources are required to successfully implement any curriculum. poorly funded or illequipped schools may distract from the objectives of gaining meaningful experience during teaching practicum (alzahrani, 2016, gravett & jiyane, 2018). for instance, it is impracticable for both old and trainee teachers to effectively perform their functions if the environment is inconducive (sedibe, 2011). an inconducive school environment is one that lacks resources such as textbooks, furniture, laboratories, and classrooms (robinson, 2016). often, the lack of these resources is the reason for poor education outcomes in the developing countries (sedibe, 2011). essentially, because of inadequate and poor facilities, shaping teaching practicum becomes much more challenging. despite the common notion that trainees ought to be assigned to schools in diverse contexts, insufficient infrastructure and capacity at numerous schools could likewise limit the realisation of positive outcomes for teaching practicum (leithwood, 2016; robinson, 2016). in fact, robinson (2016) articulates that a “shortage of facilities like libraries, laboratories, books or desks undermines student teachers’ abilities to function in optimal ways, as does a disorganised newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 45 internal management system that lacks clear systems and procedures” (p.19). this suggests that trainees ought to be assigned to schools that are functional in terms of available facilities so that they can acquire the best quality training from their teaching practicum. gaining practical experience through quality teaching practicum improves the desire to take up a career in teaching (kolb, 2015; köksal, 2019; mlambo & adetiba, 2020). the absence of facilities in the schools where student teachers are posted deprives them the opportunity to gain practical experience (sedibe, 2011; alzahrani, et al. 2016; gravett & jiyane, 2018). the teaching practicum process thus requires all stakeholders to make the provision of quality education a priority by providing the necessary infrastructure including the use of mentors and lecturers to give trainees constructive and productive feedback (sulistiyo, 2017; kriauciuniene & targamadze, 2019). constant feedback a training activity requires feedback to offer the trainees the opportunity to know how well or poorly they are performing (khumalo & maphalala, 2018). teaching practicum as a learning opportunity is no different. researchers (such as miranda & hermann, 2015; carl & strydom, 2017) believe that teachers have an important role in providing feedback to trainee teachers to allow for an appreciation of their strengths and weaknesses. overall, there is a necessity for constant feedback so that the trainees are aware of how they are performing. deacon (2015) argues that as an essential learning instrument, feedback can be provided in the form of structured meetings between trainees and the mentors or heads of the departments which oftentimes are the mentors or even the lecturers during their visits. constant, real time feedback should be in the form of constructive criticism (van wyk, 2017). feedback needs to be informed by the actual content of a subject. in this regard, cilliers et al (2018), argue that feedback should reassure knowledge of subject to inform delivery techniques that encourage successful teaching. materials for feedback can be obtained through classroom observations (mpofu & maphalala, 2018) suggesting that school visits are helpful in supporting the development of the trainee teacher (kiggundu & nayimuli, 2009). this seems to be the beneficial way of providing constructive feedback since the trainee is receiving criticism on real honest classroom advice (mpofu & maphalala, 2018). mpofu and maphalala continue by articulating that an observation carried out by a mentor will be mainly informal, formative and charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 46 developmental in nature and will be intended at supporting the trainee teacher with feedback on his or her learning progress. by the same token, it is also required of mentors to be able to use mentoring as a channel of communication that is thought-provoking but helpful, and to discover ways of providing fruitful feedback (gravett, petersen & ramsaroop 2019). generally, mentors have the tendency to provide the type of feedback that is “narrow, particularistic, and technical” (clarke, triggs & nielsen, 2014:175) when they should essentially give feedback that fosters “deep and substantive reflection on practice” (clarke et al., 2014:175). the type of feedback mentors provide during teaching practicum can produce effective and efficient prospective teachers. mentors have a significant role to play in the development of trainee teacher’s teaching career. trainees need all the support, guidance, constructive and productive feedback during their teaching practicum as a way of developing the essential knowledge and skills for a professional teaching career. lecturers and mentors play a meaningful role in this regard. lecturer and mentor support teaching practicum assists prospective teachers to improve competences needed for teaching but more importantly helps to them to cultivate a good level of confidence in the classroom (khalid, 2014). achieving the competences may not be possible without the help and support of lecturers and mentors to guide trainee teachers through the teaching practicum process (van wyk, 2017; mpofu & maphalala, 2018). linked to the idea of cultivating self-confidence is that trainee teachers, mentors and lecturers should engage in sound dialogue on issues of techniques of delivery and effective classroom management (khalid, 2014).therefore, because school level mentoring is fundamental to ite programmes, the mentoring dialogues included in the process of becoming a teacher are significant in shaping trainees for teaching (mena, hennissen & loughran, 2017). as hinted earlier, lecturer support can be in the form of mentorships whereby lecturers visit schools where trainees are in training to see how they fare and be in tune with the challenges they may be facing. mentoring is a key teacher preparatory tool that helps shape newly qualified teachers’ learning about teaching (mckimm, jollie & hatter, 2007). teacher education at the university does not fully cover the necessary experience, skills and knowledge that a novice teacher needs to face real classroom situations (mena, hennissen & loughran, 2017). mentoring newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 47 closes this gap by providing structured, practice-oriented and context-based conversations that support teacher learning. as a well-informed, and highly skilled teacher working with a novice teacher, the mentor “appeals to the paradigm of mentoring namely ‘reciprocity, empowerment and solidarity’.” (demarco, 1993:1234). despite being experienced and well-skilled, mentors need regular exposure to different methods of mentoring as well as practice including the observation and analysis of interactions between mentor and mentee (harrison, lawson, & wortley, 2005; mena, hennissen & loughran, 2017). with reference to mentor-mentee relationship, bird and hudson (2015) refer to ‘personal attributes, system requirements, pedagogical knowledge, modelling, and feedback’ as core elements for properly harnessing mentor-mentee relationships. this is necessary because mentoring continues far into the real career of teaching (harrison, lawson, & wortley, 2005; mena, hennissen & loughran, 2017) and should be well-cultivated, focussed and planned with its outcomes not left to chance (bird & hudson, 2015). newly qualified teachers require practice teaching fused with successful mentoring to assist them to comprehend whatever would be essential in their new position. as argued by many (such as hobson, ashby, malderez & tomlinson, 2009; gisbert, 2018), to reduce culture and reality shocks, mentoring must be provided for novice teachers to augment their learning experiences. this will arguably stand them in good stead to sustain a solid and long-lasting teaching career. methodology before describing the method used for data collection and analysis, it is necessary to remind that the study’s aim was to understand how newly qualified female teachers perceive their teaching practice. within this aim, it is the researcher’s goal to further the discussion on the necessity for optimal support for newly qualified female teachers during teaching practice. as the literature has shown, novice teachers need immense support during teaching practice as this is the stage where real life classroom engagement is exposed to them. methodologically, this study followed the qualitative deductive approach, applying indepth semi structured interviews, which enabled the participants to disclose important information related to the study. the qualitative method is common in educational research, to capture, in this case, the quality, value and efficacy of teaching practicum (thanh & thanh, 2015). charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 48 qualitative research comprises an interpretive, naturalistic approach to a selected research phenomenon and strives to make sense of, or to interpret, such a phenomenon in terms of the meaning people generate (denzin & lincoln, 2003). an interpretivist approach is sought by researchers who seek answers to studies based on real life situations from people who make individual experiences within a particular context. more than thirty (30) newly qualified teachers (nqts) were identified for this study. as the data collection progressed, it was clear that no new information was forthcoming as the responses sounded similar. therefore, the researcher applied the methodological principle of data saturation (nascimento et al. 2018) and settled for the narratives of the six nqts whose responses are used in this study. purposive sampling permits the use of participants who will offer rich, relevant and contextual information pertaining to an investigation (luborsky & rubinstein, 1995) irrespective of the size (sandelwoski, 1996; koc & ilya, 2016). to make sense of the interviews, the researcher read and re-read the interview scripts to identify the key points raised, a methodological practice suggested by erlingsson and brysiewicz (2017) for the purpose of content analysis. this method allowed for the reduction of the data into themes (castleberry & nolen, 2018; kiger & varpio, 2020;). the following themes emerged: issues linked to school environment/posting; issues linked to mentoring, and overall impeding factors. findings issues related to school environment/posting as reported in the literature (for example derosa 2016; alexander, 2018; gravette & jiyane, 2019; lestari, 2020), it is not uncommon to find novice teachers expressing mixed feelings as they encounter real life classrooms. some of the expressions showcase confidence based on the ability to deliver lessons in the classroom. for instance, a novice teacher said: “i don’t feel uncomfortable in a class, i don’t feel like i didn’t have enough practice. i feel because when we did our lessons, we did the lessons that we were taught to do”. one of the participants also gave the impression that she was comfortable to teach in the classroom. teaching practicum provided her with adequate classroom exposure and would be able to teach since she felt she acquired the necessary experience to prepare her lessons. another newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 49 said: “to me, i’m excited to be a teacher, and the children are also working with me and they [are] going along with me [on] everything”. this is perhaps an indication that this teacher’s overall experience is a pleasurable one. “teaching practicum is actually a breeze. at the time it didn’t seem that way but all that we must do for teaching practice is sit with your caps, plan 30 lessons and teach it. i was sheltered with teaching practice; teaching practice painted a very awesome picture.” ‘sitting with caps’ suggests that this trainee teacher was encouraged to actively participate in curriculum and lesson planning. if caps aims to encourage critical thinking amongst teachers but barely allows for their direct participation in its implementation, the response of the trainee teacher suggests a significant integration into the process of curriculum and lesson planning, which maharajh et al (2016) argue helps in building a future teacher. another nqt volunteered that she was given what to teach and did not participate in developing her lessons: “i didn’t do lesson plans”. the experience was not altogether positive in relation to how the nqts perceived teaching practicum. for instance, some nqts expressed dissatisfaction with what they regarded as lack of inclusion in the affairs of the schools. there were responses such as: “i was not invited or even included in planning meetings. we were taught at school to make sure we attended staff meetings and i looked forward to it...” “i didn’t understand what they needed from me there because no one was saying anything to me” “i feel that the majority of my teaching practicums showed me exactly what not to do”. it is evident from the responses above that effective communication was lacking. it is equally evident that the schools were unable to provide the necessary support. the novice teachers seemed dissatisfied with what they experienced and so did not find teaching practicum to be advantageous. it would also seem that teaching practicum did not quite deliver to their expectations. could this be a case of lack of confidence among the novice teachers? it is understood that expectations were not met, but if no one was talking to them, could they not ask for support? charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 50 the trainee teachers above felt teaching practicum did not influence their teaching positively since what they experienced during that time was not what they felt should happen in a real classroom. could this be related to what alexander (2018) and derosa (2016) said regarding a misalignment of expectations of novice teachers? often, a novice teacher’s expectation is met when the receiving school understands the goal of teaching practice (gorard, 2017). there was also a case of a novice teacher who mentioned an almost similar experience of under preparedness and gap in expectations thus: “i often must prepare myself for a class on my own, where all these children are going to depend on me. no teacher, no nothing.” while that paints a picture of lack of mentoring, it also depicts a lack of support and understanding of the level of readiness of the teacher to carry out classroom techniques. another nqt seconded that: “during my teaching practicum we were mostly given the things that the teacher didn’t want to do. for instance, i have never done fractions. so, imagine i had to teach fractions? luckily, i am in grade one, so i don’t teach fractions.” that response seems to suggest that the novice teachers were assigned tasks that they were unprepared for. evidently, teacher education at university did not prepare many for the kind of experience they had during teaching practicum. one equally picks up that teaching practicum was not a pleasurable experience as senior and established teachers did not seem to show an interest in the trainee teachers beyond offering them those tasks that were either boring or challenging. issues related to mentoring/support during teaching practicum, trainees are provided with mentors to support and guide them. as part of the induction process aimed at acquainting one with the work environment, mentors are as important to novice teachers. this way, nqts can effectively apply their experiences, and put their knowledge and skills into practice. in response to whether adequate mentoring was available, the novice teachers availed this much: “i could teach new concepts and things like that, but i didn't get that exposure i sought.” newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 51 what one gathers from that participant is a feeling of dissatisfaction. the expression “i didn't get that exposure…” may be interpreted as the nqt was not afforded the necessary exposure to explore a range of activities. a different view was shared by another novice teacher who believed that teaching practicum was useful. the novice teacher said: “fortunately, when i was doing my teaching practice, i came across a concept where the teacher, my mentor, was teaching fractions and even the resources that she used; she came with concrete objects.” this nqt believed the mentor’s use of various objects in describing a concept was helpful. this type of mentoring known as support giving by kemmis et al (2014) presents ample opportunities for a new hire to understand the different ways of practicing a profession. in the case of the trainee teacher reported above the theoretical concepts learned at university are used as foundation to explore critical nuances for professional knowledge of teaching. applying this model of mentoring can be beneficial to a trainee teacher (mena et al. 2017). another expression of favourable experience was offered by a novice teacher thus: “i think i feel what i’m doing now works better, because they [the learners] are free to make mistakes and not be like, oh god, my teacher’s going to kill me, i got it wrong. i feel they’re just more eager to learn now.” that response suggests an interesting insight that possibly highlights the difference between what was taught at school and what the real-life classroom dynamic is all about. could this mean that this participant was reporting that having passed through teaching practicum, one is able to make better judgement regarding how to deal with learners? the statement “i think i feel what i’m doing now works better, because they [the learners]are free to make mistakes and not be like, oh god, my teacher’s going to kill me…” is probably evidence that she is able to treat her learners differently owing to exposure to teaching practicum. again, noting that learners were free to make mistakes and that she would allow them to do so perhaps alludes to the benefit she had derived from participating in teaching practicum. factors impeding nqts learning experience during teaching practice teaching practicum allows for practical opportunities to test one’s ability to teach in a real classroom. feelings of inadequacy from novice teachers may be due to unpreparedness from training received at university or lack of support from the schools where they are posted. a novice charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 52 teacher said: “so my teaching practicum was a waste, i feel, the majority of them. because it just literally reaffirmed that it’s not about the teacher. and what we learnt here showed us it’s about the entire class. so that’s the only thing i learnt.” that feedback suggests a misalignment of expectation. evidently, the novice teacher expected her teaching practice to concern issues about her development and not necessarily only about the learners. essentially, what one picks up from this response is that what was taught during teacher training would serve as valuable material during teaching practicum. could this be a case of insufficient understanding of the purpose of teaching practicum leading this respondent to say: “it just literally reaffirmed that it’s not about the teacher.” an nqt hinted that she was overburdened by administrative duties. her view was that she was used to attend to duties she felt the experienced teachers were not willing to do: “many times i was asked to do certain admin jobs that i didn’t think concerned me such as filing.” with reference to how the school overall environment shaped their teaching practice, some nqts offered the following: “some of the learners were unable to make sentences in english. it was more of their local language that they used to speak to me. luckily i could understand”. “the learners did not show discipline. i tried to talk to them but they made so much noise”. “i went to ask for assistance how best things are done here because of learners not sitting quiet and making noise it was not possible to get good answer”. “i can say some did not like my presence; maybe i was a threat”. regarding support from the school where they were posted, a novice teacher said: “they’re in control… at teaching practicum we have to sit and listen to the teacher, this is how we do it, do it exactly like this...”. this novice teacher was not impressed with the way she was shown how things were done at the school which explains the lack of involvement mentioned above. newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 53 discussion primarily, this study aimed to understand how newly qualified female teachers perceive teaching practicum with the underlying motivation of ascertaining the benefits and shortcomings of teaching practicum. as indicated, teaching practicum is an essential part of the curriculum in the preparation of prospective teachers, to ensure that the practical aspect of teaching is sufficiently conveyed in relation to the content learnt at university. there was a mix of reactions in terms of how the nqts perceive teaching practicum. even though the participants related some benefits of the teaching practicum, the researcher noted some disparaging narratives of some of the participants. teaching practicum prepares trainees for effective classroom management including dealing with pupils for diverse backgrounds. to achieve these relies on the availability of several essentials such as functional infrastructure and services, supportive ‘co-workers’ and regular visits from lecturers. the participants in this study referred to these in some cases not so colorfully. for instance, some nqts felt that after four years of university training and subsequent teaching practicum, they still found it difficult to express exactly what they had learnt. this specific disjunction mirrored an overall finding of this study that many nqts showed readiness to teach but few proved their full competence and preparedness to do so. could there be a disjunction between what was learnt at university and how things are done in the classroom? kolb’s (1984) experiential learning philosophy posits that individuals learn through experience which allows them to reflect upon, and engage with, their teaching environment, by actively experimenting, developing techniques and strategies for practice. the findings also suggest that nqts expressed various reasons to teach; since they believed they were prepared to teach. to some extent, some expressed that the experiences they acquired during teaching practicum were beneficial since they were able to apply what they learnt in the classroom. it was equally evident from some of the participants’ responses that they were exposed to hands on learning experience during the programme: providing real-life situations, some of which included knowing when to allow the learners to figure things out for themselves. evidence of this can be found in the following expression, “to me, i’m excited to be a teacher, and the children are also working with me and er they going along with me with everything”. equally, is this somewhat a similar experience: “i think i feel what i’m doing now works better, charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 54 because they’re free to make mistakes and not be like, oh god, my teacher’s going to kill me, i got it wrong. i feel they’re just more eager to learn now”. these comments indicate specific modes of learning related to real-life experience through classroom learning and lecture. the majority of the nqts in this study indicated they were taught effective pedagogical knowledge during teaching practicum, which improved their ability to teach. they were able to reflect on their experiences during teaching practicum that influenced how they taught in the classroom as teachers. they mentioned their experience with a specific lecturer, who contributed to their teaching experience by exposing them to practical methods to use in the classroom. in a report on beginner teacher induction in manchester, haggarty, postlethwaite, diment and ellins (2009) argue that nqts experience ‘reality shock’ during the transition to the real classroom and that this can be overwhelming and stressful. this experience was evident in this study with expressions of dissatisfaction and confusion among the trainee teachers. in one case, one of the nqts showed dissatisfaction with the treatment she received as well as not quite understanding how to manage class dynamics. the nqts experience is somewhat consistent with the views of haggarty et al. (2009) who also averred that nqts handling of the intricacies of the profession as well as working with different types of colleagues who may not regard their presence as necessary could affect their morale to remain in the profession. therefore, nqts must try and understand the school environment and how to conduct themselves. basically, the real-life classroom situation cannot be taught at the university. in the findings, some trainee teachers indicated dismal support from their mentors and the lecturers. some bemoaned the assignment of tasks that older teachers did not want to do. therefore, support from mentors or lecturers are crucial during teaching practicum. could the lack of this type of support be as a result of the inability of the older teachers to offer support? one trainee teacher felt that older teachers were threatened by them. again, this could be as a result of lack of confidence on the part of the older teachers to interact with the trainee teachers. often teachers face threat to their legitimacy especially as new ways of conducting the teaching business emerge (korthagen, 2016; snyder, 2017; reeves, 2018). it is not surprising therefore that the older teachers may feel threatened considering that trainee teachers ought to present “novel situations, creative and innovative thinking, and instructional activities” (bowman, 2019, p.112), which may confuse an older teacher especially in the south african context where teachers are said to possess archaic knowledge perhaps owing to inadequate training (de jager, newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 55 2017; taylor, 2019). kolb (1984) however believes that being a teacher is not just for new ideas to be embedded but also to dispose of or improve outdated ones and sometimes resistance to change of new ideas hinges on disputes with inconsistent archaic beliefs. therefore, older teachers have a role to play in the development of trainee teachers. in fact, there can be a sharing of ideas – new ideas can be learned by older teachers while trainee teachers can learn from the older ones. this way, both the old and trainee teacher are able to shape their experiences and expertise. it is expected that during teaching practicum, trainees are placed with experienced teachers who have gone through the process of lifelong learning in the education profession to share their knowledge with the new teachers. vikaraman, mansor, and hamzah (2017) argue that professional or skilled teachers should provide the necessary mentoring support to nqts as it will lead to their individual development; through tools, guidance, resources and supervision from mentors. the experienced teacher can share knowledge and skills with the inexperienced teacher; and can be open to learn new things from them. too often older teachers are resistant to change and do not want nqts with new ideas upsetting their school environment (korthagen, 2016; snyder, 2017). during the interviews, the researcher made an observation, which was not part of the study, that some nqts had poor communication skills, which may have been one of the reasons why some of them struggled to convey their views adequately, despite protestations of readiness to teach. if communication is a problem, then it could possibly pose a challenge for nqts to construct content knowledge with learners; especially at foundation phase. foundation phase learners require teachers who are competent and equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills. however, it was found that some novice teachers indicated they were ready for the classroom but lacked the confidence to teach certain subjects. the inability to clearly communicate is evident in the manner the nqts communicated their views. there were those who indicated that they did not benefit from teaching practicum but were unable to substantiate their view. in fact, in those instances, it was not clear what the novice teachers learnt, or did not learn during so the researcher was obliged to make inferences based on their response. korthagen (2016) argues that previous knowledge is an essential function of learning during a teacher education programme and that nqts are often resistant to change because of their preconceived notions. kolb (1984) concurs and argues that prior life experience and charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 56 environmental factors have a bearing on the learning capabilities of some individuals, which could possibly pose a challenge in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. during the interviews conducted in this study a participant indicated that whilst on teaching practicum, her experience influenced her progress. based on the literature and what is found in this study, it is evident that experiences can shape one’s involvement in the teaching practicum. kolb (1984) also suggests “a holistic integrative perspective on learning that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behaviour” ultimately leading to good teaching practicum. this signifies that teaching practicum can be viewed by nqts in a holistic way in order to fully grasp and learn through their experiences to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills for the teaching profession. nqts believed the university did its job in equipping them to teach with the use of various teaching techniques while on teaching practicum. tomkins and ulus (2015) relate with this and offer an array of techniques that are linked with experiential learning, including “role-play, simulations, structured activities, outdoors activities, inquiry-based activities and private reflection.” it was established that content knowledge is essential, especially at foundation phase and nqts should use the experiences they acquired during teaching practicum to teach in a creative way to make sure learners are able to grasp certain concepts. content knowledge cannot be learnt merely through abstract examples in some instances, but creativity is required to make learners understand through concrete illustrations. teaching practicum provides the opportunity for nqts to acquire this skill and incorporate it in their teaching. nqts often shared experiences of their teaching environment during teaching practicum and the reality of their situations in the classroom. not all nqts taught in well-disciplined schools and had to contend with teaching in settings where the reality of the classroom was chaotic. many nqts had to teach in non-conducive environments and had to deal with teaching in multilingual classrooms where the language of instruction was english while learners spoke it as a second or third language. there were instances where teachers indicated that they had to teach learners from four to five different languages in a single class. they were creative in their teaching strategy; by utilising experiences acquired during teaching practicum; making use of pictures, games and colours to teach mathematics or language, which suggests active, collaborative learning. creativity is a skill that nqts should nurture and utilise as required during teaching and kolb (1984) argues that individuals learn from direct association with an object or phenomenon of their interest and that exposure to teaching practicum facilitates the acquisition of particular additional newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 57 skills and experience. some nqts who were assigned to fee-paying schools encountered resistance from the senior members of their schools: they were occasionally prevented from implementing the caps compliant forms of instruction, which they learnt during ite. several novice teachers stated they had to teach in environments that ‘shocked’ them. they claimed that no education programme could prepare them for the realities of the classrooms to which they were assigned. nqts claimed that they were unprepared to contend with heavy administrative workloads that eroded their teaching time. gorard (2017) argues that there is a tendency by nqts at primary school to be well-prepared for dealing with literacy and numeracy, yet “less prepared for planning, administrative aspects, assessment practices, handling parents, equal opportunities in the classroom, and support for pupils with behavioural and emotional difficulties and handling bullying/harassment”. this is a common issue plaguing new teachers who are weighed down by heavy administrative workloads. the criticism levelled at the number of administrative tasks that the nqts were often required to undertake appeared to overwhelm their teaching, lesson planning, and other activities. administrative tasks are thus noted as enormously challenging for new teachers and several of them claimed that that brought unexpected shocks notwithstanding the missing support from mentors to help them cope. kolb et al. (2014) argue that learning through experience, and learner-centred education have extensively expanded and gained approval by a number of educators and curriculators who reflect upon experiential learning exercises such as “service learning, problem-based learning, action learning, adventure education and simulation and gaming.” schwartz (2012) agrees that learning through experience has seen growth in the classroom because of the many innovative practices, such as role playing, games, case studies, simulations, presentations, and various types of group work and suggests “‘active learning’ as one of the seven ‘principles of good practice’ for excellence in education.” conclusion this study sought to understand the perceptions of female nqts about the teaching practicum. it has been established that teaching practicum is an important component in becoming a professional teacher. some of the sampled nqts indicated some form of under-preparedness for the real world, while others felt they were prepared to manage classroom roles. there were comments regarding lack of support from the schools where they were posted; some had looked charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 58 to the experienced teachers for mentorship and lessons on how to engage in classroom activities and displaying confidence to teach. in short, the findings reveal a mix of experiences – benefits and shortcomings from the nqts, which not only affect the development of prospective teachers but also have profound implications for both policy enhancement and implementation. some of the trainee teachers who participated in this study also indicated their satisfaction with mentors who supported them through the teaching practicum however, in some cases, mentors were not supportive and did not provide guidance as required. guidance and support from mentors prepare prospective teachers with the relevant knowledge and skills but when this is lacking from their practicum, chances are that the opportunity to learn a broader approach to teaching is missed. they equally voiced their concerns of the shortcomings regarding the reality in the classroom in terms of heavy administrative duties that overwhelmed them, non-conducive teaching environments and teaching multilingual classrooms. the findings suggest that the teaching practicum component of the ite programme is significant to the development of future teachers and a requisite element that every nqt must embark on in preparation for a career in teaching. for a more productive and enhanced perspective of teaching practicum, all stakeholders have a duty to further develop the education system in order to improve learner performance and the pass rates. policy implications this study has some important policy implications. first, improving and effectively implementing policy regarding initial teacher education and teaching practicum is key to eradicating the discomfiture experienced by nqts during the teaching practicum. perhaps a review of the policy to accommodate preparedness to teach at foundation phase is another important policy call. literature suggests that teaching practicum enables the confidence to teach and the capability to relay theory into practice. however, the data generated from this study countermanded this readiness and enthusiasm. many nqts had to teach learners from diverse backgrounds and seemed ill-equipped to deal with this in a holistic way. teaching at foundation phase is regarded as a crucial stage of a learner’s school career since it is at this level that novice teachers are required to develop content knowledge to be successful as they proceed to intermediate and senior phases. newly qualified female teachers’ perception of teaching practicum as a component of initial teacher education in south africa ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 38-69 59 several quintiles 1, 2 and 3 schools in south africa are not well resourced and are overcrowded (stott, 2018; ogbonnaya & awuah, 2019), which impedes teaching. korthagen (2001) argues that teaching requires “holistic judgement about what, when and how” a specific class should be taught and that it is challenging to prepare teachers for such a holistic scope. schools to which nqts are assigned for their first year of teaching need to provide a conducive environment for nqts; and all stakeholders should be involved in the provision of this kind of support. operational induction programmes should be conducted by the host schools which the department of higher education and training (dhet) can monitor to ensure safe passage to the new teaching environment. another important policy consideration is that of instituting a ‘compulsory’ collaborative arrangement between universities and schools. this will likely enrich an understanding of the schools and their state of readiness to host nqts. developing this partnership will improve the quality of teaching practicum in such a way that receiving schools are aware of what to expect from trainee teachers and vice versa. mention was also made of the utility of mentorship during teaching practicum. in reviewing the policy for teaching practicum, perhaps the dhet can consider this as a crucial element for all nqts. affording nqts this kind of support from the beginning should be part of the induction process, which could alleviate some of the reality shock. in south africa, many teachers are leaving the teaching profession and it is up to the department and the institutions to retain teachers; especially the experienced ones. overall, the dhet needs to revisit the ite programme to ensure the quality of the programme in the context of the south african education crisis. suggestions for further research teaching practicum cannot be successful without the support and guidance of mentors. mentors have the power to make or mar the teaching practicum experience. if mentors do not receive development opportunities, they could be the reason that future teachers lose interest in the profession. as such, the dhet, universities and schools have a responsibility towards future teachers to receive quality training so that learners can acquire quality education to improve their performance and the pass rates of those in basic education. against the backdrop of experienced teachers leaving the teaching profession in south africa, not much research has taken place charmaine helena iwu ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 38-69 60 especially with reference to exploring the relationship between nqt performance and the necessity for mentorship. there is also the problem of teaching multilingual learners at foundation phase. it is the researcher’s understanding that a study needs to find ways to embrace this and reduce the difficulty that nqts confront especially during teaching practicum. this weakness undermines the teachers’ teaching ability and jeopardises the learner in the end. the teacher cannot be effective in preparing an inclusive lesson due to this challenge. two authors have articulated this challenge. baxen and botha (2016) provide recommendations for more effective teacher preparation namely (1) recognising the essential role of language in learning; (2) the confidence to face up to the challenges that multilingual contexts present; and (3) valuing and using learners’ multiple language repertoires as a resource. they further note that not much has been written on this subject of multilingualism within the context of teaching practicum. multilingualism is a contentious issue in the south african classroom setting, thus requiring further research and better policy development. references aglazor, g. 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(2017) mentoring and coaching practices for beginner teachers—a need for mentor coaching skills training and principal’s support, creative education, vol. 8, pp. 156-169. newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipality, ghana paul akumdaare atiah sdd university of business and integrated development studies, wa, ghana abstract portfolio assessment is a tool that enables professionals to reflect on their development. despite the popularity of portfolio-based assessment among educators, little research has been conducted in ghana to establish how newly trained teachers view portfolio assessment as a learning and assessment tool. a survey of newly qualified teachers was performed to learn about their experiences and perceptions of portfolio assessment as a tool for continuing professional development (cpd) and obtaining a full teaching license in wa municipality, upper west region of ghana with a total population of 187. out of the total population,58 newly qualified teachers (nqts) were selected using a simple random sampling procedure. the researcher used a questionnaire as the predominant instrument to obtain data. quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as tables, charts, and bar graphs. qualitative data were also analyzed using content analysis. this was based on analysis of meaning and implications emanating from the respondents’ information. the portfolio was deemed a good learning tool by the majority of the research participants, the newly qualified teachers. they did, however, believe that creating a proper portfolio is stressful and timeconsuming. according to the study's findings, the system will not succeed unless students receive proper direction from academic professionals like national teaching council (ntc), in-service teachers, and headteachers, etc. keywords: newly qualified teachers (nqts), colleges of education, portfolio assessment, national teaching council (ntc), experiences and perception. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 2 2022 pages 140-163 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 141 introduction in recent years, there has been a shift away from using portfolios to assess student learning toward assessing both pre-service and in-service teachers' professional development. the usage of portfolios as a tool for capturing the intricacies of teachers' work and learning in authentic contexts has grown significantly and continues to grow (brennan & lennie, 2010). one reason is the potential for the professional portfolio to provide teachers with an opportunity for thoughtful and reflective dialogue. wolf and dietz's definition of professional portfolios is used in this study: a personalized, dynamic, and interactive collection of instructors' works that stresses ownership, self-evaluation, accomplishments, and progress. both active and pre-service teachers can use the portfolio to plan, monitor, and reflect on their teaching, as well as to identify concerns, engage in dialogue, cooperate, and enhance their skills (muiruri, 2020). changes in educational philosophy and practice also imply that education has shifted from being a teacher-centered process to being a student-centered process. similarly, there has been a movement in assessment away from testing knowledge toward assessing competency and performance (komatsu et al., 2021; shah, 2020 ). portfolio-based learning and assessment is becoming more popular among educators (brennan, 2010). a portfolio is a journal-style collection of written records of events and activities that an individual has participated in. the portfolio serves as a valuable learning tool as well as a document of evidence. portfolio-based learning is based on the principles of experiential learning, which is a cyclical process of recording, reflecting on, and learning from events. the portfolio does not become a mere collection of event narratives, but contains reflections on these events and the lessons learnt. evidence of learning is collected in the portfolio showing that reflective learning has taken place (mls, 2015).the portfolio may also include details of learning objectives, learning resources and strategies, and how that learning might be accomplished and assessed (black & wiliam, 2018). portfolio-based learning has a number of benefits. first, it helps students to act and learn independently, as well as assess their own strengths and weaknesses. to add, it also assists them in identifying and meeting their educational needs as well as developing a long-term educational strategy. today's teachers' job is not so much to deliver knowledge as it is to ensure that learning has occurred. portfolios have become an acknowledged learning and assessment tool in paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 142 education because they allow teachers to assess what students have learned and how well they have improved professionally as teachers (darling-hammond, 2020). development of portfolio assessment in the 1990s, portfolio assessments rose in popularity in the united states as part of a broader interest in alternate assessment methods. the 1980s saw a surge in norm-referenced, multiplechoice examinations designed to gauge academic proficiency, owing to high-stakes accountability (mahoney, 2017). however, towards the end of the decade, there were growing concerns about the use of these examinations which opponents claimed only tested a narrow range of knowledge and favored a "drill and kill" multiple-choice curriculum. teachers and schools, according to proponents of alternative assessment, patterned their curriculum to match the limited norm-referenced tests to ensure that their students did well, "teaching to the test" rather than teaching knowledge relevant to the subject matter. as a result, it was critical that assessments were useful educational experiences and that they replicated the types of substantial teaching and learning activities that would prepare students for future, real-world success (murchan & shiel , 2017; lam, 2018). portfolio assessment a portfolio is a collection of students’ work that can be used to demonstrate a their efforts, development, and accomplishments across the curriculum. a portfolio assessment can examine student-selected samples of work experiences and documentation linked to the outcomes being assessed . it can address and support progress toward academic goals, such as student efficacy and professional competence. portfolios are commonly used for large-scale assessment and accountability (e.g., the statewide assessment systems in vermont and kentucky, usa), school-to-work transitions, and certification (holloway, 2020; krawczyk, 2017). portfolio assessments, for example, are utilized as part of the national board for professional teaching standards' assessment of expert teachers, which in ghana, it is overseen by the national teaching council (ntc). the ntc is an agency of the ministry of education mandated by the education regulatory bodies act, 2020 (act 1023) to promote teacher professionalism in ghana. its key mandates include to license and register teachers, keep up-to-date database of teachers, develop and periodically review professional standards and code of ethics, conduct teacher licensure examination, and provide the framework for continuous professional development (cpd) of teachers newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 143 the purposes of portfolio assessment first, portfolio assessment can be used as a formative and summative tool for tracking progress toward certain goals. second, portfolios can also provide precise information about what is expected of students in terms of content and quality of performance in certain curriculum areas. it can also provide a mechanism to measure their progress along the way. portfolio writing is becoming more popular in the teaching profession as a way to keep track of learning/teaching activities for continued professional development (hamilton, 2020; tyagi & misra, 2021) and as part of obtaining a full or renewed teaching license in ghana. portfolios are widely used in colleges of education, particularly at ntc-accredited ghanaian colleges of education. the process of creating a reflective portfolio is not without challenges, and it is a tough and time-consuming task. also, despite the popularity of portfolio-based assessment among educators, there are still some unanswered questions, such as how newly qualified teachers feel about it and how it affects their education (teaching profession) (soifah & pratolo, 2020.; mukhopadhyay, 2021). the purpose of this study was to learn about the viewpoints of newly qualified teachers on portfolio assessment. portfolio requirement(activities) portfolio writing is utilized as a learning or assessment approach (lam, 2018) in colleges of education for newly qualified teachers who are supervised by ntc during their national service period in ghana. throughout their national service time of 1 year, newly qualified teachers are given a set of key learning outcomes in teaching and are obliged to amass evidence of their teaching in the form of a portfolio. the portfolio contains; • teaching philosophy, • scheme of learning, • learning plan, • teacher training logbook (copy), • copies of learner activities, • photos/videos/audio of you [the teacher] during a lesson(teaching), • a series of case summaries, • case reports, paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 144 • action research (limited to one student in class), • co-curricular activities report and • a record of other activities as evidence of teaching like confirmation letter from the headteacher as evidence of teaching for at least more than 900 minutes per semester (junior high school level) more than 600 minutes per term (primary school level) and reports from their mentor, headteacher or lead-mentor etc. portfolio is one of the requirements to gaining a full license certificate to practice as a professional teacher in ghana. the mentors at school of national service, the national teaching council (ntc) and portfolio assessors provide guidance on writing the portfolio for teachers passing through the national service. it must be stated that the participants in this research were the first batch of newly trained teachers to build portfolio. the national service period is earmarked for clerkship during which the newly qualified teachers (nqts) function as teachers (mentees) with mentors guiding them in their teaching professions before, during and after an instructional period. during this period, portfolio building and mentorship forms the main mode of curriculum delivery and an important component of the final assessment for full license. newly qualified teachers (nqts) are expected to write complete activities of cases that they follow. these reports must be developed over time as part of the ongoing teaching and learning in which they are involved. a case report like the short research will include a set of learning issues, which the newly qualified teacher needs to identify and which in their opinion will lead to better understanding of learners’ need in and out of classroom for a ratification of such problem identified. the portfolio assessment issue is organized under the major outcome domains of the teacher license processes in ghana and includes the newly qualified teachers (nqts) building a portfolio for assessment by national teaching council (ntc) on their national service period in teaching. the newly qualified teachers (nqts)are also expected to critically appraise the teaching and write evidence-based reports as they apply to the teaching that they have been engaged in. during this period, the portfolio development is continuously monitored and the final assessment involves a portfolio assessor assessment. research problem and objectives of the study the use of portfolio assessment is relatively new in teacher education and teacher assessment in ghana. the ntc started with the newly qualified teachers for the portfolio assessment as part of licensing of 2020/2021 batch. while its significance has assumed a front burner status, newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 145 the success or failure of a portfolio assessment largely depends on the in-depth knowledge or experience of educators (pre-service and in-service teachers, ntc and other educational bodies). the current study was thus conducted to discover newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipality, ghana. research questions the researcher was guided based on the following questions: 1. what are the newly qualified teachers’ perceptions about portfolio assessment? 2. what were the preparations towards portfolio building by nqts? 3. were nqt engaged in others duties? 4. were nqt mentored by in-service teachers? 5. were nqt engaged more in lesson activities? research methods a descriptive survey design was employed for this study. this design was considered most appropriate since questionnaire was the main instrument that was used for data collection from the segment of the population of interest. also, the researcher was only interested in describing and collecting data on facts about the newly qualified trained teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipality, ghana. feedback was obtained from an entire batch posted to wa municipality for national service for 2020/2021 academic year newly qualified teachers (nqts) by asking them to write down what they felt about writing a portfolio and portfolio assessment. based on their feedback, a questionnaire consisting of 24 questions were designed by the author using google form. this questionnaire (google form) was used because, the nqts were scattered across the municipality, so funding difficulties made it impossible for the researcher to contemplate moving from school to school to administer questionnaires. the entire newly qualified teachers (nqts) posted to wa municipality, upper west region from all colleges of education in ghana with a population of one hundred and eightyseven (187) in the national service period from january 2021 to december 2021. these preservice teachers were given an information sheet with details about this survey and were given the option of participating in the study. the newly qualified teachers (nqts) (58) who were selected for the study were asked to sign a written consent form after using a simple random paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 146 sampling procedure to select these participants. the newly qualified teachers (nqts) who gave their consent for the survey were requested to complete the questionnaire anonymously. of the 58 nqts (representing 100%) who were selected to take part in the survey, only 19 nqts returned the questionnaires through google form representing 32.76%. 39 nqts (67.24%) did not return the questionnaires. for each of the 24 questions, students had to respond on a 5-point likert scale, ranging from strongly agree to neutral. the responses to the questionnaire were analyzed to determine the overall views (experiences and perceptions) of the newly qualified teachers (nqts) on the different aspects of portfolio building for assessment. theoretical framework this study theoretical framework was based on portfolio. the idea of the portfolio continues to evolve based on history in higher education. it observes how portfolios have transformed from a file collection of artist’s work to practice as assessment in education. this also deliberates how technology has formed and influenced the intent, use of and engagement with portfolios assessment in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. portfolios were known as the collection of arts before it deliberated into higher education in early 1970 in various ways such as exchanging from standardized testing, increased target quality assurance, and new research and theories of learning (mackh, 2018).the origins concept of the portfolio introduced in renaissance italy; where the architects and artists collected their artwork. the meaning of portfolio developed from its original function as a case for holding loose papers to be used in broader contexts like government, finance and education. within the context of art, portfolios were the way of presenting a set of the best work of an artist like a catalogue for a selected audience. the concept of portfolios in literature is actually sort of like its practicality in an art context. as it is the portfolio as a system that entails the disinterested judging of each student’s work, collected, like the best representative work of an artist. this was somewhat such as its original artistic purpose (hayati, 2021).one of the considerations within the introduction of portfolio assessment in higher education came from the dissatisfaction with quantitative standardized testing. as a result, portfolio assessment was seen as another to the testing tradition (rukmini & saputri, 2017).for this reason, a portfolio in this context is considered as the mean collection of texts ranging from drafts of their national service period of teaching to represent a newly qualified teacher teaching and learning activities. newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 147 portfolio assessment process chart as in ghana by ntc. nqts nqts ntc portfolio assessment process district portfolio assessors ntc regional portfolio assessors source: author, 2021. nqts national service period after completing college of education. portfolio writing (documents/reports from all teaching and learning and non-teaching activities). portfolio assessment of nqts (assess all written/required documents on all teachinglearning and non-teaching activities for assessment ) by portfolio assessors assigned to each nqts/district. portfolio assessment of nqts (assess sampled written documents on all teaching and non-teaching activities) by regional portfolio assessor grading (points) on each nqts portal, based on the score during assessment by the district and regional portfolio assessors license is issued(permanent) to all qualified nqts/inservice teachers by ntc. paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 148 literature review portfolio uses with pre-service teachers studies focusing specifically on the use of professional portfolios with in-service and preservice teachers (hossein, 2021; evişen, 2021; haghighi irani et al., 2020) have found that constructing a professional portfolio and reflecting on one’s teaching tend to improve teaching methods. for example, content examination of the participants’ portfolios in doty’s study on science teaching revealed a gradual shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered approach. further, as the professional portfolio allows pre-service teachers to demonstrate their teaching competence (beka et al., 2021; tyagi & misra, 2021), wajda, (2018) shows that it also provides evidence of their reflection on their progression in the profession (cusack & smith , 2020; cui et al., 2019). this can lead to sustained knowledge building and professional growth (alajmi, 2019; bartleet et al., 2019). studies also report confusion about the scope, nature, and value of professional portfolios when well-defined guidelines, clear structure and examples of past portfolios are lacking (o’connor et al., 2020). pre-service teachers seem to be concerned with showcasing their portfolios to obtain employment while educators aim at promoting professional development (saavedra jeldres & campos espinoza, 2019; pegrum & oakley, 2017; buchholtz et al., 2018). in stressing the need to use portfolios specifically for professional development purposes, alt (2018) and cirocki & farrell (2019) maintain that the focus be placed on the process of portfolio construction where learning takes place rather than on the end product. moreover, vigeant (2021) claims that the professional portfolio is generally not used to its full potential. they explain that, despite its recognized impact on teaching, little is known regarding its long-term benefits and the change in the nature and quality of the reflections as the pre-service teachers mature. reflective practice reflective practice emphasizes the use of reflection in professional activities as a way of questioning assumptions and the habitual practices that are formed very early on in teachers’ careers. for example, new teachers in need of stability feel increasingly more comfortable teaching once they settle into their routines. at that point, they may no longer think much about their practice (wetzel et al., 2018 ). ploeg & piet (2020) postulated that ‘experience may increase a person’s automatic skill in a particular direction and yet tend to land him in a groove newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 149 or rut, the effect again is to narrow the field of further experience. this is due to the fact that habitual practice prevents individuals from seeing and trying out new experiences (kudesia, 2019). furthermore, teachers tend to also be selective in giving attention to aspects of experience that are self-confirming, which distances them from becoming aware of possible deficits in their teaching skills (robison, 2021; kester et al., 2019). consequently, teachers may not see the need to improve their practice because of tacit knowledge and habitual routines that in turn prevent growth and development, and breed ignorance (åberg, 2021). it is argued that through reflecting and questioning their knowledge of practice they can begin to change their habits (hofer, 2017; saric & steh , 2017). lenz et al. (2020) argued that ‘we do not learn from experience but we learn from reflecting on experience’. building on this statement, aldahmash et al. (2021) and farrell (2019) viewed the professional portfolio as a reflective bridge that enables teachers to pause and to reflect on prior experiences that have facilitated their learning. in that sense, professional portfolios serve as conduits that connect teachers to both the theory base of education and the practice base of the workplace. like a bridge that requires a traveler to expend energy to move from one end to the other, the professional portfolio requires teachers to use their cognitive skills to make connections between themselves and their professional life. teachers can accomplish this by concentrating their thoughts to gain a clearer picture of lived experiences (vass and kiss, 2021; buchbinder et al. 2021). finally, the literature on reflection also focuses on its role, such as reflection on and in action (quintana et al., 2021), reflection for and about action (moghaddam et al., 2020), and on its application using learning journals (moghaddam et al., 2020) and professional portfolios (beka et al., 2021). svendsen (2020) and yurkofsky et al. (2020) suggested that teachers engage in ongoing enquiry to improve their practice. this can be achieved by placing teachers in a supportive culture where their practice-oriented enquiry is valued. research also shows that teachers need to further structure the process of portfolio development for their reflection to be long-lasting and to result in professional growth (hamilton, 2020 ; tham, 2021 ). in this study, pre-service teachers (nqts) used the wolf and dietz (1998) framework to organize their professional portfolios as they examined their growth (harun et al., 2021; laraba & boukhedimi, 2021) within a reflective national service period context. paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 150 ntc portfolio assessment framework for newly qualified teachers purpose wolf and dietz’s framework provides pre-service teachers (newly qualified teachers) with a structure to identify issues related to their teaching practice and to set goals for improvement. problem recognition is central to reflection. the primary purpose of a professional portfolio is to advance learning by allowing teachers to reflect on their work and knowledge acquisition, and to set goals for themselves as learners/teachers. for example, pre-service teachers (newly qualified teachers) are required to work on all classroom-related issues and co-curricular activities in the school of posting within the service period of one year, they monitor their progress by collecting artefacts/information that are part of the process. process newly qualified teachers are asked to build their professional portfolios around stated teaching philosophy, objective, learning indicators and reflect regularly on the level of attainment of these objectives/goals. they are also asked to seek feedback or guidance from peers, instructors and in-service teachers (mentors). audience the purpose of the professional portfolio is for teachers (newly qualified teachers) to reflect continually on their work in order to make decisions about what they want to achieve and how they have achieved it (cirocki & farrell, 2019). wolf and dietz’s professional portfolio framework stresses teacher ownership. pre-service teachers (newly qualified teachers) are solely responsible for the selection of the contents of their professional portfolios. content espinoza & medina ( 2021) refer to the content as a collection of products, such as lesson plans and notes, teaching evaluations, photos of students and/or teacher engaged in classroom during an instruction, sample of assessed learners work, action research work (limited to one identified student) and self-reflection aimed at the attainment of their selected goals, report on cocurricular activities engaged in, report from a mentor, headteacher and a confirmation letter of evidence of attendance to work from the headteacher. the nqts organize the contents (portfolio) in chronological sequence for reflection on their growth and for assessment by national teaching council (ntc). for example, the portfolio is presented to the headteacher which district portfolio assessor will go for and assess using a portfolio assessment rubric. newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 151 results and discussions demography of respondents out of the total respondents of 19 (100%) 3 females participated representing 16% and 16 males took part which also represent 84%. the total number of nqts who were selected and accepted to take part in the survey were 58 representing 100%. out of which, only 19 nqts returned the questionnaires through google form representing 32.76% whiles 39 nqts did not return(submit) the questionnaires which also represents 67.24%. gender table male 16 female 3 total 19 male 84% female 16% respondents male female returned forms forms not returned series1 19 39 0 20 40 60 breakdown on respondents paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 152 answers to research questions 1. newly qualified teachers’ perceptions about portfolio assessment per your experiences about portfolio, would you like it to be made compulsory in teacher training colleges as a course during final year before the practical aspect?” from the chart and table, nqts responded to question #1, “per your experiences about portfolio, would you like it to be made compulsory in teacher training colleges as a course during final year before the practical aspect?” and were required to respond either yes, no and maybe. 53% (10) responded yes, 21%(4) no and 26% (5) were not certain. this means that nqts would be more interested (that is almost 100% yes) in portfolio writing and assessment when there is a pre-requisite knowledge on almost all of portfolio writing and assessment. yes no maybe 10 4 5 53% 21% 26% perceptions and exepriences on portfolio assessment yes no maybe newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 153 2. preparing towards portfolio building by nqts. the number of times nqts were guided by ntc or their school (college) 1 or 2 hours not at all 7 12 this chart and table show that 7 nqts (37%) received some guidance for 1 or 2 hour(s) from ntc or their school prior to their building of portfolio for assessment during national service period whiles 12(63%) were not given any guidance at all by either ntc or their school prior building of portfolio for assessment. newly qualified teachers experiences and perceptions in building/writing of portfolio questions agree disagree neutral 1. i enjoy writing the portfolio 8 11 0 2. i can appreciate that my written and communication skills have improved 6 12 1 3. it has helped me in self-directed learning as i can analyze problems on my own 6 10 3 4. reviewing others’ portfolios is very useful 10 6 3 5. writing the portfolio is a stressful process 7 9 3 1 or 2 hours 37% not at all 63% preparation chart on nqts paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 154 6. writing the portfolio has helped my personal and professional development 6 11 2 7. while i write the portfolio, i usually think about the teaching philosophy objectives and learning indicators. 6 11 2 8. the portfolio encourages self-reflection 10 8 1 9. i normally write the portfolio on a regular basis during my national service period. 7 12 0 10. there is adequate guidance to write the portfolio 10 7 2 11. i use resources other than textbooks to write the learning issue 9 9 1 12. i have started to use the same principle (of writing the portfolio) in problems that i encounter in teaching 7 11 1 13. writing the portfolio has given me an insight into outcome-based education 8 8 3 14. the portfolio should be part of every teacher trainee programme 10 9 0 15. i usually reflect on the problems/teaching activities during my national service period as a newly qualified teacher. 8 8 3 16. whenever i write the portfolio, i think of the outcomes(assessment) 7 9 3 17. the portfolio is a useful additional learning and assessment tool 8 9 2 18. i usually read the relevant chapter in books before i write the portfolio 4 13 2 19. the portfolio has changed the way i think when i encounter problems 5 12 2 20. the portfolio writing has changed my approach to learning and teaching 5 11 3 21. writing the portfolio has helped me to monitor the learning goals 8 8 3 22. writing the portfolio has helped me to recognize my strength and weakness in teaching, learning and assessment of students 7 10 2 newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 155 23. writing the portfolio has helped me to revise my work (lesson note, lesson plan, teaching methods/strategies, mode of assessment etc.) 8 11 0 24. to what extent do you agree with this statement “ntc assists me much towards achievement in writing portfolio”? 4 6 9 the scale was re-grouped into 3 as agree (strongly agree and agree), disagree (strongly disagree and disagree) and neutral. in all the responses by the nineteen (19) participants to a total of twenty-four (24) questions on ‘newly trained teachers experience in building/writing of portfolio’, 174 (one hundred and seventy-four) agreed were recorded, 231 (two hundred and thirty-one) disagreed recorded and there were fifty-one (51) neutral responses. the use of portfolios in continuing professional development in teaching profession is still in its infancy in ghana. the portfolio has been shown to be a worthwhile addition to the existing learning and assessment tools for nqts from colleges of education. it has been shown that students/teachers using portfolios obtain higher professional development in factual knowledge and practice. even though only 42.1% of students agreed that the portfolio was useful as an additional learning and assessment tool in comparison to the 50% reported by lonka et al., a revamped sum of agree sum of disagree sum of neutral 174 231 51 total sum of agree 174 sum of disagree 231 sum of neutral 51 0 50 100 150 200 250 sum of agree sum of disagree sum of neutral paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 156 second phase is most likely to achieve better popularity. in respect of the importance of understanding of portfolio, for instance, 52.6% of respondents in this study agreed that portfolio writing should be part of every teacher trainee's programme. 3. the frequency of lessons per week by nqts in their respective school of service. the above bar chart #3 shows that 11(58%) of nqts were allowed to teach less than 15 times a week per school timetable. 6 (32%) nqts also taught lessons between 16 to 20 times a week per the school timetable while only 2 (10%) nqts also had lessons between 21 to 25 times a week. this makes a total of 19 (100%) nqts (respondents). this might indicate that in-service teachers had less or no trust in nqts in teaching maybe due to inexperience or less/no pedagogical knowledge on the subject matter. 4. other duties performed by nqts aside teaching 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1 frequency of lessons per week 21-25 16-20 below 15 1 yes 13 no 6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 other duties assigned to nqts newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 157 as shown in the above chart #4, 13 (68.42%) nqts were assigned to various forms of task in the school aside from teaching comprising of co-curricular activities among others. only 6 (31.58%) nqts were not assigned to any duty during their one-year service period. this means that 68.42% of nqts would have produced a report on co-curricular activities as a requirement whiles 31.58% nqts would have not had a report on co-curricular activities as a requirement. 5. mentorship a total of 16 (84.21%) nqts were assigned to in-service teachers mentors while 3 (15.79%) nqts were not assigned to mentors as required. this means about 84.21% (16) of nqts would have a report from their mentor as a requirement. conclusion and recommendations pre-service teachers (newly qualified teachers) in ghana perceived the portfolio writing and assessment to be an effective tool to encourage self-reflection. this validates research studies that have emphasized that it is very effective for assessment as well. the conclusions from the study show that portfolio writing should be part of every teacher trainee program. this would make it possible for nqts to be more familiar with portfolio writing for the final assessment. the study noticed that nqts were not adequately prepared before the start of the portfolio assessment by the ntc and their colleges. this would partly account for why students generally disagreed that the portfolio was useful: they were not familiar with and remained unaware of the importance of portfolio writing and assessment. notwithstanding that the entire portfolio assessment process initiated for the 2020/2021 batch of newly qualified teachers (the first batch) was called off in the latter part of the exercise due to agitations and opposition to it by both newly qualified teachers and the executives of the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 1 mentorship chart no yes paul akumdaare atiah ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 158 teacher trainee’s association of ghana, it is clearly a process that could be made to work. hence, based on the responses, observations, and conclusions from this study, it is recommended that: • portfolio writing and building should be made part of all colleges of education. after 10 years, about 80% of trained teachers would be teachers who have gone through portfolio building. this would translate into professionalism and competence for both teachers and the ntc's work as a regulator. • portfolio assessors should be engaged as lecturers (those with mphils) in various colleges of education to teach students the building of portfolios. the alternative could be to train the existing lecturers (at least two from each college of education) on building a professional portfolio. • ntc in collaboration with various teacher unions and continuing professional development (cpd) service providers need make it a priority to hold a training session for all in-service teachers across ghana in each district/regional capital on the building of a portfolio and its importance to their profession at least twice a year. newly qualified teachers’ perceptions and experiences about portfolio assessment in wa municipal, ghana ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 140-163 159 references aldahmash, a. h., alshalhoub, s. a., & naji, m. a. 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(2020). research on continuous improvement: exploring the complexities of managing educational change. review of research in education, 44(1), 403-433. classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-in-english in nigeria eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu university of ibadan, nigeria. abstract current theories of teaching favour students-centred classrooms. in literature-in-english lessons, active participation of students is essential for optimal learning. this study examined the level of students' active participation in literature-in-english classrooms as the major reason for the high failure rates of nigerian students who take this subject in the yearly senior secondary school examinations. the study was carried out in ibadan metropolis, oyo state. the mixed method research design was adopted. class observation schedule (r=0.9) and interview guide for teachers were used to gather the data. random sampling technique was used to select three local government areas (lgas), 27 public senior secondary schools (9 from each lga) and one literature-in-english teacher from each school. all the teachers were observed twice during lessons while 12 of them were interviewed. results from the quantitative data showed that the classroom process was teacher-dominated, and students' level of participation was very low. students hardly asked questions and teachers did not use teaching techniques that encouraged active participation. teachers identified students' inability to buy the prescribed literary texts, lack of interest in reading and poor language proficiency as some of the factors that contribute to students' failure. several recommendations were made to enhance the teaching-learning process and maximize learning. keywords: teaching-learning process, literature-in-english, examination failure, active participation, student-centred lessons introduction literature-in-english is taught in nigerian senior secondary schools for several objectives, including cultural awareness, enhancement of language skills, personal development and adequate preparation of students for the school certificate examinations (nigerian educational african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 282-306 classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 283 research and development council, nerdc, 2009). it is taught as drama, prose and poetry selected from african and non-african literary texts. teachers are expected to enrich the content of their teaching with "relevant materials and information from their immediate environment" (nerdc, p. i). despite the rich and broad objectives set in the school curriculum, the level of students' engagement with and mastery of literature-in-english is very low. for three consecutive years, (2017-2019), less than 25% of them got a credit (a1-c6) in the west african senior school certificate examination (wassce). the qualitative reports of the west african examination council (waec) chief examiner on students' performance indicate that the situation is deteriorating on yearly basis. the recurring high rate of failure points to specific problems in the teaching-learning process which limit students' learning. urgent and adequate interventions are needed if the trend is to be reversed. if not, literature-in-english may become an endangered school subject in nigeria. in view of the above premise, this study examined the teaching-learning process in literature-in-english classrooms. how instruction is delivered can influence students' learning and achievement. the study also investigated teachers' view on the causes of worsening students' failure of literature-in-english in the standard examinations. background to the study although literature-in-english is classified in the nigerian senior secondary school as a core subject for arts students, it is actually a cross-cutting subject that is beneficial to every student, especially due to its linguistic potentials. literature is language in operation, (widdowson, 1979). it is basically a manipulation of language for self-expression which may take the form of storytelling (prose), dialogue (drama) or outpouring of feelings and emotions (poetry). to study literature-in-english therefore, is to engage in the appreciation of the beauty of language. whether students are engaged in reading, appreciation, analysis or classroom discussion of literary texts, they are invariably exploring the use of language by writers. therefore, an engagement with each literary genre is equally an exposure to a particular way in which language has been used. thus, students who study literature-in-english can enhance their language skills. language is a tool for almost every learning activity in the school. by improving their language skills, students would be able to maximise their learning experiences. besides, studying literature-in-english can help them to form the habit of extensive reading and as well enhance their speaking, listening, writing, analytical and critical thinking skills. close reading eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 284 of literary texts can help students to build their vocabularies needed for improved writing and comprehension. the world has become a global village in which people are easily connected through an effective use of language in different domains. consequently, english has become a major world language and students must be able to communicate effectively in it to be able to find their rightful places in the society. engaging students in dramatic performance, debating activities and writing competitions (as literature-in-english teaching strategies), for example, could enhance their communicative competence, ability to work in team and self-confidence. students need these skills to prepare for employment and life after school. the close connection between literature-in-english and language makes the former a useful pedagogical tool in esl (english as a second language) classrooms around the world. studies have shown that literature is very useful in gaining higher proficiency in english language (anka, ibrahim & yabo, 2017). according to maley (2001), literature-in-english is useful in efl (english as a foreign language) and esl classrooms due to its many qualities, including universality (cross-cultural themes), personal relevance and variety (language and subject matters), interest (familiar subject matters that could appeal to all), economy and suggestive power (evocative meaning of words and sentences). literature also has the quality of ambiguity which gives every literary work a diversity of meanings. thus, students have opportunities to interpret it differently and exchange ideas freely without fear of rejection. the values of literature-in-english also include personal growth and cultural awareness. the senior secondary school curriculum recommends that in the selection of texts, teachers should ensure that there is a balanced representation of african and non-african writings with a variety of themes (nerdc, 2009). exposure to literary works from different parts of the world and written at different times in history could widen students' horizon and expand their thoughts and experiences. cultures, observed drucker (2015), are built on stories such as myths, legends, fables and religions, and if students are to understand and participate in the culture to which they belong, they must learn such stories. through literature-in-english, students can learn some basic and timeless lessons of life such as courage and strength, patience and tolerance, social justice, empathy, and how to deal with human weaknesses and failures. these could help them to better understand or share in the universality of human experiences and acquire different skills needed to respond to life's recurring challenges. in prose and drama particularly, students encounter different characters in familiar and unfamiliar settings. accordingly, literature enables students to enter into a classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 285 multiplicity of worlds, a vast variety of people, cultures, places in reality and beyond, defying the boundaries of time and space (rankhambe & patil, 2016). students are expected to examine the realities of life presented in the literary texts they read, discuss, critic, interpret them and even expand such realities or ideas in the light of their own life experiences and social milieu. literature is also a form of entertainment. it gives pleasure to writers and the readers as well. many literary writers use it as a channel to express or expand their experiences, emotions and feelings. those who read the works vicariously share in those experiences. moreover, one of the objectives of teaching literature-in-english at the senior secondary school level is to enable students become creative writers. engaging in creative writing could help students to develop their imaginative and creative potentials. however, attaining the goals and enjoying the many benefits of literature-in-english does not come automatically to students. they need to possess adequate mastery of the components of each genre. they also need to develop basic critical thinking, analytical and language skills needed for literary appreciation, interpretation and criticism. in view of that, how teachers deliver the lesson is important. students cannot develop the skills on their own. teachers, therefore, need to use teaching strategies that would actively engage them so that they would enjoy the lesson, contribute to the learning process, and arrive at a deeper level of comprehension. without that, students may resort to rote learning. in nigeria, a major and standard way to measure students' level of mastery of any school subject (at the senior secondary level) is through their performance in the senior school certificate examinations (ssce). however, evidence from the west african senior school certificate examination (wassce) results points to a very shallow understanding of literature-in-english among nigerian students. in recent years (2017-2019), over 75% of them failed literature-in-english yearly and the few that pass hardly get high scores. available statistics (table 1) indicates that the situation is getting worse. table 1: distribution of nigerian students' literature-in-english grades in the wassce (2017-2019) year total registered grades obtained and percentage a1 b2 b3 c4 c5 c6 p7 p8 f9 2017 448070 0.0 3 0.1 3 1.6 7 2.0 7 3.7 6 16.0 8 23.77 17.6 9 20.7 2 32.76 eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 286 source: the waec report as shown on table 1, a total of 1,366,587 students registered literature-in-english within three years (2017-2019). compared to the huge number, only a few got a credit, that is, a1-c6, which is the required minimum standard. the number of students that sat for the examination increased yearly, but without a corresponding increase in the number of those that passed. for example, 2019 has the highest number of students but the least number of those that passed. the yearly distributions are as follows: 2017(23%), 2018(24%) and 2019(22%) respectively. moreover, within the three years, only 1.5% got between a1-b3 and 21.8% got between c4c6 (making a total of 23.3%). those that got f9 (33.4%) is by far, higher than those that got a credit. the same thing is applicable to those that got p7-p8 (39.3%). the waec chief examiner's qualitative reports (table 2) also indicate a downward trend in students' performance in the last 12 years (2009-2019). table 2: summary of chief examiner's general comments on students' performance in literature-in-english (2009 2019) year general comments on students' performance paper 2 (prose) paper 3 (drama and poetry) 2009 below standard, compared to previous years as low as previous years 2010 no improvement, compared to previous years no improvement 2011 no improvement no improvement 2012 no improvement no improvement 2013 very poor poorer than the previous year 2014 lower than last year no improvement 2015 average performance no improvement 2016 slight improvement improvement 2017 no improvement a decline 2018 457251 0.0 2 0.0 9 1.6 5 1.9 8 3.8 0 17.0 0 24.57 19.4 0 20.9 0 32.74 2019 461266 0 0.0 3 0.9 8 1.5 1 3.3 4 16.2 7 22.17 18.9 1 21.2 4 35.41 tota l 1,366,587 1.5% 21.8% 23.2 % 39.3% 33.4 % classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 287 2018 no improvement a decline 2019 a decline a decline source: the waec, 2021 as shown on table 2, there were slight improvements only in 2015 and 2016. however, the last three years (that is, 2017-2019) were worse, especially in drama and poetry (paper 3). as a way forward, the chief examiner made some recommendations, including the need to provide the recommended literary texts for students, retrain teachers for improved teaching and learning, encourage students to cultivate good reading habit and discourage them from relying on the abridged versions of the texts. in spite of the recommendations made, not much has changed, as shown on the reports. it appears that there are still underlying problems that inhibit students' learning or that the identified ones have not been properly addressed. literature review for effective literature-in-english instruction, there should be active participation of students. as nurindah and akil (2019) aptly put it, effective literary instruction requires that students be "good readers, good listeners and good responders". if any of the three components is missing, there could be problems in the teaching-learning process and the objectives of the lessons may not be attained. granath (2017) stressed the need to make literature-in-english "more exciting and relatable to students". teachers, therefore, need to direct and monitor the classroom process by ensuring students' active participation. teaching and learning centre (n.d) states that "fostering students’ active involvement in their own learning increases what is remembered, how well it is assimilated, and how the learning is used in new situations". however, fostering active participation of students in the classroom is a challenge to many teachers (cothran, 2000; oranu & onwioduokit, 2012; mpho, 2018; otara, 2019). studies have shown that teachers' use of poor teaching strategies that do not actively engage students is prevalent in nigeria (ugwu, 2019a). many teachers use the lecture method of teaching which is teacher-centred, does not create much opportunity for students to be actively involved, and therefore, is ineffective (anyanwu, 2015; busari, 2007; danner and musa, 2019). the lecture method of teaching presents the teacher as the provider and processor of knowledge, and therefore, at the centre of the classroom process. students will learn better if they, with their teachers, play complementary and collaborative roles in the classroom process. according to weimer (2011), active participation of students can be used to increase students' interest, engage them to think, provide feedback to teachers and students, control the class, make students to be prepared before coming to class, eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 288 build cordial relationships and provide opportunities for language practice. stressing on the need for active participation of students in the classroom process, cothran (2000) notes that even quality curriculum delivered "by a knowledgeable teacher will not result in student learning unless students first are engaged in the learning process". active participation also helps to create a sense of satisfaction and opportunities for formative assessment (kramer, 2016). across different school subjects and levels of education, experimental studies on the use of teaching methods that actively engage students yielded positive outcomes in terms of increased interest, motivation, retention, achievement, and critical thinking ability (cothran, 2000; nelson and crow, 2014; owodunni, 2015; ezeokoli & igubor, 2016; bergmark & westman, 2018; tasgin and tunc, 2018; ugwu, 2019a; ugwu, 2019b; ezurike & ayovaughan, 2020). students who are active in the class may be more able to synthesise, question, analyse and internalise their learning experience than the passive ones. in literature-in-english lessons, active students may understand and appreciate the literary texts better and relate it to real life situations. kramer (2016) suggests that active participation goes beyond asking of questions and calling on few students to respond. it is rather, ensuring that all students are involved in activities that are 'directly related to the content' of instruction. the role of teachers is paramount in creating active and engaging classes. cothran (2000) found that "engaging classes were characterised by teachers who were enthusiastic about their subject matter". anyanwu (2015) is of the opinion that teachers need to plan class activities which focuses on identifying students' tasks that lead to learning rather than teachers' tasks for presenting the lesson. therefore, how the lesson is planned is central to creating active and engaging atmospheres during lessons. there are numerous instructional strategies that can be used to actively engage students during instruction. walker (2003) lists questioning techniques, class discussion, debate and written assignment (in-class and out-of-class). teachers can also adopt different cooperative and collaborative learning strategies that encourage group learning and presentation, peertutoring, peer and self-assessments. two cooperative learning strategies (student teamsachievement division and think-pair-share) were found to enhance students' interest and achievement in reading comprehension (ugwu 2019a; ugwu, 2019b). drama is also an effective teaching strategy that can actively engage students. students who were exposed to dramatic activities developed more positive attitude to and achievement in the dramatic genre (gorjian, moosavinia and jabripour, 2010; fakeye and adebiye, 2015; bello and offorma, classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 289 2017). engagement in peer assessment was also reported to increase students' positive attitude, rate of retention and achievement in english language and mathematics, (adeyemo, 2014; oluseyi, 2014; asuai and adeleye, 2013 and adediwura, 2015). students who engage in peer and self-assessment may be more disposed to take personal responsibility for their learning as they learn to give and receive constructive and immediate feedback and develop basic formative assessment skills. literature-in-english teachers who adopt any of these strategies could increase the level of students' active participation, enhance learning and reduce the chances of failure. given the many benefits of students' active participation in the classroom process, it is expected that literature-in-english teachers' would use instructional strategies that encourage it, in other to maximize students' learning. on the contrary, if their preferred strategies do not actively engage students, the latter may not learn adequately and therefore, may not be able to pass their examinations. research question: 1. to what extent are literature-in-english students actively engaged in the classroom process? 2. what are teachers' views on the causes of students' failure of literature-in-english in the senior secondary school examinations? theoretical framework the transactional model of reading propounded by lousie rosenblatt in 1978 is relevant in understanding the need for students' active involvement during literature-in-english lessons. the model considers reading as a dynamic and an active process of making meaning from a text. the transactional model places learners at the centre of any reading exercise or instruction. it is built on the premise that there is a reciprocal and mutually defining relationship between the students and the literary text (robertson, sterling & rork, 1995). as such, students' previous experiences are important attributes needed for meaningful reading, literary appreciation, analysis, criticism, and classroom discussions. reading is seen as a form of mutual transaction between the readers and the text which then gives birth to meaning. during reading, literature-in-english students, as active participants in the meaningmaking process, are expected to use their active thought process to enrich the interpretation of the text. since human experiences are dynamic and literary texts have no single meaning, students may interpret a particular text differently. therefore, the more they participate eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 290 actively, the richer the textual interpretation would be. however, it is the duty of the teacher to ensure that students are actively engaged by challenging them to ask useful questions and also by providing opportunities that would make them play active roles in the class. before classroom instructions, teachers need to prepare activities that would actively engage students. it may be in form of questions, assessment or student-centred teaching strategies. research method the study was carried out in the ibadan metropolis, oyo state, nigeria. random sampling technique was used to select three out of the five local government areas (lgas) in the metropolis, 27 public senior secondary schools (9 from each lga) and one literature-inenglish teacher from each school (making a total of 27 teachers). the study adopted the mixed method research design. two instruments: class observation schedule (r=0.9) and structured interview guide for teachers (sigt) developed by the researcher were used to gather qualitative and quantitative data. using the first instrument, each teacher was randomly observed twice during lessons to find out students' level of active participation. teachers were not pre-informed before each observation. this was to ensure that they do not alter their normal teaching processes. a total of 54 lessons on prose, poetry, drama and literary appreciation were observed. the classes were ss1-3. secondly, a total of 12 teachers in 12 schools (4 from each lga) were interviewed. the quantitative data were analysed using the descriptive statistics while the qualitative data were content analysed. results and discussion research question 1: the extent of literature-in-english students' active engagement in the classroom process table 3: distribution of student-based activities during literature-in-english lessons s/n. student-based activity (sba) no. of sba per genre taught total prose (17) poetry (20) drama (13) literary appreciation (4) 54 lessons 1. students ask oral questions 1 1 3 0 5 2. students engage in group discussion or cooperative learning activities 0 0 0 0 0 3. students present individual works 0 0 0 0 0 4. students present group works 0 0 0 0 0 5. students engage in peer assessment 0 0 0 0 0 classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 291 6. students engage in self-assessment 0 0 0 0 0 7. others: (quiz, debate, drama, etc.) 0 0 0 0 0 total 1 1 3 0 5 table 3 shows the summary of student-based activities during 54 literature-in-english lessons. there were 17 prose, 20 poetry, 13 drama and four literary appreciation lessons respectively. of all the student-based activities listed on table 3, only one, that is, asking of oral questions by students, took place (minimally) in one prose, one poetry and three drama lessons, making a total of 5 questions raised by students. students did not engage in individual or group activities such as presentation, group discussion, collaborative or cooperative learning, peer assessment, self-assessment, quiz, debate or drama. this means that teachers did not use teaching strategies that promote active participation of students. therefore, students were generally passive. in summary, the classroom process was teacher-centred and students' level of participation was very low. teachers' views on the causes of students' failure of literature-in-english below is the content analysis of teachers' responses during the interview. these were categorised into eight subheadings. teachers' names and their demographic information were removed to retain their anonymity. 1. students' inability or unwillingness to buy the prescribed literature-in-english texts. all the teachers stated that most of their students do not have the recommended texts. excerpts: t1: our students don’t have textbooks at all. they don’t even buy any of the literature books we read in the class. the teacher can be the only one talking and reading during lessons. and there is no amount of cajoling or pressurising that would move them to buy the books, they don’t believe in it. t2: the major factor, i won’t deceive you, is that they do not have the textbooks. if they have the texts, they would be able to read on their own. in a class of 30, it may just be five or three that would have the books. by the time they would rotate the texts among themselves, time for the class would have gone. t3: the students don’t buy books. even when they are asked to make photocopies of the poems, they would not do that. the cost was just n100 but they can afford to buy n500 eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 292 recharge cards. i reported them to the school authority and even to the pta but that did not address the problem. you cannot give them assignment in that situation. t4: students are no longer reading and parents refuse to buy the textbooks, especially the primary texts. as the above responses indicate, teachers link students' failure to their non-possession of the recommended texts. the response of t1 confirms the result of the classroom observation which shows that students' level of active participation is very low. without actively engaging students, teachers do all the talking. while it is true that having the literary texts could enhance the teaching-learning process, student may still remain dormant in the class even if they have the texts. it is the teachers' duty to actively engage students by using appropriate instructional strategies and techniques. for example, in a situation where up to five students have the texts, teachers could divide them into 5 groups, assign a chapter of the book to each, and task them to read and make group presentations or to write individual summary of the chapter. this process can make the class more manageable, increase students' level of participation and enhance comprehension. 2. poor attitude towards reading and inability to read: the teachers observed that students have poor reading habit; some are unwilling to read while others cannot read. excerpts: t5: students are lazy to read voluminous literary texts. it scares them. it is when their external exams waec and neco are close that some of them start reading. besides, most of them go for the review or abridged texts, even though some of the abridged texts have errors. t6: you know, literature requires a lot of reading because we have so many texts. some find it difficult to read; they just want the teacher to tell them everything. t10: students don’t read, they come to the class without knowing anything about the text i want to teach. if students cannot read, there is nothing the teacher can do. some don’t even know why they are here; you have to remind them. t9: the students don’t cultivate the habit of reading. literature is very wide and there is no way you can pass if you do not read the text. but most of them are so lazy to read; they don’t even want to read. at times i would give them my own books and divide them into groups to read but still, they would not read. t11: students nowadays do not want to read. imagine somebody in ss3 that has never read a novel. the reading culture is no longer there. even if the government provides the classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 293 textbook, the internet has taken over; the students would not read. they go to the internet to play. they are not even interested in ebooks, rather, they watch movies. the overriding issue in the above responses is the problem of reading. however, several subthemes could be established, including students' inability to read, laziness, lack of interest in and poor attitude towards reading, fear of reading voluminous or several literature texts, examination-centred reading and lack of focus. from these various responses, it is obvious that teachers tend to lay all the blames on their students. their responses sound as if there is no way forward. if students cannot read at a senior secondary school level, teachers need to acknowledge the fact that they too have failed in their processional practices. therefore, it is not enough to claim that students are not interested in reading. if students are not interested in reading, they would not come to school. their being in school means that they want to learn and it is the duty of the teachers to ensure that they actually learn. there are many instructional strategies that teachers can use to enhance students' reading skills and also to motivate them to read. but, as the classroom process, (table 3) indicates, many nigerian teachers are yet to move from a teacher-centred to student-centred teaching. although t9 claimed that she/he had used group reading strategy but that it did not yield the desired effect, it is not clear how the group reading was organised. there are principles guiding group learning or group works in the classroom which must be adhered to for the strategy to work. for example, if students are paired but without proper direction or monitoring, they may end up creating a noisy scene. 3. poor attitude toward literature, lack of motivation, aspiration and a sense of direction: teachers stated that many students in arts lack motivation to studying in general. excerpts: t7: many students perceive the arts class as a dumping ground. you may hardly find up to 30% of them willing to proceed to higher institutions after the secondary school. t12: some students do not see literature as an important school subject. many of them find it difficult to concentrate and read the text. they rather wait for the teacher to summarise the text for them. they do not want to spend time studying on their own. t3: some, i guess, don’t know why they are in arts class. perhaps, teachers just put them there because they cannot cope with science. maybe they felt commercial class may be difficult for them, and then, there is nothing left. so, some are just there, they don’t really know why. i remember asking an arts student: what do you hope to become in future, he said “a doctor”. i said, "in arts class"? so, you can imagine the mind-set that such a student may bring into the literature class. eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 294 t1: many students in arts class just find themselves there, sometimes through peer influence. but they are not capable of studying arts. maybe, they are supposed to be in another class but because of the peer influence, they believe they also can cope, but at the end of the day, they will not be able to cope. the last respondent was further asked: how are students placed in the different field of study? are they allowed to make their choices or it is the school authority that categorises them? she responded: schools do not necessarily pair students, but there are some requirements. it is like js3 students entering the senior class, there are criteria, maybe they are to pass 5 credits, including english and mathematics, and that will qualify them too. the way things are now, on my own, if i am given that opportunity, the children are to be scrutinised before being allowed into any class. but that is not always the case. there should be a room created for that. a dominant issue in the above responses is that many students do not feel motivated to study literature-in-english due to several reasons. some were "pushed" into the field of arts or chose to be there without proper guidance or orientation, not knowing what it entails or what to expect. some think that the arts discipline has nothing to offer them; thus, they see their situation as a dead-end. however, in a situation where students cannot read, do not have the reading texts and are mere listeners in the class, it is not likely they will enjoy the lesson. if students do not enjoy the lesson, their level of motivation will also likely not going to be high. although the causes of students' lack of motivation are multifaceted, teachers are probably not doing enough to motivate them. thus, this problem still has a link to the classroom process. if students engage in dramatic performance rather than reading a drama text, for example, there would definitely be a higher level of excitement in the class and this can lead to increased motivation. 4. more emphasis on science disciplines: some parents force their children to study science, irrespective of the children's interest or abilities. this may be due to the belief that science is more lucrative than arts in the job market. excerpts: t5: . . . .i will cite an example. i discovered a boy n ss3 who was so talented in arts. i asked him: how did you find yourself in a science class? you are supposed to be in arts class! what are you doing in science? he said it was his father that insisted that he must study science and that it really affected him. so, for many of them, their problem emanated from parental factors. classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 295 5. lack of concentration in school due to engagement in non-school related apprenticeship: this was emphasized in a particular local government area. this problem may be due to the limited job opportunities in nigeria. many students graduate without finding jobs and the available ones are very competitive. children from poorer families may be more disadvantaged: they may not have opportunities like their counterparts from rich families. parents seem to be aware of these dynamics; thus, they plan alternatives for their children so that after secondary education, they would not get stranded. however, combining schooling with apprenticeship makes students unable to concentrate in school. it could also affect their academic performance because they may not have enough time to study. excerpts: t9: students don’t have time to read, especially in this environment because most of them are learning trade. after school, they go to their masters’ shops to learn. almost 70% of them are learning trade, such as fashion designing, hair styling and selling of medicine. they do all these after school. their parents are impatient because they believe that if they are through with ss3 and do not perform well in the final examination, they would switch to the job or business. but instead of giving them the full time to concentrate, they wouldn’t do that. t8: one thing that is rampart in this area is that we have a lot of students coping with both apprenticeship and education. immediately they leave school each day, they go to their places of work or shops and get home late in the evening. t7: even those who have the textbooks have no time to read. some of them, when they get home, have to do one or two things for the upkeep of the family. t10: in this part of the town, they have different localities with different attitudes to education. like in this area, would i say that most parents are poor and most students come from very poor background. 6. government's policy: building on the free education policy (which in theory, is obtainable in nigeria but in practice, is not always the case), the present oyo state government distributes free exercise and textbooks to students in public secondary schools at the beginning of each academic year. included in the distribution are textbooks on core science subjects. literature-in-english teachers feel that the government has not been fair to arts students. they expect that since literature-in-english is a core arts subject, the government should distribute some of the recommended literary texts to arts students just as it does to science students. moreover, some parents misunderstand the concept of 'free education'. they think that if education is free, it means that the government would provide all the learning resources for eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 296 their children. with that mindset, they fail to provide their children's basic educational needs. excerpts: t1: parents are not cooperating, especially this time that we are in the era of free education. t5: the government promised to give free books. they gave books on other subjects but none on literature. and, we have been told that no teacher should collect a dime from the students or ask them to buy books. the parents too who should be wise and augment the government's efforts by buying the remaining text – since the government have bought up to nine books for the students, are not ready to do anything. t9: parents are not ready to give students what they need. t2: most of the students do not have the prescribed texts and you cannot send them out of the class; you just have to do as the government wishes. 7. the nature of literature: some teachers pointed out that the language of literature, especially poetry, is difficult for students. this may be due to their limited proficiency in english language. as pointed out earlier, some students cannot read. however, this problem further establishes the negative effect of teacher-centred lessons in which students are not actively engaged. students will most likely engage in rote learning if they do not understand the lesson. excerpts: t3 most students find poetry very difficult because they cannot interpret the poem, they can memorise it but find it difficult to interpret or bring out the literary devices. 8. heavy workload and problems with teachers' levels of commitment: some teachers found their workload too heavy, especially those teaching both english language and literature. one of them stated: t7: the workload is too much. in our school, it is only me, and it is not only literature that i am teaching. during the class observation sessions, it was found that some teachers often missed classes. each time, they gave different excuses such as having to attend to other needs. teachers who miss classes may not cover the curriculum contents. if that happens, they may put the blame on too much workload or large number of literary texts they are required to teach, just as one teacher expressed: t4: the texts, that is, the three genres, are many– it is impossible to teach all of them within a year. classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 297 discussion of findings teachers are the directors of the classroom process and the success of their work depends on how much students learn at the end of every lesson. if students fail examinations, it means that they did not learn adequately. it could also mean that teachers did not teach them well. on the other hand, adequate teaching and learning will increase students' chances of passing examinations. in literature-in-english pedagogy, teachers and students have their respective roles to pay in the interpretive process. they are therefore, accountable for the success and failure of the classroom process. consequently, teachers must ensure that students are not just receptors of abstract information or passive listeners but active collaborators in the classroom process. this requires that they use appropriate teaching methods and strategies that prompts students to think, speak, ask questions or engage in different planned activities. however, what is obtainable in literature-in-english classrooms, as the results of this study reveal, is that students are mostly passive during lessons. they hardly contribute to the teaching-learning process. therefore, they rely solely on their teachers' interpretation of the literary texts. in almost all the lessons that were observed, teachers did all the talking while students played the roles of passive listeners. as a result, literature-in-english lessons are boring, and it is difficult to gauge the level of students' learning. this is largely because the lessons are teacher-centred and not activity-based. one teacher paints a clear picture of what happens in the class: "if i am teaching prose, i will be the one reading, analysing for them, talking about the characters. . . .it is so difficult. it is not making the subject interesting at all. . . .". if the lessons are boring, students may not learn much. this problem is made complex by students' inability to buy or read the recommended texts. without reading the texts, students come to the literature-in-english class without prior or adequate preparation to participate in the teaching-learning process. thus, one of the teachers said: the students would be looking as if they don’t care. it may not be that the students do not care. it could be that they feel bored, are not motivated, or do not expect much from the lessons. it is also important to note that ineffective classroom process, characterised by absence of students' participation cuts across the three genres of literature-in-english. this indicates that there is a general problem in the teaching process. teachers are not doing enough to actively engage their students. this agrees with the results of earlier studies which reported that literature-in-english teachers use poor and ineffective teaching strategies (kateregga, 2014; ezeokoli, 2016; danner & musa, 2019; mubita & mwanza, 2020). eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 298 if students' learning is to improve, teachers need to change their style of teaching by making it learner-centred and activity based. they need to use different teaching and assessment strategies that would promote active participation of all students, that would help to raise students' curiosity, and challenge them to ask questions in order to learn better. in a study by debele and kelbisa (2017), students' active participation in the class was improved through strategies like group discussion, jigsaw, peer-tutoring, pre-class reading assignments, creating friendly relationship with students and reducing lecturing time to accommodate more classroom activities. however, if teachers continue with the teacher-dominated lecture method of instruction, the situation may not change. from the interview reports, teachers identified the following as factors responsible for students' failure of literature-in-english: lack of textbooks, limited language proficiency which manifests in students' inability to read and poor attitude towards reading, lack of motivation, lack of concentration due to students' engagement in apprenticeship, inadequate support by the government and parents, and heavy workload. another factor is teachers' inability to cover the curriculum content, sometimes due to their poor commitment to work. since literature-in-english requires extensive reading, students who cannot read, or who dislike reading, may find it unappealing and difficult to understand. in nigeria, low proficiency in english (which is a second language), may add to students' lack of interest in reading and by extension, low motivation to study or enjoy literature-in-english. students with limited proficiency in english language may not be able to read at a higher level of comprehension. this can demotivate or make them to avoid reading voluminous literary texts. additionally, the distractive influence of the social media affects many students; as one of the teachers observed: students can afford to spend money on airtime but not on literary texts. jurf (2012) emphasised that in the presence of the digital media devices, many readers no longer have the patience for storylines, characters, or plots but rather prefer emails, blogs, and many other digital inventions. extensive reading of literary texts can help students to generate and ask useful questions that may lead to deeper understanding. however, students' engagement in reading may depend on their ability to read and comprehend the text. comprehension, observed ugwu (2019b), "makes reading meaningful, interesting and worthwhile" (p. 221). therefore, it is important for teachers to help students build their language skills. teachers can take advantage of the various social media platforms and technological innovations to make reading more enticing to students. since, according to one of the teachers, "the internet has taken over" students' classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 299 attention, teachers need to exploit it for teaching-learning purposes. dramatic and debating activities can also be used to boost students' self-confidence, speaking skills, teamwork and motivation to engage in literary appreciation and activities, all of which can enhance teaching and learning. another finding of this study is that students prefer reading the abridged versions of literary texts than the complete versions. this view is in line with granath (2017) who reported that teachers were faced with unmotivated and uninterested students who preferred summarised versions of literary texts and spark notes. however, students' preference for the abridged version may also be due to their low language proficiency or lack of interest in reading. the prevalence of abridged versions of the recommended literature-in-english texts and compiled past examination questions with ready-made answers have worsened the situation. one of the teachers pointed out that some of the abridged texts have errors. in spite of that, many bookshops in nigeria have all kinds of summarised versions of literary texts and key points that claim to be the key to students' success in examinations. these could be so enticing to students, especially those with limited language proficiency and those who find reading uninteresting. in various waec chief examiners' reports, it was repeated that students' answers gave impressions that they read the abridged rather than the complete versions of the recommended texts (the waec, 2021). literature-in-english requires critical and close reading of the texts for better appreciation and deeper comprehension. words and sounds are carriers of meaning in literary texts. therefore, it is through reading that students encounter language in operation. in effect, reading the texts enables students to immerse themselves in the entire (and often captivating) storyline (in prose), the rich dialogues (in drama) and the beautiful sounds (in poetry). however, students who do not read the complete versions of the texts but rely solely on what their teachers teach in the class or on the abridged versions deny themselves of such opportunities to learn, to appreciate and to enjoy literature-in-english. such students will not be able to encounter words as used in the texts. in that case, they may not be able to learn new words and build their vocabularies, enhance their language skills and ask or respond to critical questions that could lead to a deeper level of literary criticism, interpretation and comprehension. reading the texts is fundamental to adequate learning of literature-in-english. literature-in-english, unlike some science subjects, has no set of formulas that can be memorised and used to analyse the texts or answer examination questions. hence, knowing the eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 300 full details of the storyline as told in the prose text, the beginning, unfolding of events and actions and their end in drama, and the dictions, sounds and even the arrangement of poetry stanza are fundamental to literary appreciation. if the story is retold, the essential parts may be lost. therefore, teachers need to use every available means to ensure that students read the texts and enjoy the lessons for optimal learning. recommendation to improve the teaching-learning process and reduce chances of student's' failure, the following are recommended: i. literature-in-english teachers need to be retrained on effective teaching methods and techniques that encourage learner-centred approaches to teaching. ii. given the high rate of students' failure which is getting worse each year, the government should, as a matter of urgency, wade into the problem, by either providing the recommended literature-in-english texts to students or making them available in the school libraries so that students who are unable to buy their personal copies could have access to them. iii. students and their parents should be re-educated on the values of arts as a school subject and as an enriching discipline. iv. school authorities should occasionally invite professionals in arts-related disciplines, including lawyers, journalists, established novelists and literary writers to address and educate students on promising career paths for arts students. v. students should be properly guided when they are choosing school subjects so that they will be able to make informed decisions based on their capacity, interest and passion. vi. there is also a need for proper integration of vocational subjects in the senior secondary schools as stated in the national policy on education. if students are enabled to learn life skills while in school, their parents may not have cogent reasons for enrolling them in apprenticeship programs which end up distracting them. vii. extra-curricular activities such as debating societies, reading and writing clubs should be put in place in schools. additionally, inter and intra school competitions and arts festivals should be organised periodically for students in those clubs. this may increase students' interest in and appreciation of literature-in-english and encourage them to engage more in creative writing. classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' performance in literature-inenglish in nigeria ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 301 conclusion teachers' most important task in the classroom process is to ensure that students learn. yet, the extent of learning is dependent on their ability to create learner-centred classrooms where students do not see themselves as spectators but as collaborators who also are responsible and accountable for their learning experiences. therefore, the teaching-learning process cannot be one-sided. while teachers are the directors of the classroom process, students are at the centre. however, how teachers plan their lessons is fundamental to creating a learner-centred classroom where students can play their own roles. they need to use instructional strategies that have student-based activities and that would task them to play specific roles and contribute to the classroom process. these activities, when properly harnessed, will not only enhance literature-in-english students' learning experience but could also make the classroom environment lively. different voices are needed in literature-in-english lessons. when students do not participate or have a say, their voices are lost and the result could be rote learning. it is the teachers' duty to give a voice to their students and to ensure that they learn. however, this is far from the reality. the classroom process is teacher-dominated and teaching strategies that could promote students' participation are not used by teachers. in spite of that shortcoming, students are mainly blamed for failing to learn, for being lazy, for not having the books and for lacking in motivation. in the teaching-learning process, teachers are like physicians in the hospital and students are their patients. every patient who goes to the hospital would ordinarily want to get well. in the same way, students go to school so that they would learn and teachers must ensure that they actually learn. the major concern of every physician should be that the patient recovers. if a particular drug does not facilitate the healing process, the physician may rediagnose the patient or look for alternative drugs. the physician would not ordinarily blame the patient for not getting better. therefore, to blame students for failing to learn adequately is like blaming the patients for not recovering. the present teacher-dominated style of teaching is not making students to learn. teachers need to change their method of teaching. a major limitation of this study is that the causes of students' failure in the examinations were considered only from teachers' own perspectives. it is like a one-sided story. future studies might leverage on this gap by looking at the problem from students' own angle. eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 282-306 302 references adediwura, a. a. 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(2018). chief examiner's report. yaba, lagos. west african examinations council. (2019). chief examiner's report. yaba, lagos. widdowson, h. (1979). explorations in applied linguistics. oxford: oxford university press. https://seahipaj.org/journals-ci/sept-2017/ijifer/full/ijifer-s-8-2017.pdf https://seahipaj.org/journals-ci/sept-2017/ijifer/full/ijifer-s-8-2017.pdf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc233182/ issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2022 pages 80-100 preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives selina mkimbili1 & festo kayima2 1department of educational psychology and curriculum studies, mkwawa university college of education, tanzania 2dept of teacher education, norwegian university of science and technology, norway. abstract this study explored learner-centered science teaching approaches that eight science-teacher educators from two teacher education colleges in tanzania, consider when teaching their students, and the challenges encountered when attempting to implement these approaches. we used a semi-structured interview to collect data which we analysed interpretively. our findings revealed that the aspects of learner-centered pedagogy, such as engaging student teachers in practical work and discussion, and linking classroom science to the real world, were insufficiently considered by the teacher educators in the teacher colleges studied. the challenges and or difficulties that the teacher educators in these colleges perceive to impede the implementation of learner-centered science teaching in teacher education and as well as the possible approaches that can support the implementation of learner-centered science teaching in such colleges are discussed.. keywords: science teacher educator; teacher training; science teacher trainees; learnercentered teaching introduction. the current broad understanding of the important role of science and technology in the world of work and as a major driver of the global economy cannot be overemphasized. in the face of current environmental challenges and diminishing resources, the acquisition of basic science knowledge and skills is considered pertinent to enabling citizens of every nation to participate in and use environmental resources in ways to ensure sustainability (treagust, https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 81 won, & duit, 2014). education for sustainable development (esd) is considered central to achieving the united nations 17 sustainable development goals outlined for the agenda 2030 (unesco, 2015). the nature of this education is one that ensures that individuals develop the needed competencies to reflect on their individual actions, account for their current social, cultural, economic, and environmental impacts. science education has a role to enable students (citizens) understand the complexity and causes of global challenges the world faces today, such as climate change, water and food scarcity, energy transition and loss of biodiversity, and as well as equip citizens with relevant science knowledge and skills to be able to contribute to solving these challenges (fensham, 2012; o’flaherty & liddy, 2018; unesco, 2015). owing to this important and central role, improving the teaching, and learning process among other factors is crucial to ensuring quality science education as an essential requirement of basic education. it is science teachers who are charged with the teaching and learning of science and we cannot talk about how important science is, without considering who will be charged with the teaching and learning process and how (ogunniyi & rollnick, 2015). moreover, the training of school science teachers is also an important aspect. whereas several research efforts and development programmes aimed at improving science teaching in schools have been going on over the years world-wide, efforts targeting science education in africa have been largely focused on transforming teachers’ ways of teaching with minimum attention paid to the trainers of these teachers. for instance, in tanzania where this study was conducted, calls for teachers to shift from a traditional teacher-centred approach to a learnercentred teaching approach have been underscored (moevt), 2007; nzima, 2016). moreover, a number of studies on science education in the african context reveal that despite the persistent calls, the actualization of a learner-centred teaching approach by science teachers in africa is yet to be realized (ogunniyi & rollnick, 2015). for this paper therefore, focus is put on science teacher educators who are charged with preparing teachers of science for future generations. our underlying assumption is that, if at all a positive transformation in the quality of science teaching and learning is to be realized at lower levels of education, there is the need for equal attention to be paid not only to school science teachers, but also to trainers of those teachers. underpinning the goal of this study is the increasing need for learner-centred science teaching approaches at lower school levels in tanzania that is learner-centred and competence-based (moevt, 2005). a learner-centred approach to science teaching is seen selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 82 as providing increased students’ engagement and hence understanding of science, its nature, processes, and role in society (moevt, 2007). a learner-centred teaching is a teaching approach that offers more authority to the learners in decision making, allowing them to control their own learning and taking an active role in the teaching and learning process (sikoyo, 2010). this approach is linked to a constructivism perspective of learning and inquiry-based teaching (apa, 1997; vavrus & bartlett, 2013). apa (1997) suggested that learner-centred teaching can help learners to link information from the classroom with existing knowledge and encourage students to engage with critical thinking skills. several research studies on the science teaching in tanzania have consistently reported that a traditional teacher-centred approach still dominates science classrooms, and quite often these research reports have made recommendations calling upon teachers to adopt more constructive teaching approaches (meena, 2009; nzima, 2016). some contextual challenges mentioned to have impeded the implementation of learner-centred teaching includes limited resources, the use of a foreign language1 as a medium of instruction, overloaded curriculum, and overcrowded classrooms (mkimbili, 2018). while these research reports are important and provide the needed baseline information upon which new directions could be forged, it is practically difficult for classroom teachers to adapt to alternative teaching approaches without the relevant training into how these promoted teaching approaches are actualized in teaching situations. it is with this understanding that we sought to put teacher educators’ views about their teaching into perspective. our conviction is that the educators of the science teachers who teach science in schools have an important part to play with regards to training school teachers in teaching methodologies, skills and competences with which school teachers would be able to implement the desired learner-centred science teaching approach. we thus asked the following questions: 1. what aspects of learner-centred teaching do science teacher educators in the colleges under study consider when teaching teacher trainees in science subject didactics? 2. what challenges do the educators in the colleges under study perceive as influencing how they individually approach teaching of science didactic courses to their teacherstudents? 1 according to the tanzanian educational and training policy of 1995, kiswahili which is familiar language to majority of tanzanians, is used as a medium of instruction only for pre-primary and primary education. for secondary education and tertiary level education, including teacher education, english which is a foreign language in tanzania, is the medium of instruction. preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 83 teacher educators, their training, and competences: what earlier research says science teacher education has a role to educate and make science teacher trainees capable of teaching and supporting students’ understanding of science (nezvalová, 2011). an efficient science teacher education program should offer prospective teachers, the relevant content knowledge and a pedagogy that could be used to teach that content knowledge. for prospective teachers to be able to teach science in a meaningful way, acquiring special kind of knowledge and skills regarding how to teach specific content to a particular group of students is essential (nezvalová, 2011). science teacher education today is majorly guided by a social constructivist perspective of teaching and learning, where learners are active participants in the learning process that is set in a social context (garbett, 2011; nezvalová, 2011). with social constructivism, learners attain meaningful learning through mediation of their prior experience and the new knowledge in the classroom (amineh & asl, 2015; vygotsky, 1978). with this approach to teaching and learning science, inquiry is emphasized. in inquiry-based science learning, learners need to be engaged effectively in designing the question for investigation, designing investigation, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions and communicating the findings (crawford, 2014). when students are engaged with inquiry-based science teaching, they attain important skills such as critical thinking and will be able to solve their own problems and those of their societies (kipnis & hofstein, 2008). thus, teacher educators are expected to be competent with knowledge with regards to both theoretical and practical aspect of science learning, to be able to transfer these knowledge and skills to their teacher students (trainees). considering the diploma2 teacher education program in tanzanian which is the focus for this study, the curriculum emphasizes a social constructivist approach to teaching, aimed at encouraging students’ active engagement in the teaching and learning process (nzima, 2016). the expectation is that prospective science teachers must acquire the relevant knowledge and skills to be able to implement the science curricula and recommended practices. for example, one of the objectives stipulated in the syllabi for the diploma course 2 in tanzania, there are three forms of teacher qualification: grade a teachers, diploma teacher qualification, and degree level teacher qualification. grade a teachers are trained to teach at the primary level, a diploma qualification enables one to teach at the secondary level, while those who acquire a teacher qualification with a bachelor’s degree qualify to teach in secondary as well as in teacher training colleges. the degree program lasts three years while both grade a and the diploma programs in teacher education last two years. for the present paper, the focus is on teacher educators for science teacher trainees undertaking a 2-year diploma program in teacher education. selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 84 for those aspiring to become chemistry and biology teachers is that, after the completion of the two year teacher education program, the newly graduated teacher should be able to not only apply critical thinking skills in solving personal and teaching related problems, but also should be able to transfer these to their students (moevt, 2009). in addition, the graduate should have attained the ability to develop and conduct action research in teaching and learning, etc. (moevt, 2009). this in turn demands that teacher-educators have what it takes in terms of knowledge competences and skills to be able to produce science teachers who are suitable for the job. research design and methods theoretical underpinning as the main goal of the present study, we set out to examine how science teacher educators implement their teaching practices, what kind of aspects are considered when teaching their teacher trainees about learner-centered approaches to science teaching. we also wanted to examine the perceived teaching skills and competence gaps that the individual educators felt to be affecting their teaching. our conception which is located in the interpretivist research paradigm is that the participant educators in our study just like any other persons are able to construct their own understandings out of their individual experiences, within their respective cultures and contexts. through the interpretivist lens, also considering our own personal experiences, beliefs, and values, we can analyze and construct an understanding of the meanings the participants share that are related to science teaching and learning. our decision to collect data through interviewing, was also informed by the conception that meanings are co-created rather than being pregiven (schwandt, 2000), and that these meanings can be realized through engagement with the activities of the research participants (clandinin & rosiek, 2007; lincoln, lynham, & guba, 2011; wolcott, 2009). data sources and collection tools the present study was carried out in tanzania. eight science teacher educators (two females and six males) from two different teacher education colleges from two regions of tanzania (i.e., iringa and arusha) took part in the study. of the six educators, three taught chemistry and chemistry didactics, two taught physics/physics didactics, and one educator taught information & communication technology. all the educators had over 7 years of teaching experience. we developed a semi-structured interview guide with which the educators were preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 85 individually engaged in guided discussions about their teaching processes and activities during the period between 1st august 2019 and 30th january 2020. the interview the interview questions were open-ended and sought to lead the educators to disclose their individual main considerations and challenges with regards to teaching student teachers by employing a learner-centered pedagogy. the content addressed in interview questions inquired about whether or not, the teacher educators do engage student teachers in; inquirybased science teaching and learning activities, and a discussion about how canonical science and didactic knowledge from classroom are linked to student teachers’ real practice (world outside classroom). the interview also included questions inviting educators to share what they considered as the challenges impeding the use of a learner-centered pedagogy. all interview sessions lasted between 45 minutes and one hour. all sessions were recorded and transcribed following ethical guidelines and with consent from participant educators. data analysis the recorded and transcribed interviews were interpretively analyzed. the individual transcribed interviews were first read through several times independently by each one of the authors of the present paper to obtain a general understanding of the different aspects taken up in the discussion by each participant. for the second part of the interview, we had initially put forward discussion themes as already mentioned, around which we asked teacher educators for their views. the analysis and interpretations were thus approached in an open way to try and let free the educators’ views from our own prejudices and understandings. in other words, we let the educators’ statements stand as they were given, and only constructed meanings by connecting the different parts of the dialogue, and as well as by finding consistency in what the individual teachers said or expressed. this way, we were able to identify different educators’ perspectives regarding what the educators know, do and do not do with regards to a learner-centered science teaching, what challenges they claimed to face, what they wished to be changed, and as well as the different existing knowledge gaps. the above process was applied separately by the two authors (researchers), after which we compared and reconciled our individual interpretations and conclusions. selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 86 results the findings from an analysis of the individual educators’ views (responses), are presented and discussed in the form of answers to the two research questions that guided the present study. what aspects of learner-centred teaching do science-teacher educators consider when teaching teacher trainees in science subject didactics? students’ engagement with inquiry-based science teaching (ibst) in the first part of the interview, our focus was on inquiry-based science teaching, and the discussion revolved around four themes, the teacher educator and students’ role in formulating research/ investigation question, designing investigations, collection and analysis of data, and as well as drawing conclusions. although all the eight teacher educators expressed the view that engaging studentteachers in guided inquiry is essential in preparing prospective science teachers, they all admitted that teacher trainee engagement in the abovementioned four aspects was insufficient or minimal in their respective teaching classes. accordingly, the educators attributed the infrequent engagement of teacher trainees in the above aspects of inquiry-based science teaching to several logistical, knowledge and skills related challenges. among these, the educators pointed to limited resources (a logistical challenge) and a lack of motivation, considering that the national examinations are structured in a way that emphasis is mostly on mastery and reproduction of factual knowledge. data collection and analysis are very limited because resources are not available for real scientific investigation” (tutor 3). they (referring to student teachers) are engaged, but not to a larger extent…even the examination (needs)demands a student to do very little” (tutor 4). in the interview, the educators were asked whether they allowed students to design their own experiments or provided experiments with more than one degree of freedom, or whether students had opportunities to design their own investigations. the educators seemed surprised by these questions, and accordingly responded that this was not the practice. while some educators gave reasons why they execute a different practice, others argued that they would rather prioritize other areas than a focus on the three areas that we inquired about. for example, tutor ai-5 said: preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 87 for the case of physics, most of the projects and experiments have pre-determined answers. so, for the students, what they are doing is just to prove what is there and following the formulated procedures. so, to come up with their own ways of doing things, actually that room is not there. among the reasons given by some educators for not being able to consider the above elements we inquired about, was the claim that students’ lack of interest (ai-5), that there is not enough time to teach in a way that considers and incorporates the above aspects (ma-8), the argument that the current teaching is both syllabus and examinations driven (ai-5, an-6, & ma-8), and as well as the argument that the teaching itself is constrained by curriculum contextual limitations (st-2). these and other related problems and challenges are explored in the next subsection. students’ teacher engagement in science talk and linking science to their daily lives our interviews with teacher educators also focused on whether students (i) have opportunities to explain their ideas, (ii) can apply science concepts to everyday problems. when asked if their students are given an opportunity to provide explanations and just their ideas during the teaching and learning process, some teacher educators disclosed that they engage their students in classroom talk but that this opportunity is limited or affected by the nature of the topic or content that is taught. the educators claimed that some of the topics that are taught are too abstract and can be difficult for student teachers to apply in science conversations. the problem is that. . .most of the scientific issues are too theoretical and too abstract and (the) opportunity to observe is limited due to underdevelopment of our country…. for example, fractional distillation of crude oil, rubber processing, no industries, if we could have industries it could be easy to observe (tutor, 5) on other hand, for some topics like natural resources and environmental issues, teacher educators disclosed that students were highly engaged in the discussions since such topics had a direct link to students’ daily lives. in our interview, we also explored whether student teachers are engaged in linking what is taught in the classroom to the real world. in response, teacher educators expressed that they sometimes do link what is taught in the classroom to the real world. “in science teaching there are courses that can link what is taught in the classroom to the real selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 88 world.”(tutor 5). to engage teacher trainees in linking what is taught in the classroom to the real world, teacher educators disclosed that tasks that are assigned to the student teachers need to be authentic: . . . everyday knowledge, yes they can use…. for instance that year we tried to demonstrate ……... how to use…how to measure soil ph. ehhh, and we engage them . . . .), they tried,…they tried to collect samples in our college….in different places..paaap…….paap….paap… they tried to measure soil ph by the use of ph meter,…ahhh, (and discovered) , the foil ph here ..is this…..the soil ph here is this…at least they can choose proper gardening strategies in the college surrounding…..but not obvious (tutor 6) what teacher educators claim to be challenges inhibiting them in engaging student teachers in learner-centered pedagogy during our interview with educators, several factors were stated as challenges and problems that the respective educators perceive as limiting their science teaching practices. we present some of these factors (aspects) in this section. students’ interest in doing science and the science teacher educator’s role five out of the eight participant educators stated that their teacher trainees lacked interest in doing science. the educators implied that it would be even more difficult to ask them to design investigations on their own, given the existing lack of interest. moreover, two educators, ai-5 and an-6, also added that their trainees also suffered from having a poor reading culture, which further pointed to the existing lack of interest among science teacher trainees the challenge of engaging students in backing their claims with evidence is that the students are not engaged in finding different sources. students need to be interested or engaged in reading various science resources, and books. but students are not interested in reading. they are only struggling to read what is needed for answering examinations.” (tutor ai-5). the educators attributed the lack of interest in doing science to the quality of the teacher candidates themselves. they argued that students who are enrolled into the science teacher education training course are those with either an average or even a low performance out of preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 89 secondary school level education. the educators are of the view that these teacher candidates start off with a low interest and competence in science well before joining the college. the student teachers we enroll here at college are those who did not perform well in their secondary education examinations. interest needs to start from lower levels of education. the types of teachers in schools are incapable of instilling interest…(tutor an-6:) while these educators’ argument about teacher trainees’ lack of interest in doing science, their poor reading culture, as well as about the quality of the enrolled candidates being low are valid, it is important not to forget that those raising these excuses are the very science teacher educators whose job it is to equip the teacher candidates with the same abilities they are claiming teacher trainees are lacking. it is interesting to note that teacher educators are expected to address the question of interest in science, as well as enhancing and promoting the reading culture in teacher trainees. it thus paradoxical that participant teacher educators bring up these two issues as if solutions to them should come from somewhere else other than from themselves. consequently, the educators’ concerns reveal a lot about the existing gaps regarding the educators’ pedagogical and didactic teaching knowledge competences. their concerns also point to the likelihood that science educators do not have a full understanding of their roles and obligations as teacher trainers and what constitutes teacher teaching. the curriculum and an inquiry-based approach to the teaching and learning of science when asked whether they engage their students in exploring, designing, and executing their own investigations or projects or in some kind of inquiry teaching, six out of the eight educators claimed that the curriculum did not provide room for such kind of teaching or learning activities. for example, one tutor claimed. the experiments we are doing are those prescribed by the syllabus only, for a student to come up with an idea, i have not witnessed that. students are only learning by memorization. there is no room in the curriculum for that. the curriculum itself is a challenge. it does not provide room for grooming innovators. (even) future teachers have not been prepared to groom (future) innovators. (tutor an-6) two different positions are given by the educators in support of their claim about the curriculum not providing room for inquiry-based teaching activities. first, there are those educators like tutors an-6 & bc-3 who believe that the curriculum does not demand for these types of activities and way of teaching. second, there are those who acknowledge that selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 90 although they claim the curriculum not to provide room for inquiry-based teaching activities, the curriculum itself stipulates and promotes an inquiry-based form of teaching at almost all levels of education in tanzania. this group therefore attributes their failure to include inquiry-based teaching activities in their practice to inadequacy of time and to the curriculum being overcrowded. for example, one of the tutors in this category explained that, there are several challenges, for instance overloaded curriculum. the curriculum is overloaded, and i cannot find space for these inquiry-based activities. i can see that my student is having a certain problem, but i can fail to help since i need to follow the syllabus (tutor ba-1) the policy document on education by the ministry of education in tanzania, in particular the curriculum document concerning teacher training, includes the clause to the effect that, the diploma programme shall emphasize student centered and interactive approaches in the process of teaching and learning. tutors will not be the sole sources of knowledge but will act as facilitators providing a broad range of learning experiences. student teachers will be encouraged to assume more responsibility for their own learning. (moevt, 2007, p. 22). the presence of this clause in the document clearly invalidates the position of the educators that the curriculum does not consider or promote inclusion of inquiry-based teaching activities. indeed, two of the eight educators seem to realize this. for example, tutor bb-4 noted that, the curriculum allows (inquiry-based teaching) because it is a learner-centered curriculum. the problem is that the curriculum always points out that, it’s under the guidance of the teacher. so, the teacher becomes the planner of most of the things for students to do but not for students themselves to decide. in other words, tutor bb-4 implied that it is the responsibility of the teacher educator to design appropriate teaching activities including allowing student self-investigations, and hence it’s not only a problem of the curriculum but also a question of whether the educators themselves have the relevant teaching competences. what remains however, are the questions of adequacy of time as well as claims of an overcrowded curriculum. these excuses cannot simply be dismissed given that they come from the very implementers of the activities stipulated in the curriculum documents. these preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 91 claims and problems, indeed, lead to the question, which we next turn attention to, of how much flexibility teacher educators have when it comes to implementing activities stipulated in curriculum documents. the nature of curriculum and forms of assessment, and the educators’ role in developing and influencing them in addition to the curriculum constrain claims described in the previous section, teacher educators also expressed their dissatisfaction with the nature of the current science curriculum, both in secondary schools and at teacher college level, as well as with the structure and forms of assessment. the majority claimed that the curriculum was not contextualized, not adapted to the needs of the society, and that it lacks relevant and practical examples tailored towards the day-to-day problems in the tanzania context. that is, our curriculum is colonial oriented and not contextualized. it needs to be revised to link to the local context” (tutor st-2). the educators further expressed that despite the curriculum being built on the premise of a competence-based teaching approach, the forms of assessment being used did not support work in this direction. the curriculum is called competence based but the assessment is not competence based. you find that what is taught in four years is assessed (summative) only once. (tutor bc-3). the educators also decried their lack of an active role when it comes to deciding what should and should not be a part of the curriculum content. they argued that the nature of curriculum and forms of assessment had a substantial effect on the way they approached their science teaching, including limiting the flexibility with which the individual educators are able to try out and include varied student-centered learning activities. the hindrance is because we are teaching for examinations, mostly the examinations questions are not focusing on allowing students the luxury of self-exploration. in the assessment, there can be a possibility of making students engaged in that. however, the mode of assessment needs to change, and the tutor should have authority to change [something]. the practical examinations do not reflect the reality, its only rote learning. (tutor ma-8). selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 92 the science teacher education program structure at colleges where the individual educators are coming from is similar and is such that, teacher educators are charged with teaching both the science content and subject didactics. with this organization, the educators feel that they are working within a tight and limited timeframe, where they must deliver both content and subject didactics in a given space of time or semester. consequently, the focus is mainly put on completing the pre-planned teaching schedules and also on ensuring that students can pass the final examinations. as ai-5 observed, “we are running shortage of time to accomplish what has been prescribed in the syllabus. we are struggling to complete the syllabus. the syllabus talks less on students’ developing question for scientific investigation.” english-medium of instruction as a hinderance to an inquiry-based science teaching approach the use of english as the medium of instruction in tanzania is considered a barrier to a student-centered learning approach. while acknowledging that their students’ language competencies play a big role in active learning, six out of the eight participant educators expressed that their students experience difficulties providing explanations and linking what they learn with examples due to their poor background in english. accordingly, student teachers are not able to adequately understand or criticize scientific texts, and neither can they fully participate in scientific argumentations. “students cannot explain themselves well. how to explain is linked to mastering of the language of instruction. when you ask them in swahili you can have very vivid examples, this is not the case with english” (tutor an-6). discussion and implications teaching aspects considered by science teacher educators when teaching teacher trainees results from our study revealed that an instructor-guided teaching approach was the most pronounced teaching practice among educators. at the same time, the study also revealed that the educators exhibited a substantial understanding about the benefits an inquiry-based approach to teaching and were more open to implementing a guided inquiry approach if they had the opportunity to do so. with an inquiry-based approach, rather than being told by the educator what they need to know, students are encouraged to explore the studied content, pose questions, share and discuss their ideas (kipnis and hofstein, 2008). it is an approach where students learn by doing, a process that allows them to explore, experience, discuss and hence build or construct new understandings. these characteristics were not visible from the preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 93 analysis of the educators’ views about their teaching practices. nevertheless, there were examples pointing to the educators offering their students opportunities to conduct experiments, analyse and interpret data, and draw conclusions, although the educators admitted that students are often given pre-defined procedures that they must follow when performing the experiments. moreover, some of the common features of an inquiry-based approach such as asking question for investigation and designing investigation were considered by teacher educators not to be as important a task for the student teachers because they were neither the focus in the curriculum nor of the national examinations. from the analysis, the educators displayed a good understanding that if their student teachers are only engaged in recipe kind of practical work (activities) and traditional learning approaches, they cannot sufficiently engage in creating meaning during science learning after their teacher training. to nurture future science teachers who are critical thinkers and who can teach their students in the use of science from the classroom to solve daily live problem, it is very important to engage them in the full range of inquiry-based science teaching, asking question for investigation, designing investigation, conducting experiments, analysing data, and drawing conclusion. indeed, an inquiry-based approach to teaching is widely promoted in science education owing its potential benefits (garbett, 2011; nezvalová, 2011), and in tanzania, for which this study is most relevant, there is an emphasis on a constructivist teaching perspective, where students are given more authority in creating meaning (nzima, 2016). the gap between what teacher educators know about an inquiry-based teaching approach and what the educators exactly do or how they teach their teacher students was recognisably and admittedly big. at the same time, the educators have full awareness of what might be the causes (challenges and problems) for this existing gap, which is a very crucial and important basis for finding plausible solutions to improve the current practice. let us consider these causes and possibilities to address them in the next section. preparing science teacher trainees: educators’ teaching challenges and possibilities of addressing them the educators in the present study described four major challenges to their science teaching; students’ low interest in science, an overcrowded and de-contextualized curriculum, forms of assessment that do not align with the desired teaching approaches, as well as the difficulties with english as a medium of instruction. to underscore the importance and gravity of these selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 94 challenges as were raised by the educators, we take a closer look at the place and roles of four aspects reflected in the four mentioned challenges as a part of the complete teaching-learning system, that is, interest in science, curriculum, assessment and instruction medium. these four aspects indeed represent four of the seven main pillars of a complete teaching-learning system which include (i) the students, (ii) the curricula, (iii) the mode of communication, (iv) the assessment of learning, (v) the teacher/instructor, (vi) the physical place/setting/classroom, and (vii) external support (administrators, parents, etc.). one realizes that when the four aspects are removed from the list above, or affected in any negative way, the teaching-learning system is substantially affected. this reality therefore grants validity to the educators’ observations about these challenges and thereby calls for substantial attention to be given to resolving them. first, the medium of instruction is not only limited to teacher and students’ classroom interactions, but it includes the language in which curricula and assessment material are written and conveyed. both teacher and students should have a good understanding of the language being used for communication (seah, 2016). thus, the medium of communication is the tool with which all the different components that make up a complete teaching-learning system can function. the educators in the present study are strongly of the opinion that their students’ do not have a good understanding of english to be able to articulate science concepts. in a previous study, the use of english as a language of instruction in which students lack a mastery was a factor limiting students’ engagement with critical thinking skills (mkimbili & ødegaard, 2020) and was a barrier to students ability to link science in the classroom to their daily lives (rollnick, 2000). this also links up with the educators’ claim about the students’ lack of interest in science. other reasons cited for the students’ low interest in science notwithstanding, there is a strong connection between students’ low science interest and language difficulties. since students have difficulties reading english text and cannot express themselves using the same language, their motivation to participate further in science activities is gradually killed off (mkimbili, 2019). consequently, given the important role of the medium of instruction in the teaching learning process, this challenge identified by the educators demands urgent attention. one suggestion would be to develop a general supplementary language course as a part of the diploma curriculum to support teacher candidates to improve their english language skills. there should also be efforts in place to investigate the possibilities for translating textbook preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 95 material, especially starting with lower education levels, into local languages as it has been done in other countries. also, the educators’ complained that their respective curriculum was overcrowded and that the assessment structure demanded that all what is in the curriculum (syllabus) be taught before the final assessment. their examinations are also structured in a way that students must reproduce the learned concepts at the knowledge level; implying that they should master and reproduce the learned facts to be considered as having passed. to the educators, this kind of framework within which they operate limits the extent to which they can adopt a learner-centered approach in their teaching. we do not dismiss these problems which also include their lack of power to influence the needed changes. nonetheless, we want to closely look at these educators’ role in the whole teacher education program as these educators are charged with both teaching the science content, as well as subject didactics. it is in subject didactics that teacher-trainees come to learn elements of teaching such as pedagogical content knowledge, professional and classroom knowledge, and other teaching aspects relating to classroom management, and motivation, etc. (barnet &hadson, 2001). the educators, therefore, have the opportunity when teaching subject didactics to optimize the time available to them to be able to implement the teaching method that is recommended in the tanzanian curricula documents (see; moevt, 2007) . it seems rather that an underlying problem might be associated with instructors’ lack of the needed teaching competence to actuate the needed kind of practice. indeed, two of the educators interviewed pointed to the problem of lack of the competence to support their students in designing and executing individual experiments or in investigations that required some degree of freedom. educators’ attribution of trainees’ lack of interest in science to the poor academic background of those enrolled into the program is also a valid point in as much as this translated to the candidates starting off with a low motivation in science well before joining the program. nonetheless, simply blaming the problem on students’ pre-enrolment grades is not as conclusive as it seems because there are other intervening factors behind these poor grades. it is more the case that, once the students enroll in the program, the question of interest and motivation becomes the duty of the teacher educator to address rather than blame on others. this should be one aspect of the training that is taken up during subject didactics teaching since the educators are assumed to be aware that using activity-based teaching selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 96 approaches result in increased student interest in doing science tasks (ofori, 2014). as educators, they should be able to prepare future teachers who will be able to teach and motivate future students and enhance their performance in science. thus, the interviewed educators’ point about their students having low science interest, though valid, actually raises important concerns about their own preparedness in their roles as science teacher educators. conclusions the present paper provides a source of information and insights to stakeholders in charge of improving the quality of science teacher education in tanzania. it provides a baseline for developing strategic and feasible solutions to support science educators in teacher colleges who are tasked with producing teacher graduates with the relevant teaching skills and competences for learner-centered science teaching. science teacher educators themselves can also benefit from the discussions and illustrations provided in the present paper regarding their roles and the reactions to the challenges identified. research in science education indicates that modern teaching methods have a focus that is based on constructivist learning theory where learners participate actively in the learning process (garbett, 2011; nezvalová, 2011). this is to ensure that science teacher education in tanzania (moevt), 2007; nzima, 2016) as in other parts of the world (nezvalová, 2011) is focusing on preparing future science teachers who can engage students using learner-centered approaches to teaching. they would be able to root students in inquiry-based learning, science talking and discussion and would be able to link what is taught in the classroom to the real world. our findings have disclosed that teacher educators in the teacher education colleges we have studied engage student teachers insufficiently in practical work nor do they consider that student teachers need to be engaged in asking question for investigation and designing of investigations. this suggests that learner-centered teaching is not sufficiently applied in the teaching and learning process in the colleges. however, this case is not an isolated one, since the lack of application of a learner-centered teaching was also reported to be a problem in other sub-saharan africa countries, which on one hand, provides an opportunity to explore and adopt similar or related interventions which are being advanced in these institutions outside tanzania in an effort to improve the practice. preparing secondary school science teachers for learner-centered teaching in tanzania’s teacher training colleges: educators’ perceived challenges and perspectives ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 97 based on our findings, we argue that the promotion of effective practice of learnercentered teaching in teacher education, given the context of the challenges in sub-saharan africa , training of teacher educators need to consider the challenges of limited resources and language barrier. teacher education in sub-saharan africa does not give sufficient emphasis to the language problem in science learning, since prospective teachers are assumed to have sufficient competence in the language of instruction (english in tanzania) to be able to use it in effective learning. it is thus imperative that teacher educators be trained on how they can use learner centered teaching with students who are learning using a second language. likewise, professional development programs need to be developed for educators on how to use resources contextually to support learner-centered science learning in africa. also, the curriculum and assessment forms need to be less focused on summative examination orientation and be restructured to offer more opportunity for learner-centered and meaningful learning. this can be done by encouraging formative assessment forms such as project work, portfolio assessment, experimentation and report writing, and peer and self-evaluation approaches and these will, in turn, facilitate peer-to-peer interactions and peer and selfassessment that are important for meaningful learning (bell & cowie, 2001; nilsson, 2013). finally, teacher educators need to be given more authority with regards to what to teach and how to assess so that they can be open to engage their student teachers with higher level inquiry-based science learning. limitation of the study this is a small study conducted in two colleges of education and with only eight research participants. the findings of this study cannot be readily generalized to the wider population of all colleges of education in tanzania. further research enclosing more teacher education colleges in tanzania would be required for more generalizable results. nevertheless, this study makes an important contribution to understanding the status of the implementation of learner-centred teaching in the country and the contextual challenges that have hampered its implementation particularly by a thorough analysis of teachers’ voices. selina mkimbili & festo kayima ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 80-100 98 references amineh, r. j., & asl, h. d. 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(2009). writing up qualitative research (3rd ed. ed.). los angeles: sage. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 2 2022 pages 29-52 assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli university of ibadan, nigeria abstract the study investigated literature-in-english teachers' assessment literacy and practices in nigeria. the mixed method design was adopted, and the participants were 47 secondary school teachers selected from 47 schools in the ibadan metropolis, oyo, state, nigeria. teachers’ assessment literacy test (r=.78), class assessment checklist, and interview guide were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data. the quantitative data were analyzed using the descriptive statistics, and the qualitative data were content analyzed. analysis of data exposed teachers' inadequate knowledge of assessment and total neglect of assessment in their teaching-learning process. the frequency of teachers' practice of assessment was very low. only 2% of the lessons taught within 10 weeks were guided with adequate formative or summative assessment; and 82% of the lessons were delivered with no assessment. teachers used very few and easy methods of assessment that may not serve improvement purposes. they also have misconceptions about assessment. the results have implications for effective literature-in-english pedagogy. keywords: literature-in-english teaching, assessment literacy, assessment practice, teaching-learning process introduction teachers set objectives for every subject and topic they teach. such objectives are usually part of the broader goals they are expected to achieve at the end of an academic term, year or program. to make the teaching and learning experience more effective, teachers need to activate students' prior knowledge or background experience and connect it to the new lesson. such a connection follows one of the maxims of teaching, to proceed from known to unknown. moreover, teachers do not wait until the end of instruction to ascertain the effectiveness of their teaching. instead, they engage in different activities such as asking eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 30 students oral questions at intervals, engaging them in various activities, or asking them to perform specific tasks. these help teachers to monitor students' learning progress. after teaching, they also verify if students learned anything, the extent of their learning, and the learning gap for further attention. the process of engaging in all these activities is known as assessment. the national task force on assessment education for teachers (2016) defines assessment as the process through which teachers gather reliable evidence of student learning to make education-related decisions. the process could be formal or informal, depending on the objectives teachers intend to achieve. sometimes, they need concrete evidence of students' learning to make significant decisions (such as promotion) or for accountability purposes. such assessment is called summative or assessment of learning (aol). a second type is the formative, also known as assessment for learning (afl), which is intended to monitor learning progress or modify an ongoing instruction. most formative assessments are informal and can take the form of oral questions and answers, writing tasks, and different activities such as debates. scholars suggest that it should not be graded so that students do not focus on grades (shepard et al., 2020). summative assessment can also be informal. for example, teachers can use it at the end of lessons to find out what students learned; in other words, whether they succeeded in achieving the goals they set for the lesson. formal methods of assessments, such as examinations, usually involve writing and grading which are then recorded as concrete evidence of students learning. assessment complements classroom instruction and can lead to higher achievement (brink & bartz, 2017; nkealah, 2019; mellati & khademi, 2018). assessment enables teachers to understand better their teaching practice, including the challenges students face and how or what they can do to make teaching more effective. therefore, it is not enough to assess students or to generate evidence of their learning. a key component of classroom assessment is feedback. feedback should be valid, motivation-oriented, and constructive (black & wiliam, 2018; reynolds, 2021). constructive feedback enables students to see their learning gaps or mistakes and to understand where they are in the learning process, where they ought to be, and how to get to the desired level (of learning attainment) (muskin, 2017). the feedback that is not constructive, which focuses more on students' shortfalls or mistakes, can demotivate rather than motivate them. for effective assessment practice, teachers need to understand the concepts, types, principles, and different methods or techniques of assessment. in other words, they need to be assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 31 assessment literate to gather reliable evidence of student learning and use it to support their teaching. assessment literacy is defined as the ability of teachers to plan and implement quality assessment tasks, interpret evidence and outcomes appropriate to the assessment purpose and type, and engage students themselves as active participants in the assessment of their learning (looney, cumming, van der kleij and harris 2017: 2). fulcher (2012) considers assessment literacy as relating to teachers’ possession of the required “knowledge, skills and abilities…to design, develop, maintain or evaluate” either large-scale standardized or classroom-based tests, including familiarity with the test processes and awareness of the principles, concepts, ethics, and codes guiding the practice. teachers without assessment literacy may not know how to use it in the classroom. as a result, such teachers may generate false evidence about student learning or no evidence at all. either way, it could affect the quality of teaching and learning and reduce learning outcomes. this study investigated nigerian teachers' level of assessment literacy and how they practice assessment in literature-in-english classrooms. evidence from literature suggests that how assessment is practiced in literature-in-english classrooms in nigeria has not received much attention. emphases have been on teaching methodologies (ezeokoli, 2016). reports show that students fail literature-in-english yearly in the senior school certificate examinations (the west african examination council, waec, 2021). hopefully, this study will offer new insights into how literature-in-english is taught in nigerian classrooms by paying attention to the assessment as an essential and indispensable component of effective teaching. assessment literacy, as defined above, is broad due to its many components. therefore, it is difficult to examine all its parts in one study. this study was limited to teachers' familiarity with the concepts, types, and methods or techniques of assessment. assessment practice in this study was limited to how frequently teachers engage in assessment as part of their daily instructional practices and the common methods they use. literature review the nature of assessment in literature-in-english the nigerian national policy on education, npe, (2014) recommends using formative and summative assessments in schools. as stated earlier, the formative type is primarily informal and is done while teaching is ongoing. it can also serve diagnostic purposes to investigate students' learning difficulties, usually at the beginning of a lesson or school term. summative assessments are done both within (end of the lesson) and outside the classroom (as internal eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 32 and external examinations). the npe also recommends continuous assessment (ca), a concept used synonymously in nigeria with midterm tests. the end-on-term examination is allotted 70%, while the ca is 30%. like teaching, assessment is not a simple practice. some peculiarities of literature-inenglish can make assessment more complex for teachers. the first peculiarity is its division into three genres drama, prose, and poetry. each genre has specific features and objectives that may determine how students will be assessed for better results. in drama, for example, understanding the settings and paying close attention to the dialogues between or among characters are central to understanding the text. the dialogues are usually condensed. in prose, however, what a character thinks, sometimes presented as streams of consciousness, may be more important than what they say. on the other hand, poetry is differentiated by brevity, verse or stanza, and the extensive use of poetic devices. successful assessment may depend on teachers' ability to use appropriate methods that enable students to focus on each literary genre's peculiarity. an assessment technique that works in drama (dramatization, for example) may not be so effective in a poetry class. that is not to say that one assessment method cannot be used across the genres. teachers can adapt most techniques to suit any genre and attain desirable results. another feature of literature-in-english that may make assessment a bit complex is its dual nature, entertainment, and education. each literary genre has elements of entertainment. drama, for example, was initially designed to entertain people on stage. this feature deserves attention because students may get caught up in the entertainment dimension of a literary text, forgetting to pay attention to the deeper meanings. there is the temptation to consider a student competent when they only retell the story without going further than that. nevertheless, behind every story, scene or stanza lie layers of meanings, themes, and lessons of life that students are required to digest or critique. a holistic assessment approach can help students balance the two, to enjoy the reading and learn the lessons. dramatic performance, for example, is entertaining, but following it up with peer assessment, feedback, or summary writing can take students to a deeper literary appreciation and criticism. the third aspect of literature-in-english that can be problematic in assessment is how to achieve the numerous and broad objectives stated in the nigerian secondary school curriculum. the goals include acquiring healthy human values, cultural awareness, improving assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 33 language and creative writing skills, capacity for independent thinking, ability to appreciate literary texts, and readiness for the school certificate examinations (nigerian educational research and development council, nerdc, 2009). although the above goals are interrelated, they can overwhelm teachers. therefore, there is the tendency to concentrate on one or more aspects and neglect the rest. achieving them requires a lot of creativity and hard work by teachers. it also requires adequate knowledge of methods and approaches to assessment. holistic assessment can be used to develop multiple skills simultaneously. for example, learning the positive values and cultures in a literary text can expand students' language skills. moreover, improving their language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and problem-solving) can enhance independent thinking and literary appreciation skills. there are several methods and techniques of assessment that have been successfully used in literature-in-english classrooms. while some may be genre-specific, most of them can be modified and used across the three genres. portfolio assessment, for example, has been used across genres (layfield, 2021). a portfolio is a compilation of individual students' works in files. it can be used to showcase samples of their works over time and keep track of their strengths, weaknesses, and learning progress. assessment methods and techniques include peer and self-assessment, teacher and peer conferences, observations, group work and presentation, debate, quiz, essay writing, oral questioning, journaling, rubrics, and focus group discussion (šaldová, 2017; university of sheffield, 2018; layfield, 2021). peer and self-assessment can also be used across genres. peer-assessment promotes collaboration, reflective thinking, discussion, active participation in the classroom, and the ability to give and receive constructive feedback (the university of sheffield, 2018; national task force on assessment education for teachers, 2016). self-assessment can help students to develop critical thinking skills as they reflect on their works and learn to accept their mistakes. teachers could give students model works with which to compare theirs (in self-assessment) or those of their peers (in peer-assessment). self-assessment is individualized and can be used to support introverted learners. teachers who empower students to engage in self or peer-assessment could decenter themselves and create learner-centered classrooms. conferencing is another assessment technique and it involves discussing students' work one-on-one or in groups (layfield, 2021). teachers can engage in conferencing at intervals, because it demands much time. students can also be grouped to perform some eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 34 assignments or tasks, which a whole-class presentation may follow. a typical example of group work is dramatic performance. students can be grouped to perform specific acts or scenes in a drama text. a whole class can also prepare a drama and present it to the whole school. to make group work effective, the university of sheffield (2018) states that teachers should establish clear criteria for measuring success, grade students fairly, and they need to be wary of freeloaders in the groups. dramatic performance and debates can enhance language skills, especially speaking, listening, collaboration, and self-confidence. more benefits could be derived from assessment if teachers use two or more techniques simultaneously or sequentially. first, it could give learners fair opportunities so that none is left behind. in other words, learners may be able to manifest their learning in different ways. it is also another way of accommodating individual differences and allowing them to develop their diverse talents. while students should develop all the language skills, some may be more talented or interested in one aspect than others. for example, some students may have passion for creative writing while others may have passion for public speaking. if assessment focuses on writing alone, some students may be left behind and unable to develop their talents. therefore, using only one method or technique may put some students into disadvantaged positions, and evidence from the assessment may not give a true picture of what they are capable of doing or have learned. assessment literacy assessment literacy is vast, and acquiring it is gradual and continuous. assessment practices change over time as researchers and practitioners discover new methods or techniques to meet the current demands of learners in a constantly changing world. the principles of assessment also change with time. for example, there has been a shift from summative to formative assessment due to the need to make the classroom more learner-centered (lindström, 2005, as cited in lindqvist & shuja, 2013). the national task force on assessment education for teachers (2016) discusses what it means to be assessment literate and the expected attributes of assessment literate persons. according to the body, one becomes assessment literate by knowing “the basic principles of sound assessment practice" and believing "in their consistent, high-quality application" to meet student's diverse needs and act "assertively based on those values" (p. 3). the attributes include understanding the need to begin assessment with a clear purpose, plan the learning targets and the scoring procedure, and ensuring quality and valid assessment. included also in the attributes is the assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 35 need to understand the primary role of giving constructive feedback to students and making assessment motivation-oriented. irrespective of how assessment literacy is defined, such teachers must understand the importance of assessment as an indispensable part of the teaching-learning process. they should also be able to plan and implement assessments, confidently interpret the results, give meaningful feedback to students, and guide their successive teachings with assessment information. it also requires that they are familiar with the principles, types, different methods, and assessment techniques. current principles of assessment emphasize the need for proper planning, using multiple methods to recognize the full range of student achievement, and developing students' capacity for self-assessment. there is also the need to ensure that assessment is valid, fit to the purpose (reliable), sensitive, constructive, fosters motivation (through meaningful engagement of learners), and improvement-oriented (assessment reform group, 2002; muskin, 2017). teachers should constantly update themselves with these principles to adequately respond to students' learning needs. they also need to plan assessment tasks and incorporate them into their lesson plans such that it is not done as an afterthought. however, literature suggests that studies on nigerian teachers' level of assessment literacy and practices are uncommon, and researchers that have attempted it were more concerned with science teachers. the shortage of research on assessment literacy could be due to the broad spectrum it covers. for example, in a survey carried out by bandele and oluwatayo (2013) to investigate nigerian science teachers' level of assessment literacy, the focus was only on teachers' knowledge of assessment techniques. they reported that the teachers lacked sufficient knowledge of assessment techniques and used only a few. the teachers were also more concerned about formal than informal assessments. moreover, studies on teachers' assessment practices in nigeria have tended to concentrate more on the termly continuous assessment (ca), otherwise known as midterm tests (ale & omirin, 2015; patrick & uvietesivwi, 2018). although the ca entails "assessing students continuously" to ensure learning progress, it is generally understood differently in nigerian, and practiced as periodic formal tests or mini examinations. it is unclear why and how this misconception came about. perhaps the government's intention when it was introduced led to an interpretation that deviates from a universal understanding of the term. the nigerian government introduced ca into the school system in 1998 by mandating schools to shift from using the results of end-of-term examinations solely to determine eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 36 students' learning outcomes (federal republic of nigeria, 1998). schools were mandated to allot 30% to ca and 70% to examinations. with the above in mind, teachers give students formal tests at designated periods within the academic term to make up the 30% ca scores. presently, most nigerian secondary schools have "ca week" each term. all teachers are expected to test students formally within the period. sometimes, the first ca week is followed by a mid-term break, and once students return, they take the second ca before the end-of-term examinations. building on the existing literature, the present study took a broader perspective by incorporating different aspects of assessment literacy, including how teachers conceptualize assessment, whether they could differentiate the formative from the summative type, and their knowledge about different methods or techniques. studies have shown that the more knowledgeable teachers are about assessment, the more capable they are in practice (brink & bartz, 2017). the familiar maxim that one cannot give what one does not have comes to mind. however, there are indications that training on assessment is grossly neglected in pre-service teachers' programs (tsagari & vogt, 2017). the researcher examined the present teacher education curriculum in a nigerian university and found that no course is specifically on assessment at the undergraduate level (bachelor of education). there are only two related courses gce 203: basic statistics in education (a 200-level course) and gce 302: measurement and evaluation in education practice (a 300level course) (university of ibadan, nigeria, 2019). the two courses are not sufficient to equip teacher trainees with basic knowledge of the components of assessment. theoretical framework assessment as an inseparable component of pedagogy is supported by the transformative learning theory, tlt (mezirow, 1991; 1997). the tlt describes how adult learners transform experience into new knowledge. mezirow (1997) explains that adults acquire a coherent body of experience that becomes their frames of reference or "structures of assumptions" (p. 5). new information is interpreted with reference to past experiences and learning requires a readiness to make the needed shift or adjustment to accommodate knew way of seeing things. therefore, in tlt, learners move "from an unexamined way of thinking to a more examined and critically reflective way and hence a more dependable way of interpreting meaning" (mezirow, 1999, p. 5). christie, carey, robertson & grainger (2015) states that transformative learning enable individuals challenge "current assumptions assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 37 on which they act" and to change them "if they find them wanting" (p. 11). the entire process requires continuous critical reflection. although the tlt is attributed to mezirow, it has antecedents, including paolo freire (1970) who had criticized the “banking method” of instruction where professors deposit information on students. the banking method is an uncritical method of teaching because it presents learners as empty vessels to be filled in with bits of information. mezirow (1997, p. 7) categorizes the learning process into four: elaborating an existing point of view; establishing new points of view, and transforming or changing the pre-existing point of view or the "habit of mind". assessment can facilitate the four processes. teachers need to identify students' pre-existing point of view before they can elaborate it. students come to the learning process with their past experience, pre-conceived ideas, including bias. teachers' duties at the beginning of instruction include finding out, through afl, where students are in relation to the new lessons to be taught and what they need to know. the process will enable them to establish the existing bias which could become an obstacle to learning. through ongoing afl, teachers could monitor whether and how students are shifting from their bias to accommodate new information. at the end, they also do the same as aol. transformation takes place as new knowledge is gained, bias is dealt with and learners are able to see things differently, including "becoming aware and critically reflective of our generalized bias" (mezirow, 1997, p. 7). however, halupa (2017) believes that transformative learning is not always easy because it requires teachers and students' willingness to transform. unfortunately, "students may not be ready to engage in self-directed, reflective learning which tlt requires and teachers may not also be ready to change their pedagogical practices" (p. 1) which will lead to the needed transformation. research questions 1 what are literature-in-english teachers' levels of assessment literacy? 2 to what extent do teachers incorporate assessment in the teaching-learning process? 3 what methods of assessment do teachers frequently use in the classroom? method research design the study adopted the triangulation mixed method research design (creswell, klassen & smith, 2010). the design enabled the researcher to complement the quantitative data with the eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 38 qualitative for a stronger validity of the findings. an assessment literacy test and a checklist were used to collect quantitative data on teachers' level of assessment literacy and assessment practices, respectively. interviews were used to further evidence teachers' knowledge and views about assessment. sample and sampling technique the participants were 47 literature-in-english teachers from 47 public senior secondary schools in the ibadan metropolis. the schools are situated in three local government areas (ibadan north, ibadan south west, and ibadan south east). twelve of the teachers were interviewed. instrumentation three instruments were used to gather the data: teachers’ assessment literacy test, talt (r=.78), class assessment checklist (cac), and interview guide for teachers. the talt has 20 objective questions covering the concepts, types, methods, techniques, and principles of assessment (please see appendix 1 for more details). each item was awarded five marks (5% of the total scores), totaling 100%. teachers' scores were used to rate their levels of assessment literacy, categorized as high (70-100), moderate (50-69), and low (0-49). to ensure the validity of the results, teachers responded to the questions in the presence of the researcher, and the test scripts were collected immediately. the cac was used to obtain information on teachers' assessment practices frequency and methods used within ten weeks of teaching. it was administered on the 11th week of the academic term. to ensure that all the written assessments carried out by each teacher were captured, the class assessment exercise books of 10 randomly selected students from each class were collected, compared, and used to fill in the checklist. the ratings were as follows: 0-9(low); 10-14(moderate), 15 and above (high). methods of data analysis the quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and the qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis by comparing participants’ responses, establishing common ideas, and bringing out some themes. results research question 1: what are literature-in-english teachers' levels of assessment literacy? assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 39 figure 1. teachers’ levels of assessment literacy figure 1 presents teachers' range of scores in the assessment literacy test. twenty-two teachers scored between 0-49%; 21 scored between 50-69%, and four teachers scored above 70%. therefore, from the results, it can be concluded that most literature-in-english teachers in the ibadan metropolis have low and moderate levels of assessment literacy. research question 2: to what extent do teachers incorporate assessment in their teaching? table 1. frequency of assessment practice by literature-in-english teachers description distribution of teachers' assessment practice in 10 weeks total frequency 0 time 1-4 times 5-9 times 10-14 times 15+ times no. & percentage of teachers 10 (21%) 17 (36%) 13 (28%) 6 (13%) 1 (2%) 47 (100%) summary and ratings of ass. freq. 0-9 times (85%) low 10-14 times 13% moderate 15+ times 2% high table 1 presents the distribution of teachers' frequency of assessment practices after ten weeks of classroom instruction (approximately 20 lessons per teacher). the distribution is as follows: 21% (no assessment), 36% (1-4 times), 28% (5-9 times); 6% (10-14 times and 2% (up to 15 times). this result implies that literature-in-english teachers hardly assess their students in class. therefore, the assessment component of the teaching-learning is missing in literature-in-english classrooms. research question 3: what assessment methods do teachers frequently use in the classroom? 0-49% 50-69% 70-100% low moderate high 22 21 4 no. of teachers eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 40 table 2. frequency of assessment methods (ams) used by teachers s/n assessment method used no. of teachers that used each am no. of assess. done % of each am used in 940 lessons taught remarks 1. note-checking 29 122 13% mainly used 2. essay questions 12 20 2% rarely used 3. summary of book chapters 8 14 1.5% hardly used 4 fill-in the gap questions 7 9 1% hardly used 5. multiple choice 2 5 0.5% hardly used total 170 18% lessons without assessment 770 82% predominant total lessons taught 940 100% table 2 presents the distribution of assessment methods used by teachers in all the lessons taught in 10 weeks and the number of teachers that used each method. note checking was used by most teachers (29 teachers). this was followed by essay writing (12 teachers), a summary of book chapters (8 teachers), fill-in-the-gap questions (7 teachers), and multiple choice questions (2 teachers). in terms of the frequency of teachers' use of different assessment methods, the distribution is as follows: checking of students' notebook: 122 times (13% of all lessons taught); essay writing: 20 times (2%); summary of book chapters: 14 times (1.5%); fill-in the gap questions: 9 times (1%) and multiple choice questions: 5 times (0.5%). this result indicates that the number of times assessment was carried out is not commensurate with the number of lessons taught. approximately teachers taught 940 lessons, but class assessments were carried out only in 18% of the total lessons. this result corresponds with the earlier one in table 1, which also indicates that teachers' frequency of assessment practice is low. content analysis of the qualitative data during the interviews, teachers were asked some structured questions. the questions included mentioning the types and methods of assessment they were familiar with, how their level of assessment literacy could be improved, and on what aspect of assessment they would like to be retrained if such an opportunity existed. different prompts were used to make their responses robust. some of their responses are embedded in the discussion of findings, while some are reproduced below. assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 41 part of being assessment literate is that teachers know the importance of assessment. however, teachers face many challenges that make them unable to put their knowledge into practice. according to one teacher, it is not ideal to give assessment only at the end of the term. it is better to give [assessment] daily. examination takes place after ten weeks, which means students being taught up to 10 topics or more. despite the above and similar responses, teachers seem unable to do the needful due to several factors, including lack of textbooks, nonchalant attitude of students towards assessment and towards literature-in-english. one teacher stated, it is not all students that respond to assessment questions. some take it serious, while some have nonchalant attitudes. but for those that take it serious, you see some improvement after the assessment; they feel bad if they don't perform well. but some don't even care whether they perform well or not. a similar response was made by another teacher who said, if you give the students a take-home assignment, they will not do it. i gave them an assignment to read three chapters of the text during their midterm break. they came back without any of them reading it. so, the only method i use is the summative assessment. this last response shows that students' poor attitude makes some teachers not to practice formative assessment. however, some hidden factors, including an inability to read, poor attitude to reading, and shortage of textbooks, could affect student's disposition to read. students will not read if they do not have the books, a point emphasized by another teacher who stated, we find it difficult to assess them because we, as teachers, know that these students do not have textbooks. you can only assess what you have just taught in a particular class, and it is a kind of one-way communication. it is the teacher that is reading, writing on the chalkboard, and it is also the teacher that is teaching the students what he/she has read. so, if you assess them, you only assess to fulfil all righteousness in the teaching methodology. eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 42 the above response corresponds to earlier findings which reported that textbook shortage and unavailability of instructional materials are major challenges facing literature-in-english teachers in nigeria (ugwu, 2021; 2022). it deserves urgent attention for improved teaching. discussion the findings from this study shed light on literature-in-english teachers' level of assessment literacy, how frequently they apply assessment in the teaching-learning process, and the methods they use. the assessment test results indicate that many teachers have a low level of assessment literacy, while for some, it is moderate. only a few are on the high side. their limited knowledge was further revealed during the interview. some do not understand the difference between summative and formative assessments. some also do not know several methods of assessment. when asked to mention some assessment methods, one teacher interjected: ah, i don’t know the latest method of assessment that you are talking about. only two teachers mentioned formative and summative assessments. the rest gave irrelevant answers such as questions by students, writing of notes, checking of attendance, and evaluation tests. these responses suggest a high level of assessment illiteracy. similarly, when asked to mention the types of assessment, one teacher responded: we use the formative and sumassive…suvassive assessments. another said: i use diagnostic to know what they know. another teacher also said: the one that is compulsory in school now is continuous assessment, that is, the ca. this is the one we usually use before the summative assessment. i use ca and assignment. these and similar responses show teachers' poor conception of assessment in general. the first teacher found it difficult to articulate the term, "summative" in the above responses. the second teacher seems not to understand the use of diagnostic assessment. it is not used to "know what students know" but to identify their learning difficulties, and plan remediation, for improved learning. on the other hand, the third teacher does not know that the ca, as practiced in nigerian schools, is summative. teachers' limited knowledge about assessment aligns with an earlier finding by bandele and oluwatayo (2013) and okonkwo (2013), who had reported that many nigeria teachers lack adequate knowledge of assessment. poor or faulty conception about assessment may lead to poor or ineffective practice. results from qualitative and quantitative data indicate that teachers' predominant way of assessing students is by checking their notebooks. ideally, note-checking does not constitute assessment in the real sense of the word. therefore, the researcher did not initially assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 43 list it as an assessment method. however, it was later incorporated for two reasons. first, poor and ineligible handwriting is reported yearly as one of the causes of students' failure in waec examinations (the waec, 2021). secondly, most teachers identified it as their common assessment practice during the interviews. therefore, the researcher decided to investigate how teachers used the method. the finding is that they consider note-checking as part of the ca, therefore, it serves a summative purpose. teachers do not comment on the legibility of students' handwriting, neither do they make comments to guide students on how to write better. instead, they either checked the notes or simply wrote "seen". this practice was confirmed by one teacher during the interview. the teacher said: i check their notes. anyone that copies the note and the note is complete and the note is neat, i give him/her 10 marks. such practice can hardly lead to learning improvement. students may copy the notes only for the sake of earning marks. another finding is that literature-in-english teachers do not frequently assess their students, and those who do so use only a few assessment methods or techniques. the high rate of teachers who did not assess students for a whole term and those who did so only sparingly points to poor or inefficient pedagogical practices among literature-in-english teachers. therefore, it can be concluded that most teachers leave out the assessment component of the teaching-learning process. this can limit students' learning. this result is similar to earlier findings by ugwu (2021) who reported that literature-in-english lessons were not interactive, and that students were mainly passive, thus limiting their chances of learning. moreover, results from the qualitative data indicate that while some teacher lack sufficient assessment knowledge, others face challenges that make them unable to implement assessment. those challenges require attention. their neglect of assessment can equally be attributed to lack of or inadequate assessment training. many of them indicated that they never had opportunities for in-service training, especially on assessment. one of them observed: some of us have been on the job for up to 20 or 30 years, and if we do not go to seminars, our knowledge could become obsolete. the syllabus changes every four years. moreover, all but one teacher indicated that the government needs to organize seminars, workshops, and other in-service training programs to upgrade their knowledge about eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 44 assessment, make them conversant with different assessment methods and techniques and so that they would remain relevant in their profession. other views they expressed include that all teachers should become waec examination coordinators to enable them learn the marking guides, the expectations of the examination bodies, and how best to prepare students for the examinations. although this last comment may encourage teaching with an emphasis on pen-and-paper assessments, it is not totally out of place, since one of the objectives of teaching literature-in-english in nigeria is to prepare students for the ssce. however, there is a need to go beyond that, so that teachers will not teach to the test. one teacher emphasized the need for transformative teaching through self-improvement. according to the teacher: teachers need to work on themselves; they cannot rely on their knowledge, [sic] what they have been doing for years. teachers also made valuable suggestions on how to improve their assessment literacy. some wanted training on assessment in general, while others said they would like to learn how to assess particular genres, especially poetry and drama. they also suggested training on methods of assessment, the waec standard of marking, so that they could adequately prepare students for the examinations, how to ask questions, and how to elicit the correct responses from students. one of them said: i would like to be trained on the methods of assessment, how to apply them, and to interpret the results. another teacher stated: i would like to be trained on the assessment that makes the class lively, that will enhance students' class participation which will make me feel fulfilled. the last respondent seems to understand the value of assessment but perhaps is incapable of practicing it due to limited knowledge. the response suggests also that teachers see the need for transformative learning, which helps students and teachers. however, some teachers feel complacent and see no need for change. such teachers want to preserve the status quo, irrespective of whether it is effective. for example, one teacher responded: i don't need anything on assessment unless there is a new one because i have been on the job for a very long time. the above response suggests that there are teachers who believe that there are perhaps no better ways of doing things other than what they are already used to. there is a need to assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 45 transform such mindsets because the society is constantly changing. knowledge is not constant. approaches to literacy also have to change with the changing times. a transformative mindset is needed to accommodate new ways of knowing, doing things, and enriching one's learning experience. these are essential factors for more effective literaturein-english instruction. learners of yesterday may not be the same today. in spite of that last response, which was an opinion of only one teacher, the rest showed a willingness to embrace change if offered opportunities to enhance their assessment knowledge and practice. conclusion the vital roles assessment plays in the teaching-learning process makes it an important area of research. although assessment literacy is broad and requires an ongoing learning process, teachers need at least to know the basics, including the types, principles, and several methods or techniques to enhance teaching. however, many literature-in-english teachers have a low level of assessment literacy. many of them do not practice assessment, while some do so sparingly. since the assessment component is missing, their instructional practices cannot be effective. consequently, they cannot make informed instructional decisions or give appropriate feedback to students because they have no evidence of students' learning. students are left in the dark about their learning progress or limitations without classroom assessment and feedback. the omission of the assessment component of the teaching-learning process is a gross neglect in literature-in-english pedagogy in nigeria. without assessment, learners may not have the opportunity to undergo the four processes of learning as described by (mezirow, 1997) and which leads to transformative learning experience. it is through the afl that teachers get to know can learners' prior knowledge which should be the foundation for new learning. similarly, through the aol, they are expected to find out if the new knowledge they intended to impart through their teaching has been understood or assimilated by students and to what extent that had been done. for better teaching practice and more learning, teachers need to imbibe a transformative mindset and teach or inspire their students to do the same. teachers need to take responsibility as directors of the learning process. although lack of textbooks and low motivation are visible challenges, they can do some improvisations. for example, they can ask students to copy the poems to their notebooks. they can use dramatic and other collaborative learning techniques where students who do not have textbooks can still eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 46 participate in the class. students also need to take more responsibility for their learning. however, it is not enough to blame students for not doing their assignments and, therefore, abandoning the assessment practice. teachers can go further by determining why students would not do their assignments. such students may have challenges that teachers can help them to address or overcome. for example, students may refuse to read the text because they cannot read, are not motivated, do not have the textbook, or the language of the text may be too difficult for them. in such cases, giving them take-home assignments may not work, especially for students from non-literate homes. teachers can also incorporate assessment techniques to bring fun into the classroom since literature is naturally entertaining. the findings of this study have implications for quality teaching of literature-inenglish, the professional development of teachers, and teacher preparation programs. first, teachers need retraining, just as many of them expressed. secondly, assessment literacy needs to be emphasized in the teacher-preparation programs. more courses on assessment could be developed; alternatively, the existing assessment-related courses could be broadened to offer pre-service teachers opportunities to be more assessment literate. this study has shed light on the problems of literature-in-english pedagogy in nigeria, especially in the assessment component. future research can build on the limitations of this study, including concrete ways teachers could implement assessment even when faced with challenges like a shortage of instructional materials. assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 47 references ale, v. o. & omirin, m. s. 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(2017). assessment literacy of foreign language teachers around europe: research, challenges and future prospects. papers in language testing and assessment, 6(1), 41–64. ugwu, e. o. (2021). classroom process and causes of worsening high school students' failure of literature-in-english in nigeria. african journal of teacher education, 10(1), 282-306. https://doi.org/10.21083/ajote.v10i1.6637 ugwu, e. o. (2022). the challenges facing effective teaching of literature in english in nigerian secondary schools. journal of educational research & practice, 12(1). https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8353-3168 university of ibadan. (2019). department of arts and social sciences education, faculty of education. 2019-2022 undergraduate brochure. ibadan: university printery. http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/1883 https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/20-ways-to-provide-effective-feedback-for-learning/ https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/20-ways-to-provide-effective-feedback-for-learning/ eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 50 appendix 1 teachers’ assessment literacy test 1. a systematic process of gathering information to improve learning and to make learning and instructional decisions by teachers is called (a) test and measurement. (b) assessment. (b) criterion assessment. (d) examination. 2. constant formative assessment will most likely (a) encourage learners to aspire for high scores. (b) help learners to learn better. (c) increase students’ text anxiety. (d) demotivate learners. 3. one advantage of the essay-type question over the multiple choice is that the essay-type (a) is easy to construct. (b) is easy to score. (c) reduces ambiguity in scoring. (d) increases objectivity in scoring. 4. a literature-in-english teacher who wants to find out what students have learned based on what they have been taught over a period of time will use (a) an aptitude test. (b) achievement test. (c) observation schedule. (d) rating scale. 5. the west african senior school certificate examination (wassce) is an example of (a) summative assessment. (b) formative assessment. (c) aptitude test. (d) learning evaluation. 6. in literature-in-english lessons, femi has repeatedly failed poetry but scores high marks in prose and drama; the teacher can find out why he fails poetry by using (a) an observation schedule. (b) a test-retest assessment. (c) item discrimination. (d) a diagnostic assessment. 7. to reduce test anxiety among learners, literature-in-english teachers should (a) administer only paper-and-pencil tests to students. (b) practice more summative than formative assessments. (c) involve learners in assessment planning. (d) assess learners only at the end of the term. 8. which of these methods of assessment is formative? (a) diagnostic test. (b) end of lesson tests. (c) end-of-term examination. (d) continuous assessment (mid-term test). assessment literacy and practices of literature-in-english teachers in nigeria ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 51 9. a type of test that will most likely make literature-in-english teachers more subjective in scoring is (a) true/false test. (b) multiple choice test. (c) short answer. (d) essay type. 10. if a literature-in-english test administered on ss2 students is repeated after two days and similar results are obtained, that is to say, the results are consistent; the test is said to possess the quality of (a) reliability. (b) validity. (c) normality. (d) maximum standard. 11. a type of assessment done before and during lessons to check and improve students’ learning is called (a) investigative assessment. (b) summative assessment. (c) norm-referenced assessment. (d) formative assessment... 12. a major purpose of feedback is (a) to point out students' errors and mistakes so that they can sit up. (b) to have a record of students' learning outcomes. (c) to identify students' strengths and weaknesses, and to improve learning. (d) to know how many students are serious in the class. 13. an assessment in which students' scores are graded and recorded for decision purposes (such as promotion) based on their performance is (a) formative. (b) think-pair-share. (c) summative. (d) decision-based assessment. 14. a notebook in which students clarify what they learn when studying or during lessons is called a (a) rubric. (b) portfolio. (c) journal. (d) rating scale. 15. a major feature of summative assessment that distinguishes it from the formative is that (a) it is not used to rank students. (b) it demands immediate feedback. (c) it is usually done at the beginning of the lesson. (d) it is usually scored, and the results are sometimes recorded. 16. the most important goal of formative assessment is to (a) record students' learning outcomes for promotion. (b) group students based on their scores. (c) report students’ progress to educational stakeholders. (d) modify teaching and improve learning. eucharia okwudilichukwu ugwu & francis o. ezeokoli ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 29-52 52 17. a major feature that distinguishes formative from the summative assessment is that formative assessment (a) is not usually used to assign grades. (b) is typically used to assign grades. (c) makes the teacher take more responsibilities. (d) is more difficult to prepare. 18. to recognize the individual differences of learners, literature-in-english teachers should use (a) written feedback. (b) different methods of assessment. (c) checklist. (d) only one method of assessment. 19. a major benefit of self-assessment is that it can lead to (a) less time being spent on assessment. (b) better learning through deeper reflection. (c) teacher-centered classroom. (d) peer collaboration. 20. the use of only summative assessment results to make major educational decisions will most likely (a) facilitate the achievement of the goals of teaching and learning. (b) promote teachers’ commitment to work. (c) increase students’ motivation to learn. (d) provide unreliable data about the school system. perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers pertunia thobile mabusa1 & sumeshni govender2 1 department of education, mpumalanga 2 university of zululand south africa abstract the prevalence and management of stressors experienced by rural-based foundation phase teachers in south africa were examined in this study. quantitative and qualitative measures were used to gain more insight into stressors experienced by teachers. a questionnaire with open-ended and closed-ended questions was used to collect data from n=119 participants. the results of the study indicated that many foundation phase teachers experienced a wide variety of stressors. there was also an indication that whilst some teachers do have the necessary skills to cope with the stressors that they experienced, within their teaching and learning environment, using various techniques such as: exercise, spirituality and planning other participants struggled to cope and required support. recommendations were made in order to assist those teachers who were unable to manage the stressors they experienced, limitations of the study discussed and avenues for further research are also presented. keywords: stress, stressors, prevalence, management, prevention introduction teacher stress has become a widely researched topic in many countries worldwide. researchers have attempted to identify stressors and the management thereof at various levels: in the foundation phase; at pre-school where learners enter school without the necessary social and emotional skills to involve themselves positively in learning settings, creating major stress in the teaching and learning environment; or having teachers teach a subject for which they were not trained (kyriacou, 2001; mulaudzi, 2018; thompson & raikes, 2007). in their study of learners’ competencies in grades r to 3, mcclelland, morrison and holmes (2000) state that teachers reported that most learners could not adhere to instructions or study on their own without becoming distracted. studies which followed (lee, grigg & issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 53-77 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 54 donahue, 2007; barbarin et al., 2006; qi & kaiser, 2003) confirmed the empirical findings that most foundation phase learners have early reading difficulties and cannot achieve the required reading skill criteria as stipulated by the no child left behind programme before third grade. half of the learners who participated in the study were found to be struggling with concentration, especially those who came from a poor background with a resultant stressful teaching and learning environment. studies by blase, blase and du (2008) and geving (2007) reported that poor student behaviour, absence of administrative support and the excessive load of duties (which new teachers are required to complete but do not possess the necessary expertise for effective taskmanagement) as the main contributing factors to teacher stress. teacher stress can be seen as potentially damaging to the classroom environment and as a result, the teacher might react with hostility towards learners if work has not been done, or done incorrectly. kyriacou (2001) notes that a neglected area of research is the impact of the teacher-pupil interaction in the classroom environment. this impact could have negative repercussions for both the learner and teacher. according to maphosa and shumba (2010), since corporal punishment in south african schools, and the spanking of children in the home by parents/guardians have been abolished, this has further aggravated conduct problems in children and created higher stress levels for the teacher. in their research on the development of early childhood teachers and classroombased interventions, brouwers and tomic (2000) and raver et al. (2009) suggested the provision of mental health consultants in order to help teachers implement reforms and policies to cope with learners’ conduct difficulties. organizational stress was ranked as the major stress among primary school teachers in the delta state of nigeria in a study by akpochafo (2012) where teachers were found to be concerned mostly with salaries, fringe benefits, and promotion aspects. teachers in south africa were found to have similar issues, staging national strikes (rossouw, 2012); highlighting the organizational needs of teachers. a non-governmental organization named equal education, and the minister of basic education failed to agree on the implementation of basic norms and standard for all schools in south africa and revealed that education support services, especially for foundation phase schools, are under-resourced and unable to deal with the large number of learners and therefore, their barriers to learning are not being addressed effectively (john, 2013). the minister of basic education, angie motshekga, mentioned that early childhood development was one of the perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 55 expected outputs in the strategic plan 2011-2014 (department of education, 2011) and that teacher development would be strengthened. this article reports on a study to determine the prevalence and management of stressors experienced by foundation phase teachers in rural mbombela schools. the investigation was conducted with the following objectives in mind: • to ascertain how foundation phase teachers in rural mbombela schools experience stressors as a result of their teaching and learning environment. • to establish if foundation phase teachers in rural mbombela schools have the necessary skills required to manage stressors experienced as a result of their teaching and learning environment. theoretical framework occupational stress is experienced worldwide, in both developed and developing countries and with it comes a variety of concerns for the person involved (e.g., health, economic, behavioural). occupational stress (fortes, tian & huebner, 2020) as a result of a toxic work environment with elements such as poor control, high work demands, lack of information, extreme pressure and low decision-making latitude, contributes to the overall high job discontent, absenteeism, low morale, loss of energy and poor communication. the self-worth theory looks at what stressors teachers perceive as threats to their selfworth. the basic intent to motivational initiative is the upholding and endorsing of self-worth (covington, 2000; butler, 2007). within the school context it explains the stressors that teachers perceive as threatening, the behaviour to control damage or to uplift self-worth and the efficiency of the protective strategies of self-worth. it provides a motivational model for the teacher. studies (kelchtermans, 2005; zembylas, 2003) have shown that teachers are vulnerable in terms of their self-worth due to the pressures of societal, moral, social and professional expectations of exemplary modelling that teachers should always maintain. the teaching role of teachers is seen as of great importance, and a perceived attack on it may be viewed as a threat and deemed stressful (kelchtermans, 2005; friedman, 2000). scholars (kelchtermans, 2005; zembylas, 2003; friedman, 2000) have described how this perceived threat to the teaching role would be assessed as threatening in connection to self-worth (for example, learners’ misconduct, teacher performance measurement scales, regular school and students’ ratings, etc.). perceived self-worth is highly prized within the teaching profession and teachers value the positive role model ascribed to their careers, so it is appropriate to enable them to establish coping mechanisms in assessing threatening challenges. covington (2000) pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 56 proposes the self-worth theory application to address stressors linked to self-confidence. this theory may help to prepare teachers from feeling embarrassed, losing respect to important others, appearing incompetent which may threaten their self-esteem. goal theory examines the elemental aspect of the integrative to preserve self-worth and protect the teacher’s identity as a role model (covington, 2000; parker, martin, colmar & liem, 2012). goal theory provides relevant components for the mastery of orientation, selfworth threat or failure avoidance through problem focused or emotional focused behavioural responses which affect a teacher’s experiences of burnout or engagement. in the failureavoidant orientation, the goal theory seeks to reduce likely occurrence and the fear of failure (martin & marsh, 2003; covington, 2000). teachers focusing on the task of preservation of self-worth through improving their competencies are more likely to enjoy the task if they are not viewed as incompetent by community members. teachers can draw up goals to achieve, especially in rural schools since they are viewed as much need community leader’s qualities and do not need to be weighed down by stressors. goal theory maintains that success and competence depend on effort, and that obstacles can be eradicated through efforts (covington, 2000; dweck & leggett, 1988). the transactional and coping theory is one of the integrative models of occupational stress hypothesized by parker et al. (2012) and described as the process aspect which combines three areas of connectivity: process, context and components (parker et al., 2012). the stressors were identified by ivancevich and matteson (1980) as physical environment, individual levels which include: roles and career development variables, group level based on relationship, organisational level which includes climate, structure, task features and job plan and extra-organisational factors. transaction and coping theory highlights the transaction between person and environment over time (parker et al., 2012; cooper et al., 1988; cox & mackay, 1981). the approach to stress and burnout considers the role of incorporating individual differences to underlying psychological variables and processes initiated in reaction to the teaching context that can encourage a stable pattern which could assist a person’s inclination to use particular coping tactics to perceived challenges (parker et al., 2012). numerous factors which are referred to as stressors may be linked to occupational stress. through the application of the transactional and coping within the integrative model, the inclusion of teachers’ stress reduction in training and intervention would assist teachers to better cope with job stressors. this may result in improved efficacy which may spill into the classroom. perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 57 literature review concept of stress stress is explained as psychological and physical strain or tension generated by physical, emotional, social, economic or occupational circumstances, events, or experiences that are difficult to manage or endure. when the individual has resources to cope with the demands, this may be seen as a challenge, when the demands surpass the resources available, they are then viewed as stressors and the stress response is triggered (lazarus & folkman, 1984). varvogli & darviri (2011) looks at stress as an increase in demand that is made upon the individual's mind and body. the inability to adapt becomes evident, physically and/or mentally and may manifest as symptoms of stress. teachers’ responsibilities include preparing for the lesson, classroom teaching and management, instilling good morals, as well as extracurricular activities (travers & cooper, 1996), so the responsibilities of teachers includes being surrogate parents, social workers and teachers. this may weigh heavily upon a teacher who works in unfavourable conditions such as poor infrastructure and inadequate resources especially in rural schools (mulaudzi, 2018). in general, individuals will have a cognitive, behavioural, emotional, and physical response to both eustress and distress. these responses are directly related to the individual’s capacity to cope with the presented stressor. in an individual’s cognitive appraisal; how we interpret, a stressor is directly related to the individual’s resources for coping or psychological capital as mentioned by zhang, zhang and hua (2019). international studies on stressors in the teaching and learning environment the prevalence of teachers experiencing high levels of stressors is endemic worldwide. international studies that look into stressors experienced by teachers appear to indicate that this is a common phenomenon worldwide. the subject of teacher stress seems to have attracted much attention (kyriacou, 2001, paranandam & kamarudin, 2019; ramberg, låftman, åkerstedt and modin, 2020). the nature and intensity of stressors may vary across countries individual schools. teachers' experiences of stressors may also vary due to their own appraisal of the stressor. however, there seems to be a common trend on the stressors experienced by teachers. dunham and varma (1998) and bottiania, durana, pas and bradshaw (2019) in their studies on stress in teachers, looked at the major categories of the sources of stress that have been consistently found to be widely present such as learner misbehavior, job demands, work overload, poor relationships with fellow colleagues and school principal, poor working conditions, inadequate resources and poor promotion prospects. learner misbehaviour is pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 58 mentioned repeatedly by researcher as one of the major stressors experienced by teachers. marais and meier (2000), dunham and varma (1998), blase, blase, and du, (2008) and geving (2007) report poor student behaviour as a contributing factors to teacher stress and that teachers who report behavioural problems are more likely to experience stress. blase (1986) identified learner misbehaviour as a major contributor to the stressors experienced by teachers associated it with teachers having to play different roles of babysitter, or ruthless authoritarian and this can cause responsibility overload. more recently, farmer (2020) referred to violence within schools as a serious stressor. this factor is becoming more commonplace internationally and in 2014 national center for education statistics found that 5.8% the united states of americas 3.8 million teachers had been physically attacked by a student (lee, grigg, & donahue, 2007). murphy (1995) mentions that stress can be the result of any number of situations in the workplace. he demonstrated the following as categories for workplace stressors: • workload; which includes hours spent at work, as well as the work environment. • work relationships; such as poor relations co-workers. • career development; which entails advancement issues • responsibility within organisation; such as role ambiguity. • organisational structure and climate, management and communications styles. in a study of teacher characteristics as predictors of poor teacher-student relationships by yoon (2002), teacher stress was found to predict the number of learners with whom they had a negative relationship. harmful relationships between teachers and learner smay affect the classroom environment negatively, creating a stressful environment in which to work, whilst friedman and farber (1992) found a correlation between a teacher’s low self-concept and burnout in a study conducted in israel on professional self-concept as a predictor of teacher burnout. it is assumed that the teaching and learning environment should be one that is fulfilling to the teacher who is considered to be grooming future leaders. if it is not fulfilling to the individual then it could result in poor self-concept, which could further exacerbate the stress experienced by the teacher. south african and international studies on stressors in the teaching and learning environment the education system in south africa has experienced numerous changes with regards to the curriculum (gumede & biyase, 2016). this may pose a threat to the teacher’s self-efficacy in perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 59 terms of job performance. teachers may be overwhelmed by the added workload and extracurricular duties that they need to perform, such as sport and cultural activities. in their study in tshwane, crafford and viljoen (2013) found teachers experienced various major stressors and this profile is almost comparable to results dunham and varma (1998) found in a study conducted in london: lack of time to get through work, learner behaviour, discipline and attitude, as well as overcrowded classrooms. another cause for concern in south africa, according to engelbrecht and snyman (1999) may be inclusive education and mainstreaming of learners with special needs. this may prove a challenge for teachers who are not equipped with the needed disposition and skills that may enable them to handle difficulties that arise. biggs and tang (2007) highlight studies conducted in the philippines, jamaica, and brazil where early cognitive and social-emotional stimulation of a child in the foundation phase prepared them for optimal functioning later in life. young learners need attention and warmth from their teachers and children need love, security and emotional warmth (koen & ebrahim, 2013, whitebread,1996). proper support is necessary, but this may prove challenging for a teacher who is overwhelmed by stressors such as student diversity and inclusivity, an overcrowded classroom (wang, zhang, lambert, wu & wen, 2020) or a large workload. ngidi and sibaya (2002) established that the degree of stress experienced by teachers in kwazulu-natal was higher compared to other countries. the study was designed to measure the degree of stress in a rural setting. in their study of stressors and stress symptoms of life science teachers in north tshwane schools, crafford and viljoen (2013) found that the major stressors were lack of time to get through work, learner behaviour, discipline and attitude, as well as big classrooms. bottiania et al. (2019) also observed that students’ disruptive behaviour played a role in teachers’ levels of stress. poverty was found to be a major problem for many pupils in zambian primary schools (baggaley, sulwe, chilala, & mashambe, 1999) and was considered to be a source of stress for some teachers as poverty and lack of resources (bottiania et al, 2019) may result in difficulties during the teaching and learning context. rural south african schools face a similar situation (timaeus, simelane, letsoalo, & jukuda, 2011; equal education, 2011). the foundation phase learner in south africa entering school may not be ready for formal schooling as they appear to not have the necessary skills to learn effectively. the learners’ behaviour and mental disorders may also prove challenging to the teacher. many learners in rural areas come from impoverished backgrounds. this may negatively affect their learning in the classroom. pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 60 the condition of schools in rural areas south africa is still a developing country and a large number of people are still living in poverty, with poor infrastructure and inadequate resources a reality for schools in rural areas (timaeus et al., 2011) and this may exacerbate teacher stress. gardiner (2008) states that poverty and poor infrastructure are reflected in the quality of education available in rural schools. management of stressors in the teaching and learning environment stress is inevitable in the teaching and learning environment and most often perceived as negative, but van der bank (2001) suggests that it should not be removed entirely from the work environment, but instead be managed in a way that will minimise the negative effects it might have on teachers. with stressors already observed to be emanating from different sources, the management should also be multi-dimensional. a more holistic approach to the management of stress would be welcome. wainwright and calnan (2002) recommended an approach to the management of stress that which starts with identifying the source of the individual's stress to enable therapeutic intervention. since individuals experience stressors differently due to their disposition, individual therapeutic interventions need to be tailored accordingly. mental health practitioners (e.g. psychologists, social workers, or counsellors) have a crucial role to play in assisting teachers learn how to cope with work related stressors to bring about the diagnosis, intervention and treatment of stress related problems. unfortunately, mental health practitioners may not always be readily available in rural settings. brouwers and tomic (2000) and raver et al. (2009) in their research on the development of early childhood teachers and classroom-based interventions suggested the provision of mental health consultants in order to help teachers implement reforms and policies to cope with learners' conduct difficulties. kipps-vaughan (2013) suggests the implementation of teacher wellness programs within the school environment for a positive outcome in the reduction of stress, burnout and absenteeism in teachers, positive self-efficacy, job satisfaction and a general improvement in the teaching and learning environment which will allows teacher to attend to the needs of learners. cooley and yovanoff (1996) focused on physiological coping strategies for stress management and recommended the following: aerobic activity (any form of activity that increases the pulse rate, e.g. swimming and jogging), biofeedback (an electronic measurement of mind-body functions and the practice of controlling these functions and muscle relaxation); perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 61 self-regulated progressive relaxation that allows for the individual to experience a state of extreme restfulness. davies, ellison, osborne and west-burnham (1990) propose a stress management strategy with two stages to be used at an individual level or school level: stage a, which entails recognition and analysis of the problem, and stage b, which is focused on planning and generating alternative solutions. any successful stress management programme should be designed to bring about change in the perception, appraisal and management of stressors. the teacher should feel strengthened and better able to cope with stressors. this may lead to a decline in absenteeism, greater job dissatisfaction and improvement in health-related problems. research methodology research methodology refers to the methods, techniques and procedures that are employed in the process of implementing the research design or plan and underlying principles and assumption that underlie their use (babbie, 2010). terre blanche, durrheim and painter (2011) explain that the research design, which is descriptive, is a plan for collecting and utilising data so that preferred information can be acquired. a mixed-method was used, employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, which was relevant to collecting facts needed to understand the topic and this includes: “viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration” (schoonenboom & johnson, 2017, p. 108). description and selection of participants a probability sampling method that utilizes some form of random selection was used (de vos, 2011). two education circuits (i.e., white-hazy and white river) in ehlanzeni district were randomly selected from a list provided by the department of education, mpumalanga province. fourteen schools (14) and a total of 150 participants (n=150) were also randomly selected. each participant received a number to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. the data for the study were collected through the use of questionnaires from foundation phase teachers and heads of departments. a total of 119 questionnaires were returned. pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 62 figure 1: list of participating schools questionnaire design and administration leedy (1998) states that questionnaires basic function is to collect data and should be planned or designed to fulfil a definite research objective. the questionnaire was carefully constructed to facilitate maximum responses and obtain detailed information. the questionnaire was designed in english to accommodate both open-ended and closed-ended questions, in an attempt to establish current trends (welman, mitchell & kruger 2005; jackson, 2008). the questions with possible pre-determined responses required participants to tick boxes with their responses and a blank space was available for a range of answers that may fall outside predetermined responses. the questionnaire was made up of four sections (i.e. sections a, b, c and d). section a consisted of biographical details of the participant, section b focused on concerns that teachers may experience as a result of personal stressors, section c concentrated on the concerns that teachers may experience as a result of work environment stressors and section d emphasised how teachers handle stress and burnout. sections b and c comprised of closed-ended questions and all the questions in section d were open-ended questions. the researchers provided participants with their contact details to discuss concerns regarding the study or the questionnaire. participants completed the questionnaire and the researchers collected the questionnaire. the researchers handed out 147 questionnaires to participants to complete within a week and 119 questionnaires were returned. data analysis and interpretation "quantitative research collects and analyses data into numbers which, when manipulated, represent empirical facts in order to test an abstract hypothesis with variable constructs” 5 1 1 1 3 7 9 8 8 9 6 6 1 2 5 1 0 1 0 n u m b e r o f p a r t ic ip a n t s participating schools l i st o f s c h o o l s perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 63 (neumann 2003, p. 440). jackson (2008, p. 88) observes that “the quantitative researcher characteristically starts with a hypothesis for testing, observing and collecting data, statistically analysing the data, and drawing conclusion.” for easy understanding, the qualitative data acquired for this study will be presented in simple tables and examined using simple graphs and figures. de vos et al. (2011) and babbie and mouton (2008, p. 378) describe qualitative analysis as the “non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships.” the qualitative data collected were coded into categories and themes, and then presented in text, tables and/or figures (de vos et al., 2011). to analyse the qualitative data, the researcher read the questionnaires thoroughly to recognise themes that were common among the participants. colour was then used to code the data into themes. the data were presented in the form of tables and text (de vos et al., 2011). terre blanche, durrheim and painter (2011) explain that when applying thematic analysis, different categories would appear, which would give way to answers to the research questions. these categories may then be coded before the final interpretation is done. findings demographics the participants in this study were all females and in three different age groups ranging from 21 to over 51 years in age. there were no participants in the 21-30 year age group. the participants were grouped as follows: 46% were between 31-40 years of age, 36% were between 41-50 years of age, and about 18% were older than 51 years. the highest percentage of participants in this study was married (46%), 36% were single, 9% separated, and 9% widowed. the majority of respondents (55%) revealed that they had good health, with 36% of the participant reporting average health and the lowest percentage was those who reported poor health (9%), so if this is a true reflection then poor health was not a significant problem for participants. the majority of participants (82%) mentioned that they did not suffer from any chronic illness, while only 18% indicated that they suffered from chronic illnesses, (e.g. diabetes, ulcers, arthritis and hypertension) which require medical intervention. a small percentage of the participants (9%) had obtained postgraduate certificates as their highest qualifications, whilst 9% had undergraduate university degrees, 55% had college diplomas and 27% had obtained grade 12. teaching experience was the next demographic variable explored and there were 46% of the participants with 6-10 years of teaching pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 64 experience, 18% had 11-15 years and 21 and above years of teaching experience each. participants with 1-5 years and 16-20 years of teaching experience obtained the lowest percentage of the total population which was only 9% each. the majority of the participants (64%) had chosen teaching as a first preference in terms of their career options. however, 36.36% of the participants indicated that teaching was not their first preference and they had chosen teaching as an alternative career option; levels of commitment may differ if teaching was not one’s preferred career option. with regards to earning potential, 37% of the participants indicated that they earned below r7000 per month. participants who earned within the ranges of r7000-r14000 and r14001-r21000 made up 27% each. socio-economic stability was another stressor and needed to be factored into the variables. table 1: background stressors background stressors discussion financial concerns participants expressed concern over financial issues and revealed that the majority (46%) were extremely stressed about their financial situation. none of the participants indicated their financial concerns as not stressful. this is an indication that financial concerns were a universal concern amongst all participants in this study. home/personal circumstances moderate levels of stress were experienced by little less than half the participants (45%), with 27% indicating that they found their home circumstances very stressful and 18% explained their home circumstances to be extremely stressful. the minority (9%) indicated that they were not stressed at all. home circumstances appeared to be a more stressful environment for the majority of the participants (91%) in this study. housing issues participants’ housing concerns proved stressful with 46% of participants mentioning that they were minimally stressed, while 36% were moderately stressed, and 9% were very stressed. this could be as a result of poor or inadequate housing or lack of support when attempting to source housing, since many teachers teach away from home. social issues various social issues were raised: finding time to spend with friends and family could be very stressful especially if participants have a profession that places serious time constraints on them. participants felt that it was particularly difficult to find time to spend with family and friends and 37% of the participants found this activity very stressful, while 27% reported that it was moderately stressful and 18% of the participants reported that finding time to spend with friends and family was minimally stressful. some participants (64%) also indicated that they find their intimate relationships stressful, with participants admitting to experiencing some form of stress (minimally stressful, moderately stressful or very stressful) in their intimate relationships. the majority of the participants (55%) indicated that concerns about their in-laws perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 65 were very stressful, and 27% of participants experienced no stress when interacting with their spouses’ family. more than two thirds of the respondents experienced some form of stress where their in-laws where concerned. participants’ ability to form and maintain solid relationships with close, trusted family members or friends could impact on professional performance. unpleasant work conditions unpleasant working conditions also created some degree of stress for participants. unpleasant working conditions were very stressful for some participants (37%), while others (36%) found it moderately stressful and 27% indicated that unpleasant working conditions were minimally stressful. support from department of education support was often not forthcoming for the majority of participants (81%) who agreed that support-related issues from the department of education resulted in varying levels of stress. linked to support was the availability of teaching resources and whilst the lack of sufficient teaching resources did not result in high levels of stress amongst all participants, it did produce some measure of stress in more than two thirds: 55% of participants experienced minimal stress, 9% claimed it was very stressful, another 9% indicating it was extremely stressful and 27% experienced no stress at all. opportunity for progression all the participants also found the inability to progress further in terms of their career stressful at fluctuating levels. most (55%) found the lack of promotional prospects minimally stressful, whilst 36% found it very stressful and the rest (9%) were moderately stressed by their inability to access promotional opportunities. in-service training participants indicated that there was insufficient in-service training provided, but were not substantially stressed by their lack of preparedness. participants indicated that inadequate in-service training was minimally stressful (46%), moderately stressful (27%) and 9% of participants found inadequate in-service training not stressful at all. discipline with the abolishment of corporal punishment teachers have had to consider alternate means of disciplining learners in the classroom and behaviour management has become very difficult. marais and meier (2000) also concur that the behaviour of children is one of the most stressful aspects in the teaching and learning environment. although corporal punishment had been abolished many years ago (the constitution of the republic of south africa, 1996, and the south african schools’ act, 1996), teachers are still unsure of discipline measures that do not include physical punishment (maphosa & shumba, 2010) and participants revealed that they were moderately stressed (46%), very stressed (27%) and minimally stressed (27%) because senior staff do not provide support with discipline issues. emerging themes experience of stressors this section sought to answer the first research question, which examines foundation phase teachers’ experience of stressors as a result of their teaching and learning environment in rural mbombela schools. participants were asked how often they experience stressors and provided with the following as possible options: "all the time", "daily", "every day", "maybe once a pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 66 week", "on mondays", "once or twice a month", "not often", "i don’t usually get stressed", "rarely". these answers were then grouped into daily, weekly, monthly, and rarely. the results are tabulated. table 2: rate of experience of stressors rate of experience of stressors number of participants (n=119) 1. daily 66 2. weekly 38 3. monthly 11 4. rarely 4 the majority of participants experienced stressors daily, whilst four participants reported that they rarely experienced stressors. teachers teaching in mbombela schools experienced their profession as highly stressful. kovess-masfesty, rios-seidel and sevilladedieu (2007) also agreed that teaching is a high-risk profession with regards to stressors experienced. the teachers’ experiences of stressors may differ, but the results indicate that in general, teachers experience a great deal of stress and not only as a result of their teaching and learning environment. overcrowded classrooms overcrowded classrooms are commonplace in rural mbombela schools where the physical infrastructure is unavailable to accommodate the learners. it is interesting to note that only 9% of participants indicated that working in an overcrowded classroom was not stressful. other participants’ responses ranged from extremely stressful to minimally stressful when expected to work in an overcrowded classroom (63%). participant 18: "overcrowding in the classroom is the most stressful." participant 48: "our classes are too big for one teacher. even the space is not enough. it would help if we had more classes." participant 72: "overcrowding of our classrooms is a problem in our school." participant 106: "i have too many children in my class and i find it very hard to cope with the big class..." participant 113: "the school needs more classes since the ones we have are not enough for the kids." discipline perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 67 all participants found handling discipline in the classroom stressful to some degree, with almost half (46%) of the participants indicating that it was extremely stressful for them and 27% of the participants describing it as minimally stressful, while 18% of respondents indicated that handling discipline was very stressful, and finally 9% of the teachers in the study said that discipline issues was a moderately stressful event. there seemed to be a consensus between the teachers about handling discipline as one of the major stressors in the school environment. participant 17: "the children’s behaviour is very stressful." participant 29: "it’s very stressful not to know how to treat the children if they misbehave." participant 83: "discipline is very tricky since the new regulations do not allow corporal punishment was abolished by our government." participant 97: "instilling discipline is the most stressful part of my job." work overload the workload that teachers are expected to manage at school has increased over the years and all the participants unanimously agreed that the increase in their workload, either in the classroom or due to extra-curricular activities, has resulted in higher levels of stress. the majority of participants (55%) indicated that the increased workload was very stressful, 27% of respondents found the work overload to be extremely stressful, while 18% indicated that the workload was moderately stressful. participant 5: "there’s not enough time to do all the work that is expected from us." participant 19: "...i sometimes have to take work home with me." participant 66: "the work can be too much sometimes, especially before exams." participant 70: "teaching has too much work..." participant 73: "i think the workload is the most stressful thing about my job." participant 82: "it is most stressful to do too much work when you are a teacher." learners with special needs all teachers in this study found teaching learners with special needs stressful at varying levels (extremely to minimally stressful) and this could be due to a number of reasons mentioned: inadequate in-service training, insufficient teaching material, etcetera. participant 1: "having learners with special needs in the class is very stressful." participant 41: "some learners have special needs, such as the slow learners who struggle to learn." pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 68 participant 78: "slow learners make it difficult to manage the classroom because they need extra care." participant 79: "i have a couple of hyperactive children in my class. it is very hard for me to teach." participant 115: "learners with special needs is the most stressful." skills to manage stress this section attempts to answer the second research question, which attempts to determine if foundation phase teachers in rural mbombela schools have the necessary skills required to manage stressors experienced as a result of their teaching and learning environment. the themes that emerged here are presented below. a. exercise the majority of the participants (n=82) used exercise to manage their stress that arises as a result of their teaching and learning environment. the exercise routine varied from one participant to the other, but it seemed to help when they felt the pressure of a hard day at work. it is a positive means of managing stress and should be encouraged. participant 37: "i try to jog in the mornings to clear my mind before going to work." participant 49: "i exercise when i feel stressed." participant 63: "exercise helps me keep my stress under control." participant 65: "i exercise, eat healthy and drink lots of water." participant 81: " after going to the gym i usually feel refreshed and my stress goes down." participant 92: "i do taebo after a very stressful day..." b. spirituality participants (n=74) found spirituality helpful in the prevention and management of their stress and used examples of prayer, places of worship and meditation. participant 7: "going to church and singing always helps when i am feeling stressed." participant 29: "i pray or talk to my pastor if i feel stressed." participant 54: "...reading the bible always helps keep stress in check." participant 60: "i meditate and try to keep my head clear of all stresses." participant 94: "singing gospel songs helps me when i’m down." participant 99: "prayer always help me if i feel stressed. i know that when i talk to god, things will be ok." perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 69 stanley (2011) recommends that teachers’ 'connections' or spirituality within stressful educational settings can play a positive role in stress management. he mentions in his study that spirituality helped teachers to maintain efficacy, reduce anxiety and as a tool to connect with students (stanley, 2011). for many participants in the study, spirituality was a helpful tool in preventing and managing stressors in the workplace.c. planning other teachers who participated in the study (n=71) mentioned that proper planning helps them prevent stress and avoid stressful situations. this is particularly important as teachers work in an environment that requires good planning in order to avoid unnecessary stress. participant 14: "i always find that if i plan for my lesson, i am less " participant 19: "making sure that i don't procrastinate helps me prevent stress. " participant 68: "i do my marking as soon as the children are done to make sure that the work load does not get too much." participant 82: "i submit my work to the hod before the due date to avoid stress." participant 104: "it helps to plan in advance." participant 112: "i plan my time to prevent stress." the common themes emerging from the analysis seem to point to positive means of handling stressors. this may be an indication that teachers are equipped with the skills to deal with stressors that arise as a result of their teaching and learning environment. however, not all the participants managed to deal with their stress in a positive manner. some teachers indicated that they do not have the necessary skills to deal with stressors. these teachers will require some assistance to cope with the stress that they are experiencing. below are some of the negative responses received from participants: participant 25: "i always withdraw when i feel stressed. i don’t want to talk to anyone. i prefer to keep things to myself". participant 32: "i drink sometimes to drown my sorrows". participant 55: "i really don’t know what to do when my work stress me out. the hod does not treat us like humans with a feeling". participant 73: "i would like to talk to someone about my stress, but there is noone". participant 75: "i sit alone when i am stressed out". participant 92: "i don’t do anything when i am feeling stressed. i must accept that life is tough". pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 70 support for teachers when they are stressed the questionnaire asked the participants to state the nature of support they receive from their school when stressed. the majority of the participants reported that no support is provided by their schools when they are stressed. teachers have to manage the problem on their own when stressed. they support one another, seek the assistance of a psychologist or learn to deal with the stress on their own. geving (2007) stresses that lack of administrative support is a major contributor to teacher stress. this was also made evident by the results of the study. below are some of the responses provided by the participants when asked how they deal with stress experienced: participant 7: "there is no support that is provided by our school. everyone has to deal with their problems on their own." participant 15: "no support is given." participant 22: "we are not supported by management in terms of stress." participant 56: "none. we are told to sort ourselves out when we are stressed." participant 59: "i don’t think there is any support in my school because when i was stressed i had to arrange to see a psychologist but my school did not do anything about it." participant 84 (hod): "we try to enforce a culture of openness and care in our school but so far, there isn’t much that we do to support one another when we are stressed." the results revealed that teachers are experiencing stressors as a result of their teaching and learning environment. the outcome was overwhelming, with the majority of teachers indicating that they experience stressors daily, and whilst teachers may have some skills to deal with stressors, these are relatively inadequate and teachers feel that they need support from their schools or the department of education when stressed. limitations of the study some circumstances were beyond the researchers’ control and limitations are inevitable during the research process; hence limitations were as follows: • this study was conducted among rural-based teachers in mbombela, mpumalanga, so the results may not be generalised to the entire south african population. the prevalence and management of stressors among rural-based teachers may yield different results in other parts of the country. perception and management of stress by south african foundation phase teachers ajote vol.10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 71 • the researchers were not always present when participants completed the questionnaire. the research may have yielded different results if a researcher was present to explain or clarify concerns that participants raised. • the study only had female participants; male teachers chose not to participate and hence had a gender bias. recommendations based on the study’s findings, the following recommendations are made to support the mental well-being of teachers so that the teaching and learning context in rural classrooms are enhanced: 1. formulating and implementing guidelines that include stress management in the curriculum during pre-service teacher training. 2. providing regular in-service workshops for teachers with that will equip them with techniques for handling stress. 3. encouraging capacity-building especially for older teachers, who possibly experience difficulties with the new curriculum. 4. promoting a culture of transparency and support between school management and teachers. 5. encouraging support groups at school that meet regularly to encourage teachers to discuss work-related stressors and possible solutions. ferguson, mang and frost (2017) found that teachers often preferred to discuss their stress-related problems with family, friends, fellow teachers, and even the school management, but not their healthcare providers, who should be their first port of call since they are trained professionals. 6. schools should encourage teachers to use the employee assistance programmes (eap) and other wellness initiatives that the department of education have available for teachers (provision of mental health care practitioners). future research avenues for further research that other researchers may consider: not all teachers have the necessary skills to deal with the stress that they are experiencing and this may have an adverse effect on the learners. kyriacou (2001) noted that an area of research that had been neglected was the impact of the teacher-pupil interaction in the classroom environment. a possibility is therefore a study that focuses on the stressful teaching and learning environment and the impact on learners in a rural-urban dichotomy. another possible pertunia thobile mabusa & sumeshni govender ajote vol. 10 no. 2 (2021), 53-77 72 future research topic is an intervention programme in schools to help teachers combat stress, since teachers often do not access mental health services (farmer, 2020). a preand postintervention c examine various possibilities like exercise and spirituality as options. also, there is a great divide between public and private schooling in south africa and an alternate study could be a comparative report examining the nature of stressors reported by teachers at each of these types of institutions. conclusion the amount of time a teacher commits to students and activities (in school and extra-curricular) has an impact on the level of stress they experience. since many foundation phase teachers experience high levels of stress, it is necessary to advocate for appropriate interventions and supports for teachers at the school, district and provincial level. the mental wellness of foundation phase teachers impacts directly on learners, so it is necessary to ensure that the teachers’ mental health needs are met so that they are able to adequately attend to the teaching and learning needs of our children. references akpochafo, g. o. 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(2019). the impact of psychological capital and occupational stress on teacher burnout: mediating role of coping styles. asia-pacific education researcher, 28(4), 339-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-019-00446-4 student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims roy venketsamy1, elaine baxen2 & zijing hu3 1universtiy of kwazulu-natal, south africa 2university of free state 3university of johannesburg abstract school violence is a growing concern globally. despite various educational policies and frameworks developed to prevent school violence in south africa, the system continues to fail teachers. due to violence, schools are no longer safe places for teachers and learners. in south africa, teachers are regularly exposed to physical violence and verbal attacks by learners. this qualitative study aimed to understand the lived experience of teachers who had experienced violence against them by learners. this study aimed to investigate the effects of violence on the wellbeing of teachers and strategies to support the victims. this qualitative study was conducted in one district in the gauteng province in south africa and was underpinned by the national school safety framework as a theoretical lens. the findings revealed that teachers are experiencing social, emotional and psychological trauma. many teachers cannot perform their duties fruitfully and are constantly anxious to go to school. the study recommends that the department employ stricter measures to ensure the safety and wellbeing of all its teachers. all stakeholders, including community forums, parents, police services and social development and support services, must collaborate to ensure safe schools in south africa. keywords: school violence, teachers; learners, unsafe environment; trauma introduction violence in schools against teachers is a global phenomenon, with a 50% spike in the uk and the usa during the period 2016 to 2017 (chelala, 2018; milne, 2018; van nieuwenhuizen, 2018). south african teachers are not exempted from acts of school violence, threats and issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 49-69 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 50 physical and psychological abuse (van nieuwenhuizen, 2018). this study focuses on violence against teachers perpetrated by learners in one district in the gauteng province in south africa. it aims to explore teachers' views and experiences of violence against them by learners. pillay and ragpot (2010) show that teachers in south africa are repeatedly exposed to physical and verbal attacks and continued abuse by learners in and outside their classrooms. according to van nieuwenhuizen (2018), he reported in the city press newspaper on 20 november 2018 that violence against teachers is escalating in south africa. in the limpopo province, 900 incidents of violence were reported by june 2018. chelala (2018) and milne (2018) stated that in the uk, there had been an increase of more than 50% during the period 2016 to 2017 in violence against teachers, resulting in severe physical injury and emotional stress. le roux and mokhele (2011) also reported an increased culture of violence at schools, with its consequent negative impact on teachers' quality of teaching and learning, which significantly deteriorated due to a drop in teachers’ enthusiasm and passion. this article explores teachers' lived experiences and the effects of violent acts on them. several studies show a worrisome increase in gauteng’s rate of school violence (caluza, 2019). in 2010, pillay and ragpot reported more than 34 cases of school violence in the province. there was the infamous gruesome incident in 2011 when a learner fatally stabbed a female teacher in soweto. in 2012, a national study on school violence was conducted that highlighted that school violence was escalating in all provinces. the national school violence study (nsvs) report for 2012 undertaken by the centre for justice and crime prevention (cjcp) statistics revealed that the western cape province had the highest rate of school violence (28.7%), followed by limpopo (25.2%) and free state (13.2%) (burton & leoschut, 2013). the high level of violence in these provinces suggest that there is an urgent need to prioritise school safety. teachers are afraid and reluctant to go to classes due to violence in their schools in some of the johannesburg south district (pijoos, 2020) and capricorn district in limpopo province (moreroa, 2022). teachers spend money to procure books and other resources they could use to help protect themselves against violence and abuse from learners in class (moreroa,2022). mec panyaza lesufi envisaged including undercover police to assist in curbing violent pupil behaviors and the placement of professional correctional officials in schools to assist in rehabilitating violent pupils (pijoos 2020). this came after the gauteng education department found that at least 13 pupils in the province were facing criminal charges (news 24, 2019). davids (2005) also notes a subculture of gang violence which has become a most feared phenomenon in many communities in south africa. gangsterism is prevalent in student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 51 all provinces in south africa and teachers must deal with this behaviour daily. mncube and madikizela-madiya (2017) argue that gangsterism is responsible for inciting violence in south african schools. their study revealed that gangsterism is not isolated to urban areas of the western cape but is also prevalent in rural schools in limpopo. gang violence in schools is psychologically traumatic to teachers and affects the quality of teaching (khuzwayo, 2012). venketsamy (2023) found that apart from gang violence, the high teacher-learner ratio also negatively impacts teachers’ classroom management, and that most teachers could not discipline learners in their overcrowded classrooms. when teachers tried to enforce discipline the learners became violent towards the teacher. discussion of school violence is twofold; the actual crimes of violence and the fear that accompanies the incident against the victim. according to unicef (2019), teachers' experience of the actual crime and the accompanying fear can cause severe physical and psychological trauma. these will inevitably affect teachers’ productivity and commitment to the profession and could negatively affect their wellbeing and contribution to teaching and learning. south africa's national development plan envisaged having safe schools by 2030 where citizens can live without fear in all spheres of life (national planning commission, 2013). despite this initiative, school violence against teachers has increased and is evident daily in the national media. school-based violence is multi-dimensional, and how it displays itself will often depend on the environment where it manifests itself. why teachers experience violence against them at school there are various reasons why learners display acts of violence against teachers. according to joyce (2013) these include learners believing that they received unfair treatment from teachers, teachers' unrealistic requirements, and students’ feelings of teacher provocation. her findings suggest that most learner violence against teachers tends to be spontaneous or emotional responses to perceived aggravation, frustration, and unfair treatment. however, as noted by sace (2000), school violence is also caused by socio-economic and inherent learner behaviour problems. espelage, anderman, brown et al (2013) also note that school violence can be associated with domestic and community violence. how parents, caregivers, and siblings behave in the home environment influences learners' behaviour. its influence how a learner engages with others and whether they have respect for the morals and values of other individuals (burton & leoschut, 2013). singh and steyn (2014) found that learners who have endured mistreatment and abuse at home tend to display such aggressive behaviour towards roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 52 others at school, especially people of authority (teachers). as joyce (2013) stressed, teachers who have been exposed to crime and violence at school must not be ignored, as it negatively affects their professional and personal lives and, according to singh and steyn (2014), is responsible for a high teacher turnover in most schools in rural south africa. violence at schools leads to poor teaching and learning and weakens the bond between learners and teachers. effects of violence on teachers according to mkhize, gopal and collins (2012), teachers affected by school violence experience high levels of depression, social isolation, loneliness, anxiety, and nervousness. when teachers are exposed to violence over extended periods, the outcomes include symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) and sickness, fatigue, and career change (sifo & masango, 2014). workplace stress is a leading cause of concern for education stakeholders. a survey to determine how much stress educators experience revealed that 91.3% of educators experience stress due to daily violence and abuse (zedan, 2012). furthermore, stress and anxiety can be caused by an increased workload, problematic learners, lack of motivation among learners, lack of resources and teaching facilities, and, in the current study case, school violence by learners (zedan, 2012). carroll-lind, chapman and raskauskas (2011) indicated that due to violence at schools against the teacher, they (teachers) are likely to suffer physical and psychological stress. wet (2010) found that learners' violent behaviour towards teachers has led to increased distress among them (teachers). furthermore, teachers exposed to learner violence felt belittled and disempowered, making them helpless, scared and anxious to go into the classrooms and face these learners. a study by klassen and chui (2010) revealed that teachers are not as efficient in their job when they are experiencing stress due to violence. emotional exhaustion is a usual indication of exhaustion due to pressure from work and constant abuse from learners (maslach 2017). maslach (2017) discovered that individuals who experience exhaustion have chronic health problems such as sleeplessness, tension, headaches, high blood pressure, ulcers, and a potential for greater susceptibility to colds and flu. teachers in the exhaustion stage may display reduced self-esteem (maslach, 2017) and lack of self-confidence, impacting their quality of teaching (farber, 2015). maslach (2017) explained that the teacher in the exhaustion stage would no longer go the extra mile to present and support their learners. these teachers will often be absent from school and eventually resign from the profession (bounds & jenkins, student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 53 2018). dworkin and tobe (2014) found a direct correlation between learners' behaviour and attitudes towards teachers, thus increasing teacher anxiety and workplace stress. framework of analysis south africa’s national school safety framework [nssf] (department of basic education [dbe], 2016) was used as an analytical framework for this paper. this framework argues for the importance of safety in schools for all its stakeholders, including learners, academic staff and support services. the dbe, through this framework, is committed to preventing, managing and responding to safety incidents by creating a safe and supportive environment in all schools. this framework aims to "create a safe, violence and threat-free, supportive learning environment for learners, educators, principals, school governing bodies and administration" (dbe, 2016, p. 3). mubita (2021) argues that school safety is indispensable for teachers and students staying physically and psychologically healthy. dbe (2016) also notes that when individuals are safe in their environment, they will be able to concentrate wholeheartedly on implementing their responsibilities. according to hernandez, flodean and bosworth (2010), a safe school is a place devoid of violence and conducive to teaching and learning without perceived fear or intimidation. it is an environment where teachers, learners and visitors are free to interact without fear of threats, where teaching and learning take place within a conducive learning environment. according to reimers, schleicher, saavedra et al., (2020) school safety should be based on clear policies and guidelines and all decisions regarding school safety should be data-driven. south africa’s national school safety framework (nssf) articulates that ensuring a safe school environment requires all stakeholders to play a decisive role in ensuring that schools are free from violence and any form of threat to teachers, learners and other stakeholders. to achieve this goal, the dbe (2016) expects school and non-school stakeholders to understand the nature of violence and its effect on teachers, learners and other stakeholders within its environment. furthermore, this framework envisages assisting the schools in understanding and identifying all security issues and threats, guiding schools to effectively respond to identified security issues and threats, creating reporting systems, managing reported incidents appropriately and helping the school monitor its progress over time. research methods and design this qualitative, interpretive study investigated teachers who experienced violence at school. creswell (2014) states that the qualitative research approach examines and understands the roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 54 meaning that individuals assign to a social problem. to comprehend the truths of the participants, the researcher engaged with the participants and probed into their experiences of violence they endured from learners. maree (2016) states that listening to a person in their social environment allows one to understand why they have certain beliefs. each participant's responses were interpreted to make meaning of the data produced. the authors used semistructured open-ended questionnaires as a tool to collect qualitative data. the study included six (6) participants from three (3) schools in the gauteng province, located in the tshwane south district. two participants from each school voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. school participant gender years of teaching a p1 female 5 p2 female 6 b p3 female 4 p4 female 5 c p5 male 7 p6 female 3 ethical approval ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from the university of pretoria research office (ref. edu 109/20) and the gauteng department of education. participants who agreed to participate in this study were informed about the processes involved. participants were informed of voluntary participation, anonymity and the right to withdraw without prejudice from the study. to ensure confidentiality and anonymity, the codes p1-p6 were used where ‘p’ refers to ‘participants’ and ‘1-6’ refer to the numbers allocated to each participant to ensure confidentiality. data generation the questionnaire comprised section a, which required the participants to provide their biographical data. section b of the questionnaire consisted of five questions revolving around teachers' experience of violence against them by learners. six participants were purposively selected because they met the inclusion criteria. five of the participants were females and one student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 55 was male. the inclusion criteria were a) the participant had to be a victim of violence at school, b) they must be teaching in a public school, and c) they reported an act of violence to their school leaders. data analysis the data gathered were analysed using thematic coding. the interviews were transcribed, and the data were coded into themes. data analysis in coding and categorising themes was based on the nssf framework. the researcher approached the data analysis described by creswell (2014). the analysis included the following steps: open coding to ensure a thorough understanding of the data and classifying the data; accordingly, secondly, all the data was reviewed, and themes were identified from the codes. the data that were related to each other were grouped into themes. after the themes were identified, the final stage was discussed with the research supervisor to confirm the findings' accuracy. findings based on the data generated and analysed, the following themes emerged regarding teachers' experience of violence against them by learners. • teachers' experience of violence. • causes of teachers' experience of violence. • effects of violence on teachers. teachers' experience of violence to explore participants' experiences of violence, the authors asked each participant to share their lived experiences during the interview. all the participants, p1, p2, p3, p4, p5 and p6, agreed that they were victims of violence against them by learners. they reported that the learners showed no respect, were ill-disciplined, arrogant, insolent, and were verbally and physically abusive to them. p1 stated, “i have very little grounds to stand on when learners are abusive towards me. i tried to report these incidents, but they went on deaf ears. nothing is done about it.” according to p2, i am faced with this dilemma on a daily basis. i sometimes just don't want to go to class anymore. when my back was turned, the one learner threw his books at me. p4 had a similar experience, roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 56 this one boy was so disrespectful. i asked him to leave my class. he pulled out a knife and threatened me. the other kids just laughed. there was nothing i could do. my experience was so bad that another female student threatened me verbally. she even said that she knew where i lived and would come to my house. for this reason, i was too afraid to even report the incident to the principal. the authors confirmed that all six participants experienced some form of violence against them in their schools from the data. "sometimes the violence is passive and at other times it is active”, according to p5. when the researcher probed further regarding passive and active violence, the examples she cited were students swearing at her (using vulgar words) that are inaudible to the teacher; throwing balls of paper at the teachers when their backs were turned; students painting graffiti on their cars, classroom doors, and scrawling obscenities on the school bathroom with teacher’s names on the wall. in their responses both p3 and p6 reported that they had experienced violence since they started insisting that learners do their homework and submit their work on time. as a result of their insistence to submit work, learners became antagonists towards them. they left abusive notes on their tables, wrote obscene words on the board and passed sniggering remarks when they left the class. both participants stated that the learners were continuously abusive, showed no respect, and disregarded their instructions. p5, the male teacher, indicated that the violence against him was more active than with the female teachers (p1, p2, p3, p4, p6). learners would throw paper balls, rocks and berries (syringa berries) at him. this was often done when his back was turned to the learners. he was physically pushed by learners. he also reported that once, “when my back is[sic] turned, a learner threw a tennis ball at me.” the violence against teachers indicates that teachers have no control over learners in their classes. teachers are often afraid to report these cases to higher authorities. according to p1, she indicated, “this learner was so rude and arrogant that she blatantly told me that she would stab me in the street if i reported her." causes of teachers' experience of violence to delve deeper into violence against teachers, the authors asked the participants their views of the causes of violence against them. the participants’ responses were as follows: p1; p3 agree with p5 that: the primary cause of violence in our society and especially in schools today is 'children's rights'. children have more rights in schools today than the teachers. teachers cannot even lift their finger or point at a learner. these learners will student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 57 articulate their rights to their teachers indicating that they have a right to be in school, be educated and protected. p4 responded to this question by saying: the main cause, in my opinion, is discipline at home. these children are not disciplined at home, they bring that [indisciplined] behaviour into our classrooms and we have to tolerate this nonsense. p5 on the other hand thought that: the main cause of violence started when the dbe implemented the policy of noncorporal punishment. this was the beginning of chaos in our schools. learners know that a teacher cannot spank him or them, and they would report the incident to the police. he went on further to say: why should i lose my job because i want to educate these disrespectful children – well, i just tolerate them until the end of each day. other causal factors from the interview transcript are related to academic tension, violence learned in society, student underperformance in class, and bullying. for instance, p3 indicated, i have found that those learners who are not coping in class are the ones who are constantly showing signs of aggression towards me. this particular learner does not like to do my work, and when i ask him for his work, he responds very aggressively towards me. i feel rather intimidated by this learner. effects of violence on teachers for an in-depth understanding of the effects of violence against teachers, the researchers asked: “how did learner violence affect you?” in the probing question, she asked teachers to describe the emotional, psychological, and social effects violence had on them and how it affected them. participants 4 and 5 made no secret of the fear they experienced in their classes. p4, a young female teacher said: i am in constant fear and anxiety when i enter my class. i do not know what to expect from these learners. if they are not slandering my name on some piece of roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 58 paper and passing it around, they mock me behind my back. when i question their behaviour, they often respond, 'what are you going to do about it?'. after a violent experience at school, p3 stated: the experience at school makes me feel angry with everyone around me. it is so unfair that i have to go through this kind of behaviour daily. most of the time, i am unable to think straight. my family has complained that i am withdrawn and have become irritable and sluggish in my behaviour. i don't look forward to school. school is just a negative space for me at the moment.' another participant, p2, highlighted her experience as: i am a nervous wreck when i enter the class. the learners refuse to sit and listen to my lesson, and they are constantly disrupting, talking to each other and snickering at me. most of my time, i try to focus my attention on those learners who want to learn, but my conscious gets the better of me for neglecting the unruly learners.’ p5 similarly confessed, i am depressed most of the time. i hate monday to friday to go to school. i have no choice but am forced to go to school and face daily abuse and ridicule from these learners. i am not sure how long i will be able to endure this behaviour. i have already been to the psychologist and was diagnosed as depressive. i am on medication just to cope with this job. i sometimes ask myself, is this really worth it? if i find another private school with fewer learners, i am definitely going to transfer. i have come to the end of my tethers at this school. p3 shared her experience: at that moment, i definitely felt like this boy would physically like fight with me now. and i mean they're more or less my height, so it's not like there's a big height difference; we're more or less like the same and they're boys, i'm sure they're physically stronger. as a result of the constant bad behaviour, i have become socially withdrawn in my class. i don't know when these learners will turn on me. p4 said: i think from my experience i have got to share this with you. on top of the list, it would be the sense of absolute disrespect for teachers. they make one feel student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 59 insecure and less worthy, and we begin to develop poor self-esteem when they pick on the way we dress. this sort of behaviour comes mainly from my female learners. p1 cynically stated that: á teacher is just a teacher too stupid to do anything else. very often, that's the public's perception, and that filters through to violence because if somebody is not human or sub-human or a very low form of human life; very easy to just assault that individual person; they don't really matter, whereas you would think twice before assaulting an attorney. these learners' behaviours had a major social and psychological impact on me. i am wary when i go to the shopping centre in my community. these learners are standing in groups at the shops. i am scared all the time and not sure what they will say to me outside the school environment. according to p5, she said: i fear going to school every morning. i am sick with fear and anxiety. i don’t know what the learners will be up to another day. sometimes i wish i could go back to university and just study or find another job. sadly, my qualification is for teaching only. what makes my situation worse is the financial responsibility i have. i cannot afford to leave my job at this stage. so, can you see and understand my predicament. this is psychological trauma to me. all participants expressed anger and frustration at the alarming state of learner violence directed at them in schools. and with learners' disrespect towards them, and the fact that there is no support for teachers who are victims of this phenomenon. this was stressed by p2: it does have an impact that now even my teaching ability comes to…i lose energy, i become so lethargic and now even at home, even at school, i start shouting at kids who are so innocent. i still have that anger. i've just been disrespected and violated by a learner, so these are some of the effects this has on us as educators. the responses show that participants are experiencing extreme social, psychological and emotional trauma due to violence. they are in constant fear and anxiety, yet the education system expects these teachers to perform optimally. roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 60 discussion school violence is a pervasive barrier to teaching and learning, and its prevalence significantly affects teachers' wellbeing. student violence against teachers in gauteng province of south africa is rampant, and it can harm the education sector's wellbeing, effectiveness, and permanency. the participants in this study revealed that the violence experienced by teachers is rampant and continuing. although the sample was small in this study and was explicitly focused on gauteng, burton and leoschut (2013) revealed that other south african provinces equally experience a high rate of violence. this includes provinces such as the western cape, limpopo and free state. even though many teachers are being abused and attacked by learners, the participants revealed that they do not receive support from their school leaders or their respective departments of education and the dbe. teachers must act professionally and ensure quality school teaching and learning (joyce, 2013). espelage et al. (2013) note that violence significantly impacts teachers' morale and integrity, robbing teachers of the passion and enthusiasm to go into the classroom and teach. this was evident in most participants' responses, as they indicated that they “fear to go to school” or were always “feeling anxious”; or were “feeling threatened and unsafe in schools.” this accords with the 2012 national school violence study by burton and leoschut (2013), where 70% of south africa’s high school teachers whom they surveyed reported that they do not feel safe within their school environment, despite school principals indicating that their teachers feel safe in schools. due to the increased violence against them, most participants lacked enthusiasm for teaching. in their research, bester and du plessis (2010) found that the relationship between teachers and learners deteriorated significantly due to violence in schools. this is supported by moreroa (2022) who also identified similar findings in her studies in limpopo, a rural province in south africa. makota and leoschut (2016) aver that school violence detracts from teaching and learning and sours teachers' attitudes. learner-on-teacher violence impacts the overall learner success in a school negatively. this study also highlights the need for teachers to be given more authority to discipline learners for whom they are responsible in their classrooms. most teachers feel disempowered and learners show no respect for them as professionals, a situation that concurs with similar findings by maphosa and shumba (2010). the participants believe that abolishing corporal punishment and the absence of any form of punishment for bad student behaviour have increased the incidence of school violence against teachers. de lange, mitchell and bhana (2012) reported that teachers felt that their authority to guide learners and to correct them when student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 61 they are guilty of some misdemeanour was eradicated when corporal punishment was abolished. santos and tin (2018) also noted that the increase in school violence is due to learners knowing that ‘teachers can do nothing’ when they (learners) behave aggressively toward them. they found that learners know there will be no repercussions for harassing or speaking inappropriately to teachers. these learners are fully aware that they are protected by "children's rights" and the constitution of south africa. the participants were of the view that teachers were supposed to educate learners, correct them and lead them to responsible adulthood. however, like the study by joyce (2013), this study also found that when teachers highlighted learners' mistakes or misbehaviour, learners tended to become aggressive and violent towards them. this study revealed that most teachers considered learner violence to have detrimental effects on them and on their attitudes towards teaching and learning. the participants reported suffering emotional, psychological and social trauma due to violent experiences. these findings agree with mkhize, gopal and collins (2012), who states that teachers who are affected by school violence experience depression, social isolation, loneliness, anxiety and nervousness. when teachers are exposed to violence over extended periods, the outcome includes symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd), fatigue and sometimes marital breakdown (sifo & masango, 2014). all participants in this study indicated the extreme stress they have experienced in their work environment and felt unable to cope. a survey by zedan (2012) revealed that 91.3% of south african high school teachers experienced high-stress levels due to problematic learners and school violence. according to sace (2018), every teacher has the right to a safe and conducive work environment. this study, though limited in scope, found that south africa’s teachers need to be in a safe and conducive environment. teachers feel unprotected, threatened, and anxious in their work environment (chetty, 2021). consequently, teachers feel vulnerable and fearful to go the extra mile to support learners (xaba, 2014). the participants revealed that learners know their (teachers) home addresses, travel routes and mode of transport and some have threatened to meet teachers after school or visit them at their homes. the participants also revealed that despite the various policies developed by the dbe and the provincial education department to address school safety, these policies have little or no impact on protecting teachers. roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 62 conclusion each year thousands of teachers across south africa experience violence. school violence is rampant, affecting teachers' wellbeing (unicef, 2019). chetty (2021) states that twenty per cent of teachers in south africa believe schools are places of extreme violence that come from different sources and take on many forms. learners are becoming increasingly violent and aggressive towards teachers and other authority figures within the school environment (nhambura, 2020). the teacher's authority is no longer respected and acknowledged in schools (saferspaces, 2021). several factors cited for learner violence against teachers according to mncube and harbor (2013) include academic tension, inappropriate disciplinary measures at the school level, socio-economic factors and learned anti-social behaviour. these acts of violence leave profound social, psychological and emotional trauma on the victim teachers. many teachers who have experienced violence are eager to leave the system for alternative employment, and many revealed that their careers had been destroyed through trauma and pstd. according to chetty (2021), principals and teachers should be assured of protection against harm from learners. security in schools must be assured and no teacher should feel unsafe within the school environment. the strict measure should be in place to ensure that such behaviours do not repeat themselves. in this study, the authors highlighted the findings and experiences of violence against teachers in one district in the gauteng province in south africa. schools that experience problems with violence against teachers must ensure active safety security measures are in place for teachers and that perpetrators of violence should be held accountable. despite the dbe developing policies and guidelines such as “safety in education partnership, safety in education pledge and school safety framework” to prevent and protect teachers against violence in schools, these have been ineffective. in its bill of rights, the constitution of south africa (1996) articulates the protection of all citizens; the participants in this study believe these policies, laws and rights are only good on paper and are not implementable. according to dbe spokesman, elijah mhlanga, and minister angie motshekga, the department is concerned about the violence in schools, and they are doing their best to engage with communities, the south african police force and the department of social development to work collaboratively to prevent violence against teachers and other stakeholders (motshekga, 2019). student-on-teacher violence in south africa’s tshwane south district of gauteng province: voices of the victims ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 63 recommendations although this study was limited to a small number of participants, the finding has assisted the authors in making worthy recommendations. the following recommendations are proposed. minimising teacher’s experience of violence • the participants felt that teacher-training institutions must prepare their students to cope with violent learner behaviour. they must train new teachers and equip them with strategies for curbing violent learner behaviour. they emphasized that higher education institutions must prepare pre-service teachers on appropriate and practical classroom management strategies. supporting teachers when facing the effects of violence against them • the study recommends that the dbe and the provincial education departments employ social workers, psychologists, and counsellors at schools or district levels to support teachers who experience violence or trauma. these professionals must be positioned at schools, district or provincial levels and accessible to teachers. these services should also be easily accessible to learners. since some of the problems teachers face with learners are beyond their capacity to handle, support from counsellors, psychologists, and social workers will alleviate teachers' burden on dealing with learners' social issues and prevent them from behaving violently at school. • developing a teacher trauma incident management system can assist in understanding how teachers are affected by school violence. the dbe should initiate an institute that could serve as a central resource for teachers and schools struggling with school violence to prevent escalation (duffy & mooney, 2014). the authors believe that the dbe should consider the initiative of a safety centre for teachers in each province. furthermore, a teacher safety association should be established with the unions and other stakeholders to protect and safeguard teachers from harm or hurt. reinforcing the strategies to minimise violence against teachers while south african schools are furnished with the learners' code of conduct, safety policies, and the disciplinary committee, schools are still haunted by incidents of violence. there is a need, therefore, to adopt a new approach to learner discipline that incorporates psychological and psycho-educational support systems. roy venketsamy, elaine baxen & zijing hu ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 49-69 64 • schools must have a solid partnership with parents, the community, non-governmental organisations, and other 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(2012). stress and coping strategies among elementary school teachers in israel. universal journal of education and general studies, 1(9): 265-278. the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use farouq sessah mensah1 & douglas darko agyei2 1ekumfi t.i. ahmadiyya shs, department of mathematics and ict, ekumfi essarkyir, ghana 2university of cape coast, department of mathematics and ict education, ghana abstract the paper sought to investigate the perceived use of information communication technology (ict) of high school mathematics teachers in ghana. a hundred high school mathematics teachers from 20 public schools,10 each located in the rural and urban areas respectively in the central region of ghana, were stratified and used in the study. a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. the result of the study indicated low levels of perceived knowledge/skills of ict use by high school mathematics teachers, contrary to their reported high usage levels of icts. the findings of the study also indicated that the high school mathematics teachers’ ict use in a professional related context (instructional delivery, assessment, and professional learning network) was minimal compared to use for social networking, although they seemed to be fully aware of the relevance of using ict in a professional related manner. similarly, their reported technical knowledge/skills of ict were low. thus, the results of the study suggest that, though the teachers reported high ict usage, actual usage seems to be at the peripheries. among other things, this study has implications for curriculum development and training in ghana and countries of similar context. it may be necessary for the curriculum research development division (crdd) of the ghana education service in collaboration with the related agencies to explicitly define parameters such as what ict tools must be used, when they must be used, and how they should be used when reviewing and revising their mathematics teaching curriculum. keywords: social network, pln, assessment, instructional delivery, ict introduction the adoption of icts into the educational system has become a central issue for almost every nation in the world (agyei & voogt, 2012). the significant role icts play in any educational system cannot be overemphasized. to prepare learners for the 21st-century job market, educational institutions need to incorporate icts into their curriculum (yelland, 2001). in this perspective, african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 172-194 the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 173 ghana's 1997 world links for development (world) programme was intended to use ict to create an opportunity for teachers to learn. the objective of the programme was to assist teachers to integrate icts into their curricula (kwei, 2001). similarly, there has been an ict for accelerated development (ict4ad) policy that seeks to provide a framework in which ict will be used to transform the educational sector, allowing all ghanaians to pursue quality life-long learning opportunities regardless of their geographical location (republic of ghana, 2003). the primary objective of teaching mathematics is to help the learner to gain the kind of understanding and abilities that will bring about desirable changes in him or her. this objective can be achieved if the educational system offers a conducive and enabling environment where learners can think objectively, critically, and analytically and consequently be an agent of change. several studies have shown the relevance of icts in mathematics education (agyei & voogt, 2012; mensah, 2017). assessment is an essential component of the school system in which ict plays a mammoth role by helping teachers to provide informed and precise feedback on the progress and achievement of the learner. likewise, icts are being used in assessment and reporting within the school system (mensah, 2017). preparing examination data and providing informed feedback to stakeholders has become very simple with the use of ict (zhang, clifton, & shen, 2007). stakeholders can readily access the progress and achievement of a learner in the comfort of their homes. furthermore, relevant literature has shown that the professional use of icts by teachers is often interwoven with their social use (marriott, marriott & selwyn, 2004; selwyn, 2008, mensah, 2017). this phenomenon turns the attention of teachers away from using icts in professional related contexts and studies have shown their adverse impact on learning outcomes (junco, 2012; rosen, carrier, & cheever, 2013). in the ghanaian context, little scholarly attention has been paid to how high school mathematics teachers use ict for social purposes. this study contributes to filling this gap in the literature. high school mathematics teachers join professional learning networks (plns) to prepare them for the requirements of a mathematics educator. with pln, high school mathematics teachers can tap into the knowledge of thousands of mathematics educators around the globe (weisgerber & butler, 2011). the use of icts by high school mathematics teachers to improve their professional development is also an area of concern that is yet to be explored. what then could high school mathematics teachers be using icts for to the benefit of their professional farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 174 development? this is what the current researchers sought to investigate. the study addressed the following research issues; what are high school mathematics teachers ' perceived knowledge/skills in icts?; what do high school mathematics teachers use ict for?; and what is the relationship between high school mathematics teachers’ perceived knowledge/skills in icts and their ict use? conceptual framework the conceptual framework describes the flow of the research and the relationship between the variables that have been investigated. the study design was based on the variables used in the objectives. to guide the study methodology and interpret the data from within the theoretical context, the conceptual framework as shown in figure 1 was used. figure 1: conceptual framework of the study the above conceptual framework demonstrates how high school mathematics teachers use icts. the framework shows how high school mathematics teachers’ perceived ict knowledge/skills in instructional delivery, assessment, social networking, and professional learning network influence their actual use of icts. the actual use of ict is operationalized as the extent of agreement on using icts. the accessibility of icts has altered the nature of mathematics teaching among ghanaian mathematics high school teachers (buabeng-andoh, 2015). extant literature (e.g., buabengandoh, 2015; joshi, 2017; mensah 2017) demonstrates that icts have a positive relationship with the teaching of mathematical skills. the findings vary depending on how icts are used. icts also play significant roles in the assessment process. some high school mathematics teachers can now use digital assessment systems (leigh-lancaster, 2010). icts enable teachers to knowledge/skills of ict in instructional delivery knowledge/skills of ict in assessment knowledge/skills of ict in social networking knowledge/skills of ict in professional learning network h ig h s c h o o l m a th e m a ti c s t e a c h e rs a c tu a l u se s o f ic t s the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 175 process their examination data and to announce the outcomes as quickly as possible (leighlancaster, 2010). the framework indicates that high school mathematics teachers use icts for assessment purposes. this is explored with the setting of the end-of-term examination or class test, marking of objective test, grading of students exams, and reporting of feedback to stakeholders. social networking is characterized by several technological instruments that emphasize social elements in the form of a communication funnel, collective learning, and creative articulation (al-rahmi & othman, 2013). it is not surprising to see teachers glued to their smartphones in classrooms, during commutes and at periods of relaxation (walmsley, white, eynon, & somerfield, 2003; marriott, marriott, & selwyn, 2004; salih, 2004; selwyn, 2008). in this study, the researchers attempted to investigate what high school mathematics teachers make of social networking. trust (2012) observes that plns being teacher-driven, support groups of individuals globally, reducing isolation while encouraging independence. plns provide immediate access to information and facilitates association with a vast number of individuals with different abilities. research methodology the study adopted a mixed-method research design, using an explanatory sequential approach (creswell, 2013). the rationale for using an explanatory sequential strategy is based on the knowledge that quantitative data and their subsequent statistical analysis provide a particular knowledge of the study problem (ivankova, creswell, & plano clark, 2007). the qualitative data and their analysis refine and clarify the statistical outcomes through a more in-depth exploration of the opinions of the respondents (creswell, 2012). the population of the study comprised of all public high school mathematics teachers from the 63 high schools in the central region of ghana. high school mathematics teachers in the central region were 693, made up of 431 males and 262 females (moe, 2020). in the quantitative stage, a stratified sampling technique was employed to select 100 high school mathematics teachers. these teachers were drawn from 20 high schools in the central region of ghana. krejcie and morgan’s (1970) table for sample size determination from a specified population was used. this sample size is considered to be comparatively large, fairly sufficient, and representative of the population. a stratified sampling technique was used in this study because the high schools in the farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 176 central region are located in both rural and urban districts. therefore to be able to get equal representation of high schools from both rural and urban settings, a stratified sampling technique was employed. the population in each of the stratum was approximately about the same and hence the sampling fraction was the same for each stratum. the researchers divided the central region into urban and rural districts. a simple random sampling technique was employed to select 10 high schools from the urban districts and 10 high schools from the rural districts. five mathematics teachers were then conveniently selected from each selected school in the rural and urban districts making a total of 100 high school mathematics teachers. at the qualitative stage, the maximal variation sampling technique was used. the maximal variation sampling technique is, according to creswell and garrett (2008), a purposeful sampling technique for choosing respondents in which the researcher samples cases or people that vary on certain characteristics. the researchers used maximal variation sampling technique in this study to select high school mathematics teachers based on these criteria: (1) the perceived knowledge/skills icts, (2) readiness to engage in the research, (3) the availability of ict infrastructure, and (4) demographic features such as gender. perceived knowledge/skills of icts were measured using a five-point likert scale, readiness to engage in the study was accessed through the informed consent form, availability of ict infrastructure was through visitation to the schools to observe and gender of the respondent by the respondents' physical outlook. following a thorough analysis of the appropriate literature, a self-administered questionnaire and semi-structured interview were used as the tools to gather information to answer the questions set for this research. the questionnaire was used as it requires less time to administer them and also guarantees that participants are anonymous (fraenkel & wallen, 2000; muijs, 2004). the researchers developed the survey questionnaire for the current study by adapting previously developed instruments, including those of litchy (2000), sahin and thompson (2006), and srisurichan (2012). to check for the validity of the instrument, the researchers allowed two senior colleagues in the field of educational technology and mathematics education to evaluate the questionnaire for content and construct as well as face validity. after the panel’s feedback was received, the necessary changes to the content of the questionnaire were made. later, the improved questionnaire was pilot-tested to establish not only its reliability but also to identify defective items and ensure that the instrument was clearly understood by respondents. the shs mathematics teachers’ survey questionnaire showed a cronbach alpha of 0.95. a letter seeking permission to the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 177 carry out the research was then given to the headmasters/headmistress of the participating high schools. with consent from the headmasters/headmistress, the heads of the mathematics department of the participating schools were informed about the study with participants completing an informed consent form. the survey instrument for teachers in this study had three parts: section a, b, and c. section a had one question which was a likert-type scale that had 35 items and asked high school mathematics teachers their perceived knowledge/skills in ict use for instruction delivery, assessment, social networking, and professional learning network activities. section b had five questions that addressed mostly the ict use in instruction delivery, assessment, social networking and professional learning network activities, and other information. section c focused on high school mathematics teachers’ socio-demographic information such as gender, school type, age, and teaching experience. the likert-type scale items were coded as “strongly disagree”=1, “disagree”=2, “neutral”=3, “agree”=4, and “strongly agree”=5. as a follow-up to the answers provided in the study's quantitative stage, the researchers performed semi-structured interviews. for a period not exceeding 60 minutes, the researchers audiotaped each of the selected mathematics teachers for the qualitative phase of the study using an interview etiquette based on the quantitative results (data on the knowledge/skills of the participants with respect to icts, their actual use of icts, and their experiences in icts). moreover, the researchers evaluated how participants responded to some specific items on the questionnaire. descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were calculated for participants’ responses to perceived knowledge/skills of ict use in instructional delivery, learning, assessment, social networking, and professional learning networks. on the actual use of ict by high school mathematics teachers, the researchers sought to answer this research question using mean, standard deviations, t-test, and a one-way analysis of variance (anova). a correlation was used to answer research question 3 which sought to look at the relationship between high school mathematics teachers' perceived knowledge/skills of ict and their actual usage. farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 178 results demographic information of respondents gender, age, teaching experience, and average ict use time were included in the demographic data. of the 100 high school mathematics teachers sampled, the majority were males representing 67.0% (𝑛 = 67) while the females were in the minority representing 33.0% (𝑛 = 33). the results of the study indicated that the majority of the high school teachers sampled were aged 40 years and below representing 88.0% (𝑛 = 88) while those aged 40 years and above were in the minority representing 12.0% (𝑛 = 12) of the sample. the results of the study indicated that the majority (66.0%, 𝑛 = 66) of the high school, mathematics teachers had four years and more teaching experience. teaching experience could impact high school mathematics teachers’ adoption of icts in their profession. this was evident in the qualitative face of the study as high school mathematics teachers with over four years of teaching experience had a lot to share on icts. besides, about two-thirds (67.0 %) of participants reported using ict for different reasons for an average of three hours or more a week. table 1 presents the demographic distribution of the respondents. table 1 demographic information of high school mathematics teachers variable category frequency % gender male 67 67.0 female 33 33.0 total 100 100.0 age 20-30 years 38 38.0 31-40 years 50 50.0 41-50 years 11 11.0 51-60 years 1 1.0 total 100 100.0 teaching experience less than one year 9 9.0 1 3 years 25 25.0 4 – 6 years 40 40.0 7 – 10 years 16 16.0 the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 179 11 years and above 10 10.0 total 100 100.0 average ict usage time none 3 3.0 less than 1 hour 2 2.0 1 hour or more, but less than 3 hours 28 28.0 3 hours or more, but less than 5 hours 25 25.0 5 hours or more, but less than 10 hours 23 23.0 10 hours or more 19 19.0 total 100 100.0 high school mathematics teachers’ perceived knowledge/skills of icts to answer research question 1, high school mathematics teachers’ perceived knowledge/skills of icts were discussed. the perceived knowledge/skills of icts were classified into four; perceived knowledge/skills of icts for mathematics instructional delivery, mathematics assessment, social networking, and professional learning network in mathematics education. any mean value from 0 – 2.5 was classified as low perceived knowledge/skills and a mean value from 2.6 – 5.0 was classified as high perceived knowledge/skills. as shown in table 2, perceived knowledge/skills of ict for social networking had the highest mean score (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 3.86, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.97, 𝐶𝑉 = 25.13%) showing high perceived knowledge/skills of ict for social networking. there were low perceived knowledge/skills of ict tools for mathematics instructional delivery (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2.55, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.82, 𝐶𝑉 = 32.16%), professional learning network in mathematics (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2.39, 𝑆𝐷 = 1.08, 𝐶𝑉 = 45.19%) and mathematics assessment (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2.10, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.74, 𝐶𝑉 = 35.24%). generally, overall perceived knowledge/skills of icts (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2.73, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.51, 𝐶𝑉 = 18.68%) was low. table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of respondents’ perceived knowledge/skills of icts. table 2 high school mathematics teachers’ perceived knowledge/skills of icts (𝑁 = 100) perceived knowledge/skills of icts mean std. deviation coefficient of variation (%) mathematics instructional delivery 2.55 0.82 32.16 farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 180 mathematics assessment 2.10 0.74 35.24 social networking 3.86 0.97 25.13 professional learning network in mathematics 2.39 1.08 45.19 overall knowledge of ict usage type 2.73 0.51 18.68 interview data gave researchers more insight into the low perceived knowledge/skills of ict as reported in the quantitative phase of the study. when asked how well they use mathematical software for instructional delivery, the respondent stated low knowledge levels. one of the respondents reported; "while i sometimes use it, i'm not very good at excel. i am still in the process of learning" the qualitative results indicated that mentorship is lacking. apparently, this could explain the low perceived knowledge/skills of icts by high school mathematics teachers. a respondent reiterated; “as professionals, we need a learning platform where we could share ideas on how to teach specific content. apparently, these learning platforms are not available.” this seemed to imply that the technology implementation program (ict4ad) in schools was not pulling through because high school mathematics teachers were not mentored. one of the topics identified as a reason for the low perceived knowledge/skills of icts was inadequate training. respondents stated that training sessions were very brief, often during school holidays or pre-service education. there was no time for teachers to reflect on the perceived knowledge/skills they had gained. respondents felt they didn't have enough ict knowledge/skills for school use and out-of-school use. however, finding out that some high school mathematics teachers used ict for self-training was exciting. a respondent indicated; “…i have enrolled in a free online learning programme... you can have access to all the resources you need from the internet to support your teaching. just google it...” high school mathematics teachers’ actual use of icts to answer research question 2, the actual use of icts by high school mathematics teachers was discussed. high school mathematics teachers reported high ict use (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 4.23, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.68, 𝐶𝑉 = 16.08%) in general. however, the most ict usage type reported by high school the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 181 mathematics teachers was for social networking (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 4.36, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.75, 𝐶𝑉 = 17.20%). this was followed closely by ict use for mathematics assessment purposes (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 4.21, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.89, 𝐶𝑉 = 21.14%), ict use for mathematics instructional delivery (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 4.20, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.89, 𝐶𝑉 = 21.19%) and lastly, ict usage for professional learning network in mathematics (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 4.13, 𝑆𝐷 = 0.83, 𝐶𝑉 = 20.10%). this result was unexpected as high school mathematics teachers perceived knowledge/skills were low as reported in answering research question one. table 3 demonstrates high school mathematics teachers’ uses of ict. table 3 – mean scores of high school mathematics teachers’ ict use (𝑁 = 100) ict usage type mean std. deviation coefficient of variation (%) mathematics instructional delivery 4.20 0.89 21.19 mathematics assessment 4.21 0.89 21.14 social networking 4.36 0.75 17.20 professional learning network in mathematics 4.13 0.83 20.10 overall ict usage type 4.23 0.68 16.08 contrary to the low perceived knowledge/skills of icts, the results of the study demonstrate high mean values of the actual use of icts. this result was, however, not expected since respondents would be expected to use only what they reported as their perceived knowledge/skills of icts (see table 2). this seems to suggest that the high school mathematics teachers may have overestimated their perceptions of their actual use of ict. this deduction is warranted from the information gathered from the interview. for example, one of the respondents mentioned; “i only use excel to record students' assessment scores and word in typing examination questions. however, i am unable to use microsoft word to draw mathematical diagrams…” another respondent also indicated; “…i use my phone for text messages, calls, and whatsapp… my colleagues tell me i could use my phone to send and receive emails, browse the internet, and more…” farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 182 from these results, it appears that high school mathematics teachers’ knowledge/skills in icts were restricted to the generic use of applications and not for mathematics-specific instruction. thus, the respondents use icts, but only at the peripheries, which might have affected their high mean scores in the quantitative data when they did not effectively maximize the potential of these icts in their profession. while the information from the interview stated a comparable trend in ict use, it provided a better image of the actual use of icts. it disclosed that most high school mathematics teachers use icts primarily for social networking (for whatsapp communication, email, and facebook) in line with the quantitative data (see table 3). some high school mathematics teachers also used icts for assessment (grading learners, sending feedback to parents, and typing questions for mathematics tests) and professional learning networks (collaborating with other mathematics educators from other schools). respondents reiterated the potential of icts when used in professional-related contexts to improve learning outcomes. a respondent indicated; “using ict in teaching mathematics makes students grasp the concept being taught easily… however, i must say it takes a lot of time to prepare an ict embedded lesson…” despite the enormous potential of icts, the research interview data disclosed that high school mathematics classrooms did not fully adopt ict as a medium for assisting in instructional delivery. a respondent stated “we are not ready as teachers to change our mode of instructional delivery to include ict. that is our problem…” the research findings indicated that high school mathematics teachers did not use ict in ways associated with instructional delivery and assessment in mathematics at their schools. high school mathematics teachers, however, used ict for social networking and joining professional learning networks or, did not use ict at all despite its accessibility. a t-test was employed to find out if there exists any difference in high school mathematics teachers’ use of icts concerning gender and school location. the results of the study indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between high school mathematics teachers’ use of icts and their gender. likewise, no statistically significant difference existed between high school mathematics teachers’ use of icts and the location of their school. the results are presented in table 4. the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 183 table 4 t-test of high school mathematics teachers’ use of icts in terms of gender and school location ict usage categories n mean std. deviation df t sig. mathematics instructional delivery male 67 4.19 .913 67.10 -0.27 0.792 female 33 4.24 .863 mathematics assessment male 67 4.23 .936 72.16 0.30 0.769 female 33 4.17 .817 social networking male 67 4.32 .774 70.68 -0.77 0.445 female 33 4.44 .691 professional learning network in mathematics male 67 4.08 .897 81.02 -0.91 0.364 female 33 4.23 .683 mathematics instructional delivery rural 50 4.29 0.87 97.78 0.98 0.331 urban 50 4.12 0.91 mathematics assessment rural 50 4.32 0.80 94.45 1.23 0.221 urban 50 4.10 0.98 social networking rural 50 4.31 0.77 97.62 -0.68 0.496 urban 50 4.41 0.73 professional learning network in mathematics rural 50 4.27 0.79 97.20 1.67 0.098 urban 50 4.00 0.86 *significant (p < 0.05); **highly significant (p < 0.001) a one-way anova was employed to determine if high school mathematics teachers’ use of icts differs in terms of age and teaching experience. the results of the study indicated a statistically significant difference between high school mathematics use of icts for social farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 184 networking and their age (𝑡 = 5.328, 𝑑𝑓 = 99, 𝑝 = 0.002). the younger high school mathematics teachers used icts for social networking more than the older high school mathematics teachers. similarly, the results of the study indicated a statistically significant difference between the use of icts for assessment purposes and the teaching experience of high school mathematics teachers (𝑡 = 3.048, 𝑑𝑓 = 99 𝑝 = 0.021). the younger high school mathematics teachers used icts for assessment more than the older high school mathematics teachers. however, the other uses of icts showed no statistically significant difference with respect to age and teaching experience of high school mathematics teachers. the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 185 table 5 anova of high school mathematics teachers’ use of icts in terms of age and teaching experience *significant (p < 0.05); **highly significant (p < 0.001) ict usage type sum of squares df mean square f sig. a g e o f t e a ch e rs mathematics instructional delivery between groups 4.269 3 1.423 1.830 0.147 within groups 74.659 96 0.778 total 78.928 99 mathematics assessment between groups 1.061 3 0.354 0.434 0.729 within groups 78.140 96 0.814 total 79.201 99 social networking between groups 7.875 3 2.625 5.328 0.002* within groups 47.301 96 0.493 total 55.176 99 professional learning network in mathematics between groups 3.681 3 1.227 1.817 0.149 within groups 64.813 96 0.675 total 68.494 99 t e a ch in g e x p e ri e n ce actual use of ict for mathematics instructional delivery between groups 2.819 4 0.705 0.880 0.479 within groups 76.109 95 0.801 total 78.928 99 actual use of ict for mathematics assessment between groups 9.012 4 2.253 3.049 0.021* within groups 70.189 95 0.739 total 79.201 99 actual use of ict for social networking between groups 2.799 4 0.700 1.269 0.288 within groups 52.376 95 0.551 total 55.176 99 actual use of ict for professional learning network in mathematics between groups 3.134 4 0.784 1.139 0.343 within groups 65.360 95 0.688 total 68.494 99 farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 186 relationship between high school mathematics teachers’ perceived knowledge/skills of icts and their use of icts to answer research question three, the relationship between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts and the actual use of icts by high school mathematics teachers was discussed. the results of the study indicated that the correlation between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts in instructional delivery and the actual use of icts for instructional delivery was positive and statistically significant (𝑟 = 0.27, 𝑝 < 0.01), as shown in table 6. similarly, the results of the study also found a positive and statistically significant relationship between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts in assessment and the actual use of icts for assessment (𝑟 = 0.22, 𝑝 < 0.05). furthermore, the results of the study showed that the correlation between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts for social networking and the actual use of icts for social networking was positive but not statistically significant (𝑟 = −0.09, 𝑝 > 0.01). finally, the results of the study indicated that the correlation between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts for professional learning networks and the actual use of icts for professional learning networks were positive and not statistically significant (𝑟 = 0.13, 𝑝 > 0.01). the results of the correlation between high school mathematics teachers' perceived knowledge/skills of icts and their actual use of icts are presented in table 6. the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 187 table 6 correlation matrix of high school mathematics teachers’ icts and their perceived knowledge/skills of icts k n o w le d g e /s k il ls o f i c t u sa g e ict usage mathematics instructional delivery mathematics assessment social networking professional learning network in mathematics mathematics instructional delivery 0.27** (0.00) mathematics assessment 0.22* (0.02) social networking -0.09 (0.09) professional learning network in mathematics 0.13 (0.11) **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). discussion the study results were discussed in line with the research questions which were the perceived knowledge/skills of icts, the actual use of icts, on the one hand, and the relationship between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts and the actual use of icts by high school mathematics teachers, on the other. in line with research question 1, the study investigated the perceived knowledge/skills of icts by high school mathematics teachers. the results showed that the perceived knowledge/skills of icts by high school mathematics teachers was low. the results of the study are consistent with agyei & voogt (2012) and amuko, miheso & ndethiu (2015) who found in their studies that ghanaian and kenyan teachers respectively have low knowledge/skills of icts. evidence from the interview data also suggests that high school mathematics teachers have low perceived knowledge/skills of icts. in a research undertaken by mueller, wood, willoughby, ross, and specht (2008), their results indicated that training and continued support of excellent practice were among the most important determinants of effective development of ict knowledge/skills. the qualitative data revealed in this research that high school mathematics teachers lacked appropriate training and mentorship to fully develop ict knowledge/skills. the study results agree that ict training would be required to allow high school mathematics teachers to fully obtain ict knowledge/skills for mathematics instructional delivery, mathematics assessment, social networking, and professional learning network in mathematics. these results mirror those of forgasz (2002) who discovered that mathematics teachers in australia want to engage in ict training to acquire mathematicsrelated application software knowledge/skills. according to kamau (2014), ict training can help teachers in mathematics to gain knowledge/skills and trust for ict implementation in and outside their schools. research question 2 discussed the actual use of icts by high school mathematics teachers. the results of the study showed that high school mathematics teachers use ict more for social networking operations than for mathematics instructional delivery, mathematics assessment, and mathematics pln. the research outcome is consistent with ogedebe, emmanuel, and musa (2012), who discovered social networking as a source of diversion from teaching and that nigerian teachers used it more for social than professional purposes. similarly, peeraer and van petegem (2011) discovered that access to icts was not an obstacle to ict integration but that private possession of icts by teachers in belgium meant that computer usage was for purposes other than farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 188 the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 189 instructional delivery. the research finding also coincides with mwalongo's (2015) findings in tanzania that icts are used to prepare school announcements, records, examination and examination results, the scheme of work, letters, and student registration. the results of the study show that high school mathematics teachers have low knowledge/skills of icts in respect of mathematics instructional delivery, mathematics assessment, and pln in mathematics. this may explain why high school mathematics teachers are using ict more for social networking than for professional purposes. in this study, an interesting observation that could be viewed as a contradiction was made. as stated in their studies on ict by anderson (2006), bove'e, voogt and meelissen (2007), tezci, (2009), the higher the average level of knowledge/skills of icts, the higher the use of icts. the present study does not match these prior ict knowledge/skills studies and their actual use. the research showed low perceived knowledge/skills of icts but high use of icts. several reasons might account for these interesting results of the study. one of these reasons might be that high school mathematics teachers do not have the technical knowledge/skills of icts, but are prepared to use them at the peripheries and therefore have high use recorded. another reason might be that respondent overestimated their actual use of icts which is usual of survey self–reported data (agyei & voogt, 2012). finally, several relationships were found in the last research question that sought to explore the relationship between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts of high school mathematics teachers and their actual use of icts. the results of the study showed a positive correlation between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts in instructional delivery and the use of icts for instructional delivery (𝑟 = 0.27, 𝑝 < 0.01). the research also found a positive and statistically significant relationship between the perceived knowledge/skills of icts in mathematics assessment and the use of ict for mathematics assessment (𝑟 = 0.22, 𝑝 < 0.05). these findings are consistent with sorgo, verckovnik, and kocijancic (2010) who discovered a positive correlation among slovenia’s science teachers' frequency of use of icts, perceived value, and teachers' ability to use icts. sorgo, verckovnik, and kocijancic (2010) found in their study that the skills and confidence of teachers were predictors of the use of icts in teaching. farouq sessah mensah & douglas darko agyei ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 190 practical implications the present study can infer several practical implications. the study revealed that high school mathematics teachers generally have low knowledge/skill levels in icts. there is a need to create ict training and resource hubs in the various districts by the state and other educational stakeholders. this will allow high school mathematics teachers to receive training on new ways of using ict to enhance pedagogy, curriculum, and professional learning as well as to enhance their ict knowledge/skills. also, all institutions that train mathematics teachers should have a standardized training program on the inclusion of icts in mathematics instructional delivery. instead of using the expertise obtained for non-professional contexts, the teacher education programs should be able to prepare teacher trainees to be able to fully incorporate icts into their careers. limitations and further research the study was not without limitations. the questionnaire used self-reporting scales to measure variables for analysis. this may have influenced the research outcome as some of the participants may have overestimated their reactions. moreover, the research includes only one region; the central region of ghana. the literature review, however, contextualizes the research and helps to base the results and conclusions in the literature. more so, the use of icts in mathematics education is at a particularly vibrant point in ghana, meaning fresh trends and announcements occur somewhere in the region on regular basis. the study must therefore be viewed as a blueprint of what was current at the time of study which due to rapid development facts and figures presented in this study may become outdated very quickly. the inconsistent finding from the present research indicates that an inverse relationship exists between knowledge/skills of icts and the use of icts for different reasons. this inverse relationship should be further explored. conclusion possession of the required knowledge/skills of icts is a significant factor that determines the extent and precise use of icts. although a good number of high school mathematics teachers in the sampled schools rated themselves low on the perceived knowledge/skills of icts, they reported high use of icts. this is an interesting observation that could be viewed as a contradiction in the research. the results seem to establish that the high school mathematics teachers did not have the technical knowledge/skills of icts, but were frequently using icts at the peripheries and therefore the paradox of ghanaian high school mathematics teachers’ perspectives on ict use ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 172-194 191 reported high use of icts which is usual of self-report data. the study suggests an alarming and worrying state as mathematics teachers use ict more for social networking instead of professional purposes (mathematics instructional delivery, mathematics assessment, pln in mathematics). yet high school mathematics teachers appeared to be fully aware of the advantages they could gain from using icts in their profession. this digital disconnection can be ascribed to endogenous and exogenous variables that this study did not pay attention to. references agyei, d. d., & voogt, j. 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(2007). reexamining ict impact on travel using the 2001 nhts data for the baltimore metropolitan area. in societies and cities in the age of instant access (pp. 153-166). springer, dordrecht. how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana emmanuel mensah kormla tay1 & stephen zamore2 1 university of agder, norway 2 hauge school of management, nla kristiansand, norway abstract in response to a growing concern about bullying and victimisation at universities, this study examined students’ perceptions of the university learning environment (le) concerning their experience of various negative behaviours and victimisation at the university of ghana (legon campus) and the university of cape coast in ghana. the study was a cross-sectional survey of 751 respondents. confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) and regression analysis indicated how students’ perceptions of the universities’ le related to students’ bullying experiences. the results revealed an inverse relationship between students’ perceptions of the le and their experiences of negative behaviours and victimisation, implying that any improvement in the le would reduce students’ bullying experiences. it suggests that awareness of anti-bullying rules, which are strictly, fairly, and consistently enforced through participatory democratic principles, would be essential to ensure a positive psychosocial le. keywords: learning environment; bullying, victimisation, higher education, ghana. introduction. there is increasing research evidence (chan et al., 2020; gómez-galán et al., 2021; heffernan & bosetti, 2021; pörhölä et al., 2020) showing that bullying occurs as an aspect of interpersonal relationships at universities. bullying occurs when an individual or several individuals persistently, over a period, perceive themselves to have experienced negative actions from one or several persons who are socially or physically stronger than them and find it challenging to defend themselves from this stronger perpetrator (einarsen, 2005; olweus, 1993). the core issues of bullying are an intent to harm or upset another person, repetition of the harmful behaviour over time, and an imbalance of power between the bully and the victims (cowie & issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 1-26 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 2 myers, 2016). however, it is worth noting that some single-time incidents can produce harsh and unfair treatments that have a longer-lasting effect on a victim (olweus, 1993). research has shown that university bullying takes subtler negative behaviour forms, including ridicule, demeaning remarks, rumour spreading, stalking, unwanted sexual advances, and ostracism. these behaviours may be obvious or perpetrated anonymously online (cowie & myers, 2016). a perpetrator can bully by intimidating or openly embarrassing a student. bullying can also be perpetrated by a professor unfairly accusing a student of shirking responsibilities or tasking a student with inappropriate, excessive, or meaningless assignments. excessive control, refusal to acknowledge a job well done, relentless effort to dishearten a student, repeated reminders of past mistakes and failures, setting a student up to fail, and concealing information to harm a student’s work performance are other examples of university bullying discussed in the extant literature (leymann, 1996). bullying is not a randomised phenomenon. individual or social risk factors like age, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, health status (e.g., depression, anxiety, obesity), learning or developmental disability, and economic status are factors that determine why people are bullied (cowie & myers, 2016; hong & espelage, 2012; khiat, 2012). thus, researchers (glasø et al., 2007) believe that personality attributes are at the root of the incidence of bullying. the attributes could be a source of strength or weakness, making coping possible or making one susceptible to bullying. for example, katz-wise and hyde (2012) confirm that people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (lgbtq) are bullied because of their sexual orientation, as are people with disabilities (son et al., 2012). on the other hand, leymann (1996) rejects the view that personality attributes influence bullying, while einarsen et al. (2003) think that a combination of factors, including the attributes of the victim, the perpetrator, and the organisation, account for bullying, arguing that a bully might have personality problems but acts when the organisational culture permits such behaviour. similarly, schott and søndergaard (2014) argue that institutional and social relationships interact with personality factors to induce bullying. institutional factors (i.e., policies, social support, resource provision, mission, and vision) determine a le (einarsen et al., 2011). the united nations international children’s emergency fund (unicef) emphasised the significance of the context of bullying (e.g., the le) at the world anti-bullying forum 2021 and proposed a new definition of bullying to account for the context in which bullying how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 3 occurs. many researchers believe that bullying varies consistently with the characteristics of the le or the school climate, depending on whether the le is congenial or not (acosta et al., 2019; juvonen & graham, 2014; konishi et al., 2017; powell et al., 2015; roland & galloway, 2002; wang et al., 2013). recent research reports mixed results about the influence of the le on bullying. petrie (2014) finds a significant reduction in bullying when the le turns increasingly positive, and that le factors account for about 41% of the variance in bullying in classrooms, even though he does not emphasise causality. aldridge et al. (2018) examine whether bullying is a mediator in the relationship between delinquent behaviours and le variables in australian high schools and finds that teacher support, school connectedness, and clear rules are essential to reducing bullying. diversity affirmation, reporting, and help-seeking positively influence bullying and raise awareness of how to promote aspects of a le in order to avoid counterproductive outcomes. other studies (hong et al., 2018; konishi et al., 2017; kyriakides et al., 2014; muijs, 2017; wang et al., 2013) report mixed results. thus, empirical research on the effect of le on bullying in higher education has yielded inconclusive results. the objective of the present study is to provide further empirical evidence that the le has a significant impact on bullying. the learning environment and bullying according to zullig et al. (2010), a le entails physical and social factors. the physical factors include air quality, ventilation, and moisture, and, in particular, and how these combines to affect formation. social factors also determine the le (patton et al., 2006). specifically, research has linked the le to student achievements (hoy & hannum, 1997), relationships, engagement, and connectedness among students and with faculty (libbey, 2004), belligerence, victimisation, and crime among students and faculty (wilson, 2004), and alcoholism and drug use (coker & borders, 2001). cohen et al. (2009, p. 182) argue that le refers to the attributes and conditions of school life. school life describes the “quality” of relationships and the entire teaching and learning context. this in turn are outcomes of norms, values, goals, relationships among the school population. it also describes participation in a shared vision. zullig et al. (2010) review reveals five important constructs about the le. these are order, safety and discipline; academic outcomes; social relationships; school facilities or the physical learning environment; and school connectedness. their mention of school facilities points to sinkkonen et al. (2014) emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 4 assertion that scarcity of resources creates tighter competition to acquire them, which may increase bullying. similarly, the le is affected by the quality of relationships between students and lecturers (kuperminc et al., 1997). in so doing, the quality of relationships between students and lecturers can contribute to bullying (saarento et al., 2015). braxton et al. (2011) study of incidents of harassment reported in the chronicle of higher education reveals high levels of incivility by lecturers in and out of the classroom. incivility refers to off-colour jokes, demeaning remarks, the humiliation of students in public, the use of profanity, and sexual harassment. when lecturers are uncivil, students may become uncivil as well. zullig et al. (2010) contend that the existence of incivility in the le offers support to the argument that the le has to do with values, expectations, and norms that promote positive social and emotional development of students while simultaneously ensuring social and physical safety. students’ perception that their le frowns upon any uncivil behaviours is a source of support for students who experience or are at risk of experiencing bullying (la salle, 2018). students' perceptions of le also determine their predisposition to aggression (espelage & indicate that when students have a positive perception kuperminc et al. (1997). swearer, 2003) konishi et al. (2017)t aggressive behaviours is reduced. of their le, their tendency to exhibi find that students who perceive that the le is safe and that rules are fairly applied to everyone dom engage in bullying. sel a poor leadership style also induces bullying. samnani (2021) argues that a laissezfaire leadership style might give rise to incivility because the leader may not act on reports of bullying. an autocratic leadership style is also capable of covering up acts of abuse perpetrated by employees against students, as such acts would lead to unwanted criticism of the leader. when the factors that define a le are appropriate, a positive psychosocial climate with less bullying or victimisation exists (khoury-kassabri et al., 2004). by contrast, a hostile le can be a source of aggressive behaviours. this result is supported by social disorganisation theory, to which we turn next. the social disorganisation theory social disorganisation exists when a community cannot attain common values to ensure adequate social control of its residents (bursik & robert, 1988). the nature of interdependence of social networks in a community indicates whether social disorganisation will arise. interdependence consists both in friendship ties and participation in organisations at both how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 5 informal and formal levels and in joint supervision of and shared responsibility for local problems (kornhauser, 1978; shaw & mckay, 1942). shaw and mckay (1942) identify a society’s ability to supervise and control peer groups as crucial. antisocial behaviour is primarily considered a group phenomenon (shaw & mckay, 1942; short & strodtbeck, 1965). the understanding is that most antisocial behaviours develop due to a lack of supervision of spontaneous group activities (bordua, 1961; shaw & mckay, 1969). shaw and mckay (1969) argue that a community with common values can better control group behaviours by providing solutions to group-related antisocial behaviours. theoretically, the inability to control grouprelated antisocial behaviours makes a community susceptible to higher rates of such misbehaviours (sampson & groves, 1989). thus, bullying (as a form of group-related antisocial behaviour) can be an outcome of social disorganisation in a school environment. this study there is no single interpretation of le and no research instrument from the extant literature for investigating it in different societies. zullig et al. (2010, pp. 146-147) propose “positive student-teacher relationships”, “school connectedness”, “academic support”, “order, safety, and discipline”, “school physical environment”, “school social environment”, “academic outcomes”, “perceived exclusion/privilege”, and “academic satisfaction” as le-related constructs. we did a preliminary survey and received some confirmation of the variables that constitute aspects of everyday life in the two universities that are the subject of this study. the survey revealed that the le is determined by the universities’ policies, social support, and resource provision. based on these findings, we reformulated zullig and his colleagues’ constructs as “university general environment”, “order, safety, and discipline,” “student– lecturer relationships,” “student–peer relationships,” and “university physical environment”. in an attempt to confirm the constructs in our data, we found that student–lecturer and student– peer relationships are interrelated. therefore, we further reformulated the le variables as university general environment; order, safety, and discipline; relationships; and university physical environment. we tried to determine how the universities’ les related to students’ bullying experiences by finding the relationship between students’ perceptions of the universities’ les and their experience of negative behaviours and victimisation. the main question is: what factors influence bullying in the study environments? we chose the university of ghana and the university of cape coast, which are among the top universities in ghana, based on their perceived symbolism of the anti-bullying structures of most public and private universities in ghana. moreover, they were relevant for emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 6 the study of le and bullying because they had become the focus of a british broadcasting corporation exposé on sexual harassment. we sought to answer the following research questions: rq1: how is the “university general environment” related to students’ experience of negative behaviours and victimisation? rq2: how is “order, safety, and discipline” related to students’ experience of negative behaviours and victimisation? rq3: how are “relationships” associated with students’ experience of negative behaviours and victimisation? rq4: how is the “university physical environment” related to students’ experience of negative behaviours and victimisation? rq5: which le construct has the strongest correlation with students’ experience of negative behaviours and victimisation? methodology sampling and the sample final-year bachelor’s students, second-year master’s degree students (by october 2020), and phd candidates were purposely selected based on the possibility of providing adequate information (bryman, 2012). teaching assistants in the universities’ departments assisted the researcher in distributing paper questionnaires to the participants between january and march 2021. a total of 900 participants received the questionnaires, and 762 (i.e., 446 and 316 from the respective universities) responded. of the 762 questionnaires, eleven (11) were incomplete and hence excluded, resulting in a final sample of 751 respondents. the demographic information of the respondents is presented in table 1. as can be seen in table 1, most of the respondents were at least in their third year of study, were bachelor’s students, and were between 18–27 years old. there was not much difference between the number of male and female respondents. how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 7 table 1: demographic information of respondents (ghana) variable n % variable n % gender academic level male 391 52.1 bachelor 708 94.3 female 360 47.9 masters 25 3.3 transgender 0 0 phd 5 0.7 others 0 0 others 13 1.7 total 751 100 total 751 100 age group length of time at the university 18–22 yrs. 250 33.3 1 yr. 44 5.9 23–27 yrs. 406 54.1 2 yrs. 71 9.5 28–32 yrs. 76 10.1 3 yrs. 176 23.4 33–37 yrs. 12 1.6 4 yrs. 431 57.4 38–42 yrs. 2 0.3 5 yrs. 19 2.5 43–47 yrs. 4 0.5 6yr+ 10 1.3 48 yrs+ 1 0.1 total 751 100 total 751 100 instrument the questionnaire investigated bullying and the le. the bullying part was adapted from the negative acts questionnaire (einarsen et al., 2009) to meet the higher education context. altogether, there were fourteen questions from the negative acts questionnaire (einarsen et al., 2009), eight questions from the sexual experience questionnaire (fitzgerald et al., 1988, p. 157), and six questions from the cyberbullying questionnaire (akbulut & eristi, 2011, p. 1161). two additional questions were included based on the researcher’s experience of the study environments. the items are grouped into four constructs: general bullying, sexual harassment, work-related bullying, and cyberbullying. there was a self-labeling component for the subjective declaration of bullying after presenting the definition of bullying. this is emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 8 because a person may experience negative behaviours but may not consider the experience as bullying or victimisation. the second part of the questionnaire had twenty-nine questions about the le. the sources of these questions are findings from previous studies (aldridge & ala’i, 2013; cho et al., 2017; furlong et al., 2005; juvonen & graham, 2014; konishi et al., 2017; thornberg et al., 2018; zullig et al., 2010) and personal observations of the researcher about the study environments. in general, all the questions investigated students’ perceptions of the study environments using a 5-point likert scale, where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. we tried to ensure the constructs’ internal consistency and reliability by using the popular objective reliability measure of cronbach’s alpha across the cohort of study participants (see tavakol & dennick, 2011). calculating cronbach’s alpha was necessary because we selected questions that reflect the unique group dynamics of the current study environment. we tried to ensure that the items reflect their definitional content (i.e., ensuring the face validity) and that they did this collectively (hulin et al., 2001), based on personal judgement (see hair et al., 2019). details of this procedure are provided below. econometric analysis the empirical analysis starts with construct measurements using confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). after measuring the constructs, the analysis proceeds with a multivariate regression using the following equation. 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝛼 + 𝛽1𝐸𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝛽2𝐴𝑔𝑒 + 𝛽3𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 + 𝛽4𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑠 + 𝛽5𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 + 𝜀, (1) where bullying denotes different bullying behaviours (i.e., general/person-related bullying, sexual harassment, work-related bullying, cyberbullying, and victimisation), environment denotes different aspects of the university environment (i.e., university general environment, order and discipline, relationships, and the university physical environment), age denotes age of the respondents in years, gender denotes the gender of the respondents (1 = men, 0 = women), marital status denotes single, separated/divorced, or married, academic level denotes bachelor, master, phd, and other, α is the constant term, b1–b5 are the coefficients to be estimated, and ε is the error term. how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 9 results measurement items, construct validity and reliability. table 3 below shows cronbach’s alpha, the ranges of factor loadings for each construct, and tests of goodness-of-fit. the cronbach’s alpha values (ranging from 0.68 to 0.90) are above the 0.60 thresholds proposed by hair et al. (2006). the focus was also to ensure that the individual items that constitute the constructs were good. a test for the unidimensional property of the items through cfa gives the values reported in table 2. table 2: constructs/measurement items factor loading tvalue bullying constructs general bullying there is a spreading of gossip and rumours about you 0.50 fixed practical jokes directed at you by people you do not get along with 0.64 10.58 you are called names, made fun of, or taunted 0.67 10.80 someone stares at you in a way that makes you feel intimidated 0.62 10.32 you have been harassed or negatively treated because you were a new student. 0.62 10.30 you have been hit, kicked, shoved, pushed roughly, or tripped up 0.67 10.74 you are having insults or offensive remarks about your person (i.e., habits and background), your attitudes or your private life 0.68 10.89 you have had your property destroyed or taken forcefully 0.66 10.63 nasty, spiteful, mean, and malicious rumours disseminate about your sexual orientation 0.65 10.61 being shouted at or being the target of spontaneous anger (or rage) 0.70 11.06 being ignored or excluded (being ‘sent to coventry’) 0.69 10.85 being ignored or facing a hostile reaction when you approach 0.70 11.05 sexual harassment someone tells suggestive stories, makes sexist and offensive jokes, or displays offensive materials about you 0.65 13.69 you are being maltreated, ignored, or put down in a condescending or demeaning manner because of your sex 0.69 15.13 your body (breast, thigh, neck, waist, arm, sexual organ) is touched or kissed without your approval 0.78 14.92 you are harassed repeatedly for drink dates etc., despite you saying no 0.78 13.09 someone makes sexual advances, looks, gestures, jokes, or remarks towards you, which are sexually inciting and discomforting. 0.66 14.99 you are promised favour rewards or spared some form of punishment or exposure if you oblige to a sexual relationship 0.78 14.80 emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 10 you are threatened with some sort of retaliation or bad treatment if you do not sexually cooperate 0.77 13.96 someone repeatedly tries to remove part of your clothes without your consent or tries to sexually abuse you (i.e., raped or nearly raped). 0.72 13.69 work-related bullying someone withholding information that affects your performance 0.65 12.33 repeatedly reminded of your blunders, errors, or mistakes 0.83 12.14 a persistent criticism of your work and your efforts 0.82 12.10 you are denied the right to claim what you are entitled to (e.g., grade) 0.81 12.33 digital/cyberbullying unwanted, derogatory, or threatening comments that you do not want to share is circulated about you online 0.72 17.11 embarrassing and offensive pictures or videos of you have been spread online or sent to others without your consent 0.80 15.44 you are excluded from digital communication or social networks. 0.75 16.24 you receive unpleasant digital messages or emails. 0.79 16.22 unpleasant instant messages about you on social network sites and in chat rooms 0.80 16.01 your credentials or identity information is appropriated 0.78 17.11 university environment constructs general university environment the impression is that the university is an environment for adults; there is no interference in acts of bullying. 0.55 fixed there is too much indifference among students and lecturers when bullying occurs. 0.60 11.36 there is a system or process to report bullying, breach of law, ethics violations, health-related issues or other circumstances that may harm individuals or the organisation to the authorities. 0.64 11.84 authorities act on reports of bullying or risk of danger. 0.65 11.95 one can quickly get anyone of (a) alcohol, (b) marijuana, (c) crack, (d) cocaine, (g) lsd, (h) pcp, and (i) heroin on campus. 0.55 10.51 crowdedness and limited resources make bullying possible. 0.58 10.99 class sizes have always been enormous, providing a good ground for bullying. 0.58 10.97 lecturers and university staff are competent in handling bullying-related issues. 0.62 11.54 people harass others because of the clothes that they wear. 0.59 11.16 there are rules of the university that prevent bullying. 0.67 12.20 bullying cannot be carried out at will. 0.62 11.60 lecturers make it clear the work one needs to get good grades. 0.64 11.84 there are known provisions for the redress of unfair exam assessment. 0.65 11.97 how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 11 lecturers and administrators are equally held accountable for any misconduct. 0.70 12.45 students’ reporting of authority’s misconduct is usually handled professionally without repercussions for the students. 0.69 12.37 it does not matter if the entire university community does not know the punitive measures in cases of bullying. 0.61 11.43 the academic workload is not demanding; there is room for excessive leisure and unwanted behaviour. 0.55 10.64 there are counselling staff on campus to help students with academic, social, or emotional needs of any kind. 0.57 10.94 formal guardianship, order, safety, and discipline you know and understand anti-bullying rules. 0.75 16.73 university rules are fair, consistent, and strictly enforced. 0.85 15.98 students receive punishment if they do not follow university rules. 0.84 14.97 students and staff solve the problems in this university. 0.79 16.73 relationships (student–lecturer and student-peer relationships) lecturers care about the students; they are available and listen to problems. 0.73 fixed some lecturers make demeaning remarks, humiliate students in public, and use absolute profane language in the classroom. 0.68 9.12 there is mutual respect and decency among students. 0.72 11.14 rival gangs exist on campus that are sources of bullying. 0.72 9.56 university physical environment the physical structure and facilities’ design increase openness and prevent hideouts for negative behaviours (e.g., glass in office doors). 0.81 fixed there is an adequate supply of resources on campus (e.g., water). 0.86 15.56 lighting in hallways and on campus, in general, is adequate to prevent crime. 0.84 15.70 almost all the items load above 0.50 except one, which is 0.50. invariably, this fulfils the convergent validity of our items (hair et al., 2019, p. 663). the comparative fit index (cfi), the root mean square error of approximation (rmsea), and the tucker–lewis index (tli) were used to verify that the assumed theoretical structure is a reflection of reality as demonstrated by the data (hair et al., 2019). these are assumed to be the most stable model fits (hu & bentler, 1999). browne and cudeck (1992) suggest that an rmsea constitutes a good fit if the value is less than 0.05. values that range from 0.05 to 0.08 are acceptable, values that range from 0.08 to 0.10 indicate a marginal fit, and values greater than 0.10 are a poor fit. hair et al. (2019) contend that the best cutoff values for cfi and tli are 0.90 and above and emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 12 0.95 and above, respectively. the p-values represent the extent to which a latent factor explains the variance of a measured variable, and the value is strongest at p < 0.01. regarding the constructs, general bullying has good alpha and factor loadings and an excellent p-value (i.e., p = 0.000). the rmsea can be considered acceptable, and the cfi and tli are approximately 0.90. sexual harassment has good alpha and factor loadings, an excellent p-value, and somewhat mediocre rmsea, but acceptable cfi and tli. work-related bullying has good alpha and factor loadings, a poor p-value, excellent rmsea, and excellent cfi and tli. cyberbullying has good alpha and factor loadings, an excellent p-value, poor rmsea, but excellent cfi and tli. university general environment has good alpha and factor loadings, an excellent p-value, poor rmsea, and slightly deficient cfi and tli. order and discipline has good alpha and factor loadings, an acceptable p-value, acceptable rmsea, and excellent cfi and tli. relationships has acceptable alpha and factor loadings, an excellent pvalue, slightly deficient rmsea, excellent cfi, and acceptable tli. lastly, the university physical environment has good alpha and factor loadings and excellent rmsea, cfi, and tli. table 3: reliability and validity of constructs construct alpha factor loadings chi-squared (d.f) pvalue rmsea cfi tli general bullying 0.88 0.50-0.70 362.26 (54) 0.000 0.088 0.895 0.872 sexual harassment 0.87 0.65-0.78 197.32 (20) 0.000 0.109 0.927 0.898 work-related bullying 0.78 0.65-0.83 0.983 (2) 0.612 0.000 1.000 1.004 cyberbullying 0.86 0.72-0.80 119.80 (9) 0.000 0.130 0.940 0.900 university general environment 0.90 0.55-0.70 1069.36 (135) 0.000 0.098 0.804 0.778 order and discipline 0.82 0.75-0.85 7.15(2) 0.028 0.059 0.995 0.985 relationships 0.68 0.68-0.72 18.95(2) 0.000 0.107 0.961 0.882 university physical environment 0.79 0.81-0.84 0.000 . 0.000 1.000 1.000 notes: this table lists the results for goodness-of-fit, cronbach's alpha and factor loadings range, cfi (comparative fit index), tli (tucker–lewis index), and rmsea (root mean square error of approximation index). it is noteworthy that hair et al. (2019, pp. 642, 647) contend that, even though the cutoff points may exhibit a good model fit, their applicability is not absolute in all cases. the model in this research might not have met all the requirements for some constructs; nonetheless, our interest was to find some directional relationship between the le and the various negative social how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 13 behaviours and respondents’ subjective confirmation of victimisation. this relationship between the le and bullying is presented in tables 4 and 5. table 4 shows the correlations between our independent and dependent variables. these correlations indicate how the le variables relate to bullying. the bold values in the table indicate the correlation strength at the 10% significance level or lower. multicollinearity is insignificant, as all the values are lower than the 0.70 cutoff point proposed by kennedy (2008). a strong negative correlation exists between the le and the various negative behaviour and victimisation. table 4: correlation matrix general sexual work cyber victim gen env’t order & disc. r’ships physical env’t age gender single separated bachelor master phd. general bullying 1.0000 sexual harassment 0.7361 1.0000 work-related bullying 0.6923 0.6267 1.0000 cyberbullying 0.6723 0.6857 0.6645 1.0000 victimisation 0.3768 0.3336 0.3129 0.2971 1.0000 university general environment -0.1987 -0.1486 -0.1672 -0.1738 -0.1802 1.0000 order & discipline -0.2310 -0.1862 -0.1751 -0.2253 -0.2134 0.6394 1.0000 relationships -0.1822 -0.1067 -0.1279 -0.1648 -0.1453 0.6364 0.5927 1.0000 physical environment -0.2269 -0.1434 -0.1575 -0.1641 -0.1587 0.5621 0.5353 0.5836 1.0000 age -0.0106 -0.0335 -0.0145 -0.0228 0.0493 0.0423 0.0710 0.0271 0.0635 1.0000 gender -0.0765 0.0481 -0.0807 -0.0391 -0.0106 0.1236 0.0539 0.1260 0.1158 -0.1941 1.0000 single -0.0033 0.0124 0.0109 0.0224 0.0241 -0.0190 -0.0426 0.0151 -0.0563 -0.3374 0.0161 1.0000 separated -0.0308 0.0891 -0.0258 -0.0220 0.0455 -0.0167 0.0397 0.0142 0.0221 0.0076 0.0381 -0.1382 1.0000 bachelor -0.1449 -0.1457 -0.1746 -0.1389 -0.1076 0.0932 0.0739 0.1372 0.0825 -0.1613 0.0070 0.1438 0.0090 1.0000 master 0.1426 0.1140 0.1744 0.1267 0.1097 -0.0893 -0.0457 -0.1103 -0.0700 0.0862 0.0448 -0.0712 -0.0068 -0.7530 1.0000 phd. -0.0526 -0.0475 -0.0345 -0.0406 -0.0321 0.0116 -0.0063 -0.0011 0.0094 0.1216 -0.0458 -0.1110 -0.0030 -0.3322 -0.0152 1.0000 notes: the bold values in the table indicate the correlation strength at the 10% significance level or lower (i.e., 5% and 1%). most correlations are significant at either the 5% or 1% level. however, a correlation matrix is bivariate and, as such, does not give the best estimate of bullying based on the le. therefore, we ran a multivariate regression. the result shows that the universities’ general environment is inversely related to all the negative social behaviour constructs and victimisation at the 99% confidence level. order and discipline are also inversely emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 14 related to negative behaviour constructs and victimisation. victimisation has the most significant coefficient values for le, with a 99% confidence level. relationships are inversely related to all the negative behaviour and victimisation constructs, with the correlation being strongest for general negative behaviours, cyberbullying, and victimisation at the 99% confidence level, followed by sexual harassment and work-related negative behaviours at the 95% confidence level. the universities’ physical environment is also inversely related to all the negative behaviour and victimisation constructs at the 99% confidence level, and is thus the third strongest correlation. table 5: the correlation between bullying and the university environment general bullying sexual harassment workrelated bullying cyberbullying victimisation panel a: university general env. university general environment -0.1774*** -0.1354*** -0.1420*** -0.1539*** -0.3731*** (0.0373) (0.0370) (0.0368) (0.0371) (0.0814) age -0.0265 -0.0243 -0.0432 -0.0206 0.2338** (0.0510) (0.0510) (0.0505) (0.0526) (0.1115) gender -0.1109 0.1097 -0.1367* -0.0366 0.0994 (0.0753) (0.0752) (0.0744) (0.0758) (0.1623) single 0.0096 0.1316 -0.0056 0.1315 0.4978 (0.1658) (0.1645) (0.1638) (0.1664) (0.3733) separated/divorce -0.8119 2.4803** -0.6504 -0.4777 (0.9865) (0.9887) (0.9755) (0.9882) bachelor -0.6703** -1.0336*** -0.6976** -0.7408*** -0.8375 (0.2753) (0.2759) (0.2722) (0.2759) (0.5899) master -0.0213 -0.3992 0.0718 -0.1253 0.1292 (0.3448) (0.3456) (0.3477) (0.3454) (0.7522) phd -1.2455** -1.4513*** -1.0444** -1.1106** -1.8185 (0.5135) (0.5148) (0.5077) (0.5144) (1.2796) constant 0.8401** 0.7542** 0.9429*** 0.6690* -0.7126 (0.3621) (0.3621) (0.3577) (0.3647) (0.7760) observations 715 721 716 708 723 r-squared/ pseudo r2 0.064 0.064 0.057 0.052 0.037 panel b: order and discipline how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 15 order & discipline -0.2164*** -0.1776*** -0.1580*** -0.2082*** -0.4530*** (0.0365) (0.0360) (0.0361) (0.0360) (0.0804) controls included? yes yes yes yes yes observations 729 737 733 725 740 r-squared/ pseudo r2 0.085 0.077 0.073 0.076 0.048 panel c: relationships relationships -0.1521*** -0.0886** -0.0933** -0.1368*** -0.2875*** (0.0373) (0.0369) (0.0372) (0.0370) (0.0787) controls included? yes yes yes yes yes observations 730 738 734 726 741 r-squared/ pseudo r2 0.062 0.054 0.055 0.053 0.027 panel d: university physical env. university physical environment -0.2076*** -0.1328*** -0.1323*** -0.1425*** -0.3245*** (0.0370) (0.0365) (0.0367) (0.0368) (0.0785) controls included? yes yes yes yes yes observations 731 739 735 727 742 r-squared/ pseudo r2 0.080 0.063 0.064 0.055 0.031 notes: this table presents ols (columns 2–5) and logistic (column 6) regressions on the relationship between the le and bullying. victimisation takes the value of 1 if the respondent experienced victimisation and 0 otherwise. standard errors are in parentheses. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1 discussion and implications for practice this study explored the relationship between students’ perception of the le and their experiences of negative behaviours and victimisation in two universities in ghana. searches for similar research revealed that this study might be the first of its kind. it is beyond the scope of this study to determine what personality factors make people bullies or victims. instead, our focus was to determine respondents’ perception of the universities’ les and their connection with experiences of various negative behaviours and victimisation. while we do not claim to demonstrate causality, the results show that improving the le would reduce bullying, even though the correlation between these dependent and independent variables was generally not strong. in what follows, we elaborate on this correlation through the prism of the five research questions. emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 16 rq1: correlation between university general environment and bullying the universities’ general environment is inversely related to bullying at the 99% confidence level. the universities’ general environments need improvement to minimise bullying. there is a need for the universities to provide counselling and mental health support systems as well as raise awareness among students of the availability of such services (cho et al., 2017; sinkkonen et al., 2014). in addition to the provision of adequate counselling and mental health resources (sinkkonen et al., 2014), universities need to maintain a drug-free campus (cho et al., 2017), and implement a system for reporting bullying in order to ensure that students do not suffer the trauma of dealing with problems they cannot report (cowie & myers, 2016). raising awareness among students of punishments for violations of anti-bullying rules may also be necessary to deter potential perpetrators (bandura & walters, 1971; nikolaou, 2017). universities can conceal the identity of the perpetrators and the victims because trust and confidentiality drive the decision to report instances of bullying in most cases (wójcik & rzeńca, 2021). universities must be responsive to people’s attitudes toward bullying (cowie & myers, 2016). lecturers and university staff must be well trained to handle issues of harassment (luca, 2016). as can be seen from the extant literature, when the above concerns are not addressed at a university, the students suffer. correlation between order, safety, and discipline and bullying (rq2 & rq5) universities ensure order, safety, and discipline in four ways. these are (1) knowledge and understanding of anti-bullying rules, (2) how reasonably, consistently, and strictly antibullying rules are enforced, (3) punishment of perpetrators, and (4) participation of students in university decision-making and problem-solving. these anti-bullying provisions are inversely related to bullying, and the correlation is significant. the importance of safety, order, and discipline as a means of reducing bullying is consistent with the findings of konishi et al. (2017). the implication is that any improvement in these anti-bullying provisions will significantly reduce bullying (johnson, 2009). as nikolaou (2017) argues, when people are aware of anti-bullying rules, punishment of perpetrators is fair and consistent (konishi et al., 2017; kupchik & farina, 2016), a significant reduction in bullying occurs. on the other hand, cho et al. (2017) argue that exclusive reliance on awareness and enforcement of rules is insufficient. other researchers argue that punishments are counterproductive (e.g., borgwald & theixos, 2013). nevertheless, arum (2003) argues that a progressive society cannot exist without rules and regulations and fair and consistent how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 17 punishment of wrongdoers. universities are no exception: there need to be rules and regulations to ensure the safety, order, and discipline of the university community. in the face of the contradictory evidence discussed above, kupchik and farina (2016) argue that punishments must not be harsh, but rather fair and consistent. explicit anti-bullying rules are needed to protect students against all forms of harassment and enjoin the university students and staff to create a safe le (cowie & myers, 2016). correlation between relationships and bullying (rq3) there is always a possibility of friction among interdependent humans (ledlow, 2008). from the results, positive relationships (as measured by the caring attitude of lecturers toward students, the absence of vulgar language, and the existence of mutual respect among students and between rival gangs) are inversely related to bullying. the correlation between relationship and general bullying, cyberbullying and victimisation is significant at a 99% confidence level but at a 95% confidence level for sexual harassment and work-related forms of harassment. it is meaningful when behaviours like the spread of gossip and the many others for general bullying are possible among students. these results are consistent with those of aldridge et al. (2018). in particular, their results point to the importance of a caring attitude of lecturers toward students and their support in confronting bullying behaviours (flaspohler et al., 2009). furthermore, when students are involved in decision-making on issues that concern them on campus, they develop confidence and become more responsible for ensuring compliance, which can ensure a positive psychosocial environment (cowie & dawn, 2008). on the other hand, bullying exists when off-colour jokes are told about students (braxton et al., 2011). white and mason (2012) note that rival gang groups on campus can give rise to various uncivil behaviours. as noted in the extant literature (also keashly, 2012), the relationship between students and lecturers significantly affects the physical and mental health of students as well as their academic achievements. these positive outcomes are primarily due to relief from the stress and harm that bullying and other forms of aggression create (see einarsen et al., 2011). adverse outcomes arising from bad interpersonal relationships may go beyond the university community to encompass the families of the victims, leading to a cycle of harm to society. fortunately, universities can work to limit the harm to others. emmanuel mensah kormla tay & stephen zamore ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 18 correlation between university physical environment and bullying (rq4) our study used items that investigate the physical environment in terms of the design of facilities in a way that increases transparency and prevents concealment of negative behaviours (e.g., glass in office doors), adequacy of resources (e.g., a sufficient number of tables and chairs in lecture rooms), and lighting in hallways and on campus. johnson (2009) notes that the spatial layout of university facilities can influence people’s interactions by limiting secrecy. relatedly, the physical condition of the university, i.e., whether facilities are renovated or dilapidated, influences the students’ perceptions of the university’s social expectations regarding responsible behaviours. baillien et al. (2008) find that conditions like crowded spaces and high temperatures are unpleasant and irritating and can be indicators of bullying behaviours. sinkkonen et al. (2014) identify limited resources as a source of friction that can lead to bullying when the competition to acquire them gets keen. these results indicate that students think improving the physical environment decreases bullying. they are consistent with those of salin (2015), who investigates bullying using similar le items. moreover, a review (manca et al., 2020) reports similar results. however, it has been a challenge to find further research on higher education that supports our results. conclusion our findings show that a favourable learning environment can reduce students’ perceptions of bullying on the university campus. we showed what components of the learning environment could result in a positive psychosocial learning environment in most universities. our study contribution is unique not only because research on learning environments in higher education is limited, but also because learning environments are not the same in any two universities. our findings identify a need to ensure safety, order, and discipline through formulating antibullying rules that are fairly and consistently enforced. enforcement of these rules must be non-discriminatory in order to wield a higher potential for ensuring compliance with them. how the learning environment influences bullying: the case of two universities in ghana ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 1-26 19 references acosta, j., chinman, m., ebener, p., malone, p. s., phillips, a., & wilks, a. 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(2010). school climate: historical review, instrument development, and school assessment. journal of psychoeducational assessment, 28(2), 139-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909344205 https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034318809762 https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2013.829735 https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh.2012.008 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb08286.x https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-021-09447-5 https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909344205 editorial comment this special issue is organized around the theme of “transition into a new african university in the global south in the 21st century” to reflect on historical trajectories, contemporary challenges, and future prospects of african higher education systems. the special issue is a product of an open call that targeted a wide range of scholars with diverse experiences and viewpoints. incorporating diverse perspectives from various conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and empirical aspects of higher education transformation, this special issue presents a collection of scholarly papers that are both grounded in empirical evidence and are conceptually rigorous. the papers featured in this special issue offer thought-provoking perspectives and inspire critical debate on the issue of the future of african higher education. the papers have been arranged into four sub-thematic areas, namely, (i) experiences and emerging practices within the african university, (ii) barriers and transformation (iii) transitioning to the new african university, and (iv) the future of the new african university. (i) experiences and emerging practices within african universities this sub-theme explores the emerging trends in african higher education systems that present both challenges and opportunities. this is with particular emphasis and relevance to students’ epistemic access and success. it delves into the emergence of plurilingual practices which challenge the conventional notion of english as the lingua franca. the sub-theme also addresses the pressing challenge of the growing burden of student loans and debt, particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. the following three papers are included in this sub-theme: • access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia • plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university • against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index sibonokuhle ndlovu, phefumula nyoni ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023) ii (ii) barriers and transformation although change and reforms are constant variables in higher education transformation processes, they may not equally benefit and positively impact all members of the higher education communities. this is particularly true for vulnerable communities and disadvantaged groups, including students and staff with disabilities, as seen in the case of south africa. this subsection reflects on the implications of transformation on academics with disabilities. the paper argues that the transformation to the new imaginary of african higher education will remain incomplete without the meaningful participation of underrepresented communities in the academic enterprise. this theme is represented by the following paper: • academics with disabilities and transition to a new a new african university in south africa (iii) transitioning to the new african university in the context of "transitioning to the new african university," three papers critically examined the challenges faced by african universities and knowledge systems, focusing on the broader framework of decolonial scholarship. these papers present a compelling argument that african universities must actively adopt decolonial perspectives to foster the integration of epistemologies that are inclusive of african perspectives and experiences. additionally, they examine the trends of academic mobility among african higher education systems, fostering south-south partnerships that have the potential to transform and strengthen african higher education systems. the papers strongly emphasize the notion of inclusiveness, highlighting the importance of incorporating diverse perspectives, knowledge systems, and backgrounds in the future of african universities. the three papers in this sub-theme are: • combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities • african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa • intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it (iv) the future of the new african university technology integration and digitalization will be an integral part of the future of african universities. the question of technology and the ways in which digitalisation is forcing its editorial comments ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023) iii reconfiguration is also discussed in this special issue. the process of learning has been intricately intertwined with the spatial context in which it occurs, whether that context is of a virtual or physical nature. the emergence of online platforms and learning management systems has reconfigured the traditional spatial context in which learning takes place, blurring the boundaries between virtual and physical spaces. this also introduces a range of distinctive features, hierarchical structures, and control mechanisms that significantly shape the dynamics of learning within the realm of higher education. within this framework the following three papers also reflect on the notion of ict integration, stem education and sdgs agenda in african higher education transformation: • towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe • the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? • alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning nb. the amches editorial team acknowledges and appreciates the diligent work done by the reviewers who contributed towards the triple review of manuscripts, thus enhancing the quality of the special issue. guest editors dr. sibonokuhle ndlovu dr. phefumula nyoni ali mazrui centre for higher education studies university of johannesburg, south africa status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers kenneth kapalu muzata1, francis simui1, dikeledi mahlo2 & phydes ng’uni1 1university of zambia, department of educational psychology, sociology and special education 2department for inclusive education, university of south africa (unisa) abstract this study was conducted to examine the status of inclusive education in zambia, learning from teachers’ perspectives about how inclusive education is being implemented and the whether teachers receive adequate support to implement inclusive education to learners with disabilities. the study employed a concurrent mixed design approach in which both quantitative and qualitative data were generated and applied. open and closed ended questionnaires were used to collect data from teachers that were upgrading their qualifications via distance education at kwame nkrumah university, university of zambia and chalimbana university. findings indicated that zambia practices partial inclusion in which only the mild and moderate learners with disabilities are included in classrooms. inclusive education is understood by teachers in the context of disability and teachers reported that they did not receive adequate support to implement inclusive education effectively. it is recommended that the government of the republic of zambia through the ministry of general education should focus on training teachers in inclusive education and its methodologies to meet the learning needs of learners from different circumstances. context zambia’s education system is anchored on the principle of a democratic society (ministry of education, 1996), which is actually the overall purpose of inclusion. the inclusive education philosophy is basically a democratic philosophy seeking to have everybody involved in national affairs. zambia has made serious commitments to the education of persons with disabilities by assenting to the various conventions on education and rights of persons with african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 1-20 kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 2 disabilities. the country participated in the salamanca conference in 1994 which endorsed nondiscriminatory education systems and also assented to the convention on the rights of the child (united nations, 1989). zambia made a commitment to embrace the sustainable development goal number 4 which emphaises inclusive, equity and lifelong learning skills for all, including persons with disabilities. such commitments should translate into practical provision of services for persons with disability and specifically affirm their right to education. the mission of the ministry of educationzambia in the 1996 educating our future policy document says; the mission of the ministry of education is to guide the provision of education for all zambians so that they are able to pursue knowledge and skills, manifest excellence in performance and moral uprightness, defend democratic ideals, and accept and value other persons on the basis of their personal worth and dignity, irrespective of gender, religion, ethnic origin, or any other discriminatory characteristic (moe 1996: xi) zambia has made steady progress in the provision of inclusive education, starting with pilot programmes between 1997 and 2001 in kalulushi, north western and western provinces of the country (ndonyo, 2007). it is commendable that the country has devised policies and legislation on the education of persons with disabilities and inclusive education in particular (chitiyo & muwana, 2018; grz, 2012; mesvetee, 2013; moge, 2016; moe, 1996). mumba (2000), a zambian teacher in mpika affirms that inclusion is workable when classroom pedagogies are democratised, submitting that the use of twinning learners, home visits, and use of democratic methods are effective strategies for making inclusion workable. nonetheless, several studies have highlighted several challenges in the implementation of inclusive education in zambia. for instance, while muwana, (2012) reports positive attitudes in university of zambia students towards inclusion other studies record that negative attitudes towards disability by teachers, learners and the surrounding community still exist especially in schools (simui, kasonde-ngandu, cheyeka & makoe, 2019; banja & mandyata, 2018; ministry of community development nds report 2018; muzata, simalalo, kasonde-ng’andu, mahlo, banja, & mtonga, 2019). simui (2018) reported that students with visual impairments did not feel the positive impact of their inclusion at sim university (pseudonym) because there were negative attitudes by lecturers, problems of inaccessible environments and inaccessible learning materials, exclusive assessment system used by lecturers, exclusive pedagogy and limited orientation and mobility difficulties which acted as barriers to their inclusion. status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 3 lack of skills for teaching learners with disabilities in zambian schools has been a topical issue over the years. many studies and education documents report teachers’ lack of sign language and braille skills as well as lack of knowledge to adapt the curriculum to suit the needs of learners with special education needs (mulonda, 2013; muzata, 2018; muzata & mahlo, 2019, simui, 2018, kasongole & muzata, 2020, moe, 2014) among others. concerns about unfriendly structures as a barrier to access for learners with disabilities, lack of funding of inclusive education and lack of materials suitable for learners with disabilities have been documented in the literature, all the challenges that affect the implementation of inclusive education in the country. however, this study raises the question of what has changed since the introduction in the late 1990s and early 2000s of inclusive education in zambia. the study therefore examines the status of inclusive education in zambia, using the perspectives of teachers who are the implementers of the curriculum in schools. statement of a problem strides have been made to provide inclusive education in zambia as noted through the ministry of education policies and the disability act of 2012. while a legal framework and policies supporting the implementation of inclusive education exist, there has been no dedicated study to examine the status of inclusive education practice from the teacher perspective in zambia. this study was conducted to examine the status of inclusive education in zambia from teachers’ perspectives since they are the implementers of the curriculum in the classroom. research questions the study was guided by three main research questions; i. what is the nature of inclusion practiced in zambian schools? ii. is inclusive education working out well for children with disabilities? iii. what are teachers’ perceptions towards government support for inclusive education? theoretical foundation of the study this study is pinned to the social model of disability which posts that persons with disability are more disabled by the society than the disabilities and impairments they have. thus, society has been coined to possess unbearable barriers that disable persons with disability participation in the activities of their own communities and livelihood. if humans were regarded as equal, there would be no barriers to create unequal competition. most importantly, the web of challenges that persons with disability face is shrouded around negative attitudes. the kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 4 argument within the social model is that society disables people and makes them incapacitated by excluding them from full participation in society thereby making persons with disability an oppressed lot (anastasio & kauffman, 2013, retief & letšosa, (2018). for this study, while anastasio & kauffman, (2013) caution the social model against ignoring the influence of heredity, we argue that heredity aside, with support based on equality, the argument by the social model still persists that there is more exclusion by society than by the disability itself which worsens the influence that heredity poses. the barriers in society have denied more persons with disability opportunities to education due to stigma and the feeling that persons with disabilities are unable yet in many cases, they can especially with support. thus, society has a major influence to change one’s hereditary potential and become an effective member of a society. methodology the study employed a concurrent mixed design approach in which both quantitative and qualitative data were applied. open and closed ended questionnaires were used to generate data from 104 (29; 27.9% males and (75; 72.1%) female teachers that were upgrading their qualifications via distance education at kwame nkrumah university, university of zambia and chalimbana university. the researchers engaged participants during school sessions at the three universities in 2019. participants were drawn from zambia’s 10 provinces as follows; lusaka (15; 14.4%), central (13; 12.5%), copperbelt (19; 18.3%), eastern (12; 11.5%), southern (8; 7.7%) and northern provinces (2; 1.9%). other provinces were north western (16; 15.4%), western (5; 4.8%), luapula (3; 2.9%) and muchinga (10; 9.6%). there was a missing system number of (1; 1%). the sampling by convenience meant that there was uneven representation of participants from all the provinces which thereby indicates a limitation in the generalisation of the data by province, although the data is generalizable by its collection of participants within the same profession. the demographics further show that 30 (28.8%) of the participants were specialised in special education, 25 (24%) received capacity building in inclusive education, while 45 (43.3%) were general teachers but equally taught in inclusive classrooms. from the total 104, (4; 3.8%) did not provide their demographic information. all the participants had teaching experience ranging from 5 to over 20 years with (45, 43.3%), having certificate in primary teaching, (37, 35.6%), diploma and (18, 17.3%), with graduate degrees in teaching. four of the participants (4; 3.8%) had other qualifications. most participants, (87; 83.7%), were from government schools while (7; 6.7%) were from private schools, (3; 2.9%), were community status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 5 teachers and four (4; 3.8%) were from religious schools. from the demographic data, we concluded the participants were a satisfactory population for the study. description of the instrument we used a questionnaire with both open and closed ended questions to generate both qualitative and quantitative data. the questionnaire had three sections; first section collected personal data about the participants in order to obtain their characteristics to validate their participation in the study, the second section collected information on whether teachers’ classrooms had learners with disabilities included in them, what types of disabilities were included , their understanding of the concept of inclusive education, whether they thought inclusion was working well in their schools, and what reasons could be facilitating or disabling the effective implementation of inclusive education in their respective schools. the section also had questions that sought to elicit responses on how teachers perceived government support to inclusive education in zambia and possible reasons for their answers. analysis data was analysed by employing both quantitative and qualitative methods. quantitative data was coded in the statistical package for social sciences (spssversion 16). we were able to derive statistics in form of frequencies and percentages. some comparisons were made on variables such as sex and levels of qualifications, province and experience to see whether there were significant differences in the understanding of inclusive education or not, thereby certifying the reliability and validity of the data that was collected. qualitative data was analysed thematically to provide the reasons for the implementation of inclusive education in zambia. the qualitative data were analysed thematically using nvivo pro version 10 to code for density and to run word queries. study findings some themes that emerged from the findings derived primarily from the research questions such as nature of inclusive education practices, effectiveness of inclusive education among children with disabilities and teachers’ perceptions towards government support for inclusive education. nature of inclusive education practices teachers were asked whether the classes they taught were inclusive or not. the results showed that 62 (59.6%) of the teachers’ classrooms are inclusive while 32 (30.8%) are not. teachers kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 6 reported that their classrooms included learners with disabilities such as visual impairments, hearing impairments, physical disability, learning disability and speech disorder. however, some classes had a combination of students with different disabilities learning together with those without disabilities while other classes did not have any learners with disabilities. figure 1 shows the categories of disabilities in zambia’s inclusive classrooms: figure 1: results showing types of disabilities in inclusive classrooms. source: field data. the results therefore demonstrate that there are learners with disabilities in inclusive classrooms in zambia. learners with disabilities are the most commonly included. however, the degree of disabilities included in zambian classrooms is mostly learners with mild and moderate disabilities. the figure 2 shows the results; status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 7 figure 2: degree of disability in inclusive classrooms. source: field data. from the results, it appears that participants’ construed inclusion in terms of disability because none of the teachers wrote any other vulnerable learners as being included in their classrooms. thus, the construction of inclusive education is associated with learners with disabilities learning together with those without disabilities in the same classroom. with this in mind, we asked participants to give their opinions about what inclusive education is. the coding density from nvivo showed that teachers understood inclusion in terms of placing learners with disabilities within the mainstream classroom to learn together with those without disabilities. the following were sampled definitions, this is the type of education where learners with disabilities learn together with learners without disabilities and use the same educational resources and curriculum. (teacher 1, femalenorthern province) inclusive education refers to the model wherein special needs children spend most of their time learning with nonspecial needs children. (teacher 14, female lusaka province) mixing the disabled learners with the so called normal ones (teacher 103, femalecopperbelt province) kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 8 this is where learners with disabilities learn together with learners without disabilities from the same teacher, using the same curriculum, teaching and learning materials, teaching and learning methods, study the same subjects, take the same examinations and obtain the same educational qualifications. (teacher 3, malecopperbelt province) from the qualitative perspective, text query analysis in nvivo showed the word disability emerging prominent with 86 appearances while other words used in defining inclusive education were special education needs, normal, abnormal children, impaired and handicapped children. the definitions demonstrate teachers understanding of inclusive education as inclined to disability. teachers’ perspectives of whether inclusive education is benefiting children with disabilities. table 1: responses about whether inclusive education is working well for children with disabilities category province yes no total 1. is inclusive education working well? lusaka 7 8 15 central 5 6 11 copperbelt 8 10 18 eastern 6 6 12 southern 4 4 8 northern 1 1 2 north western 7 7 14 western 2 3 5 luapula 1 2 3 muchinga 5 5 10 total 46 52 98 status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 9 2. is government policy on ie being followed? lusaka 10 5 15 central 8 4 12 copperbelt 11 5 16 eastern 7 4 11 southern 5 3 8 northern 1 1 2 north western 11 5 16 western 3 2 5 luapula 1 1 2 muchinga 6 3 9 total 64 32 96 the responses imply that though the schools seem to adhere to government policy on inclusion, inclusive education in itself is not working well in the schools. there were no significant differences in the responses after the data was subjected to chi-square computation, showing (χ2 (9, n = 98) = 5.02, p>.83) for category 1 and (χ2 (9, n = 96) = 8.94, p>.44) for category 2. the results therefore rule out any possible hypothesis that inclusive education maybe well implemented in one province than another. qualitative data corroborated the findings on the reasons inclusive education was viewed as not working well for children with disabilities in zambia: some children especially those with severe disabilities do not benefit for their educational needs are not fully met in these inclusive setups due to various reasons such as teacher attitudes and school environmental factors (teacher 1, female northern province). teachers have no knowledge of handling pupils with learning disabilities (teacher 8, maleeastern province). kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 10 it does not work well in the sense that some disabilities are not noticeable and hence there is no care for such children (teacher 38, female; muchinga province). it’s not easy because other learners have severe disabilities and much time is spent on those children than the others (teacher 13, female; lusaka). because most of the teachers have not acquired relevant skills for handling learners with disabilities and usually disabled learners are labelled. (teacher 25, female; western province) the excerpt from teacher 38 is one of the insightful responses that points to the negation of screening and assessment of disabilities where children with disabilities maybe many in inclusive classrooms but are not easily identified in ways that allow them to be provided with the necessary inclusive teaching and learning strategies. the spider-gram in figure 4 below shows a summary of participants’ explanations for why inclusive education fails to work well. figure 3: why inclusive education is not working well according to teachers, lack of trained teachers/inadequate teachers was the greatest challenge hindering the successful implementation of inclusive education in zambia. this was followed by lack of supportive assistive devices, lack of special attention, and stigmatisation from other status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 11 learners. other factors accounting for limited uptake of inclusive education include: (i) poor classroom environment, (ii) severity of disability, (iii) teacher lack of ability to identify learners with disability, (iv) large numbers of learners in inclusive classrooms and (v) non-modification of classroom setting. other reasons provided for why inclusive education is not working well in zambia included unmodified curriculum, feelings of inferiority by learners with disability, lack of acceptance by teachers, and failure to bring learners with disabilities along in class implementation of curriculum. teachers who said it was working supported the idea of inclusive education from a sympathetic point of view. for instance, one of the teachers said it is cheaper for the disabled children to learn with normal children because normal children help those with disabilities. (teacher 56, female; central province) it is helping learners with disabilities to be accepted by fellow learners without disabilities, it is also helping them in academic and social life. (teacher 59, male; western province) other reasons given by those who hold this positive view of the state of inclusive education in zambia are that their inclusion in mixed classrooms helps to improve the self-esteem of learners with disabilities and facilitates the reduction or elimination of inferiority complex. they also reported that the learners with disabilities in their mixed classroom settings feel a sense of belonging with the broader group of learners without disabilities. teachers’ perceptions of government support for inclusive education. when teachers were asked whether they thought government was supporting inclusive education in zambia. the table below shows results of a cross tabulation to see how different provinces compared in terms of responses: table 3: teachers’ opinions on whether government was supporting inclusive education category province yes percent no percent total percent is there enough support for ie by govt lusaka 5 5 10 5 15 15 central 4 4 8 4 12 12 kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 12 copperbelt 7 7 10 7 17 18 eastern 5 5 6 5 11 11 southern 1 1 7 1 8 8 northern 0 0 2 0 2 2 north western 2 2 14 2 16 16 western 1 1 4 1 5 5 luapula 1 1 1 1 2 2 muchinga 3 3 6 3 9 9 total 29 30 68 31 97 100 from the results, teachers believe that the government of zambia was not doing enough to support inclusive education in the country. responses from all provinces showed no significant differences at (χ2 (9, n = 97) = 7.44, p>.591) chi-square calculation. when they were asked to give reasons for the responses they provided, answers were that, government is not providing support because there is no follow up in schools to make sure that the school respects this policy as well as train teachers to handle such children or teaching these children (teacher 104, female; copperbelt province) the children with special needs are just accepted in school but they have no proper resources to support their learning (teacher 99, female; north western province). the government has focussed so much on implementing inclusive education in urban areas making rural areas to be disadvantaged due to lack of infrastructure and materials to support inclusive education (teacher 73, female; central province). this failure is attributed to lack of resources and failure to adequately plan for the marginalised in society (teacher 74, male; central province). there isn’t infrastructure to support these learners with disabilities and materials as well (teacher 80, female; luapula province). status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 13 the results point to many factors affecting the implementation of inclusive education in zambian schools. insufficient teacher training, lack of specialised materials, lack of teacher skills and monitoring as well as lack of planning for learners with special needs in inclusive schools are among the many factors teachers mentioned. however, a few teachers also thought inclusive education was being well supported by government. two teachers in the eastern province asserted, most of the new schools being built have facilities that support the learning of disabled pupils (teacher 75, female; eastern province). because government has allowed all learners to learn together in the same environment regardless of the status (teacher 89, female; eastern province) teacher 92, female from north western also shared the same view with (teacher 75, female; eastern province) while two others shared the second view by teacher 89. discussion of findings this study has revealed the current state of inclusive education in zambia. we learn that inclusive education is being practiced in schools and only learners with mild and moderate disabilities are included in mainstream classroom, while those with severe disabilities remain in special schools and units. the results reveal an adherence to the ministry of general education policy of inclusion (ministry of education, 1996; 2016, ministry of community development, 2018). the current mode of implementation of inclusive education which supports learners with mild and moderate disabilities only does not equate to full inclusion. inclusive education is not a selective practice where some learners are included while others are not because every child has the right to learn from the school in the community where he or she belongs. based on their definitions, the teachers’ construction of inclusive education is associated with disability (mugambi, 2017), in accordance with studies in finland by paju, kajamaa, pirttimaa & kontu, 2018. we would not blame the teachers for their narrow understanding of the concept because the history of inclusive education has to do with the fight for the rights of persons with disabilities to access all social services including education. more appropriately, the concept has a broader meaning that includes all categories of people considered vulnerable and having difficulties or disadvantage accessing education. in the zambian situation, inclusive education must go beyond only learners with disabilities to include vulnerable children such as those from very poor families whose self-esteem maybe affected as a result, girls who become pregnant and are re-enrolled to complete their education, kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 14 refugees or children of refugees who are discriminated against on the basis of their nationality, children from minority languages groups, drop-outs who get back to school, hiv/aids orphaned children and other such disadvantaged persons. first, the benchmarks for inclusion according to the united nations (un) convention on rights of persons with disabilities are equality of opportunity, non-discrimination, respect for differences and acceptance of the disabled as diversity, full and effective participation, accessibility, equality between men and women, respect for inherent dignity and autonomy to make choices; and respect for evolving capacities and identities of the disabled (leonard cheshire, 2019; wonani & muzata, 2019). from our analysis, it appears like zambia is far from the benchmarks although the country has a policy in place. this study establishes that while physical accessibility may be provided through the placement of the children with disabilities in inclusive classroom, in reality, children with disabilities do not derive practical benefit from their inclusion. our study accords with the study by ministry of community development (2018) showing, among other challenges such as lack of specialised materials and individual support, that many zambian teachers lack skills to teach learners with disabilities in inclusive classrooms. the challenge of lack of skills among teachers and specialised materials is also confirmed by simui, muzata & mtonga (2019) who argue that learners with disabilities exist in schools but do not receive the services required because teachers are not trained to teach such learners and because materials are not available in accessible formats especially for learners with visual and hearing impairments. accessibility, which is one of the key principles of inclusive education according to the uncrpd, is broader than physical presence in the classroom. learners should be seen to fully participate in the teaching and learning process within a classroom that is well resourced with accessible teaching and learning materials and blessed with teachers trained in inclusive methodologies. while we recognise and commend the effort by the ministry of general education of zambia for having put in place a policy on inclusion of learners with disabilities, the policy needs active support. it bears repeating that inclusive education should not be limited to learners with mild and moderate disabilities and should be a broader concept to drive education in zambia so that it includes all categories of children that are vulnerable within the school system, and it should support their participation in learning. thus, this calls for serious screening and assessment for disabilities and the inclusion of other vulnerable learners like children from poor families, pregnant girls, orphans, refuges and others to make inclusion real. zambia needs to do this if we are to attain the sustainable development goal number 4 on status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 15 inclusion, equity and lifelong learning. the government should embrace at all costs the need to invest in technologies that help inclusion to be real if zambia is to move forward with the inclusive education agenda. currently, studies on inclusive education in zambia show that learners have no access to computers and other icts that facilitate access to the curriculum (simui, kasonde-ngandu and nyaruwata, 2017; & mtonga, 2013). icts increase participation in learning and access to the curriculum. “participation means that all learners are engaged in learning activities that are meaningful for them” (mugambi, 2017:96). for instance, some icts such as job access to windows (jaws) have been known to allow learners with visual impairments have access to text materials for themselves instead of depending on someone read to them. the study results showing lack of skills in teachers to teach learners with visual and hearing impairments in zambian schools are not novel findings. it is clear that teachers who do not know how to read braille cannot help learners with visual impairments. likewise, those who do know sign language cannot help those with hearing impairments. muzata, (2018) argued that this problem starts from teacher training, while johnson and muzata (2019) propose a universal design for learning to make inclusion real. there is a need for all stakeholders to be pro-active in the implementation of inclusive education. the 2013 curriculum framework makes it clear that all teacher training colleges have a responsibility to train teachers in braille and sign language. however, the continued complaints of teachers not being skilled to teach in inclusive classrooms since 2014 when the revised curriculum started to be implemented leave a lot to be desired. in any case, even teachers that were already trained should already have had their capacity built or be retrained if really zambia feels the need to effectively implement inclusive education. if the problem is in negative attitudes of officials found at the grassroots such as teachers, lecturers and their institutional administrators, then it is prudent as one of the participants mentioned (see, teacher 104 excerpt), to institute frequent inclusive education implementation audits by the education standards directorate. inclusive education should not be merely paper based. it should be seen to work. challenges to policy implementation are normal but basic and obvious requirements like teacher skills for inclusive pedagogy should be provided. we are thus arguing that the failure to see practical inclusion effectively take place goes beyond a lack of resources. rather, the lack of inclusive education methodologies curriculum in teacher education institutions, coupled with negative attitudes among teachers and other stakeholders in education are kenneth kapalu muzata, francis simui, dikeledi mahlo, & phydes ng’uni ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 16 contributing factors. this study shows that the identified challenges are practical and addressable. we are of the opinion that zambia’s ministry of general education would find that most of the challenges identified in this study can be addressed if it intensifies teacher training in inclusive education. for instance, well-trained teachers can be reflective practitioners who also address negative attitudes, the lack of attention challenges, and stigmatisation and segregation from other learners. they are also able to better tackle unmodified curriculum, learner inferiority and other challenges based on their expertise that this study unveiled. while we recognise the need for specialised materials, an aspect of implementation of inclusive education besides teacher training that the ministry of general education should focus on is teacher training in inclusive pedagogies as a critical starting point to address many other challenges that inclusion is facing in the country’s education system. so far, the government of republic of zambia’s policy on inclusive infrastructure has already started yielding fruits where, commendably, all new schools are required to be built with universal design specificities to enable the inclusion of learners with disabilities. there is further need to modify already existing structures such as classrooms, libraries and other buildings to make them more accessible to learners with disabilities. as one of the research participants mentioned, rural areas are the worse affected areas in terms of the poor implementation of inclusive education. but education should be seen as a right that requires not be negotiated for and so is inclusive education. all learners in all different schools merit access to the provision of equitable and quality education. but this can only be achieved when we understand inclusive education as a responsibility for all of us. borrowing the words of mugambi; inclusive education is thus a systematic change at all levels; principals, teachers, learners, school communities, policy makers, decision makers, families, and society at large. access to mainstream education alone is not enough (mugambi, 2017: 96). thus, all stakeholders have a stake in the implementation of inclusive education. negative attitudes if not taken note of will negatively affect the implementation of inclusive education at all levels. we observe that the success of inclusive education lies in all stakeholders addressing many relevant factors but particularly stress the need for well-trained teachers in inclusive education and its methodologies. ignoring the teacher leads to a continued cycle of challenges that appear again and again as though no attempt has ever been made to address such challenges. status of zambia’s inclusive education through the lenses of teachers ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 1-20 17 conclusion and recommendations the study established that inclusive education being implemented in zambian has so far focused largely on learners with mild and moderate disabilities. these learners are placed within the mainstream classrooms without support because teachers either lack skills for teaching learners with disabilities or have negative attitudes towards such learners. the lack of resources to support the teaching of learners with disabilities included in the mainstream classrooms exacerbates their disadvantages in the classroom because they do not benefit at all. we therefore recommended that; i. the ministry of general education should train both pre-service and in-service teachers in inclusive pedagogies for them to meet the learning needs of learners with disabilities in inclusive classrooms in zambia. ii. since the concept of inclusion appears to be restricted to mild disability, the ministry of general education should scale-up the construction of the concept of inclusion so that it benefits other vulnerable groups in the zambian society. iii. to achieve meaningful inclusion, the ministry of general education in zambia needs to address the high pupil-teacher ratio so that learners with disabilities included in the mainstream classroom can receive meaningful attention from teachers. iv. an upscale of periodic inclusive education audit would be beneficial to help account for how inclusion is being implemented in zambia. v. we recommend better screening and assessment of disabilities to help identify other learners in need of inclusive education services in schools. references al-shammari, zaid, faulkner, paula e., and forlin, chris. 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(2019). parenting and educating children with autism: lived experiences of lusaka parents – zambia. international journal of sciences: basic and applied research (ijsbar), 48, (6), 20 -36. post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system monsurat omobola raji faculty of education university of ottawa, canada abstract admission into post-secondary education requires the fulfillment of specific standards or criteria by prospective candidates. criteria include, but are not limited to, standardized examinations, resumes, intent statements, tests, interviews, etc. in nigeria, prospective students must pass three examinations as part of the admission process into post-secondary programs. reports suggest these examinations lack the best design features and have very low predictive validity in student success in post-secondary programs and their job roles after graduation. this paper critically evaluates the design features of ssce, utme, and putme in the context of nigeria and their predictive validity towards student learning and success as graduates. implications of the nigerian post-secondary entrance assessment system are discussed. recommendations are offered from two jurisdictional models to improve the current status of the tripartite postsecondary entrance assessment system in nigeria. keywords: assessment, post-secondary education, admission, nigeria, graduates introduction education holds an essential value in the development of an economy, jurisdiction, or country. post-secondary education significantly accounts for the skill level of graduates who are either african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 70-86 post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 71 prepared or unprepared for employment (holden, kitchen, petrarca, & lesage, 2016). a postsecondary degree or certificate acquisition process entails securing entrance into programs and satisfying the requisite requirements stated for the program. world over, admission into postsecondary programs require the fulfillment of specific standards, albeit differently for several programs and education systems. most times, prospective students are required to write tests, submit personal statements, or have some volunteer experiences to meet up with set standards of programs of interest. in nigeria, prospective students must fulfill set standards to secure entrance into postsecondary education (e. g., universities, colleges, and polytechnics). these standards include expectations for students to score high marks on three standardized examinations. these examinations: senior secondary certificate examinations (ssce), universal tertiary matriculation examinations (utme), and the post-utme are summative in design and purpose. the west african examinations council (waec) and the national examination council (neco) are regulatory bodies that organize ssce for students in the third year of senior secondary schools in nigeria. students may sit for either waec or neco examinations to obtain the senior secondary school certificate. the joint admissions and matriculations board (jamb) oversees the conduct of the utme. in contrast, individual post-secondary institutions conduct putme for students with minimum set grades and scores in ssce and utme, respectively. the need for students to pass three qualifying examinations arose from the necessity to admit duly qualified candidates into nigerian post-secondary institutions and graduate competent students. for example, the utme was established to respond to education stakeholders’ reports on issues related to “multiple applications and admissions as well as the absence of standardization in addition to lack of uniformity in admission guidelines” (emaikwu, 2015, p. 55) that plagued nigerian post-secondary institutions. similarly, the putme was introduced from an observed intake of poorly qualified students admitted into nigerian post-secondary education due to incessant examination malpractices reported from utme (ebiri, 2010). examination malpractice is a negative implication of relying on ssce and utme to admit students into postsecondary programs (emaikwu, 2015). therefore, students’ grades on each of these standardized examinations (waec/neco, utme, and putme) form components used to categorize, rank, and stratify students into post-secondary programs in nigeria. monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 72 according to brown (2017), a standardized test is a “test which has been designed to be administered and scored according to specified rules; usually relies on selected-response items and generates norm-referenced scores to aid interpretation” (p. 132). this definition tallies with the senior secondary examinations’ design and scoring (waec and neco), utme and putme, and their utilities in ranking students for post-secondary entrance. standardized assessments, especially those classified as objectively scored, are usually easy to grade, involve limited influence from the marker, allow students to answer more questions within a stipulated time, and are generally perceived as a fair process of evaluating what students know (brown, 2017). however, brown mentions that the content of most standardized examinations is superficially relevant to curriculum outcomes, does not measure students’ deep understanding and learning, and usually, grade interpretation for most standardized tests is problematic. the purpose of this paper is to critically analyze the design and efficacy of the tripartite examinations required for post-secondary entrance into nigerian institutions. by design, i intend to showcase the types of assessment questions designed for students taking those examinations. standardized assessments may take the form of a selected-response or constructed-response item type (brown, 2017). efficacy-wise, i present a critical review of literature on the predictive validity of entrance tests/examinations towards students’ postsecondary learning and future performance in real-life work settings as graduates (especially teachers). extant literature has compared the relationship between students’ grades in entrance examinations and how they perform during their undergraduate programs (abdulkadir & ogwueleka, 2019; busayo, 2010; ngozi & ugochukwu, 2018). besides, other studies detail the predictive validity of entrance examinations or grades on graduates’ requisite competencies and skills required to perform efficiently in work settings (casey & childs, 2011; chao, sung, & huang, 2019; holden et al., 2016; oluwatayo, adirika, & wodi, 2014; shodipo, 2014). these studies argue that for most students, standardized tests measuring only cognitive abilities do not provide institutions with opportunities for selecting suitable candidates who can satisfy program requirements. similar assertions were recorded in studies that explored nigerian students’ educational achievement in post-secondary programs (e. g., abdulkadir & ogwueleka, 2019; ngozi & ugochukwu, 2018). a common idea shared by these studies are the inadequacies associated with the tripartite post-secondary entrance assessment system post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 73 currently employed in nigeria. this assessment system neither contributes towards increased student learning in post-secondary education nor performance in job roles upon graduation (oluwatayo et al., 2014). for example, abdulkadir and ogwueleka’s (2019) study conducted a predictive validity of the tripartite examinations on 943 first-year students in northern nigeria. the study found that the three entrance examinations did not influence first-year students’ academic achievement as observed from their first-year academic records. these authors conclude that nigeria’s tripartite entrance assessment system lacks efficacy in preparing students for post-secondary education learning and success. besides, through personal readings on standardized assessment and my experience of the three assessments within the nigerian education system, i sought to find answers to some pertinent questions about using the tripartite assessment system, which appears as highly cognitive. do these examinations probe critical thinking and procedural knowledge in students? does it, in any way, empower them for future learning in postsecondary education? as brown (2017) contends, the framework adopted in the design of assessment items has implications on the test’s efficacy, students’ university grades, the jobs that graduates will seek, and how they can perform the roles assigned to them in those jobs. considering the above discussions, i found the necessity to explore the validity of utilizing the tripartite assessment system as an entrance criterion into nigerian post-secondary institutions. one of the significances of this paper is the opportunity it affords educators (and other readers) a detailed description of each of the examination’s design. whereas previous studies (mostly empirical) focused relatively on one or two of the three examinations, i present an overview of the three examinations. hence, this study adds to ongoing discussions on the efficacy of using the tripartite system of assessment. further, it contributes to the need for a holistic overhaul of nigeria’s post-secondary entrance assessment system. also, it presents recommendations from two case studies (canada and taiwan) on the use of both cognitive and non-cognitive assessment models as entrance criteria into post-secondary education. to guide the reader through the upcoming sections in this paper, i first present a brief overview of assessment policies existing at all education levels in nigeria. i then present an analysis of each examination’s design features by reviewing available policy and assessment documents to showcase their assessment framework and how this framework supports learning monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 74 for students. furthermore, i provide a literature review on the three examinations’ predictive validity on post-secondary students’ learning and achievement. following a critical analysis and review of pertinent studies, i find it necessary to discuss models utilized in other education jurisdictions regarding post-secondary entrance assessment designs to enumerate contextual differences. therefore, recommendations from two case studies are provided. the paper concludes with suggestions and the necessity to review the current assessment criteria used in selecting students into nigerian post-secondary education. an overview of assessment in the nigerian education system the nigerian policy on education mandates nine years of compulsory schooling for all citizens: six years of elementary education and three years of middle school education (federal ministry of education, 2004). students attend three years of senior secondary education, and interested students proceed to post-secondary education. assessment of students after the mandatory nineyear education mainly relies on summative assessment with limited use of formative assessment. students are mandated to take a standardized examination for promotion to senior secondary schools. a similar process is engaged for senior secondary school completion examinations, whereas in this case, the intent is for certification and post-secondary entrance. assessment in nigerian schools is generally summative as teachers teach and assess students purposefully to pass external and compulsory examinations. this way, schools are ranked higher and are highly sought after by parents. on the contrary, contemporary assessment discourses have frowned against such accountability measures. students’ knowledge and understanding are not reflected through high scores on achievement tests but through individualized and authentic assessment processes that can indicate a realistic progression in their learning (brown, 2017). it is essential to mention that the above assertion is not intended to relegate summative assessment and achievement tests as unimportant assessment types. indeed, both assessment types are often implemented in contemporary assessment practices, but teachers and educational stakeholders need to be cautious of the intended purpose for use. other concerns relate to how information derived from standardized assessments is utilized. implications of the use of standardized test results could influence students’ “access to schools, special educational programs, scholarships, jobs, and promotions” (zwick & doran, 2016, p. 267) and identity post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 75 formations (brown, 2017). as a recommendation for improving test efficacy, brown (2017) mentions that the content and design of tests must measure important curriculum outcomes and be written in clear terms and language appropriate to the students taking such tests. hence, the next section of this paper touches on the design of each of the tripartite examinations required for entrance into nigerian post-secondary education. senior secondary certificate examinations (ssce) students in the final year of secondary school (grade 12) are required to write either the west african certificate examinations (waec) or the national examination council (neco) to obtain a senior secondary school certificate. for about two decades, reports document incessant students’ failures in these examinations, especially in mathematics and english language. for example, after an evaluation of the results of the 2013 ssce by waec, the examination body published that: the results of candidates in the senior secondary school (ssc) examinations conducted have been that of mass failure in recent years. the situation has become a source of worry to many nigerians, as well as to the examination body that conducts the exam (information nigeria, 2013, n. p.). thus, only 37.97% of students who sat for the 2013 ssce obtained a credit grade and above in five subjects, including mathematics and english language; in 2014, this figure declined to 31.28 % (amuche, amuche, bello, & marwan, 2014). to secure a place in a university program in nigeria, students must obtain a c grade in at least five required subjects for their chosen program. from 2008 to 2011, students’ results for the ssce revealed an average failure rate of 72, 74, 74, 75 percent, respectively (osuagwu, 2011). the above statistics reflect student failures in these examinations and the percentage of students who may probably get admitted into post-secondary education. in response to the yearly failure rate, ssce examining bodies issued a communique on perceived factors responsible for student failures. they mentioned that students fail due to “shallow knowledge of the subject matter, poor command of the use of english language, poor knowledge of the examination techniques, as well as disregard for correct interpretation of questions before attempting them” (information nigeria, 2013). although students, teachers, parents, and examining bodies have a role in ensuring that students meet up with standards set for the examination, the examining monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 76 body has a more significant and active role in student failures, specifically through the design of the examination questions. from a critical perspective, this paper will review ssce questions within the scope of the number of multiple-choice questions (mcq) options (key and distractors) and the functionality of distractors in the options provided for students. to limit the possibility of guessing by students, the suggested number of mcq options should be set to four or five (brown, 2017). traditionally, waec and neco have always provided four and five options, respectively, for each item on their examinations; this implies they both have an excellent discrimination power (owolabi et al., 2017). the functionality of test item options relates to how plausible distractors (wrong options) are in drawing the attention of test-takers from the key (correct answer) (owolabi et al., 2017). in a comparative study of the 2015 waec and neco english language examination options, owolabi and colleagues found that 87.2% of waec options and 53.6% of neco options are functional. the above statistics indicate that for mcq sections in these exams, it is less likely for students to choose a correct answer by chance in waec, increasing the validity of such tests (brown, 2017). recently, ssce provided opportunities for prospective students to view the exemplars of tests and rubrics through designated platforms. in addition, the design of the ssce incorporates multiple-choice questions with problem-based questions and laboratory-based questions. given these, it is critical to note how ssce bodies attempt to provide different assessment designs and better opportunities for students to prepare for the examinations through exemplars. however, ssce only forms a part of the components required for university admissions. universal tertiary matriculation examinations (utme) another major requirement for admitting students into post-secondary education in nigeria is to attempt and obtain above the yearly cut-off grade in utme. over the years, students (myself inclusive) have experienced challenges before and during this examination. often, students experience tension, fatigue and low self-esteem when they do not meet the cut-off mark (usually set at a minimum of 180/400 in most cases). in terms of its design, this exam was changed from paper-based to a purely computer-based test (cbt) in response to a high examination malpractice rate. however, for most nigerian students, technology in schools tends to be a luxury since there are limited facilities to engage students in using technology for assessment. limited technological post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 77 skills further increase the stress and anxiety experienced by some students while writing the utme. since the inception of cbt design in 2015, significant issues have affected students’ success in the examination. some challenges observed include the inadequate technological capacity to develop students’ information and technology (it) skills; inadequate electricity supply experienced in all nigerian cities; and students’ limited it skills (ogechukwu, 2019). in addition to being purely cbt-based, another design feature of the utme is its multiple-choice question (mcq) format. although utme is significant in the process of securing a spot in nigerian post-secondary programs, the reliance on mcq design tends to limit its efficacy towards contributing to student learning and academic progress in post-secondary education. a significant disadvantage of examining students through mcq is its inability to measure students’ in-depth understanding (brown, 2017). furthermore, utme questions being exclusively mcqs seem to eliminate the need to connect assessment with the reality of everyday life experiences that can improve student learning (brown, 2017). whereas one of the goals of assessment is to develop students’ critical thinking and procedural knowledge as linked to real-world situations (brown, 2017), the utme appears to foster a disconnect with real-life situations by designing only mcqs. for example, in science-related disciplines, the use of online mcqs is challenging for students, especially with problem-solving calculations (terblanche, 2017). this author argues that provisions should be made for students to demonstrate their knowledge of a topic through constructed-response questions (crq), as is the case in the ssce part b questions. other methods of measuring outcomes using mcqs will require immediate formative feedback to students by the examination body (terblanche, 2017). however, as stated earlier, the utme examination is solely mcq designed and does not provide students with formative feedback. research reports that adopting only mcq assessment design and focusing questions on memorizing facts have negative implications on students’ performance in such tests (brown, 2017) and limit the examination’s efficacy in assisting students’ future learning (terblanche, 2017). another implication resulting from the design and focus of questions in the utme is the upsurge of examination malpractice. historically, because utme has contributed towards increased stress levels for most students and their families, some students have lost the courage to pass the exam, and students’ identities have been negatively affected. hence, student and monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 78 parental engagement in misconduct have heightened in a bid for high scores. emaikwu (2015), for example, noted disappointing and frightening cases of students’, parents’, and examination officials’ involvement in examination malpractices in the nigerian education system. furthermore, the 2020 jamb policy meeting report provides evidence of student engagement in examination malpractices. the examination body reports on how students and examination officials indulge in the act of examination malpractice. additionally, the number of examination malpractice cases discovered in the 2019 utme was 16,586 (jamb, 2020). the examination body has since devised strategies to curb examination malpractice in the utme. post-universal tertiary matriculation examinations (post-utme) responding to several complaints and criticisms regarding the design and utility of the utme for post-secondary entrance, the nigerian government introduced another assessment policy whereby students that scored above the minimum grades in ssce and utme will be invited for screening by the student’s institution of choice. this policy mandates post-secondary institutions to conduct internal examinations in addition to the ones reviewed in previous paragraphs. again, this examination engages either a paper-based or cbt design, depending on the institution’s technological prowess. since the inception of the putme, most institutions have relied on the mcq assessment design. in contrast, some institutions (especially those using paper-based design) have included an essay section in their assessment design. in both cases, tests have focused on the student’s intended discipline. the inefficient coordination, favoritism, and malpractices recorded from this examination have placed it under severe scrutiny from stakeholders in recent years. besides, studies have revealed inconsistencies in students’ test scores in utme and putme despite that they both assess students on their intended subjects of choice. to establish possible validity differences between the two examinations, emaikwu (2015) and busayo (2010) found that some students who passed the utme failed putme. to explore the validity of putme in ensuring that unsuitable students are not admitted into post-secondary programs, busayo (2010) sampled the results of 200 candidates who applied to a teacher education program in western nigeria after scoring 200 and above in utme. results revealed that only 43.5% of the students scored above 40% in the constructed response questions (crq) section of the examination designed to screen candidates based on their writing skills. busayo’s (2010) study implies that without putme, all 200 candidates would have secured post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 79 admission into the teacher education program, with 56.5% of candidates possessing limited writing skills—a vital requirement for the program. this finding suggests that crq design provided the requisite information about prospective candidates’ skill level to the teacher education program. busayo (2010) concludes that in addition to utme, putme should be included in the criteria for seeking admissions into post-secondary programs in nigeria. in terms of assessment design, both mcq and crq should be incorporated in the putme (busayo, 2010). however, in most institutions currently, mcqs are widely used because of the increasing candidate population seeking entrance into nigerian post-secondary institutions (emaikwu, 2015). overall, implementing mcqs is advantageous as it limits marker influence; therefore, it is considered more objective. however, it encourages memorization of facts, does not provide information on the students’ skill sets, and often does not offer feedback opportunities for students’ future learning (brown, 2017). implications of the reliance of examining bodies on mcq test design are observed in the heightened examination misconducts recorded in the nigerian tripartite assessment system. even the ssce that provides exemplars for students and designs assessment sections with crqs has been faulted based on its limited focus on assessing students’ critical thinking skills (emupenne, 2017). indeed, the tripartite system of evaluating students’ suitability for post-secondary education in nigeria has been holistically ineffective. given that one of the underlying assumptions for entrance examinations into post-secondary programs is to predict students’ suitability and performance in those programs, it is crucial to present findings from studies on the relevance of these three examinations to student learning in their program of study and after graduation. implications of entrance systems on post-secondary graduates’ achievement and performance implications of standardized tests should not only be viewed through the content validity and suitability in selecting students into programs but through its predictive validity in ensuring future achievement for students. one way to test the efficacy of large-scale standardized tests is to provide students with opportunities for future learning, which has been explored through the predictive value of such tests. in the last decade, nigeria has recorded a decline in the achievement monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 80 and learning of post-secondary students. this decline cannot be separated from the assessment and admission process or criteria employed in admitting students into programs (emaikwu, 2015). in a study of 943 faculty of science students (computer science, mathematics, and physics) in northern nigeria, abdulkadir and ogwueleka (2019) sought to predict first-year undergraduate students’ gpa from the scores obtained from the three entrance examinations (ssce, utme, and putme) used to select candidates into the programs. these authors found a correlation of 0.068 with a statistical significance of 0.04 between students’ scores in ssce and gpa, but no correlations between gpa and the other two examinations (utme and putme). results from abdulkadir and ogwueleka’s study suggest that only ssce predicted students’ gpa in their first year of the science programs investigated. the study concludes that utme and putme are not relevant in providing students with future learning opportunities, especially those required for post-secondary programs. abdulkadir and ogwueleka (2019) recommend reviewing assessment policies used to select students into post-secondary programs in nigeria. similarly, njoku and ugochukwu (2018) investigated the predictive validity of putme on 389 final-year students’ results in five departments in a southern nigerian university. these authors argue that internally designed post-secondary entrance tests could affect students’ achievement in their programs. hence, they found the need to establish if putme mainly influences students’ final grades in post-secondary programs. in nigeria, students’ cumulative grade point average (cgpa) represents “the product of the grade point and credit hours for each course taken in the current and all previous semesters divided by the total number of credit hours taken in the current and all previous semesters” (njoku & ugochukwu, 2018, p. 41). findings revealed that in four of the five departments investigated, students’ putme scores did not predict their final-year cgpa (njoku & ugochukwu, 2018). these authors recommend the inclusion of departmental interviews as part of the screening criteria for students’ admission into postsecondary programs in nigeria. in terms of providing graduates with essential skills and competencies required in their job roles, holden et al. (2016) argue that “beyond their utility as a gatekeeping practice, admission standards also shape the future of the profession” (p. 4). for nigerian students, research attributes students’ inadequacies after graduation to the flawed admission process in selecting them into post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 81 post-secondary programs. this issue arose from ongoing failures recorded from nigerian graduates’ inability to meet job expectations (emaikwu, 2015; shodipo, 2014). the development of graduates’ soft skills needs to be enforced before their post-secondary entrance (shodipo, 2014). however, for most nigerian students, early, middle, senior and postsecondary education have failed to provide such opportunities due to inadequate facilities in most nigerian schools (emaikwu, 2015). additionally, the design features of the tripartite system of post-secondary entrance assessment in nigeria provide limited opportunities to assess critical thinking, higher-order thinking, and information technology skills for most candidates. notably, if the primary purpose of education is to prepare students to become successful graduates, then the post-secondary education entrance criteria must be highly effective (casey & childs, 2011). in addition, exclusive reliance on standardized test results as admission criteria for teacher candidates may provide information on their academic performance. still, the definitive characteristic of a post-secondary graduate cannot be assessed solely through cognitive competencies (chao et al., 2019). specific to nigerian teacher education graduates, studies identify that early career teachers possess low pedagogical skills in teaching, ict, and classroom assessment (oluwatayo et al., 2014; omoniyi & quadri, 2013). these cannot be dissociated from the entrance criteria used to admit students into teacher education programs (busayo, 2010). hence, studies have argued for a limited emphasis on cognitive assessment tools as criteria for post-secondary entrance and education (casey & childs, 2011; holden et al., 2016). indeed, other factors (beyond the scope of this paper) account for developing competencies in post-secondary graduates’ skills to perform excellently in their chosen careers. yet, the criteria used to admit candidates into programs may serve as a medium to control entrance and ensure that qualified students are accepted into their desired programs. recommendations and conclusion given the critical analytic stance adopted in this paper, it is pertinent to provide recommendations from post-secondary entrance models from other contexts. these models offer practical suggestions for nigeria education policy-makers to improve large-scale assessment for entrance into post-secondary programs. monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 82 the 2013 regulatory policy by the ministry of education required a structural change to ontario teacher education programs; hence, adjustments were made to admission practices to effect the changes (holden et al., 2016). in ontario, canada, holden and colleagues provide a model of admission criteria for selecting teacher candidates into ontario teacher education programs. in addition to cognitive test results widely used in selecting candidates for teacher education programs across ontario, most programs adopt non-cognitive admission criteria (holden et al., 2016). the non-cognitive admission criteria range from written profiles or statements, candidates’ experience working with students, recommendation letters, and individual interviews. although holden et al. (2016) recommend that since each of the admission criteria used has limitations, a combination of two or three methods would be proper in selecting qualified candidates into teacher education programs. for other non-cognitive assessments (including digital assessment tools) in use, especially among specific ontario teacher education programs, see holden et al. (2016). another assessment tool developed for teacher candidates in taiwan is the situation judgement test (sjt). sjt is an assessment tool used to evaluate how prospective teachers can simulate real-life teaching situations. it can be utilized as a supplemental tool to reinforce admission criteria into institutional programs, especially those that have relied mainly on cognitive tests (chao et al., 2019). further, sjts may be designed as paper-based, online, and in video formats. given its practical design, sjt has proven to enhance the predictive validity of teachers’ performance in teacher education programs and in their careers (for a specific example, see a meta-analysis conducted by mcdaniel et al., 2001, as cited in chao et al. 2019). it is important to note that the two post-secondary entrance assessment models discussed here are related explicitly to teacher candidates’ recruitment into teacher preparation programs. so far, this paper has presented a critical overview of the tripartite system employed in the nigerian post-secondary entrance assessment (the utilization of the ssce, utme, and putme). an analysis of each examination’s assessment policies and design, coupled with results from research studies, implies inadequacies in the assessment system’s utility and predictive validity for nigerian students and graduates. following some peculiar contextual issues (e. g., students’ limited it skills, limited school facilities to support learning, high examination malpractice rates, etc.) mentioned above, it is highly recommended that education policy-makers urgently review entrance assessment tools. also, the decadence in the nigerian education system post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria: a critical analysis of the design and predictive validity of the tripartite assessment system ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 83 due to its ineffective assessment policies cannot be overemphasized. it is high time that educational policies are revised to accommodate students’ procedural and critical thinking skills in national examinations. therefore, some of the above suggestions, especially the use of cognitive and non-cognitive assessment tools, can be adapted to improve the situation of existing post-secondary entrance examinations in nigeria. on a final note, the process of reviewing post-secondary education criteria in nigeria must begin at all levels of education. for example, the inclusion and enforcement of formative assessment use in early, middle, and senior years will help students develop critical thinking and procedural skills as they progress through k-12 education. when teachers engage students in formative assessment, students become active learners with higher achievement rates, and teachers are less likely to teach to the test (brown, 2017). similarly, enforcing the use of formative assessment at all levels of education could encourage examining bodies to reconsider the design of large-scale assessments. relatedly, the provision of ict facilities in schools can enhance students’ confidence in writing cbt examinations. regrettably, admitting unsuitable candidates into post-secondary programs due to the inadequacies of the tripartite system of admission may further add to the current problem of unskilled graduates and high unemployment experienced in nigeria. in their study of the relationship among mathematics teacher candidates’ recruitment, preparation, and certification in 17 countries, ingvarson and rowley (2017) found a positive association between the strength of a country’s admission criteria and teachers’ future knowledge of content and pedagogy. these authors found that countries with strong teacher quality assurance policies were among the best contenders in international mathematics tests. also, teaching and learning pedagogies in countries such as singapore, finland, canada, etc., have contributed to better learning experiences for students. therefore, with regards to teaching and learning in nigeria, holistically reviewing admission criteria into teacher preparation programs will ensure that qualified and suitable teachers are graduated and employed to teach students in schools. similar perspectives may be extended to other university disciplines to improve nigerian graduates’ learning experiences and job competencies. references monsurat omobola raji ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 70-86 84 abdulkadir, s., & ogwueleka, f. n. 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(2017). the effective use of multiple-choice questions in assessing scientific calculations. unpublished masters dissertation, university of south africa, pretoria, south africa. zwick, r., & dorans, n. j. (2016). philosophical perspectives on fairness in educational assessment. in l. cook & n. j. dorans (eds). fairness in educational assessment and measurement, (pp. 267-281). new york, ny: routledge. 1. lecturer and director of centre for didactics and research in education (cedre) modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda 1emmanuel niyibizi centre for didactics and research in education (cedre) protestant institute of arts and social sciences (piass) rwanda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5723-7688 abstract the study aims to explore teacher educators’ beliefs about role modelling in teacher education in rwanda. this study hopes to contribute to filling the gap created by limited empirical study available on teacher educators and the relevance of role modelling for high quality teacher training. the study was designed as an exploratory qualitative research using semi-structured interviews of 20 purposively and conveniently selected teacher educators. content analysis was used to analyze collected data. the findings reveal that participating teacher educators believe that role modelling is an important component in the process of teaching teachers. moreover, participants hold beliefs about role modelling as implicit exemplar practices and behavior. they think that teaching teachers involves not only providing knowledge but also serving as a good example in both teaching practices and behavior at training institutions as well as in the society. the study concludes that both implicit and explicit modelling should be included in the overall reflections of policy, research and practice of pedagogy of teacher education and especially in the professional development of teacher educators. further empirical studies are recommended about the implications of implicit modelling on student teachers’ learning outcomes. key words: role modelling, teacher education, student teacher, teacher educator, beliefs 1. introduction beliefs are at the heart of human endeavors. in the context of education, delineating beliefs of teachers and teacher educators is an important step for further reflections about educational african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 87-105 emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 88 improvement. this study explored teacher educators’ beliefs about modelling in teacher education in rwanda. the study was undertaken within the framework of the international educational discourse of educational quality as worldwide concern. education quality is at the heart of achieving the sustainable development goals (sdgs) (unesco, 2017). without disregarding other factors, quality teachers and teaching remain at the forefront of educational quality (world bank [wb], 2018; unesco, 2015; 2014; 2004; hattie, 2012). the quality of a teacher is largely dependent of the quality of teacher education imparted by teacher educators (nilsen, gustafsson & blömeke, 2016; vavrus et al., 2011; baumert & kunter, 2013) through their intervention in teacher professional development both preand in-service (european commission, 2017:4). moreover, teachers’ and teacher educators’ beliefs largely influence teachers’ decisions and behaviours concerning teaching practice (martinez, castro, vystrcilova & magliacci, 2017; voss, kleickmann, kunter & hachfeld, 2013). in this framework, teacher educators’ beliefs about teacher education are expected to significantly influence the quality of the whole education system. unfortunately, empirical research on teacher educators’ professionalism, thinking and practice is limited worldwide (european commission, 2017) and particularly in the global south. the aphorism stating that “teachers teach as they are taught, not what they were taught to teach” (vavrus et al, 2011 & blume, 1971), is a demonstration of the reality that exemplary practice (modelling) by teacher educators is seen as the most important component to engineering the quality of teacher education (loughran, 2006:39). some researchers in the field of teacher education, mostly from the global north, show that modelling, especially explicit modelling, is a tool for challenging and even changing previous experiences which might have been taken as habitus and may hinder learning to teach (lunenberg, korthagen & swennen, 2007; loughran, 2006; russell & mcpherson, 2001). unfortunately, empirical studies on how teacher educators conceptualize modelling is quite limited in the empirical global educational discourse. in line with the 21st century international political discourse on education, rwanda registered significant quantitative progress of access to education at all levels (mineduc, 2020). however, educational quality remains an issue of high concern (mineduc, 2018). despite increased quantitative qualification of teachers (mineduc, 2020) and other investments in educator sector, learning outcomes are still alarmingly poor (hec, 2015 & world bank, 2011). at the level of pedagogy, the government advocates and recommends competenceand learner-oriented teaching as a form of quality teaching (mineduc/reb, 2019 & 2015). however, a policy-practice gap modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 89 persists. teacher and contentdominated teaching practices are still a reality in the rwandan education system, including at teacher education institutions (otara, uworwabayeho, nzabalirwa & kayisenga & 2019; kuilen, altinyelken voogt & nzabalirwa, 2019, iwakuni, 2017, mineduc, 2018; sibomana, 2014; mugisha, 2010). the status of teacher educators is largely unrecognized in education policy formulation. they are trained either as general teachers for nursery or primary school levels or as subject teachers for secondary schools or subject specialists without training about teacher education. even then, empirical research in rwanda on teacher educators’ professionalism, thinking and work is sparse. 2. modelling: theoretical and empirical framework modelling in teacher education is rooted in social cognitive theory as developed by albert bandura (1986). in this theory, bandura emphasizes the role of observational learning whereby students learn from experts who modelled a desired behavior and/or skill. in the context of teacher education, observation is seen as a teaching strategy where student teachers learn from teacher educators (chernikova, 2018:24). on the one hand, teaching through modelling is appreciated for helping what cannot only be learnt in content-independent teaching (p. 14). teaching through modelling was reproached as having a number of drawbacks. first, students may observe and them imitate bad behaviors and/or skills. second, observed behavior does not always lead to change, especially because the observer does not know the thinking behind the behaviour (bandura, 1971 & 2001). moreover, teaching through observation may lead to cognitive bias especially when learners choose what might keep them in their comfort zones (bandura, 1986). to make teaching through observation more beneficial to students, explicit constructive feedback is a necessity to foreclose students’ misinterpretations (chernikova, 2018:45). in the context of teacher education, post-observations reflections should be used to facilitate student teachers benefiting from what they observed for use in their future career. conceptualized as demonstration of exemplary practice, modelling is an important tool for quality teacher education (loughran, 2006:39). some scholars have argued that teaching prospective teachers is not only about pedagogical contents but also how the latter is conveyed to students. whether good or bad, intentional, or unintentional, how teaching is portrayed plays a significant role for training teachers (lunenberg, dengerink & korthagen, 2014; lunenberg, emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 90 korthagen & swennen, 2007; korthagen, loughran & russell, 2006 & loughran & berry, 2005). this implies that teacher educators should take care of how they teach student teachers. there are two types of modelling, implicit and explicit, in the context of teacher education (lunenberg, korthagen & swennen, 2007). first, teacher educators implicitly serve as role models in terms of teaching practice. this is implicit because student teachers do not know the reasoning behind teachers educators’ choices and practices. though student teachers may learn from this form of modelling, research has shown that it is not sufficient and may be ineffective. researchers advocate for explicit reflection of teacher educators’ practice in order to understand the pedagogical reasoning, thoughts, choices and actions behind. they advocate for submitting teacher educators’ teaching practices to critique and interrogation in a form of meta-commentary (philpott, 2014; lunenberg, korthagen & swennen, 2007; loughran, 2006 & 1996; loughran & berry, 2002). a survey of extant literature on teacher education shows that implicit modelling is less reflected and is neglected. the tendency is to overvalue the explicit as the favored form of modelling in teacher education. five forms of explicit modelling (see model 1) are described. first, explicit modelling is done through a process of thinking aloud, which according to loughran (1996), consists of explaining to student teachers the pedagogical choices before any teaching session. the same author shows that this form, though confusing, is helpful for prospective teachers especially developing the culture of reflecting the pedagogical choices for their teaching. the second also by loughran (1996) is journal writing. this consists of regularly keeping a journal which synthetizes the pedagogical choices of teaching practices. the journal is made available for students of teaching who later read it to understand the teacher educator’s reasoning behind a practice. this used a delayed reflection since it is mostly made available to students later after teaching. research on how it is used and its effects on learning to teach is still unavailable. the third form of modeling is co-teaching. this is done by two teacher educators where one models (teaches) and is followed by a debriefing by the other. practices and underlying assumptions are discussed in the plenary (loughran & berry, 2002). fourth, modelling is done by involving student teachers in the process of reflecting the relevance to their prospective teaching practice (loughran, 1997). teaching practices, though discussed with student teachers, should not be copied blindly. rather student teachers must reflect on their teaching practices to render them useful to their future teaching practices (lunenberg, korthagen & swennen, 2007: 591). the last form of modelling involves modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 91 explaining the theory underlying the practices (munby, russell & martin, 2001). this means that the teacher educator explains the relationship between her/his teaching practice and theory. the following model summarizes forms of modelling in teacher education. model 1: types of modelling in teacher education source: adapted from lunenberg, korthagen & swennen, 2007; loughran, 2006; loughran & berry, 2005 & 2002, munby, russell & martin, 2001. explicit modelling is related to a reflective practice which is important for teacher education and specifically for both student teachers and teacher educators (mathew, mathew, & peechattu, 2017 & lane, mcmaster, adnum & michael cavanagh, 2014:482). on the one hand, it enables student teachers to understand the complexity of teaching through having access to and discussing, questioning, and reflecting on teacher educators’ reasoning behind their practices. on the other hand, implicitly, student teachers would learn to adopt reflective practice in their prospective practices. additionally, explicit modelling can also contribute to the improvement of teacher educators’ reflections and practices (philpott, 2014; korthagen, kessels, koster, lagerwerf & wubbels, 2001& loughran, 1996). explicit modelling may contribute to enlarging teacher educators’ pedagogical repertoire, help them to progressively reflect on their own practices as well as the relationship between theory and practice. in this framework, explicit modelling may be a dynamic and transformative tool of teacher education (lunenberg et al., 2007:589). though explicit modelling is praised in extant research, it does not mean that it is common for all teacher educators. this leads to the question, how does modelling look like in the global south, and particularly in rwanda? types of modelling explicit implicit thinking aloud coteaching forward-looking reflection journal writing theorypractice about:blank about:blank emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 92 3. research question given the proven importance of modelling in improving the quality of teacher and the paucity of empirical research on teacher educators (swennen & white, 2021; vavrus et al., 2011 & villegasreimers, 2003), especially their beliefs of role modelling; the study at hand seeks to answer the following question: how do teacher educators in rwanda understand modelling and its role in teacher education? 4. research methodology as indicated earlier (1), empirical research on the topic in terms of participants and content is limited. hence, i adopted an exploratory qualitative research design (savin-baden & major, 2013 & creswell, 2014). this design seems to be adequate (cf. silverman, 2014 & mcmillan & schumacher, 2014) as it facilitates self-verbalizing beliefs of teacher educators about modelling. using purposive and convenience sampling strategies (thornbeg & charmaz, 2014:156), data was collected from 20 teacher educators. for confidentiality and anonymization, participants were given names of football teams in rwanda.1 the sample is composed of 45% and 55% males and females respectively with qualifications ranging from undergraduate to phd (undergraduate: 70%, master, 25% and phd: 10%). by way of professional experience, 80% have taught in general education before joining teacher training, 25% have taught for less than five years, 50% for 5-6 years, and 25% for more than 11 years. by way of in-service training, all participants have participated in general pedagogical training, 40% attended subject-related training, and 20% in subject didactics training. the profile of participants shows that no one has participated in a specific training on teacher professionalization. as beliefs are related to personal interpretations of reality and experiences (hansen, 2000 & martinez et al., 2017), the semi-structured interview was used as a method of data collection. the use of pre-set questions and the flexibility of asking more questions to get rich information through semi-structured interviews gave the researcher an opportunity to clarify and deepen what the interviewee said (mason, 2018; savin-baden & major, 2013). collected data was analysed with content analysis (cf. mayring, 2014) using maxqda, which enabled the researcher to identify the emerging themes in relation to the research question. 1 names of football teams in rwanda: army, espoir, gasogi, gicumbi, isonga, jeunesse, kibuye, kigali, kirehe, kiyovu, magaju, marine, muhanga, mukura, musanze, panthère, police, rayon, sunrise, zebra. modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 93 5. findings working from a framework of teacher educators’ beliefs about modelling in rwandan teacher education, the study systematically describes themes identified during the analysis of interview transcripts. first, findings about the meaning of modelling as well as its role in teacher education are presented. second, i describe the typology of beliefs about modelling that emerged from interviewees’ transcripts. 5.1 awareness of teacher educators about modelling it is observed from interviews that participants are aware of modelling and its importance in teacher education. for example, kigali indicated: … you not only teach what you know but also who you are. how s/he is seen by student teachers, they can imitate if what her/his teaching is good or how s/he behaves, they may imitate and do their work effectively later…” (74-76). this implies that the how of teaching teachers is important in getting student teachers inspired for their future teaching practice. for this to be possible, teacher educator’s practices should not contradict what they say (jeunesse:71-72). moreover, participants are aware that student teachers are likely to apply teaching methodology they had experienced in initial teacher education. kigali expressed this as follows: “…you see most of the time we teach as we were taught. if someone experienced quality teaching using effective teaching methodology, using methodology that facilitates freedom of expression of opinions, and this is promising that the student teacher will use the same teaching methodology s/he experienced during her/his learning. i am not sure if it can 100% but there is a high probability that s/he can use it s/he already has a reference…” (kigali:7984). though jeunesse believes that student teachers should implicitly learn from teacher educators’ teaching practices, (73-75), isonga shows that sometimes student teachers may take for granted what they observed from teacher educators, whether wrong or right (213-214). the results from interviewees show that participants are aware of modelling and believe that teacher educators should take care of both the what and how of the training process of emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 94 prospective teachers. the question which may arise is what types of modelling participants believe may facilitate this process. 5.2 typology of teacher educators’ beliefs about modelling in rwanda the analysis of interviewees’ transcripts reveals one type of modelling: implicit exemplar practice and behaviour (model 2). this refers to teacher educators serving as role model both in teaching and behavior (inside and outside school context). this remains hidden to students because it is not reflected during or after teaching sessions. model 2: typology of teacher educators’ beliefs about modelling in rwanda source: primary data (2020) 5.2.1 implicit teaching exemplar practice in the views of interviewees in this study as emerged from transcripts, fulfilling preparatory formalities and pedagogical practices are two ways of role modelling. the first consists of regularity in completing administratively pedagogical documents. the second is related to modeling practices showing a mastery of content, and strictly follow parts of a lesson, use of learner-centered methods, classroom management especially students with learning difficulties where they should be provided with extra-support. modelling through implicit fulfilment of preparatory formalities implicit exemplary practice and behavior teaching practice-oriented inside school outside school disciplineoriented transformative role in the society modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 95 compliance with formalities in terms of pedagogical preparation is seen as a way of role modelling by teacher educators who participated in this study. one interviewee expressed this as follows: “...first of all you should have those documents, those documents which guide the teacher. the first document is called lesson plan, there is a scheme of work, there is a class diary, there is a so-called recording of marks. it is like an exercise book, you see, you do even have a curriculum. so you have to go to the classroom with all of those documents, and when you have them, later the student teacher should have them when s/he will go to teach, because it's like a culture. they take it as a culture and even when you visit them during the period of internship, you will realize that they have picked it up, when you visit her/ him, you will find her/him having all of those documents; s/he should have all of them. you see, this is the good example s/he got!! from where? from her/his teacher educator. when you go in the classroom to teach without having all those documents, you understand that student teacher will miss what they were supposed to learn from you and s/he will take it to her/his home school. you see the teacher educator would be serving as good example for those student teachers…” (magaju,58-70). for the participant, magaju, regularity of completing pedagogical documents indirectly teach student teachers how to prepare for their own prospective teaching practice. this is emphasized by other participants who believe that, though the requirement is tacit for student teachers, having pedagogical documents serves as an exemplar practice for prospective teachers (gasogi: 42-49; kiyovu: 112-114 & gicumbi:59-62). this shows that participants believe that administrative preparation of teaching should be tacitly modelled as a training strategy of prospective teachers. modelling through unreflected practice participants view role modelling in three perspectives: exemplar practice through knowledge of the teacher educator, teaching methods and management of students. first, it is believed that the teacher educator should show mastery of content as a way of letting student teachers learn that a teacher should master the content (kiyovu:182-183). second, interviewees think that role modelling takes place when learner-centred methods are used. this means that once student teachers are taught through learner-centered teaching, they are likely to use the same method when they teach (rayon:231-235). unfortunately, one interviewee believes that such active methods should be used only because they are recommended as best methods of teaching by education emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 96 policy makers (zebra:411-412). for zebra, believing in role modelling through active methods seems to be related to public education policy, not as a personalized view. third, participants think that modelling practice is seen via the management of students, especially those with diverse learning needs (police:72-78; rayon:128-132) and students with learning difficulties should be given extra-support from teacher educators (musanze: 411-413). by this, participants say student teachers would implicitly learn how to manage students with diverse learning needs. another aspect as added by kiyovu is punctuality. by being punctual, a teacher educator tacitly trains prospective teachers to learn punctuality (120-121). 5.2.2 implicit exemplar behavior in addition to modelling through their teaching practices, participants think that this has to be visible in terms of teacher educators’ behavior within teacher training institution and the society. inside teacher training participants in the study at hand understand that role modelling should be shown in terms of teacher educators’ conduct, especially socially acceptable behavior. for example, one participant expressed his thought about role modelling through dressing. “…you have to go to school being well dressed, right? good dressing up doesn't mean new clothes, that is, you wear clean clothes and clothes that don't distract children, so that you may serve as good example for children., for example a male teacher who may wear pants down to the waist, what kind of example would you serve to your students? what s/he observes from you, s/he will take it to where s/he will be teaching …” (magaju: 4954). in the views of magaju and others, teacher educators should take care of the choice of clothes they should put on when they are training teachers (gasogi: 163-164 & mukura: 447-449). another aspect is modelling through collaboration and relationship with fellow teacher educators. this goes together with being a role model. this is because when you teach student teachers and tell that them they have to collaborate but they do not see you collaborating with your colleagues, they will realize that what you tell them might be liars you see normally, what is observed is more easily understood than what someone hears. this is because what is modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 97 done and observed is the reality, what is not practiced is not the reality (266-270) …… eeh if for example is the one who is not good relationship with her/his co-workers, who is always in conflict with others, you see in whatever circumstances, student teachers will know it and once it is known, it negatively impacts on her/his teaching as well as learning of her/ his student teachers…” (kigali: 140-144). as expressed by kigali and emphasized by kirehe:180-182 & mukura:364-365, teacher training is closely linked to teacher educators’ behaviors inside as well as outside classroom. for them, nurturing good relationships and collaboration with fellow teacher educators as well as institution leadership is an integral part of teacher training process as far as role modelling is concerned. role modelling in the society for participating teacher educators, role modelling inside teacher training alone is not sufficient. they believe that the teachers’ life in society should serve role modelling. for example, kirehe thinks that student teachers inquire about and watches teacher educators’ life in the society and therefore the latter should nurture good relationship with neighbors. this is reinforced by kigali who believes that teacher educators’ way of life and teacher educators’ behaviour in the society are part of teaching teachers (139-140). kirehe reinforces this: “…even outside the school . . . they learn from them may be the good values they see with them. when it is not the case, they start to despise teacher educator’s advice, saying, what is he/she talking about? did he/she achieve anything in life? what benefit did he/she get out of what he/she teaches us? they may say; we used to meet him drunk! or she does not behave. we see her in adultery affairs and so on... that is why teachers should pay attention to their behavior in the society so that they may not be bad role model to their students...” (163-169). similarly, participants believe that teacher educators should serve as role models for student teachers when they play the role of social agent of change. kirehe expresses this as follows: “…how does a teacher educator contribute to the transformation of the society outside school context, does s/he participate in population meeting like meetings aiming at sensitizing people about family planning? a teacher educator may facilitate such meetings by sharing her/his knowledge with the population or for the one who teaches the same content in classroom. how does s/he collaborate with health counselors? you see, this is emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 98 their contribution outside. it should not only concern school related activities, you see, this will reach student teachers who will later understand that it is necessary to participate in the process of transformation of the society in which they live outside school context…” (kirehe: 203-211) this implies that teacher educators are thought to take part in productive activities of social transformation using knowledge that they dispense in the classroom and serving as role models to student teachers who will likely participate in similar social activities where they will serve as teachers. 6. discussion the findings of the study show that participating teacher educators are aware of the importance of role modelling in the process of teacher training through implicit exemplary practice and behavior within and outside the training institution. on the one hand, participants believe that they should serve as role models through fulfilling the formalities of preparation of administratively required pedagogical documents. additionally, role modelling is thought to be seen through teaching practice, materialized through mastery of content, use of learner-centered teaching methods, classroom management, especially for students with diverse learning needs, and providing extrasupport for those with learning difficulties. participants likewise believe that role modelling should be shown through behavior, especially socially acceptable dressing and good conduct within and outside the training institution, and good relationships and collaboration with fellow teachers. additionally, teacher educators serve as role models for student teachers in terms of being agents of social transformation. the results show that participants think that modelling should be done implicitly. this means that student teachers observe and learn from teacher educators’ practices and behavior. 6.1 teacher educators’ understanding of role modelling the results of the study show that participating teacher educators are aware of the significance of role modelling as a tool for preparing prospective teachers. though findings of the current study and those of existing ones (lunenburg, korthagen & swennen, 2007 & loughran & berry, 2005) both reveal teacher educators’ awareness that they should be role models to their student teachers, the orientation of the current study is different. while previous studies emphasize and encourage explicit modelling (lunenburg et al, 2007 & wubbels, korthagen & broekman, 1997), the findings modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 99 of this study show that participating teacher educators’ beliefs about modelling are oriented towards implicit modelling. participating teacher educators believe that it is enough for student teachers to learn from observation. this means that reflections over reasons behind teaching practice are missing in their beliefs about role modelling in teacher education. the findings are rooted in bandura’s observational learning theory which assumes teaching and learning occur through observation. however, observation learning has its limitations especially when observer or student remains passive and this applies in the context of teacher education. 6.2 significance of implicit role modelling in rwandan context the findings of implicit exemplarity could be interpreted contextually in three perspectives. first, the findings may be explained by the persistence of teacher-dominated pedagogy in teaching and teacher education in rwanda (otara, uworwabayeho, nzabalirwa & kayisenga & 2019; kuilen, altinyelken voogt & nzabalirwa, 2019; iwakuni, 2017 & sibomana, 2014). both with implicit exemplary practices and teacher-dominated pedagogy, the student is a passive observer who is expected to learn from the expert teacher. this implies that reflections on role modelling as a tool for quality teacher education should be undertaken in the framework of other aspects of studentcentered methods in the context. second, implicit exemplary behavior may be related to the social life and role of a teacher in the society. on the one hand, beliefs of teacher educators regarding role modelling outside the school context may be explained by the fact that the social and the professional seem to be symbiotic in rwanda. a teacher, on the other hand, is seen as an agent for social and economic transformation. a teacher is seen as a role model in the social life outside school. this may explain why teacher educators think that they should be role models for student teachers to implicitly prepare them for such role. third, the implicit modelling of teacher educators may be explained by the educational and professional background of teacher educators. the latter are either trained as teachers or subject specialists and do not have either prenor in-service training on teacher professionalization. it seems that their knowledge of explicit modelling in the context of teacher education is very little. 6.3 implicit exemplarity and teacher education the findings of the study at hand show that participating teacher educators have implicit exemplary practice and behavior-oriented beliefs about role modelling. given that beliefs are likely to influence practice (martinez et al., 2017&voss et al., 2013), this may show that explicit modelling emmanuel niyibizi ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 100 might be unknown by participating teacher educators as far as quality teacher education is concerned. however, research has shown that implicit modelling is ineffective, especially by leaving reflections behind teaching practices to remain as hidden choices and practices to student teachers, thereby hindering their learning to teach (lunenburg, korthagen & swennen, 2007:590). when studies assert that explicit role modelling is important for quality teacher education but the reflections of teacher educators in the context of teacher education in rwanda do not show this awareness, then we have a gap that requires to be reflected upon. while role modelling is discused in previous studies (lunenberg, korthagen & swennen, 2007; loughran, 2006 & loughran & berry, 2005) in terms of practice, the present study reveals context-oriented beliefs as behavior (outside classroom and in the society). in line with previous studies showing that beliefs are context-bound (martinez et al., 2017), the findings of this study are likewise context-oriented as far as beliefs of teacher educators about role modelling are concerned. this implies that the quality of teacher education is likely to be reflected upon contextually. 7. conclusion and perspectives the findings of this study reveal that participating teacher educators believe that role modelling is an important component in the process of teaching teachers. moreover, results show that participants’ understanding of role modelling is about implicit exemplar practices and behavior. study participants think that teaching teachers is more than providing knowledge but also includes serving as good examples in both teaching practice and behavior at training institutions as well as within the larger society. using the lenses of social cognitive theory (bandura, 1968) and implicit modelling, especially in the context of their potentials and limitations, the findings of this study suggest that both sides of modelling should be included in in-service training of teacher educators in rwanda. further research should investigate implicit role modelling and learning experiences of student teachers; investigating specially how and what student teachers learn through teacher educators’ implicit role modelling in the course of teacher education. _________________________ i thank the bamberg graduate school of social sciences (bagss) at otto-friedrich university of bamberg/germany, the german academic exchange service (daad) and prof. dr. annette scheunpflug for the support of this study. modelling in teacher education: beliefs of teacher educators in rwanda ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 87-105 101 _________________________ references bandura, a. 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(1997). preparing teachers for realistic mathematics education. educational studies in mathematics, 32(1), 1-28. teacher’s use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics in rwandan primary schools clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho university of rwanda-college of education rwanda abstract teaching and learning mathematics is easier, more interesting, more enjoyable, and more closely connected to real life applications with the use of instructional materials like textbooks, manipulatives, technology tools, and (physical or digital) models. this study investigated the impact of instructional aids on classroom interaction through semi-structured interviews and classroom observations of 15 mathematics teachers from five primary schools in rulindo district, in rwanda’s northern province. interviews were analyzed thematically, and classroom observations were analyzed descriptively. the analysis indicates a lack of instructional materials for teaching mathematics overall. most teachers use course books, but report that there are not enough books available. use of ict is limited due to the lack of power supply in some schools. teachers in this study either did not use available instructional materials at all, or, if they were used, they were not used appropriately. teachers also did not allow students to actively use the materials; thus, students were not given the opportunity to enhance their active learning and participate in constructing their knowledge of the mathematics content. keywords; mathematics, primary schools, teaching and learning, use of instructional materials introduction instructional materials are also known as teaching aids which are used by teachers during teaching practice, to demonstrate and explain procedures, concepts, and phenomena under study (ng’etich & chemwei, 2015). instructional materials are any kind of aids that assists in the teaching and learning activities, including reference books, counting equipment like blocks, stones or beads, natural displays models, charts, pictures, play materials, games, and audiovisual equipment (cartledge & milburn, 1986; goldstein, 1994). according to kadzera (2006), instructional materials are those tools that stimulate students to learn, as well as provide issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 1-16 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 2 teachers with the facility of explaining new mathematical concepts in meaningful ways. the use of instructional materials is found to be a powerful strategy for effective teaching and learning mathematics (adebule & ayoola, 2016). the use of instructional materials in mathematics enhances students’ academic achievement in mathematics (agwagah, 2001; bala & musa, 2006). mathematics is an essential subject among the curriculum subjects taught at schools (alshatri et al., 2019). the relevance of mathematics in national development, human activities, scientific and technological careers as well as in numerous careers is attested in the literature (bala & musa, 2006; eraikhuemen, 2003; kalyan, 2020). however, because of the abstract nature of mathematics, students have difficulties understanding this subject (mabagala, 2019). therefore, it is important to identify ways of making mathematics more concrete for learners so they can understand it more easily. instructional materials, such as those listed above, provide an important means of doing so. rwanda is currently its vision 2030 program that encompasses sustainable development goals four (sdg4), with a focus on quality education that calls for ensuring inclusiveness, equitable education, and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all (henao, hui, & gordon, 2017). rwanda’s current competency-based curriculum (cbc) emphasises on developing students' skills and competencies and a central approach is interaction with the available instructional materials (rwanda education board [reb], 2015). primary education in rwanda usually starts at the age of 7 years and lasts for six years ( reb, 2015). integrating instructional materials into the curriculum is a key strategy to improving tecahing and learning quality at primary level. it is understood that children learn better by seeing and doing. instructional materials serve as teaching and learning aids that help students to learn effectively to increase their performance (nyirahabimana, 2019). the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics makes learning easier, more interesting, concrete, enjoyable, and clear in real-life contexts. many students report finding mathematics difficult, and researchers recommend using concrete teaching aids (mabagala, 2019). students are likely to quickly forget what they hear, but remember what they have seen, touched, and interacted with (olayinka, 2016). despite the effectiveness of the use of instructional materials, it was observed that some schools lack basic instructional facilities and materials for the teaching and learning processes (amadi, 2019). the study conducted by nizeyimana and nkiliye (2021) on the hindrances to quality of basic education in rwanda, showed that there is a lack of instructional materials in rwanda teacher’s use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics in rwandan primary schools ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 3 secondary schools, and this was considered to be one of the barriers to quality education in rwanda. indeed, when a curriculum is developed without adequate support, sufficient materials, and competent teachers, there is a waste on implementation of the curriculum (ottevanger, 2001). despite the importance of instructional materials for primary mathematics teaching and learning, no study to date has investigated primary teachers’ use of instructional materials during teaching and learning mathematics, and the impact of instructional materials on learner participation and understanding in rwanda. thus, the present study sought to answer the following question: how do primary teachers use instructional materials, in enhancing primary students’ deep understanding of mathematics in rwanda? the study points to the benefits of using instructional materials for primary mathematics teaching and learning in ways which support the implementation of competence-based curriculum (cbc) and improves learning outcomes. review of the related literature and the guiding theory both teachers and students need instructional materials for the successful teaching and learning of any subject (janovsky, 2015). within this vein, msafiri (2017) argues that instructional materials help teachers to easily achieve instructional objectives and students to understand the content in practical ways. ogbu (2015) observed that a teacher that uses teaching aids to deliver his or her lesson, will cover more facts in less time than one who rely on only oral lesson delivery. brudett and smith (2003) in their study based on 57 schools in england and wales, concluded that the learning institutions with abundant learning and teaching resources perform better than the institutions without. unfortunately, instructional materials are not sufficient in many schools in rwanda, resulting in poor quality education. (nizeyimana and nkiliye, 2021) in most cases, many learners have difficulties in understanding certain mathematical concepts as a result of their beginner level of cognitive operation. however, where standard instructional materials are scarce or unavailable in a school, those ‘improvised’ from locally available materials can enhance lessons (ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). onasanya et al. (2008) noted that improvisation demands venture, creativeness, curiosity, and determination on the part of teachers. iji (2014) suggests that improvised instructional materials may enable students to build accuracy, understanding, and efficiency. abimbade (2004) noted that the approach of using improvised materials in a mathematics classroom assists in the proper introduction of new skills, develops understanding, as well as shows the appropriate way of doing things. egbu clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 4 (2012) also argues that involving learners in classroom activities is critical as it makes teaching learner-centered. that is why educators should emphasis the use of instructional materials to guarantee a sustainable educational system(ng'etich and chemwei 2015). on the other extreme, umugiraneza et al., (2018) found that teachers in kwazulu natal schools, south africa, do not use instructional technology in mathematics lessons because they were not confident enough in the preparation and use of the tools. the researchers also found that students were not familiar with these technology tools. ogbondah (2008) suggested that what discourages the utilization of instructional materials is the lack of information on where tools can be found, lack of basic skills for teachers about the design, selection, and utilization of these tools, and non-availability of electricity. but all agree that studying with instructional support enhances students’ understanding of self-regulated learning of mathematics (agwagah, 2001; bala & musa, 2006; meyer & turner, 2002). the present study is based on constructivist learning theory rooted in famous ideas of jean piaget, john dewey, jerome bruner that learning occurs when learners are actively involved in the process of learning and when they construct their knowledge as opposed to passive learning that is concerned about students receiving information ) (aljohani, 2017). the constructivist learning theory argues for keeping students actively involved in building and making their knowledge (elliott, kratochwill, littlefield & travers, 2000). research by meyer & turner (, 2002). also indicate that information that students gain and retain in longterm memory is what they gained through learning by doing. methodology this study employed a qualitative study design using a case study approach (creswell, 2014). the researcher conducted the study in 5 public primary schools in rulindo district in northern province of rwanda. this is a region of mining where the majority of people are involved in the exploitation of minerals and was chosen because it is accessible to the researcher; hence, easier to collect data within a limited time frame. the researcher randomly 5 schools from 90 primary schools at each school, three mathematics teachers were randomly selected. therefore, 15 mathematics teachers were purposively sampled to participate in the study. all the selected teachers participated in the study willingly and there were no incentives for the participants. the sampled teachers’ teaching experience ranges from four to twenty years. teacher’s use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics in rwandan primary schools ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 5 the study used two self-constructed types of data collection instruments, semistructured interview and classroom observation checklist. the development of these two instruments was guided by piaget’s theory that focuses on how learners interact with their environment to develop complex reasoning and knowledge (kalina, 2009). the observation checklist was made of eight statements whereby the researcher has to record the "yes" or "no" options for each statement as a teacher is being observed. both instruments were used because a combination of instruments helped the researcher to supplement the information provided during interview (kothari, 2004). interpretive research uses open ended interviews and observations to collect qualitative data which are mostly verbal instead of statistical data (gall et al., 2003). in primary schools, a lesson lasts 40 minutes, which means that each teacher was observed for 40 minutes, equivalent to one period. during the observations, the researcher used an observation protocol containing the list of instructional materials that are found in the class and to what extent these instruments are exploited by both teachers and students during a mathematics lesson. to carry out this study, the researcher obtained a license from the university of rwanda to collect information after declaring that the information collected will be confidential and will be used for the present study only. this allowed the researcher to enter the sampled primary schools. before an interview, the researcher explained the aim of the research to headmasters, and teachers were allowed to ask questions. teachers were given consent forms to sign, and they were reassured that they can withdraw at any time without penalty. teachers participated freely and voluntarily. respondents were encouraged not to reference their names on the questionnaire, to ensure anonymity. interview with teachers was done individually in a place of trust and confidentiality. the researcher assured respondents that they will be informed of the search results. all information and collected data were kept in a safe place. data collected from the interview were analyzed thematically. this analysis was employed through a process of coding, categorizing, and interpreting (mcmillan & schumacher, 2010). data from classroom observation were analyzed descriptively. this analysis was about counting the "yes" or "no" options recorded for each statement that is on the observation checklist and record their frequencies after observing all teachers. both analyses were conducted to answer our research question related to what extent primary teachers use instructional materials within the rulindo district, in enhancing primary students' understanding of mathematics. clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 6 data presentation and discussion availability of instructional materials we started the interview by asking teachers whether they use instructional materials. all the interviewed teachers said that they use instructional materials, but they revealed that these instructional materials are not enough in their schools. the common instructional materials reported by the interviewed teachers are books, stones, jugs, manila papers, cords, meter ruler, cards, scales, dice, bottle tops, sticks, solids, coins, and abacus. all teachers (15 out of 15) reported that books are the most available instructional materials, although they said that these books are not sufficient (see table 1). for instance, teacher t11 said: “books are the most available instructional materials, but we do not have enough books compared to the number of students we have in a class”. some teachers reported that the scarcity of books prevents students to take books at home for self-study purposes. for instance, teacher t2 said: “the materials we use the most are color cards and books. but books are very few because each student cannot get a book to take at home to get help from parents”. only one teacher said that books are the most available materials. the respondent stressed that every student has a book that he or she can use at home for self-study. this is as it should be since students do not only need to use books while they are at school, but also while at home when they could be assisted by family members (ukobizaba et al., 2019). like other subjects, mathematics requires students to do exercises at home that the teacher could not cover in class. good textbooks contain well prepared content that students who need to master the content can use. as constructivist learning theory stipulates, learners can actively keep building their knowledge when they are equipped with instructional materials (elliott, kratochwill, littlefield & travers, 2000). a main finding was teachers not having enough books for each student as indicated by 100% response to the question. the follow-ups on whether students use and exploit these books is also very important. table 1 shows the number of teachers who have enough books and those who do not. the number of students per book is expressed in percentages. we concluded that books are enough when we found a percentage not lower than 50% or a ratio of 1/2, i.e., where two students can share at least one book (see table 1). teacher’s use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics in rwandan primary schools ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 7 table 1. books distribution per students in percentages teachers number of books number of students ratio (%) observation t1 10 50 20 not enough t2 20 60 33.3 not enough t3 6 61 9.8 not enough t4 2 55 3.6 not enough t5 30 53 56.6 quite enough t6 40 50 80 enough t7 6 50 12 not enough t8 32 64 50 quite enough t9 4 65 6.1 not enough t10 5 52 9.6 not enough t11 4 66 6 not enough t12 20 58 34.4 not enough t13 6 49 12.2 not enough t14 21 60 35 not enough t15 19 54 35.1 not enough in 15 teachers observed, only three have enough sufficient books. this is equivalent to20% teachers who have enough books. this means that the remaining teachers (80%) do not have enough books to be used while teaching mathematics. the use of instructional materials we asked how teachers use the available instructional materials. the majority of teachers (10 out of 15) said that they put students in groups to share few available books. for instance, t4 said: we have books, but for a student to have access to a personal book is not easy. it requires us to put students in groups. unfortunately, due to this pandemic coronavirus19, putting students in groups is not encouraged. explaining their use of other teaching materials apart from books, teacher t6 said: clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 8 i use various instructional materials differently. for instance, when i am teaching to count, i bring stones, beans, bottle tops, that students can count. when i am teaching about liquid container capacities, i bring jags, 1liter bottles. when i am teaching length measurement, i use cords and a one-meter ruler. teacher's pedagogy influences the use of instructional materials since it is through this pedagogy that a teacher will be able to select appropriate materials to be used depending on the content. as it is shown in table 1, only 4 out of 15 teachers used the available teaching materials effectively. by effective use of instructional materials, it is implied that the material that can be seen clearly by every student, the teacher is seen explaining to students why, how, where, and when it will be used, and allows students to interact and use it themselves guided by the teacher. the teacher’s knowledge about the use of instruments is very important because a teacher can use efficient materials poorly, using bad materials effectively as well as having poor and bad materials and use them poorly (ahmed et al., 2004). it is therefore important to effectively implement the curriculum by using appropriate concrete materials for helping learners to gain experience, construct abstract ideas, make inventions, and build self-confidence (cartledge & milburn, 1986). information, communication, and technology (ict) tool use in primary schools among the interviewed teachers, none agreed that he/she has ever used audio-visual aids. the teachers reported that these tools are not available. teachers revealed that they do not have either a computer, a speaker, or a projector. in addition, 40% of the schools represented in the survey do not have electricity. this is problematic in a technological evolving world whereby ict is being integrated into teaching and learning to facilitate instructions. the availability of electricity within schools is a basic infrastructure for teachers to be able to integrate ict into teaching and learning ogbondah (2008) reported that one of the problems related to instructional use is the lack of power supply. however, it has been noticed that information communication technology (ict) is currently contributing to enhancing education mainly in teaching and learning of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) subjects (ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). teaching with tools such as digital imaging has the potential of bringing to the students a real-world contexts within which to learn(ahmed et al., 2004)ict tools like youtube, for instance, can help students to conceptually understand various concepts in physics as well as in mathematics (ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). teacher’s use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics in rwandan primary schools ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 9 improvisation of the instructional materials the teachers reported that the tools that they have at their schools are either provided by rwanda education board (reb) and/or building learning foundation (blf). however, some teachers (8 out of 15) said that students can bring the materials from home or students' surroundings. some teachers (5 out of 15) reported that students bring beans from home, especially when they are going to learn to count. furthermore, teachers said that they improvise by making their instructional materials with students. for instance, one teacher named t12 said: “we make ourselves materials, and we ask kids to bring bottles tops, bottles, and stones.” during the interview teachers said that they improvise, however, the classroom observation showed that they do not. however, improvisation requires the venture, creativity, curiosity, and commitment of teachers (onasanya et al., 2008). this is why, although teachers may have an idea about the improvisation, the school authorities would need to encourage the teachers to improvise, given that some materials are expensive and/or difficult to find (ndihokubwayo & habiyaremye, 2018). abimbade (2004) also revealed that using improvised materials in a mathematics classroom assist in proper assimilation of new skills and develop students’ understanding of how things are done. the fact that some teachers in collaboration with students improvise by making their own instructional materials is advantageous not only for teachers, but also for students since it enhances students’ ability of creativity and innovation. in addition, as long as teachers improvise the teaching materials, the budget that would be spent on conventional teaching materials is reduced and used for important expenses. teachers’ knowledge of using instructional materials among the five observed classrooms, only two classrooms were equipped with instructional materials such as books, jugs, manila papers, cords, meter ruler, cards, scales, dice, bottle tops, sticks, and solids. the table 1 shows the observed results about to what extent teachers use instructional materials. table 2. utilization of instructional materials sn statements check list yes no 1 are there any instructional materials in the classroom 2/15 13/15 2 in class, there are concrete instructional materials? 3/15 12/15 3 are printed instructional materials available in the classroom? 8/15 7/15 clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 10 4 are the instructional materials adequate and appropriate for the learners? 0/15 15/15 5 does the teacher use instructional materials during lesson delivery? 5/15 10/15 6 does the teacher give learners time to interact with the instructional materials during the lesson? 5/15 10/15 7 are there any audio-visual materials in the classroom? 0/15 15/15 8 were the available instructional materials used effectively? (bringing the material that can be seen clearly by every student, explaining to students why, how, where, and when it will be used, allowing students to interact and use it themselves guided by the teacher) 4/15 11/15 during our classroom observation, the majority of classrooms (8 out of 15) were equipped only with printed instructional materials like books. we found that the other few instructional materials used by the teachers are not adequate (amadi, 2019). we, therefore concur with nizeyimana and nkiliye (2021) who also found that most schools in rwanda do not have enough instructional materials. it was also found that even when the instructional materials are available in class, the majority of teachers (10 out 15) do not use them. time constraints on lessons and large class sizes were declared by teachers during the interview as factors that prevent the use of instructional materials. adaylarinin et al. (2017) also found that teachers do not use instructional materials because of lack of knowledge and negative attitudes towards their use, difficulties of classroom management, financial constraints, and teachers’ difficulties in preparing and using instructional materials. it was observed that the majority of participant teachers (10 out of 15) do not give time to students to interact with available instructional materials. only a few teachers (5 out of 10) were observed allowing students to interact with the materials. when learners interact effectively with instructional materials, they develop their psycho-motor skills. (kalina, 2009) students perform better in general in mathematics when they are given chance to interact or participate actively in the teaching-learning process when instructional materials are used (adebule & ayoola, 2016). students successfully perform hands-on activities that help them to become more creative. learning is supposed to take place when there is an acquisition of new behavior that takes place through classical and operative conditioningwhereby students respond to the stimuli and learning is boosted by direct manipulation of objects (liao, 2012). consequently, teacher’s use of instructional materials in teaching and learning mathematics in rwandan primary schools ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 11 the lack of the needed instructional materials and resources leads students to remain passive during the teaching and learning process (okobia, 2011). using improvised materials in mathematics classrooms will be an effective way to inculcate students with new skills, understanding, and creativity (abimbade, 2004). this will make learners to be actively involved in the process of knowledge construction as opposed to passive acquisition of knowledge (aljohani, 2017). giving students the opportunities to interact with the instructional materials will give them insights into the relevance of the tools being used. this will enable students to link what they learn with the real-life situation. conclusion the present study investigated how primary teachers use instructional materials while teaching mathematics within the rulindo district, in rwanda. the results showed that the majority of mathematics classrooms are not equipped with sufficient instructional materials. the teachers reported that books are the most available instructional materials, however, teachers claimed that the available books are few. teaching mathematics using instructional materials was found advantageous for both teachers and students since their use facilitates learning; the content is covered easily and quickly, and students understand mathematical concepts effectively. the majority of participant teachers did not use instructional materials and when they do, they did not allow students to interact with those materials. this pedagogy leaves students learning passively, since the students are not given chance to participate actively in constructing their knowledge. though the study was conducted at small scale, its findings suggest that rwandan school leaders, teacher training institutions and other educational stakeholders should include improvisation and effective use of instructional materials in their agenda. this study provides pointers to what future studies could still do first, this small-scale study was conducted in only one part of the country. thus, further studies can look at other districts for the purpose of generalization. second, the present study was limited to exploring how instructional materials are being used in teaching mathematics in primary schools. further studies can investigate the link between the use of instructional materials and students’ performance of mathematics at the secondary school level in rwanda. acknowledgement we acknowledge ms. rachel [second name] from england, for evaluating this study and providing us with constructive criticisms. we also recognize mr. ukobizaba fidele for his very useful comments. clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 12 this study was financed by the african centre of excellence for innovative teaching and learning of mathematics and science (aceitlms) of the university of rwanda-college of education (ur-ce). references abimbade, c. 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(2018). exploring teachers’ use of technology in teaching and learning mathematics in kwazulu-natal schools. pythagoras, 39(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4102/pythagoras.v39i1.342 appendices appendix i: classroom observation checklist utilization of instructional materials in mathematics classroom statements check list yes no are there any instructional materials in the classroom in class, there are concrete instructional materials? are printed instructional materials available in the classroom? are the instructional materials adequate and appropriate for the learners? does the teacher use instructional materials during lesson delivery? clementine umuhoza & alphonse uworwabayeho ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 1-16 16 does the teacher give learners time to interact with the instructional materials during the lesson? are there any audio-visual materials in the classroom? were the available instructional materials used effectively? (bringing the material that can be seen clearly by every student, explaining to students why, how, where, and when it will be used, allowing students to interact and use it themselves guided by the teacher). any other observation ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… thank you for your participation appendix ii: semi-structured interview utilization and types of available materials. 1. do you use instructional materials? 2. do you have instructional materials in the classroom? 3. which types do you have in the classroom? 4. what are the most available instructional materials in the classroom? 5. how do you use instructional materials that you have? 6. comparison of teaching lessons with materials and without materials. 7. do you use audio-visual materials in teaching? 8. what are the source of instructional materials you have? 9. how about getting materials that are not available in the surrounding? 10. recommendations. thank you for your cooperation the authors gratefully acknowledge the expert editorial and logistical facilities of ali mazrui centre for higher education studies at the university of johannesburg. ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ali mazrui centre, university of johannesburg south africa. abstract the prominent disability rights slogan ‘nothing for us without us’ which was adopted from the 16th-century polish revolution ‘nihil de nobis, sine nobis’, means that persons with disabilities, should be involved in anything that concerns their welfare so that they speak for themselves as people with a lived experience of disabilities. this empirical paper explores the participation of students with disabilities in the review of an institutional disability policy in a single institution of higher education in south africa. qualitative data were collected through interviews with twelve students with disabilities and seven disability unit staff members. informed by critical disability theory, the finding was that there was limited participation by students with disabilities in the formulation of institutional disability policy meant for their welfare. while contemporary scholarship on disability seeks to address the exclusion of historically disadvantaged social groups such as those with disabilities but without privileging the voice of those with a lived experience of disability in policy issues, the ‘nothing for us without us’ slogan will remain elusive, fragile and cliché merely chanted. the paper thus aims to contribute to the understanding that limited participation in policy formulation could negatively affect the learning of students with disabilities and consequently their timeous graduation. for genuine inclusion, all students, including those with disabilities will fully participate in higher learning. keywords: students with disabilities, institutional disability policy, participation, south african higher education, inclusion, non-participation issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 179-201 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 180 introduction participation in higher education by students from diverse groups is the goal and agenda of democratic countries at large, including the government of south africa. south african higher education actors are making effort to ensure that all previously disadvantaged social groups— including students with disabilities—have the opportunity, not only to access higher education but to also fully participate in learning and succeed. for instance, the national plan on education in south africa has advocated for an inclusive higher education and the enrolment of diverse students, including those with disabilities and access have since broadened. it is the role of the responsible stakeholders in higher education to drive the inclusion of all students, including those with disabilities, using the relevant policy frameworks. it is imperative to also advocate for a participatory shift in educational policy in south africa to create a space accommodating the voices of stakeholders across the spectrum of different academic programmes. the problem identified in the paper is that while it is expected that students with disabilities learn and succeed like all other students in higher education, their exclusion starts at the very outset—namely, in their non-involvement in policy. inclusiveness in higher education rightly advocates for the participation of students with disabilities and those categorised as having ‘special educational needs’. nevertheless, inclusiveness must start with decision-making that accommodates the voices of disabled people in designing policies and strategies that overcome all barriers to equal participation in higher education. unfortunately, the lived experiences and voices of disabled people have not been at the heart of policymaking in higher education. often, institutional disability policies in higher education consider only quantitative or statistical data to inform their decision-making processes. such data is often incomplete and does not reflect the complexity of the well-being of disabled people and their actual daily experiences. it is critical to reflect on the question of how we can enhance the role of students with disability in policy processes, and how higher education institutions will change the status quo. it is thus paramount to articulate the challenges that blocked the voices of students with disability in institutional disability policy processes. the argument in this study is that while south african higher education is said to have the most comprehensive policies addressing disability among all african countries, there is the exclusion of those for whom the policy is intended. students with disabilities have particularly limited participation and are not actively involved in policy issues that inform their welfare. ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 181 when the involvement and participation of students with disabilities in their own welfare and affairs is a mere slogan, adverse repercussions on their academic performance can be expected. international classification of functioning, disability, and health several international studies have sought to understand participation of children and youth with disabilities in education as explained in the world health organization (who) international classification of functioning (icf), disability and health (2001). this instrument conceptualises participation in ways that could help to inform policy, research and inclusion. the icf definition of participation refers to a ‘person’s involvement in a life situation’ (who, 2001, p. 213). participation also refers to involvement in an activity (maxwell, grandlund & augustine, 2018). in both definitions, the denominator is that there has to be some involvement when one is participating, with involvement being defined as ‘taking part, being included or engaged in an area of life, being accepted or having access to needed resources’ (who, 2001, p. 15). the key common requirements in the two definitions are that there has to be a life situation, an event or an activity, and then an involvement, in which an individual is taking part. the icf meaning of participation, therefore, refers to an inclusive context, in which an individual is involved in activities or life situations within a specific environment. it could be argued that both a conducive environment and the individual’s involvement are necessary variables for participation to take place. on the one hand, the activity or life situation within the environment should be conducive and the individual should be involved. non-participation, on the other hand, would be a situation where there is no involvement by an individual in an activity or life situation within a specific environment. the level of participation can also be determined in the icf context. it is determined by measuring the extent to which an individual is involved in an activity or life situation. the level of involvement, which equals the participation level, is determined by measuring the frequency of attendance or the intensity of engagement. as maxwell et al. (2018) explained, ‘a viable way of assessing the involvement of a person in their environment is to measure either the frequency of attendance or the intensity of engagement in a life situation’ (p. 48). they argued that this could be measured either from the sociological or psychological perspective. from the sociological perspective, the focus is on the availability of activities in the environment and participation is the frequency of having access to the activities and attending them. this implies that the extent to which an individual has access to the activities in the environment and the frequency of attending them, determine the level of participation for the individual. it could be argued that the more the individual has access to the activities sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 182 and the more he or she attends them, the higher the probability of a higher level of participation. this perspective seems to emphasise that the environment should be accommodative if an individual has to be involved frequently. it could be argued, however, that having access alone is not enough as an individual could have access but for some reason, their frequency of attendance is low. the individual’s frequency of attendance of an activity could be seen as being more important for determining the level of involvement, and consequently their level of participation. there are different debates about using icf for understanding participation, and the common assumption is that it is limited in several respects. lack of clarity about the definition of life situations is a major source of ambiguity about the boundaries between activity and participation. although the definition of activity appears quite specific (i.e., execution of a task or action), it is not clear at what point a ‘task’ becomes a ‘life situation’. existing measures have limitations in content, feasibility or breadth that limit their application across diverse populations and research contexts (mcconachie et al., 2006). granlund (2013) argued strongly against the exclusion of the subjective component from the icf model. his position is that the subjective aspect of participation is crucial for understanding the person’s situation and must also be a focus of measurement. reliance on observations as indicators of participation has been criticised as being based on a false assumption, namely that what is observed reflects the person’s actual experience (moretti et al., 2012). thus, it is argued, a person may look uninvolved to an observer but may experience themselves as very uninvolved in a situation. for example, children often participate in family social events by observing and listening while practically they are seen as not participating. conscious of the limitation of the icf framework in understanding participation, the 2018 study by maxwell et al. used a newly revised version of the icf, referred to as icf-2. the latter version captures ‘the involvement experience of the individual’ postulated in who (2018, p. 2), thus enabling a more useful classification framework, as the level of participation can be measured within the context of inclusive education. the authors added that ‘the concept of involvement should also consider the sense of belonging. this implies that where there is full participation, an individual should feel that he or she belongs. one would not understand participation without getting the experience directly from persons with a lived experience. in this study, perception, experiences and utterances of students with disabilities themselves were thus very important in understanding their participation in specific policy making at the institution. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2018.00041/full#b46 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2018.00041/full#b20 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2018.00041/full#b48 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2018.00041/full#b48 ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 183 level of participation from the psychological perspective the psychological perspective focuses on the environment being accommodative and that the individual persons with disabilities accept the environmental context as conducive to their needs. it assumes that the level of acceptance determines the level of intensity of involvement in an activity or not. here, it implies that the level of participation is determined by the individual’s acceptance of the activity in the environment and the frequency of attendance to the activity. it could be argued that high participation occurs when all three elements (the environment, acceptance of activity, and intensity of involvement) combine well. the psychological perspective thus seems to be focused on the interplay of an accommodative environment, the individual’s acceptance of the activity within the environment, and the frequency of attendance to the activity. an individual plays an important role in the level at which he or she participates in an activity. here, it implies that it is the individual who determines the intensity of involvement by accepting both the environment and the activity. thus, while a conducive environment also plays an important role in determining the level of participation, the individual’s acceptance of the activity in the environment and the intensity of involvement are an individual’s choice. in other words, even if the environment may not be accommodative, getting involved in the activity, and participating intensively, remains the choice of the individual. it could be argued that whether the environment and activity are accommodative or not, the choice is still in the individual’s court to be involved intensively or not. it is what will determine the level at which they participate. in essence, that the environment is accommodative, may not determine the frequency of attendance and involvement by the individual and vice versa. understanding the level of participation and how it is determined was important for this study, as it helped to inform the understanding of the level of stakeholders’ participation in the institutional disability policy in the specific institution. participation in the south african context howell (2005) argued that creating equity for students with disabilities requires that attention be focused on their participation within the system. he thus understands the participation of students with disabilities in terms of equity. it suggests that for him that when students with disabilities are also represented, they are participating. goode (2007) observed that when students with disabilities are not fully participating, they disappear from view and become ‘invisible’. it suggests for goode that participation involves active involvement and been visible. in this study, we hold a different view from goode. we argue that students with sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 184 disabilities can fully participate while they are not visible because participation can either be active and observable or non-active and dormant. this is why participation can only be fully understood from the lived experiences of the actors, which is the case in the present study where the utterances of students with disabilities were of prime importance. hugo (2012) argued that the level of participation might help to understand whether or not students with disabilities are fully included or are only integrated. integration means that students with disabilities are only accepted into the system but are not included in it. the experiences of participation or non-participation were thus important as they broadly inform whether or not students with disabilities were included at the specific institution as the issue of participation is inextricably intertwined and inseparable from the inclusion of all diversity: the subject of great interest in contemporary scholarship. disability policies in south african higher education among african countries, south africa has the most comprehensive policies of inclusion (chataika, 2007). in south africa, the constitution (republic of south africa, 1996), policies of inclusion, and institutional disability policies, are very important for students with disabilities as these policies inform how they are included in higher education and disability policies in each individual learning space. the policy best geared for inclusion from basic education to higher education is the education white paper 6 (ewp6): special needs education: building an inclusive education and training system (doe, 2001). in 2018, the post-school education and training (pset) strategic disability policy was enacted (pset, 2018), its purpose being: ….to create an inclusive pset system for people with disabilities, guide pset institutions in the creation of an enabling environment for people with disabilities; and provide the dhet with a monitoring and evaluation instrument to ensure that disability compliance is mainstreamed in all pset institutions (p. 15). thus the policy clearly outlines and demands that a conducive environment be created by all institutions of higher education for the participation of students with disabilities. this should especially include in policy making, which is a starting point for inclusion. the institutional disability policy in south african higher education in pursuit of the inclusion of students with disabilities, south africa’s institutions of higher education have also developed internal institutional disability policies. nine historical advantaged institutions out of the 26 public higher education institutions have institutional disability policies (matshedisho, 2007). the specific institution of focus was one of those with ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 185 a formal institutional disability policy at the time. matshedisho (2007) reported that limited funding prevents some institutions from having such internal policies. as a result, some institutions do not provide disability support and have no disability rights units. the institutional disability policy provides a framework for how students with disabilities will be included at a specific institution. the focus of this study is one of the few that have an institutional disability policy that serves the welfare of those it is meant for. it would be expected that students with disabilities fully participate in the formulation, review and implementation of the policy. otherwise, without the participation of those served by the policy, this remains on paper and does not enable changes for marginalised people with disabilities. key questions for the study a) how are students with disabilities limited in participating in the institutional disability policy at the specific south african institutions? b) how can south africa’s institutions of higher education employ the insights and challenges placed before them by student voices, to rethink policy so that it serves the needs of those for whom it is intended? c) how can the ‘nothing for us without us’ slogan be used for collective responsibility and joint accountability by students with disabilities in policy issues? d) what would participation in policy do that would not only facilitate inclusion of students with disabilities but also provide the mechanisms to continuously renegotiate the terms of inclusion and recognition as ways to disrupt the exclusive frames imposed on them? the paper analysed the lived experiences of students with disabilities in terms of their level of participation in institutional disability policy. it also addressed the question of how limited participation in policy could harm their learning. finally, the paper considered how the slogan of ‘nothing for us, without us’ could be made real by utilising the views of students with disabilities, in terms of being involved in policy matters, as the way forward. critical disability studies as a framework critical disability studies (cds) critique the social norms and cultural constructions of disability, thereby contesting the societal barriers that produce stigma and marginalisation of persons with disabilities. cds considers disability as socially constructed through the material and local contextual conditions that influence the social practices, policies, and social and sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 186 physical structures that marginalises persons with disabilities (meekosha & shuttleworth, 2009). the relevance of cds as a framework for this paper is its demand that scholars in the field work toward universal accessibility of all diverse people since scholars’ concern for those with disabilities is that they are often marginalised and excluded in many contexts. thus cds prioritises the lived realities of people with disabilities and values their participation in interpreting their own space in the world (meekosha & shuttleworth, 2009). they contest the barriers imposed on those with disability by society, and that limit their access to education, employment, transportation and a host of public and private services. in cds, hidden oppressive societal power relations in specific contexts are viewed as the underlying cause for the exclusion of persons with disabilities, thereby denying them participation, accommodation and the equality of life they also deserve in all areas of life. it is in this regard—that power dynamics are oppressive in specific contexts—is their concern. thus, where policy participation by students with disability is involved, specific theoretical concepts from cds provide useful lenses in terms of understanding the deeper underlying explanation of their level of participation. analysis by cds of the specific elements of unequal power dynamics in different contexts of higher education and the universalisation of the human rights discourse deriving from the united nations convention on the rights of people with disabilities (uncrpd) help to illuminate the exclusion of students with disabilities in policy participation. it enables a holistic analysis of the social, cultural, and physical conditions influencing the exclusions of persons with disabilities in society at large and in institutions such as those of higher education. power dynamics in the global south meekosha & soldatic (2011) argue that the hegemonic north determines the constitution of human rights but overlooks the power imbalances embedded in the hierarchical systems in the global south. it means that power dynamics and hierarchy that exist in social institutions and that have implications for human rights are taken for granted. it could be argued, therefore, that even though the human rights discourse has been accepted in african countries, maintenance of unequal power dynamics could be seen as a subtle continuation of colonialism. those who have power may still violate the rights of the powerless and vulnerable such as those with disabilities, despite them having the same human rights as other people. it is thus argued that in the global south, ‘human rights violations are not accidents…’ but are ‘… rather, symptoms ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 187 of deeper pathologies of power and are linked intimately to the social conditions that so often determine who will suffer abuse and who will be shielded from harm’ (farmer, 2005, p. 7). those who suffer abuse are those placed in the lower hierarchy of the power structure while those positioned in the higher hierarchies (i.e., without disabilities) are shielded from the oppression resulting from power dynamics; they hence are powerful. in essence, violation of human rights in the case of participation of the powerless, such as those with disabilities, is highly likely. understanding the power dynamics in a particular school context in south africa, could thus assist in explaining the level of participation in institutional disability policy review by students with disabilities. the universalisation of the human rights discourse cds scholars start broadly by critiquing the international legal instrument, the united nations convention on the rights of people with disabilities (uncrpd). the uncrpd addresses the inclusion of those with disabilities from the human rights perspective (meekosha & soldatic, 2011), highlighting that they have the right to be included/participate in issues that inform their welfare. the uncrpd consideration of participation of people with disability as an individual right creates an expectation that full inclusion/participation by students with disabilities in policy aimed at their welfare would occur. however, cds scholars critique this universalisation of the human rights discourse, considering it to stem from the great narrative of the global north (mutua, 2005; de sousa santos, 2008; meekosha & soldatic, 2011). they critique the uncrpd generalisation of how human rights is constituted in in the north to other contexts, especially, to the global south. in the context of some african institutions, some people are, unfortunately, treated as more human than others. thus, responsible authorities in the global south could on the one hand subscribe to human rights language and principles in theory, while they violate the human rights of individuals, on the other. furthermore, according to critical disability scholars the instrument may not assist the participation of students with disabilities because it frames disability as personal tragedy, resulting in activity limitation, rather than a form of social oppression that denies individuals citizenship and participation (cobigo & stuart, 2010). in contrast the cds perspective, critique the medical model and social construction of disability. it is in that respect that the two elements were used to understand the participation of students with disabilities in policy review at the institution. sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 188 method data for this study was obtained from nineteen participants by using a qualitative method. the participants included twelve students with disabilities and seven disability unit staff members. after obtaining their broad opinions using a survey questionnaire, they were interviewed in depth individually or in groups. the students with disabilities were enrolled in professional degrees at one institution of higher learning. sample and sampling procedure sampling was purposive, and a formerly advantaged institution with a long-established disability support structure since 1986 (from before independence) was selected. the institution supports 16 categories of disabilities, including learning disabilities which is not yet supported by other institutions (ndlovu, 2017). it has greater support for disabilities than other institutions in the country. the institution even provided disability support to students with disabilities when they were at home during covid-19 shutdown (disability rights unit, 2020). as policy plays a major role in informing disability support, participation or otherwise in the institutional disability policy formulation by all stakeholders—including students with disabilities—could be determined at the institution. students with lived experience of disability and for whom institutional disability policy is meant to facilitate welfare were selected. they were drawn from three professional programmes, namely medicine, law and education. these belonged to three different faculties; health sciences, law and commerce, and humanities, respectively. the three programmes were thus representative of an institution that has five faculties. fourteen students from the three faculties volunteered to participate. the sample comprised undergraduate and postgraduate students, with the undergraduates been in their final year of study; participants were therefore expected to be conversant with policy issues at the institution. the sample cut across race, gender, age, socioeconomic background and disability category. the disability categories included visual, hearing impairments, physical disabilities and albinism. the age range was from 18 to 35. the staff members from the university’s disability resource centre were selected as the providers of disability support to those students, their provision guided by policy. it was also anticipated that these staff members would be participants in disability policy development and implementation at the institution. seven of them volunteered to participate in the study. three of them also had disabilities which included albinism, low vision and physical ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 189 disabilities. they were all permanent staff members, who had been at the centre for a period ranging from ten to 25 years. thus, the specific institution and the purposively selected participants were ideal for analysing the level of participation of students with disabilities in the institutional disability policy. data collection and data analysis the qualitative questions of the survey were formulated to address the three broad questions of the study that were highlighted earlier on. the interview method was adopted as the data collection tool because it enabled depth and probing (creswell, 2008). after data had been collected, thematic data analysis was employed to derive the categories that emerged from data from the perspectives of the individual participants and thereby summarising the key features of the collected data (nowell et al., 2017; saldana, 2014). the thematic data analysis process was done in phases; the first was to familiarise the researcher with the data through prolonged engagement and label and number the data to generate the initial codes. this was followed by the researcher inferring the recurring patterns, which generated the minor themes. the latter were collapsed, abstracted for meaning and grouped into categories of major themes. the major themes were vetted and tested using the reflexive journaling (nowell et al., 2017; saldana, 2014).the process involved returning to the raw data repeatedly for comparison. checking with members and peer debriefing was used to establish trustworthiness and lastly the categories were matched and confirmed. ethical considerations all ethical procedures and protocols were followed for confidentiality, anonymity, and privacy. it was confirmed for participants that their involvement was voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw from the study; consent was sought and obtained from all participants, before the start of data collection. the ethics clearance certificate 2013ece106 was issued by the relevant ethics committee at the institution. results review of institutional disability policy at the institution at the time the study was conducted, the institutional disability policy had just been reviewed and a new policy had been developed based on the review. all seven members of the disability rights centre stated that the new policy has since been approved. there had previously been a single policy for both students and staff members, whereas separate components for students sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 190 and staff had been developed in the new policy. the members stated that the revised policy now catered for new categories of disability that had emerged and unclear aspects of the previous policy had been made clearer. they confirmed that the new disability policy, had two parts, one specifically for students with disabilities and another for staff members with disabilities. for students, the policy now covered substantial content on accommodations for disabilities. the review process and drafting of the new disability policy were carried out by specific members of the disability unit staff, some representatives of the transformation committee and representatives of higher authorities at the institution. one of the participating staff stated: ‘well we have recently worked on a new disability version and it’s available to all staff members’. another staff member viewed the revised policy as an advance on the previous one, saying: ‘actually, we have improved it recently. it’s a brand new policy and has been approved from last year’. from the statement uttered, the new version of the policy had been made available to all staff members but no mention was made of it being made available to students with disabilities. describing the involvement of the other stakeholders in the process, another staff member said: we didn’t do the policy alone; it was done in collaboration with the transformation office who deals mostly on staff issues on gender and disability issue. the policy is now more accommodative to other new diversities that are coming through. we also adjusted it according to resources we are using presently. there was a lot that needed to be adjusted. considering the ‘nothing for us, without us’ mantra, it is natural to expect that students with disabilities participated in all processes and decision-making when the review of policy was done and a new institutional disability policy was developed at the institutional level. however, there was a gap, in that no mention was made of participation by students in either the policy review process or the development of a new institutional policy. invitation of students with disabilities for review of policy out of the twelve students with disabilities spanning gender, race, age and disability categories, ten stated that they were not invited to the review of the existing policy and drafting of the new one. they confirmed that they did not even know there was a new disability policy for them at the institution. one of them stated: ‘truly speaking, i don’t even know there is a new disability policy. i don’t know what you are talking about’. another one stated: ‘not me, ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 191 i didn’t hear about it, even from friends!’ another echoed the same that he was not aware of the policy issue: i would not want to lie; i am very ignorant in that area. i don’t even know there is a new policy and what it is all about. no, i wasn’t invited, maybe it was there somewhere, i did not read it, but i am not aware. all ten students who were not invited to participate in the making of the new policy expressed the view that they were disgruntled about their lack of participation. they stressed that they should have been consulted or invited to a meeting because the institutional disability policy is for them. one student suggested that even a survey would have sufficed; they should have been allowed the opportunity to complete a survey and share their views. in one of their statements, one student stated: i think it would be a courtesy for them to communicate to us about the policy because it is the policy for disabled persons. it doesn’t make sense where you would make a policy for disabled students and they are not involved. from the sample of students with disabilities interviewed, it is clear that most of them did not even know that there was a new institutional disability policy. we thus argue that the participation level of students with disabilities concerning the policy was low. overlooking diversity in participation in the institutional disability policy the diversity of students’ disabilities might have been overlooked when inviting them to participate in the meeting for institutional disability policy review, and the development of the new policy. this omission was seen when invitations were sent to selected students and not disability categories of students were represented. it emerged that despite the majority of the students with disabilities not knowing about the new policy and not having participated in its review, two of them were aware. one said he knew about the issue of the new policy development but that he was also not invited to participate. he was a postgraduate student who was also a staff member. he reported, ‘the information was sent to me. the staff has access to it on their computers. they will say, ‘staff have a look at this! that’s how i got it.’ another student with disabilities had a different experience from the others in terms of the specific policy. she stated that some students with disabilities were invited to the review process. ‘... an email was sent to a few of us, not everybody’. she further clarified that she attended the meeting on behalf of another student who could not be present because it coincided sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 192 with the latter’s class. it was further revealed that the student who participated was on the disability committee. she said, ‘i am in the disability awareness executive committee. i was invited because somebody else could not make it. and the timing as well! it was during class.’ we thus gathered from student interview that a few students, especially those in the executive committee for disability, were invited to the policy meeting. however, even those who were invited to participate in the meeting were also dissatisfied with the time scheduled for the meeting because it did not suit them. the meeting was called during student lecture time. one student who would have attended, failed to do so because the time coincided with her lecture and she had to ask someone to attend on her behalf. thus, though the responsible authorities might have intended that the student representatives with disabilities attend the meeting to represent their other disabled counterparts, they also unintentionally excluded them by way of inappropriate timing of the meeting for the institutional disability policy. it could be argued that the responsible stakeholder might have thought that those few invitees would represent other students with disabilities. though logical, nonetheless, representation by only a few students might did not adequately represent the varied disability categories affected. invitees in one category of disability might not know the learning needs of the others and how they should be catered for in teaching. moreover, because of different social and educational backgrounds and orientations, persons of the same disability category could have different needs. thus, though howell (2006) views participation in terms of equity, we argue that one student out of twelve participating in a policy meeting is not representative and is inadequate. while the stakeholders’ effort to invite some students via email is acknowledged and viewed in a positive light, it raises concerns about the inclusion of those students at the institution in general and about their participation levels specifically. all ten students research participant with disabilities who did not participate in the policy meeting were dissatisfied. they expressed the view that participation by one student was not adequate representation. their dissatisfaction was shown in one of the students with disabilities’ statement that: one student would not, of course, speak for all disabilities. at the end of the day he is disabled in his own way. he might not know how other people are feeling with their disabilities. that’s why i am saying they should have called all of us so that even if we have grievances or questions, we would raise them there. ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 193 the statement above suggests that students with disabilities were willing to participate in the policy meeting but were constrained. those with disabilities expected to be included and be allowed the opportunity to participate in the institutional disability meant for them. we recognise the exasperation of students with disabilities as justified when they were not invited to participate because there are generally few within the student body in higher learning (fotim, 2011). they could have been invited to participate in the formulation of an institutional disability policy meant for their inclusion at the institution. denying them participation in the development of policy meant for them was tantamount to the perpetuation of a practice that is highly contested in the disability fieldin which those without disabilities speak for and make decisions for persons with disabilities who have a lived experience of disability (titchkosky, 2003; pothier & devlin, 2006; hosking, 2008),. a picture of domination of those with disabilities by the able-bodied society is reflected in this specific social context. discussion limited participation in institutional disability policy at the institution the study revealed that there was limited participation by students with disabilities either in the review process of the existing institutional disability policy or in the development of a new policy. drawing from the definition of participation, the experience identified in the development of the policy in the current study involved low frequency, limited attendance in the activity, and an environment that was not fully conducive to enabling relevant student involvement (maxwell, grandlund & augustine, 2018). the accounts of the interviewed students with disabilities with regards to their involvement in the institutional disability policy formulation at the institution meet the criteria of limited participation. though there was some representation by one student who was invited to participate, the fact that the majority of the students with disabilities did not even know that disability policy issues were being discussed at the institution shows that the level of participation was lower than expected. in essence, students with disabilities did not engage fully in institutional policy design at the institution. top-down approaches to the review of policy what the study reveals is a top-down approach to review policy were revealed at this institution. ten out of the fourteen research participant students with disabilities did not participate in the disability policy review and development of the new one. it was the members of the disability unit, members of the transformation committee and only some students with disabilities, representing others, who participated. it has been argued that in the south african context, sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 194 when it comes to policy issues in general, the process has always been top-down, right from the national level. thus the elite dominate the policy formulation terrain and the subjects for whom the policy is intended are excluded in the process. this has resulted in a policy disjuncture in which there are ‘beautiful’ policies on paper, but which are not fully implemented, and which do not address the welfare of those for whom they are intended. the current study confirms this as students with disabilities, at whom the institutional disability policy is aimed, are excluded, leaving only ‘experts’ to be determinant in the policy review and development of the new one. violation of individual rights owing to the existing power dynamics using the lens of cds, limited participation by students with disabilities in the review of the old institutional disability policy, and the development of the new one, could be explained as a violation of the rights of students with disabilities owing to the inequitable power dynamics evident in the school. farmer explained that ‘human rights violations are not accidents….’ but are ‘… rather, symptoms of deeper pathologies of power... linked intimately to the social conditions that so often determine who will suffer abuse and who will be shielded from harm’ (farmer, 2005, p. 7). as students with disabilities were excluded from participation in the meeting for the policy review in the study, those who were victimized by the pathologies of power were those because they were placed at the low rung of the power hierarchy, while those shielded from harm were those who were located higher in that structure, who made decisions on institutional policy without involving those who the welfare policy was aimed at. it could be argued that the invisible underlying cause of the violation of individual rights of these students with disabilities is deeper than is seen at the surface level; hence, without addressing the inherent power dynamics, the human rights discourse will remain on paper and not be implemented. from the cds perspective, how the policy review process was handled could be explained in terms of social norms and cultural constructions of disability in the african context. most african societies are socially gerontocratic and the elderly speaking for children and those without disabilities speaking for those with the disabilities is the norm. authorities at the african institution of education were influenced by the way their society socially and culturally construct disability; hence they did not see any anomaly in speaking for students with disabilities in terms of policy review. ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 195 because south africa has ratified the uncrpd one would expect responsible stakeholders to consider the full participation of students with disabilities in the institutional disability meeting as their individual right. however, owing to social norms and cultural constructions of disability in the african context, those placed higher in the hierarchy had and used the power to ‘speak on their behalf’ of others. critical disability scholarship has revealed that speaking for those with disabilities, who have a lived experience of disability, by those without disability is an unfortunate but all too common phenomenon in society (titchkosky, 2003; hosking, 2008) as well as the application of top-down approaches to dealing with issues affecting people with disability (potheir & devlin, 2006). in this paper, this applies to the responsible authorities, namely the disability unit and transformation members who made decisions for students with disabilities in respect of the institutional disability policy review. it speaks to universalisation of individual rights in the uncrpd that clearly are never applied equally across all contexts, because rights are conceived differently. a disability unit member’s statement that “. . . we have improved it [i.e., the policy] recently. it’s a brand new policy and has been approved from last year” suggests that they felt they had indeed improved the policy for students with disabilities. however, what the member considered improvement was not necessarily conceived as such by those with lived experience of disability. thus, the ‘nothing for us without us’ mantra was violated as the “improvement” in the policy was assessed and accepted by others other than the students with disability themselves whose welfare the institutional disability policy was meant to inform. lack of understanding of the intersectionality of disability the non-implementation of diversity when inviting students with disability to the meeting could be explained as due to a lack of understanding of intersectionality by the responsible authorities who were involved with the institutional disability policy review at the institution. intersectionality of disabilities is one aspect that critical disability scholars emphasise since students with disabilities are not homogeneous. hence there is a need to consider their diversities when making provisions for these students (shildrick, 2012). a student in education explained why the consideration of diversity is an important element of intersectionality when he said: when you interact with other disabled students, they will tell you it’s never enough. whatever the institution does is never enough for us; it can only meet us halfway. it’s because of our individualistic needs, which are different and unique. sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 196 what i may find enough, the next person with the same disability as mine might find it not enough. when i say this is quite fine for me, the other person with the same disability will say not for me. so, there is no best universal system that can apply to everybody who is disabled. it’s not a one size fit all kind of a thing. the student speaks to the issue of the group and individual differences within disability, that each one of them should have been invited to a policy meeting for them to be able to speak for themselves as individuals with unique needs. it could be argued that it is when all unique needs are catered for in the institutional disability policy that students with disabilities could be said to be included, especially in terms of their learning needs. young (1990) explained that it is reductionist to view subjects as a unit and to value commonness and sameness over difference. social injustices and oppression arise when differences are overlooked. students with disabilities themselves confirm that they are not homogeneous and thus cannot be represented by others in policy meetings. it is in this respect that we understand the united voice of all students with disabilities who were not invited to the meeting in their different disability categories that they should all have been invited to be involved in policies that concern their welfare. because individuals with disabilities have unique needs, all of them should have been invited to disability policy meetings. it is their individual right and if they are allowed the opportunity to speak for themselves, the ‘nothing for us without us’ slogan would be have been effected and not only remain a slogan. it could be argued that if students with disabilities fully participate in a policy meeting, it will in itself improve the new policy. while it is acknowledged that a collective voice could be listened to and responded to quicker, for individual/unique needs to be met, individuals should be empowered to speak for themselves and different voices be collated and summarised into needs that could be catered for in the institutional disability policy. at this specific institution, we argue for the possibility that the new policy is still exclusive in terms of the welfare of all different disability categories because students’ needs might have not been fully represented by the few students who participated in the meeting. negative psychological impact limited participation in institutional disability has negative psychological implications for students with disabilities. from the psychological perspective, for intensive participation to occur, the environment needs to be accommodative, at the same time that the individual accepts ‘nothing for us without us’: exclusion of students with disabilities in disability policy review at a south african institution of higher education ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 197 the activity and gets intensively involved (maxwell et al., 2018). in this specific case, the environment did not accommodate the students’ intensive involvement even though students may have wanted to participate. thus, isolation, discrimination and marginalisation limited participation and, based on information from the interview, subsequently harmed the psyche of the students with disabilities. though the psychological impact could not be seen at the surface level, students themselves stated that being isolated, discriminated against and marginalised to the extent that they were not even invited to participate in a policy that is meant for their welfare, affected them psychologically. thus, limited participation in the institutional disability policy process had a negative psychological impact on students with disabilities. negative effect on learning the impact on the learning of students with disabilities could be explained as a ripple effect of the continued exclusion via limited participation in the institutional disability policy. ndlovu (2017) revealed that at the specific institution under study, the general academic community did not attend the workshops organised by the disability rights centre, which taught attendees about different categories of disabilities. this non-attendance by the general academic community was because participation was not compulsory. this suggests that it was not in the institutional disability policy that the general academic community attend these workshops. had it been a policy issue, they would be bound by policy to attend those workshops. such professional development workshops would clearly assist in the teaching and learning of students with disabilities at the institution. thus, not only did limited participation in the policy review harm the psyche of students with disabilities, it also impeded their learning. this was evidenced when a medical student stated: ‘without emotional support or psychological support, you just fall off’. a disability staff member also confirmed, ‘if that person is not psychologically well, that person will not pass and get a degree’. thus, while limited participation in policy could be seen as an issue outside the learning arena, it is actually intrinsically interlinked and interconnected to the psychological well-being and learning of students with disabilities. ‘nothing for us without us’—students’ voice as the way forward the ‘nothing for us, without us’ mantra did not work for the students because the new institutional policy had been approved without them fully participating in the review of the previous policy and development of the new one. as a way forward, the researcher thus utilised sibonokuhle ndlovu & emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 179-201 198 the voice of the students with disabilities in the study to suggest ways in which participation in the institutional disability policy could be enhanced. finally, the institutional disability policy may not be separate from students with disabilities’ learning because if these students actively participate in the review process of the policy, they would have the opportunity for their voices to be heard. this applies to how they would want to be taught and how they learn. this would have allowed for their voices to be incorporated into the curriculum design , and in turn, the lecturers would be bound by policy to teach for different disability categories in ways that reflect the proposals by the students who themselves have the lived experience of disability. however, this could only be achieved where there is full participation in policy issues by students with disabilities and where the ‘nothing for us, without us slogan’ is implemented in practice—and not merely chanted in theory. conclusion the paper discussed the non/participation of students with disabilities in an institutional disability policy review at an institution of higher education in south africa. the analysis of accounts of the disability unit members, experiences of students with disabilities, and their perceptions of their participation in institutional disability policy formulation were analysed. the finding of the study is that students with disabilities’ participation in policy issues at the institution was limited, which in turn negatively impacted their psyches and learning. the slogan of ‘nothing for us, without us’ was thus seen to ring hollow in a situation where students with disabilities did not fully participate in the institutional disability policy that was meant to have influenced and facilitated their welfare broadly and their learning in particular. it is positively acknowledged that the revised policy enables greater access for students with disabilities in higher education at the institution in question. however, in the effort towards transformation and inclusion, 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(1990). justice and the politics of differences. princeton: princeton university press. http://www.info.gov.za/documents.constitution/1996 inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university benard akala university of johannesburg south africa abstract these are personal accounts blended with literature on higher education in south africa that reveal my experiences as a patient and a disabled online doctoral student. in recovery, i encountered challenges in reading, walking, speaking, and swallowing. using the narrative technique, this article highlights the academic challenges that i experienced as i transformed into a disabled online doctoral student. to demonstrate the strength of habitus as espoused, the faculty of education demanded an abeyance letter explaining the delay in my doctoral studies. the paper reveals delays in receiving feedback, lack of physical, and intellectual feedback from phd colleagues and my experience of the burden of critical thinking about doctoral studies. the paper recommends that the department of education along with higher education institutions should spell out what should be done when a higher education student(s) develops disability(ies)while enrolled and the extent to which they can be included in institutions of higher learning. keywords: disability, feedback, supervision introduction this article highlights my online supervision experience as a disabled doctorate candidate at a university in johannesburg, south africa. i present the impact of the often invisible and unspoken details about my experiences as a student with disability as i undertook doctoral studies. this is not because the scientific and objective approach is inadequate, but partly because merleau-ponty (1962) points out that issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 1-20 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 2 i cannot shut myself up within the realm of science. all my knowledge of the world, even my scientific knowledge, is gained from my particular point of view, or … some experience of the world without which the symbols of science would be meaningless (p. ix). my desire to express these experiences in a candid and personal approach is also informed by foucault’s view that “the partiality of discourse does not imply the existence of some absolute truth that could, under the right conditions, be accessed,” (cited in shildrick, 2012, p. 35-36). this view is further reinforced by kitty's (2009) perspective that “the close attentive eye needed to care for the dependent individual gives rise to perceptual capabilities that are not shared by those who have at best a glancing acquaintance” (p. 619). kitty closely observed her intellectually challenged daughter until she (kitty) gained a higher perceptual capability compared to the glancing acquaintances of her time, but still, she could not exhaustively express the daughter’s experiences without her daughter’s input. i also felt that “a shared experience does not necessarily mean a shared outlook” (beauchamp-pryor, 2011, p. 14). these perspectives convincingly make me imagine the very feeling one would add to the story in case of personal, first-hand information. similarly, personal experiences with disability and academic supervision experiences can best be understood when told by those who experience the condition. at this point, i have to narrate my own experience as a phd candidate with disability, trying as much as possible to go beyond the partiality of truth. i present a background to the paper by describing my situation and how it came about. personal background i am a male former phd graduate from a university in johannesburg, south africa. i graduated with a doctorate (phd) degree in education in october 2020. i am in my early fifties, having developed a medical condition in my early forties. as a phd student, i started learning on a full-time basis, with my upkeep and fees being met by my academic supervisor (the late supervisor). at the time, i was a normal, full-time student, participating in group discussions, seminars, workshops, field writing retreats, working in the university, and generally doing my phd. i hardly bothered to read and acknowledge any kind of information relating to assistance, experiences, or support related to students with disability or why students engage in phd studies online. thus, before my current condition, i had always tried to be as independent as possible in most of my undertakings. inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 3 although shildrick (2009, p. 36) observes that “we should be deeply suspicious of any claim that disabled people speak the truth of their conditions'', i document personal experiences as a phd student, trying as much as possible to present the truth about myself and my condition of disability. my disability condition arose in early 2015 when doctors, with the assistance of magnetic resonance imaging (mri), discovered a schwannoma tumour in my brain, on the brainstem in a private hospital in johannesburg, south africa. the tumour was responsible for the continuous headache that i used to experience. it was located at the starting point of the spinal cord, in the head, rendering the removal a bewildering engagement that would easily lead to a complication if not cautiously done. however, the medical doctors in south africa indicated that the only available and sure way to attend to my continuous headache was to perform brain surgery and remove the tumour. i successfully underwent surgery in south africa, but doctors using mri pictures taken at nyon public hospital in switzerland, discovered that a major chunk of the tumour had not been touched or removed. this was one month after i had undergone the first surgery. consequently, a second surgery on the brain tumour in switzerland in september 2015 was inevitable. after a second surgery was carried out, i developed some complications related to the tumour, leading to several internal and external bodily difficulties including partial body paralysis, difficulty in swallowing, loss of ability to write, and speak, difficulty in seeing, food choking and loss of body balance. the surgery also affected my ability to think accurately and fast. as a result of these challenges, i was admitted to a rehabilitation hospital universite geneve (hug) facility in geneva, switzerland. since then, my lack of body balance, uncoordinated body movement, and inadequate ability to physically write using my right hand and the right-hand partial paralysis makes it difficult for me to pass for a normal person. i have also been experiencing a smaller amount of air inflow in my system, making it difficult to talk, eat, swallow, work on two activities concurrently, breathe, and generally work normally. i also get tired and breathless quite often apart from losing my right handwriting ability and the visual ability of my right-hand side-eye. this experience made it difficult to read quickly and respond to pertinent academic issues online. but still, my academic supervisor, keen on inclusion and diversity among his students, through well-coordinated contact kept encouraging me to try and work on my phd. however, the most drastic effect of the surgery was the reduction of my ability to think fast and write. i discovered that i was unable to think and react to issues rapidly as i used. thus, although my conventional body may make me look normal when standing upright, the facial numbness, benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 4 blurriness, sensitivity to light by my righthand eye, and asymmetrical facial appearance make it difficult for me to respond like a normal person. the admission to the hospital rehabilitation unit aimed at correcting and recovering several bodily organs whose function had been grossly affected by the surgery. the nonfunctional form of these organs made it difficult for me to carry on with my doctoral studies on a full-time basis. first, having forgotten how to operate a computer, i started learning how to use my hands to write on a laptop in preparation for my studies and other functions performed by hands. i also had to learn how to type using my left hand alone, identify letters, construct sentences, and use my left eye correctly. second, i had to move fast while writing in preparation to complete my studies given that i was working with a supervisor who confessed earlier that he had never supervised a student on an online arrangement. he scantly knew and understood my current condition. we had worked face -to face when i was a normal full-time student. third, i learnt how to check the mail and read newspapers online. all these rehabilitation teachings aimed at rebuilding my brain and conditioning it to re-learn how to coordinate various parts of the body that had been impaired by the surgery. physically, i was contained in a wheelchair having lost the ability to walk. my legs were weak and unresponsive to mental instructions. i used a wheelchair to reach important and basic areas as well as all venues designed for rehabilitation. to capture my ability to walk, the rehabilitation centre recommended daily exercises that targeted the movement of diverse body muscles. from this situation, and slow but extensive reading online, i learned some truths about disability and online studies. as for online students who are disabled, i learnt through experience that their respective academic supervisors have to acknowledge and tolerate their disability from the technologically bridged geographical distance, using emails for my case. they are also blessed with abundant love and value for diversity and inclusion in education even as they convince themselves that they are dealing with disabled students. before the surgery and the accompanying disability, i had grown up with no knowledge of the medical or social-economic effect of disability and how it would affect schooling. i had come to learn about and experience it a few years after 2015. after the surgery, only my family, extended family, and close friends truly understood how much support and help i needed daily to survive. inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 5 it is this experience and disability condition and its relation to doctoral online supervision that i hope to share. however, i divert from my situation to illuminate on theoretical framework upon which these experiences are anchored, and the methodological approaches employed in the understanding of disability situations in higher education in south africa. theoretical framework bourdieu’s (1986) conceptual tools of habitus, social and cultural capital provide a way to conceptualise the social and academic life of disabled phd students. the idea of change is also utilized to reflect on individual transformation as both the supervisor and the phd student shifted from face-to-face academic supervision to online academic supervision. habitus in this context is defined as social actors ‘conventional way of thinking, feeling, acting, being and making sense’ (maton, 2014). it is thus a ‘structured, structuring structure’ (bourdieu 1994, p.170). it is structured by my past and present circumstances such as starting phd studies as a normal student, getting disabled and the subsequent events in phd educational experiences. ‘structuring’ in that it shapes one’s present and future practices based on the past. it is a structure because it is analytically ordered and encompasses a system of dispositions that generate perceptions, appreciations, and practice (maton, 2009, p.51) related to the people who interact. habitus is a product of both conditioning and construction (naidoo, 2015). on one hand, it expresses relations of conditioning, that is the field structures the habitus … on the other hand, it is a relation of knowledge or cognitive construction as exhibited in people. thus, habitus renders a valuable contribution to constituting the field as a meaningful world (bourdieu & wacquant, 1992, p.127). it is therefore conditioned by social structures that “exist twice” in a given environment (wacquant, 2007, p.7). the objectivity of this order refers to objective social structures that determine the distribution of material resources and means of appropriation of socially scarce goods and values (wacquant, 2007). habitus is thus supple, flexible, and transformable under varied conditions. given this flexibility, my academic research supervisor and i had to ‘unfreeze’ from our former habitus and manage challenging (cross, et al. 2009) health situations on online doctoral supervision. that is out of our capacity, we had “to critically shape [our] own responsiveness to problematic situations” (emirbayer & mische, 1988, p. 971). social capital should be understood as the contacts, social networking, and relationships an individual can be part of or operate as s/he operates (huang, 2019). for benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 6 example, the relationship established between my academic supervisor, medical doctors and the faculty registration team describes the relationship i had with them. these relationships are well known directly or indirectly in their different fields. those who have power in a particular field, such as the faculty registration office and my academic supervisor call for different social relations. cultural capital is gained mainly through an individual’s initial learning and is unconsciously influenced by the surroundings (bourdieu, 2000). it refers to the type of knowledge, skills, education, language, and merits a person owns that elevate his/her status in society (bourdieu, 1986; cole (2019). in the field of supervision, cultural capital inclines phd supervisors and students towards a particular pattern of thought and behaviour (wacquant, 2006) through the process of supervision. this understanding and urge to learn and engage in supervisory activities unconsciously stimulated our supervision interaction. thus, the competitive nature of the world today requires that supervisory skills and knowledge, as well as phd students' knowledge, be constantly upgraded, and accustomed to varying ability statuses. educational change occurs in economic, political, cultural, and technological aspects of life (wedell, 2009; shiundu & omulando, 1992). consequently, educational change occurs to deal with many new things that affect the world, thus taking the forms of innovation or reform to adapt to these changes (wedell, 2009). however, educational change may at times be very minor, affecting as few as two people. therefore, it touches on their habitus and social and cultural capital as they operate in a particular field. habitus, social and cultural capital are activated in a people at any time prompting them to act in response to circumstances. habitus “is a kind of transforming machine that leads us to ‘reproduce’ the social conditions of our production, but in a relatively unpredictable way” and therefore a function of systemic social imbalances that are constantly contested and reproduced (bourdieu, 1990a, p.87). in this context, transformation refers to alterations that are experienced by individuals in their personal, academic, and social lives. the term ‘change’ in this paper refers to the continuous modifications that …. individuals make to deal with adjustments in any matter (waraich & bhardwaj, 2007). change is thus a “process, skills and principles for managing” (kliewe, davey & baaken, 2013) situations such as disability. in a demanding environment, where change is a result of illness, the affected participants are compelled to technologically link with each other to enhance phd supervision on one hand and attend to the modern world calls for inclusivity on the other hand. this linkage activates the concepts of habitus, social and cultural inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 7 capital and their unpredictable expectations converging in the online engagement between supervisors and their students. thus, management of supervisory changes was crucial for me as a form of continuity of my doctoral studies, regardless of my condition. changes in an individual’s behaviour may result from a system of forces that surround him/her in different contexts (shimoni, 2017). such changes may include both physical appearance and approaches to academic work, and the urge to carry on regardless of the current condition. narrative technique: a methodological approach a narrative approach fits current research partly because persons with disabilities constantly tell and retell their stories comprehensively by giving detailed explanations as requested (mollow, 2004). using narrative research methodology to explore disability experience has theoretical, political, and social significance. the use of stories in research helps us to better understand the world of teaching and learning, and therefore phd supervision in economic, political, and social spheres of life. subsequently, teachers and learners are storytellers who continuously engage in narrative acts to make sense of their and others’ knowledge and experiences (mendieta, 2013). thus, what qualitative studies seek to convey is why people have thoughts and feelings that might in a way, affect their behaviour or perspectives in a particular way. using narrative techniques can help to focus on any phenomenon in its social, economic, and political context. telling my personal story was also a form of narrative research because i was convinced of expressing what had happened and how i was affected, (valeras, 2010) and therefore described as a person with a disability. human beings are normal storytellers who can make sense of the world and the things that happen to them and the world around them by building narratives to explain and interpret events both to themselves and to other people (sikes, & gale, 2006). thus, in the course of storytelling in this paper, the narrative provides connections, and coherence, and gives [my] experiences and understanding structure; thus, becoming our way “of being and dealing with time” (carr, 1986, cited in webster & mertova, 2007, p.2) and therefore particular situations. i, therefore, focus on online supervision experiences in doctoral education as opposed to normal face-to-face doctoral supervision experiences. this is because the current paper presents a personal story that sees the present arising out of a past, heading into a future; perceiving reality in narrative form (mendieta, 2013) but blended with related literature. benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 8 finally, bear in mind that the very aspect of self-selection may further reveal the willingness, and desire, to share the personal and emotional narrative as i blend it with literature on higher education. disability in south africa’s higher education the social model of disability in south africa seems not to refer to disability as related to the social environmental factors such as the individual, environmental, economic, and political aspects of life (mutanga & walker, 2015). an individual's state of health as they join higher education is just as unpredictable as a disability. medically, “disability is a condition caused by an accident, trauma, genetics or disease that may limit a person’s mobility, hearing, vision, speech or mental function” (reynolds & janzen, 2007, p.735). therefore, the social disability model views the world as having created disability barriers. issues such as one’s inability to access certain important provisions in a building or place or the view that some people cannot do certain things are bound. however, in its introductory note on policies that govern higher education based on the united nations definition, south africa defines disability as an evolving concept which ‘results from the interaction between persons with impairments, … attitudinal and environmental barriers. it recognises persons with disabilities as those persons who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual, neurological, psychological, or sensory impairments which, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others (dhet, 2018, 18). the recognition and perspective of long-term (where long-term partly means the said condition has been in existence for a long time) persons suffering from a certain condition by the south african government without mentioning those who abruptly become disabled (through diseases or accidents) technically excludes persons who develop disabilities while engaged in their studies, personal or other national tasks. this view also fails to consider internationally disabled students who engage in online studies (supervision). although this has prompted international scholars to look at disability with a better understanding including intersecting economic, social, environmental, political, and cultural factors that impede the inclusion and success of students with disabilities (strnadova, hájková & květoňová, 2015), this perspective hardly addresses the inclusion of people who become disabled while working or taking their studies in online higher education arrangement. furthermore, it affirms that although the social inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 9 model of disability is adopted in south africa, it neglects factors such as the individual, environmental, economic, and political spheres aspects of life (mutanga, 2017). another perspective on disability is offered by those in social justice. social justice is defined as the fair and equitable distribution of power, resources, and obligations in society to all people, regardless of race or ethnicity, age, gender, ability, status, sexual orientation, and religious or spiritual background (van den bos, 2003). although social justice involves reading online and enhancing principles in a way that echoes equity, recognition, and inclusion according to bell (2016), the situation in south africa is unique, given its long-term duration of apartheid and colonization as well as having some distance education research students who are disabled. this duration makes it possible to develop policy frameworks that hardly include those who develop disabilities during their studies and resolve to online study. the definition and application seem to have been influenced by the urgent need to build an inclusive south african society. world health organisation (2017) perceives disability as the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. it is clear that when someone falls short of societal expectations, physically or mentally, she or he fits the description of a disabled person. although some authors express dissatisfaction about this perspective, the current study agrees with it partly because of its perfect blend with the issue under discussion. although the term disabled are highly contested in south african literature (mutanga, 2017), literature in higher education has not conceptualized the learning condition of students who develop disabilities during their studies and their experiences as they carry on with their studies in their new condition. it has not adequately paid attention to online disabled students, their learning experiences, and the need to include them in educational policies that govern higher education. thus, these perspectives on disability as located in the south african department of education and the view by the united nations helped to contextualize my situation as an online disabled student as i endeavoured to complete my studies. besides, it is almost clear from the literature that south african universities have no clear policy on online disabled students. there were numerous issues relating to thesis writing that required my attention as well as the attention of my phd supervisor. they related to the university faculty registration, benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 10 responding to the supervisor’s suggestions, critical thinking, and arrangement of issues in the thesis. experiences in phd supervision a) faculty registration team i learnt from riddell and weedon (2014) that seeking assistance for full-time disabled students in countries that provide such assistance is long complicated process involving getting a medical certificate and other medical documents even if the university/institution acknowledged your disability. this is very challenging for online students. for instance, in 2016, the university through the faculty of education noticed that my studies were not making any progress. i was instructed by my academic supervisor to write a letter of abeyance, explaining my situation, and giving reasons as to why my studies should be extended. during that time, on 6th july 2016, my academic supervisor explained to the faculty of education that “[my name] was diagnosed with a brain tumour and has undergone two surgeries: here and in switzerland. we want him to be fully recovered before he can restart his doctoral work, which was relatively well-advanced. please advise on what should be done”. the advice came demanding that according to established structures in the university, i was personally required to write a letter of abeyance to the faculty of education. i wrote this letter, which is part of my experiences as a disabled distance student. dear sir/madam, i write to request abeyance for my doctoral studies at the university [….]. my request for abeyance is briefly explained as follows. i was taken ill on the 17th, of march 2015 as i was finalizing my phd studies. i was directed to a hospital in johannesburg where i was diagnosed with a brain tumour. i was admitted there until the 14th of may 2015 when they carried out surgery to extract the brain tumour…... i later, in june 2015 visited my family in switzerland. on 26th, june 2015, while in switzerland, i was rushed to the hospital following an extreme headache ……. an mri revealed that the tumour had not been removed and was compressing certain parts of the brain and therefore the skull resulting in the painful headache. …. i was transferred to a bigger public hospital to be attended to. inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 11 in geneva, switzerland, on the 14th of september 2015, a repeat surgery, which resulted in a major complication and left me in a coma for three weeks was carried out to remove part of the tumour (80%). this particular surgery and the complication that followed left me longitudinally paralyzed, unable to walk, see well on the right-hand side, eat normally and talk. while learning to do all these things, i stayed in a hospital rehabilitation centre for six months. last year, (august 2016), i stayed in hospital for thirty working days undergoing radiotherapy in addition to the physiotherapy that i [had] been undertaking since october 2015. i still undertake physiotherapy in a nearby hospital. while today i can eat normally, i still struggle to balance and talk well. it is for these reasons that i kindly ask for abeyance. this request revealed the institutional habitus expressed in education (bourdieu & wacquant, 1992) faculty. to authenticate my request, and therefore emphasise the power of social capital as reflected in my association with the medical doctor, i requested a medical doctor who had attended to me while in switzerland, to write a letter to the faculty of education, at the university, explaining further, my health condition. re: [your student] dear professor, at the request of your pupil, …. please find this letter to inform you that i am following his medical progress. [he] is continuing the medical monitoring of his neurological condition. as he is making progress, [he] is looking forward to admission back to the university after his recovery. with my best regards, yours sincerely. b) responding to the supervisor’s suggestions while one of the greatest challenges full-time disabled students face in higher education in south africa is physical access (mutanga & walker, 2015) to various spaces in the university, i was challenged by the nature of the academic feedback i received from my supervisor. as a phd disabled online student, i reacted to all the issues raised by the supervisor at a very benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 12 personal level, devoid of different perspectives and critical responses from my academic peers. i lacked the input of my peers at phd and master's levels that would have emanated from seminar discussions that could have further improved my thesis. peer learning involves reading and responding to a particular work by a group (hillyard, gillespie, littig, 2010) of students in a classroom setting, leading to a deeper understanding of the work at hand. topping’s (2005) adds that peer learning helps in the acquisition of knowledge and skills through active help and support. i also lacked the bodily expressions that accompany conversational experiences in an academic setting. de beer and mason (2009, p. 223) point out that the disadvantages of electronic communication include its inability to read body language cues and facial expressions; the difficulties surrounding the process of checking one’s understanding of the material; and the risk of critiques being too brusque or being seen by inexperienced researchers as personal criticisms. ultimately, i was not exposed to face-to-face dialogue which handal and lauvås (2011, p. 228) note that it “is not just richer but also attains a stronger dynamic” effect in any setting that it is applied. in addition, i also had to contend with delayed feedback from the research supervisor. while studies by cekiso, tshotsho, masha, and saziwa, (2019), mouton, boshoff, and james, (2015) and guerin, and green (2015) have revealed that delayed feedback is always experienced by postgraduate students, particularly for normal phd students, as a disabled online student, i had to wait for a long time to receive academic feedback. my supervisor always valued inclusion, even as he acknowledged the delay. in one of his emails during the online supervision, on 16th february 2018, he noted, " dear benard, i hope you are well and in speedy recovery. i am sending this draft now because i do not want to delay you any longer. i have made comments up to chapter eight…… i am also preparing a joint paper with you which is along the lines of my comments and draws on some of your ideas.” this delay was against my thinking that my disability would positively influence my supervisor and quicken his response to my thesis-related work. thus, my supervisor, on such issues, operated against watson's (2002) view that exposing one’s disability can be beneficial in terms of accessing support (feedback). i later acknowledged that it made a whole difference when a supervisor sets his/her eyes on an online disabled student. this happened one time in 2019 when my academic inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 13 supervisor while attending an education conference in geneva, switzerland, requested me to visit him. during this visit, he physically acknowledged my disability and the subsequent efforts that i had dispensed in my studies for the previous three years. to encourage the fulltime students, he promised to tell them that it was possible to do a phd without allowing the prevailing conditions including where they come from or their health condition to limit them. this action concurs with brydon and flynn's (2013, p. 9) view that the best supervisors are those who get concerned and can even act in a favourable way when they realize that their students are experiencing difficulties. it also reveals that intersecting contexts by backhouse (2009, p.151) influence doctoral learning, particularly in the culture of the academic institutions in which doctoral education is undertaken, “the networks of peers, .... and friends, as well as the families of the students, influence how supervision takes place” (backhouse, ungadi, & cross, 2015, p. 16). the physical interaction and realization of the transformation of a phd student from a normal to a disabled student affected the supervisor, prompting me to think of the effect of such transformation on the entire student-supervisor relationship. thus, although learning is a result of positive interdependence between learners' social and transferable skills gained during the learning process (altınay-gazi & altınay-aksal, 2017), when the exercise of supervision is done online, the suggestions, and facial expressions associated with the work and opinions are not subjected to discussions, criticisms, and observations. in cases where internet access was a challenge and where phd students could not convene an online phd class to respond to my academic work, i felt overwhelmed and doubtful of my work. interestingly, observations by academic supervisors attract varied opinions from phd students. thus, being in online engagement, without any physical human academic conduct is challenging and inconceivable. c) critical thinking the previously discussed situation led to my involvement in critical thinking about phd studies despite the effect of my previous surgery. moore (2010, p. 4) looks at critical thinking as thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed – the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task. while it is easy to enlist the thinking of a research supervisor, the feelings, positions and emotions of a supervisor and fellow students are not registered. therefore, i solely went benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 14 through critical thinking, focusing on emotional engagement and the needed conclusions without engaging my peers at the university. generally, being an online student engaged in research on supervision encounters lacked the vital contribution of peers, making my experiences more challenging. d) arrangement of chapters in the thesis arranging chapters and sections in a thesis presented another challenging experience for me. the arrangement of all the issues required academic-oriented writing. like many researchers and academics, i struggled with numerous writing issues including the development of chapters, paragraphs and even subsections. i knew that as li (2007) notes, issues of student writing in higher education presented a wide range of problems that are usually manifested at different levels that students experience in academic writing. given my visual disability, i slowly could read academic papers from the internet and the university library, examining the way different issues are arranged and presented. this perspective entrenched writing organizational skills in me that i eventually employed in developing paragraphs and chapters. against this perspective, correction and supervision online were extremely difficult and demanding for me. issues like the flow of the argument, the arrangement of the chapters, the use of academic language, the consultation of fellow phd students, and the document’s ordering for submission were quite challenging. e) experiencing fatigue apart from academic challenges, i also experienced mental and physical fatigue. mental fatigue expressed itself in the way i waited for the much-needed feedback, the continuous reading of the draft chapters, the struggles i endured in terms of reading and thinking, and how i positioned myself to graduate with a phd. physical fatigue was repeatedly experienced in writing and rewriting, working on the computer, and general movement related to the writing. however, these two forms of tiredness could not stand in my way concerning my resolve to complete my studies. at times, i would sense that i was putting in too much effort at the expense of my disability. however, i had been brought up in a culture (habitus) where hard work was highly valued (wacquant, 2007). thus, mental, and physical fatigue could only be noticed by myself and people who were very close to me. f) building and sustaining a working academic relationship brydon and flynn (2013) point out the value of supervision as reflected in the learning alliance. they further reveal that mutual respect, flexibility, regard for personal and professional inclusivity and the remote doctorate supervision experience of a student with disability in a south african university ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 15 circumstances, commitment to dissertation development and clear strategies for achieving agreed-upon goals constitute a learning alliance. in brief, this perspective constituted my supervisor, the thesis and myself. although my academic supervisor was overly committed, his spirit and desire for inclusion were reflected in the way he attended to my work online. at one point in an email, he notes ‘i hope you are well and in speed recovery’. conclusion this paper sought to express the personal experiences of a disabled phd student at a university in johannesburg, south africa. the paper outlines the medical genesis of my disability and the various body parts that required training to enhance partial functioning. it also expresses the faculty of education requirements for abeyance. the paper acknowledges the disadvantages that students with disabilities face while studying at a university on an online basis. for instance, it established that disabled students experience some challenges in the arrangement of chapters in the thesis and academic writing during phd supervision. it also noted that some phd supervisors are instrumental in attending to online disabled/sick students, particularly when students attain disability and are on the verge of exclusion while studying. while south africa does not have a clear educational policy that guides distance students who develop a disability while studying, this article provides the beginning of supervision experiences of disabled students at the university and the need for deliberate and purposeful commitment to inclusivity. despite this outline, i continue feeling that having a disability means struggling to do a phd which would have been easier if one was physically and mentally able. as a way forward, the department of higher education in south africa should come up with a clear policy on what should be done when higher education student[s] develop a disability while enrolled, the way and extent to which they can be included in their studies in their respective faculties. the policy should ensure that faculty members are notified, and efforts are made to ensure that affected students and lecturers are linked, informed, and supported to face the new developments. again, there is a need for researchers to find out the feelings and effects of disability on student-supervisor relationships, particularly with the advent of covid -19 pandemic and its effects on schooling/education. biography: dr. benard akala ungadi, is a freelance researcher and educationist formerly of university of johannesburg. he specializes in higher education, gender and education, disability and inclusion, and general education. benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 16 references altınay-gazi, z. and altınay-aksal, f., 2017. technology as mediation tool for improving teaching profession in higher education practices. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 13(3), 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(eds.) (pp. 1-17). london and new york: macmillan. benard akala ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 1-20 20 webster, l. and mertova, p., 2007. using narrative inquiry as a research method: an introduction to using critical event narrative analysis in research on learning and teaching. routledge. wedell, m., 2009. planning for educational change: putting people and their contexts first. bloomsbury publishing. westra, k.l., 2016. faculty and student perceptions of effective online learning environments at a two-year college. minnesota state university, mankato. world health organisation. 2017. “disabilities.” accessed february 19, 2017. http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en/ [google scholar] http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en/ http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?hl=en&publication_year=2017&author=world+health+organisation&title=disabilities 1phd in sports science (lekanfeko5@gmail.com) specializes in biokinetics, exercise and leisure sciences 1phd in sports science (naidoor3@ukzn.ac.za) specializes in biokinetics, exercise and leisure sciences 2phd in health sciences (chettyve@ukzn.ac.za) specializes in physiotherapy the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria olalekan remigious osifeko1, rowena naidoo1, & verusia chetty2 college of health sciences, university of kwazulu-natal, durban, south africa abstract background: nigerian adolescents are faced with challenges around physical inactivity. poor attitudes to, and practices in, physical activity during school physical education (pe) classes are also a challenge. our study integrated an innovative pe teaching methodology (autonomous support style) into a professional development training (pdt) programme for teachers to promote pa among adolescents. the study aimed at determining the effects of this school-based physical activity intervention for teachers on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescents. this study employed a descriptive quantitative research approach to determine the attitudes and practices of adolescents. one thousand two hundred students were recruited from twenty-four junior secondary schoolsthrough an intact group design process. a pe teacher from each school was included in the pdt intervention programme. the main components of the intervention included training pe teachers to influence their students’ attitudes and practices through the use of an autonomous support style of teaching.pe teachers allocated to the intervention group implemented the autonomous support style of teaching at the schools in the intervention group for four months. there was a pre-intervention baseline assessment of the students’ physical activity attitudes and practices, with a second assessment following the intervention. results showed that there were significant (p<0.05) changes, post-intervention, in the adolescents’ attitudes to, and practices in, physical activity participation during pe classes, and at lunch or break-time during the school day. keywords: physical activity; attitudes; practice; school-based; intervention; professional development training (pdt). african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 307-324 mailto:lekanfeko5@gmail.com olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 308 introduction physical activity (pa) has important health benefits during adolescence (world health report 2013). regular physical activity reduces the risk of sedentary behaviour, possibly obesity and cardiovascular disease among adolescents (andersen et al., 2011). furthermore, regular physical activity during adolescence influences mental and emotional health, as well as physical well-being (biddle et al., 2011; singh et al., 2012). inadequate leisure time, inactivity, obesity and chronic health issues plague the lives of millions of adolescents globally (cdfhs, 2013). although the benefits of physical activity are well documented, the participation of adolescents in physical activity has drastically declined globally, with many adolescents adopting sedentary lifestyles (hallal et al., 2012). moreover, the widespread inactivity among adolescents has been steadily increasing over the past few decades, and the harmful effects of this are reflected in the documentation of global health profiles (lonsdale et al., 2016). in nigeria, studies have also revealed that adolescents are not participating enough in physical activity (adeniyi, et al., 2011; akinroye et al., 2014; mojisola and oladimeji, 2017). a school-based physical activity intervention could offer a platform for adolescents to participate more in beneficial pa. however, adolescents are physically inactive at school; and even during physical education (pe) classes, where physical activity is encouraged. in many schools, adolescents are still not participating enough (deidre, 2016). a nigerian study evidenced that the proportion of time spent doing physical activity in pe classes is low (35.5%), and this has consequently contributed to the students’ negative attitudes to, and practices in, physical activity (akinroye et al., 2014). another study in nigeria also highlighted that, despite certified pe teachers in nigeria’s education system, and the school structures acknowledging the health benefits of physical activity, nigerian students’ attitudes and practices are unlikely to lead to any health-related benefits (akinroye et al., 2014). some of the reason’s researchers have given for the poor uptake of physical activity by adolescents in nigeria include poor programme guidelines informing the roll-out of physical activity in schools, poor teaching methodologies adopted by teachers, and poor resources, such as a lack of facilities and equipment for physical activity (adebayo, 2015). schools are further challenged by systemic issues where pe is not prioritised and academic subjects are given precedence (adeniyi et al., 2016). researchers in previous studies have concluded that these factors negatively influence the attitude and practices of adolescents with regard to the uptake of physical activity (physical activity guidelines advisory committee report, 2008; mojisola et al., 2017). previous nigerian studies have proposed the development and implementation of professional development training (pdt) programmes to mitigate some of these issues which are dissuading students from participating in physical activity in schools (ajoku, 2013). the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 309 growing evidence suggests that a pdt programme will enhance the teaching and learning platform in schools and could improve the attitudes and practices of adolescents regarding physical activity (guskey, 2003; adewale et al., 2016; aubert et al., 2018) by offering appropriate and innovative approaches that are globally relevant (adeniyi et al., 2016; mojisola & oladimeji, 2017). in this paper, the authors have developed a pdt programme through consultation with nigerian pe teachers. the pdt programme included teacher-training workshops for pe teachers. the workshops introduced and integrated a new autonomous support style of teaching to promote physical activity. this paper aimed to determine the effects of a school-based physical activity pdt programme on the attitudes and practices of adolescents regarding physical activity in lagos, nigeria. methods a descriptive quantitative research study was conducted to determine the attitudes and practices of adolescents regarding school-based physical activity, following a pdt intervention. the pdt intervention focused on pe teachers’ knowledge of physical activity teaching methods during pe classes, as well as the application of novel methodologies to promote physical activity in schools. creswell (2014) established that the method of data collection is essentially determined by the problem statement of the study and the research questions posed. in addition, martin et al. (2015) explained that data, if it is to be generalised, should be structured using the scientific methods of a quantitative approach to investigate an identified problem, in order to determine the effect of a study or intervention on specific groups of people. therefore, based on the problem and the related literature, the researcher chose the quantitative research approach to address physical activity attitudes and participation in junior secondary schools, following a pdt intervention for the pe teachers. study setting the study was conducted in an urban area of lagos state in nigeria. the intact group method (this is an already-formed group of people in an organisation, such as classrooms of students in schools, political organisations and church groups) was utilised (belton & macdonncha, 2010). no selection procedure was used: all the schools in the epe local government area (lga), lagos state were included. all junior secondary schools in each of the epe local council development areas (lcdas) were selected. six schools from epe-central lcda; eight schools from agbowa-ikosi lcda; and ten schools from eredo lcda were included, resulting in 24 junior secondary schools (jss) participating in the study. sample and sampling procedures the schools were assigned to either an experimental group or a control group in their various lcdas, through the process of intact group design (based on the distance between the schools, the groups were in olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 310 the same lcda area to allow mutual communication during the implementation, when the need arose). the experimental group included the students and pe teachers who participated in the pdt. a purposive sample of students (n=1,200) in junior secondary schools (jss) was selected. the sample comprised 24 schools (14 intervention and 10 control); and of the 1,200 adolescents, 700 students were included in the intervention group and 500 students in the control group. procedures the lead researcher visited each school and explained the purpose of the study, which was further clarified in the information and consent forms. the schools were then separated into intervention and control groups. the pe teachers in the intervention schools participated in the pdt intervention programme to upgrade their physical activity teaching methodology. the pdt programme on physical activity teaching methodologies was used to train teachers to promote physical activity among the students. the control group teachers continued with their normal teaching methods. the intervention the pdt intervention programme used a workshop approach to train pe teachers on physical activity teaching methods, including using an autonomous support style of teaching to improve the uptake of physical activity by students. the workshop training sessions introduced an autonomous support style of teaching as the teaching methodology (hagger et al., 2013; yew et al., 2013). it also offered advice on structuring the pe classes in motivationally adaptive ways and encouraged the involvement of the students by striving to satisfy their basic psychological needs (providing opportunities for choice and input; empathising with the students’ perspectives; demonstrating and/or establishing peer-learning groups; supporting co-operation) (lonsdale et al., 2016; the community guide, 2013). the intervention content covered physical activity teaching methodology to promote student physical activity during pe classes. the programme provided improved teaching approaches for the teaching of the existing pe syllabus content, in order to improve adolescents’ attitudes and practices regarding physical activity. it also aimed to promote a learning environment conducive to (potentially) enhancing the students’ health outcomes (kahar et al., 2018; cheon et al., 2015). it sought to develop a deeper understanding of the different strategies and methods used in teaching (james et al., 2011). the intervention also aimed to establish a proper understanding of the determinants of attitudes and practices regarding physical activity, before incorporating the teaching methods to promote physical activity during pe classes (lonsdale et al., 2016). implementing the intervention programme the pdt intervention programme addressed concerns regarding adolescents’ physical inactivity at school, including during pe classes, and negative attitudes and practices towards physical activity. the pdt the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 311 programme was designed to introduce autonomous support styles of teaching when conducting practical classes. all content was in line with the existing pe curriculum; at the same time ensuring that physical activity was prioritised to promote physical activity in the school. an autonomous support style offers the students’ opportunities to choose the activity. this served as a strategy to motivate students to increase the intensity of their physical activity from moderate to vigorous. furthermore, taking into consideration students’ input and opinions, allowed the teacher to understand and acknowledge difficulties experienced by the students within the pe class. the intervention included educating teachers on the importance of clear instructions prior to tasks or activities; delivery methods, specifically regarding demonstrating the physical activity; and the establishment of peer-learning groups, where the teacher grouped the students together to demonstrate a given task. each member of the group was responsible for solving the task, and for helping their teammates learn what they had been taught, until all group members successfully demonstrated and completed the task. the lack of resources was a challenge in many schools; hence, the teachers were also trained on equipment improvisation and on how to adapt games/sport/activities using the available resources. the training workshops for teachers were conducted before the beginning of the school term. the pe teachers who participated in the training workshops were divided into three separate groups, and the workshops lasted for six days. thereafter, the intervention was implemented across two school terms for a period of four months. the pe teachers implemented the skills learnt from the professional development intervention workshops. the intervention programme was monitored for two hours, every other day each week. the teachers reflected on their skills and knowledge, newly acquired in the training workshops, and their impact on the current delivery of their pe lessons. the teachers were assisted with queries and challenges experienced. in particular, teaching and learning methods were modified and adjusted throughout the duration of the intervention. this enhanced the teachers’ learning experience and at the same time promoted enjoyable physical activity among the learners. data collection students completed the attitude and practice of physical activity questionnaire for adolescents (appaqa). the questionnaire, which has been used in similar studies elsewhere in africa, measures the adolescents’ attitudes and practices and was adapted for use in this school-based physical activity intervention. the tool was developed for adolescents by the africa centre for disease control and prevention (acdcp) (2010). the questionnaire is in three sections: section a accessed the demographic data. section b assessed the attitudes to physical activity, and comprised nine questions on a likert scale of strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree. section c assessed the practices regarding olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 312 physical activity during pe classes and physical activity at break or after school, and comprised 25 multiplechoice questions. the survey was administered pre-and post-intervention. the researcher and the research assistants administered the questionnaires, which took between 20 and 30 minutes to complete. before the intervention a baseline assessment was conducted for all the students and a second assessment was conducted post-intervention. statistical analysis the data were analysed with descriptive and inferential statistics to test significant changes, from preto post-intervention. analyses were specified, based on the student’s responses on the questionnaires. these responses were grouped into demographic data; attitudes of students to physical activity; and practices of students regarding physical activity. the distributions of respondents’ ages and gender were analysed. the one-sample t-test was used to test for significant agreement or disagreement to statements measuring attitudes to physical activity. the paired sample t-test explored differences in attitudes, preto postintervention. the wilcoxon signed ranks test was used to analyse differences in physical activity pre-to post-intervention. lastly, analysis of covariance (ancova) was used to test the differences in postintervention scores between the two groups, after being corrected for by the pre-intervention scores. ethical considerations ethical approval was obtained from the university of kwazulu-natal (hss/1750/018). permission was also obtained from the lagos state ministry of education through the permanent secretary. before the study commenced, informed consent forms were obtained from the study participants. results questionnaires were completed by 1200 students at the initial stage of the study. at the post-intervention stage, a total of 1193 students completed the questionnaire, representing a 99.41% retention rate in the final analysis. the demographic information of the students who participated in this study is presented in table 1. the ages of the respondents ranged from 13 to 16 years, with the majority either 13 or 14yearsold. there were more females than males. table 1: demographic data variable categories full sample frequency (%) intervention frequency (%) control frequency (%) gender male 490 (41.1) 288 (41.4) 202 (40.6) female 703 (58.9) 407 (58.6) 296 (59.4) 13 years 436 (36.5) 253 (36.4) 183 (36.7) the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 313 age 14 years 309 (25.9) 176 (25.3) 133 (26.7) 15 years 288 (24.1) 168 (24.2) 120 (24.1) 16 years 160 (13.4) 98 (14.1) 62 (12.4) the assessment of nine statements measuring students’ attitude to physical activity participation during pe classes, both pre-intervention and post-intervention, is presented in table 2. of the nine items, five represent a positive attitude to physical activity and four represent a negative attitude to physical activity. table 2: assessment of the students’ attitudes to physical activity during the school day. item period intervention (n=689) p-value 1 control (n=493) p-value 1 mean (sd) mean (sd) 1. i would like to have more time to play sport or games with my friends. pre 2.99 (0.83) <.0005 3.09 (0.72) * .461 post 4.25 (0.66) * 3.13 (0.76) * 2. i enjoy doing physical activities and playing physical games with my friends. pre 3.03 (0.79) <.0005 3.07 (0.78) * .155 post 4.31 (0.59) * 3.14 (0.82) * 3. i find my physical education class interesting. pre 2.98 (0.78) <.0005 2.92 (0.78) $ .781 post 4.39 (0.68) * 2.93 (0.82) 4. i am excited about physical education pre 3.04 (0.77) <.0005 2.94 (0.79) $ .168 post 4.27 (0.69) * 3.01 (0.77) 5. the games and physical exercises we do in physical education class make learning fun. pre 3.00 (0.93) <.0005 2.84 (0.77) $ .357 post 4.28 (0.84) * 2.89 (0.81) 6. physical education classes are boring. pre 2.89 (1.12) <.0005 2.92 (1.07) * .780 post 1.46 (0.66) $ 2.94 (1.04) * 7. i do not have fun when i am doing physical activity. pre 2.99 (1.21) <.0005 2.77 (1.190) $ .030 post 1.37 (0.59) $ 2.94 (1.18) * 8. i feel uncomfortable or embarrassed in pre 2.91 (1.21) <.0005 3.06 (1.19) * .853 olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 314 exercise clothes during pe classes post 1.58 (0.79) $ 3.08 (1.18) * 9. i see long sessions of exercise during pe classes as a punishment pre 2.64 (1.21) <.0005 2.49 (1.23) * .850 post 1.53 (0.64) $ 2.50 (1.24) * sd=standard deviation * indicates significant agreement at .05 level, following a one-sample t-test $ indicates significant disagreement at .05 level, following a one-sample t-test 1 paired samples t-test for differences preto post-intervention for the intervention group, there was significant agreement (post-intervention) with all the positively-worded items; and significant disagreement with all the negatively-worded items. in addition, there was a significant improvement in their attitude to participation in school-based physical activity, reflected in all the items. while there was some significant agreement and disagreement with specific items, both pre-and post-intervention, the control group showed a significant change in only one item – ‘i do not have fun when i am doing physical activity’, with which less disagreement was shown post-intervention. after correction for the pre-intervention scores, compared to the control group, the intervention group showed significantly more agreement with the positively-worded items and significantly less disagreement with the negatively-worded items. it is evident that the intervention had a positive effect on students’ attitudes towards physical activity. the results are summarised in table 3, below. table 3: ancova analysis of the post-intervention results variables estimated mean agreement scores postintervention p-value items on attitude to physical activity intervention group control group 1. i would like to have more time to play sport or games with my friends. 4.25 3.13 <.0005 2. i enjoy doing physical activities and playing physical games with my friends. 4.31 3.14 <.0005 3. i find my physical education class interesting. 4.39 2.93 <.0005 4. i am excited about physical education. 4.27 3.00 <.0005 the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 315 5. the games and physical exercises we do in physical education class make learning fun. 4.28 2.89 <.0005 6. physical education classes are boring. 1.46 2.94 <.0005 7. i do not have fun when i am doing physical activity. 1.37 2.94 <.0005 8. i feel uncomfortable or embarrassed in exercise clothes during pe classes. 1.58 3.08 <.0005 9. i see long sessions of exercise during pe classes as a punishment. 1.53 2.50 <.0005 changes in the amount of activity undertaken in a selection of scenarios during pe classes, at break time and after school, before and after the intervention, were analysed for each group separately. the scale of measurement for each of the scenarios is as follows (table 4): • q10: students were asked to indicate how often they did each of nine physical activities (sports) during pe classes. a total activity score during pe classes was calculated by summing the responses across the nine sporting activities. the values of this score range from 0 (never do any activity) to 27 (does every activity five or more times in five days). • q11: the scale measured how often they were very active during pe classes, ranging from 0 (never) to 5 (always/nearly always). • q12: the amount of physical activity done in pe classes for a week ranged from 0 (not at all) to 15 (a lot on all five days). • q13: the amount of time spent doing vigorous activity in pe classes ranged from 1 (up to 30 min.) to 4 (>60 min.) • q14: the total activity score for physical activity at break and after school ranged from 0 (not at all) to 64 (all of the 16 activities performed seven times or more). • q16: the level of activity at break-time ranged from 1 (sat down) to 5 (ran and played hard) the analysis of the changes, preto post-intervention, is shown in table 4. olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 316 table 4: assessment of the students’ practices regarding physical activity during school variable time intervention group(n=695) control group(n=498) m(m) sd z p-value m(m) sd z p-value 10. the amount of pa across all sports in pe classes, in the last five days pre 9.15(9) 4.363 -22.277 <.0005* 9.32(9) 4.380 -0.706 0.480 post 19.18(19) 2.969 9.13(9) 4.358 11. in the last five days, during your pe classes, how often were you very active? pre 2.97(3) 0.985 -20.074 <.0005* 3.15(3) 1.061 -3.104 .002* post 4.38(4) 0.611 2.89(3) 1.133 12. how much physical activity did you do during pe classes on each day, last week? pre 7.22(7) 3.362 -11.751 <.0005* 7.95(8) 3.079 -2.520 0.012* post 10.61(10) 1.705 7.57(8) 3.007 13. how much time did you spend doing vigorous physical activities in pe classes, in the last week? pre 2.30(2) 1.045 -16.735 <.0005* 2.18(2) 0.914 -0.472 0.637 post 3.29(3) 0.574 2.16(2) 0.901 14. how many times did students do any of the following activities in the past seven days at break or after school? pre 17.25(16) 8.149 -22.413 <.0005* 17.12(17) 7.979 -0.524 0.600 post 36.92(37) 5.514 16.84(17) 8.431 15. in the last five weekdays, what did you normally do at lunch/break (besides eating)? pre 1.88(1) 1.108 -20.727 <.0005* 1.88(1) 1.082 -0.253 0.801 post 3.70(4) 0.723 1.88(1) 1.031 *significance p≤ 0.005; sd= standard deviation; m=mean; (m)= median. the results in table 4, indicate that the intervention group showed a significant increase in physical activity across all scenarios during pe classes, during lunchtime and after school, preto post-intervention. for the control group, the only significant changes are seen in the level of activity during pe classes and the amount the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 317 of time they were very active during pe classes. for both of these, the level of activity decreased significantly after the intervention. based on an evaluation of the results, the study showed that the school-based physical activity pdt intervention significantly influenced the students’ attitudes and practices regarding participation in physical activity. students also spent more time doing school-based physical activity. discussion this study aimed to determine the effects of a school-based physical activity pdt intervention programme for teachers on the attitudes and practices of adolescents regarding physical activity in lagos, nigeria. the study considered adolescents’ attitudes and practices regarding participation in physical activity during pe classes and at lunch or break-time during the school day. the pdt intervention programme in this study integrated the autonomous support style of teaching into the approach used by teachers to promote physical activity at school (yew et al., 2013; hagger et al., 2013). following the pdt intervention programme attended by teachers in junior secondary schools, there was an evident improvement in student attitudes and practices regarding physical activity. this is in keeping with several studies, which found that the key to the successful teaching of pe in school is the use of interpersonal teaching methods, and exploring the choices of students as autonomous, supportive teaching methodologies (graber, 2001; graham, 2008). in a study conducted by tessier et al. (2013), similar interpersonal styles improved students’ physical activity levels. this finding is consistent with a previous study finding by draper et al. (2010), which showed an improvement in student practices of, and attitudes to, physical activity in pe classes following a pdt intervention. many studies have identified that teachers’ teaching styles contribute to an improvement in students’ attitudes and practices regarding participation in higher-intensity physical activity, particularly on days when they had pe classes (murtagh & mckee, 2013; pate et al., 2011; meyer et al., 2011). the teacher is, fundamentally, a facilitator of adolescent physical activity at school. hiew et al. (2015) found that the teaching methodologies used by pe teachers resulted in improved attitudes and practices in pe classes. in their study the teachers made a deliberate effort to motivate students during pe class, using the new methods learned in their intervention, and this resulted in their students’ positive attitudes and practices regarding physical activity (hiew et al., 2015). in their study, jenkinson and benson showed that the involvement of the teachers in the design and implementation of their pdt also contributed to a positive change in the students’ attitudes to, and practices in, pe class and they benefitted more from the physical activity (jenkinson & benson, 2010). pe teachers also had an important role in providing students with the skills; knowledge; values; positive perceptions and understanding of the benefits of olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 318 physical activity in order to facilitate long-term engagement in such activities (hollis et al., 2017). in another study by baghurst (2012), students’ attitudes and practices regarding pe classes were, potentially, believed to be determined by teachers’ skills, knowledge and effectiveness in teaching pe. this study highlights the importance of teacher intervention in influencing students’ physical activity attitudes and practices. cardinal and cardinal (2001) opined that a pdt programme provides an opportunity for the teachers to acquire skills and knowledge that promote physical activity and fitness. similarly, the findings of the current pdt programme showed that the skills and knowledge acquired by the teachers during the pdt intervention subsequently influenced the students' practices. hupinet al. (2019) believed that teachers who engaged in pdt gained skills and knowledge, which subsequently influenced students’ attitudes toward pe. similarly, coulter (2012) explained that an improvement in physical activity attitudes and practices in the school system is directly linked to teacher capacity and engagement and is thus influenced by pdt interventions for teachers. coulter (2012) asserts that the skills and knowledge gained by the teachers influence students’ attitudes to, and practices in, pe. adebayo (2015) emphasised in his study that students’ attitudes and practices can be influenced by the teachers’ teaching skills during pe class. in another paper by guskey (2003), pdt for teachers was shown to be valuable in improving teachers’ knowledge, updating their teaching skills and preparing teachers to address the challenges faced by today’s schools. in the current study, prior to the intervention, some students commented that pe lessons were boring, which contributed to their negative attitude. in line with these findings, tannehill and zakrajsek (1993), found that students in high school disliked participating in physical activity due to the dull choices of physical activity by pe teachers. the majority of the students who participated in this study also stated that they were bored by long sessions of exercise during pe classes. they also believed that vigorous physical activity was punishment. another reason given by the students for their poor attitudes to physical activity was their embarrassment at wearing exercise clothes during pe classes. this was similarly noted in tannehill and zakrajsek’s (1993) study of high school students who reported that they felt uncomfortable wearing exercise clothes for physical activity. in our study, following the intervention, many students indicated that they enjoyed doing physical activity because pe lessons were considered to be fun. in a study by mckenzie et al. (1994), adolescents indicated a much greater preference for playing games as a form of physical activity; and in a study by solomon and carter (1995), high school students were more engaged in pe, based on the ‘fun’ factor. after our intervention, an effort was made to gather information on the time spent on physical activity during pe classes and at lunch breaks at school. the participants in our study’s intervention group the effects of a school-based physical activity teacher intervention on the physical activity attitudes and practices of adolescent students in lagos, nigeria ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 319 showed an improvement in their attitudes and practices regarding physical activity, as well as in increased time spent participating in physical activity, both in pe class and during lunch breaks. following the intervention, the findings showed an increase of over 45 minutes, from 30 minutes, for the intervention group, as compared to the control group, in the time students spent on vigorous physical activities. furthermore, the intervention group showed an increase from three to four times per week, compared to the control group who participated once or twice in moderate to vigorous exercise. in a study, by dobbins et al. (2013), on physical activity interventions for both teachers and students aged 6 and 18 years, the authors found that the physical activity intervention group showed an improvement in the amount of time spent on physical activity – similar to findings in our study. a similar result has been reported in a study on school pe interventions and programmes in midwestern united states primary schools, with an increase of 8% in the time students spent participating in physical activity daily (trost et al., 2008). conclusion in conclusion, teachers who have been trained in the pdt intervention programme will have the capability to effectively teach pe to promote physical activity and healthier lifestyles among adolescents in junior secondary schools in nigeria. teachers need regular training on physical activity promotion during pe classes through future, ongoing pdt. furthermore, the pdt provides opportunities to develop good practices and improved attitudes in the area of physical activity. the study was limited, as a purposive sample was used to access participants in nigerian schools, resulting in a non-probability sample. another limitation was the lack of parental engagement prior to developing the intervention. this would have provided the authors with a deeper understanding of the students’ home environments, as well as other possible barriers to participating in physical activity. studies assert that parental support influences students’ attitudes and practices regarding physical activity (kahar et al., 2018; fuemmeler et al., 2011). furthermore, research has shown that parents’ involvement in students’ physical activity may be effective in improving students’ attitudes and practices regarding participation in physical activity (dunton et al., 2012). given this situation, ha et al. (2019) found that involving parents in the physical activity intervention for school children may be beneficial in encouraging positive student attitudes and practices regarding physical activity. this needs to be explored further in our study context. the authors believe that future pdt programmes in nigerian schools should also include consultation with teachers and school authorities to enhance the development of pdt programmes. author contribution o olalekan remigious osifeko was the principal researcher and was responsible for data collection, conceptualisation, and drafting of the article. olalekan remigious osifeko, rowena naidoo, & verusia chetty ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 307-324 320 o rowena naidoo & verusia chetty were the project supervisors and they provided conceptual input into the research methodology and critical input throughout the writing process. acknowledgements the study was supported by a grant from the college of health science, university of kwazulu-natal, durban. south africa. the authors would like to thank dr. gill hendry for her technical support, and the pe teachers for their participation in the study. references adebayo, f. a. 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(2008). physical activity levels among children attending after-school programs. medicine & science in sports & exercise, 40(4), 622-629. world health organisation. 2013. global action plan for the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases. geneva: who press. yew, h. m., whipp, p., dimmock, j., & jackson, b. (2013). the effects of choice on autonomous motivation, perceived autonomy support, and physical activity levels in high school physical education. journal of teaching in physical education, 32(2), 131-148. gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba heart of worcestershire college , uk coventry college, uk abstract the window of hope (woh) training module was introduced in ghanaian colleges of education (coe) by the ministry of education (moe) to prepare trainees to teach sexuality education upon completion of their training. using a document analysis methodology, we compared the processes of developing the woh module and its content to the international technical guidance framework for teacher training on sexuality education. we found that the woh module is unlikely to achieve its stated objectives as key components of the technical guidance are not catered to in the module. we recommend a comprehensive review of the content of woh using the national teacher preparation standards framework and ghana’s newly developed teacher training standards. we also recommend, broad consultations involving all interest groups in ghana in the review process. keywords: sex education, comprehensive sex education, window of hope module, ghana, teacher trainees, colleges of education, technical guidance. introduction despite the noted aversion to discussing sex in the ghanaian culture (mack, 2011; van der geest, 2001), sexuality education (se) has long been part of ghana’s education; albeit in different forms. before ghana’s independence from british rule in 1957, the major providers of western-style education were missionaries, and thus religious and moral education (rme) were key components of the school system. se was embedded in rme mainly because sex and sexuality have always been regarded as religious and moral concepts (acquah, 2011; anarfi and owusu, 2010; fuglesang, 1997; van der geest, 2001) by the religiously inclined and the issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 2 2022 pages 1-28 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 2 wider ghanaian society. post-independence school-based se in ghana has been delivered in various forms including through integration into other curriculum subjects such as integrated science, biology, social studies, and management in living. se has also been delivered as a co-curricular subject – such as the school health education program (shep) and the hiv alert in basic and second cycle schools. the third is as a stand-alone subject. the woh module for teacher trainees is currently delivered as a stand-alone sexuality education module. beyond the form of delivery of se is the content of what is taught. school-based se is classified into three forms based on the focus: abstinence-only, abstinence-plus and comprehensive sex education (cse) (lesko 2010; winskell et al., 2011). abstinence-only programs promote abstinence until marriage and assume that young persons will remain sexually ignorant until marriage (goodson et al., 2003). although very common in most jurisdictions especially in asia and sub-saharan africa (awusabo-asare et al., 2008; boonstra, 2011; mbonile and kayombo, 2008; mbugua, 2007; pokharel et al., 2006; sridawruang et al., 2010) and in some high-income countries such as canada (dicenso et al., 2001; santelli et al., 2017; turnbulla, et al., 2008), nowhere has it gained currency more than the united states of america where federal funding is aimed solely at abstinence-only programs (santelli, et al., 2017; siecus, 2016). normally, abstinence-only programs do not teach about sexuality; contraception; sexual health relating to puberty and reproduction; and pregnancy and disease prevention (starkman and rajani, 2002). thus, beneficiaries are not prepared for the inevitable, becoming sexually active. although many researchers have concluded that there is insufficient data on abstinence-only programs to make conclusions about their effectiveness in delaying sexual debut, avoiding pregnancy and stis (sexually transmitted infections) the obvious lack of discussion of contraception, sexual health, reproduction, and disease prevention places beneficiaries of this kind of education at a disadvantage (kirby, 2008; kirby et al., 2006; stanger-hall and hall, 2011; trenholm et al., 2007). emerging recently is the abstinence-plus se approach which presents abstinence as the preferred option, but has some information about other sexual behaviours, contraception, and disease prevention (hubbard et al., 1998). cse is defined as: “curriculum-based education that aims to equip children and young people with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that will enable them to develop a positive view of their sexuality, in the context of their emotional and social development” (unfpa, 2014). gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 cse operates on the assumption that young persons are or will become sexually active and thus promotes the teaching of stis and disease prevention; including condom and contraceptive use (kirby, 2008; lesko, 2010; smith-kuehnel, 2009; starkman and rajani, 2002). one obvious benefit is that young persons are given the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to make informed and healthy choices regarding sex and sexuality. unlike abstinence-only, there is evidence based on reviews of studies conducted in low and middle-income countries about the effectiveness of cse in increased hiv knowledge; increased self-efficacy related to refusing sex; increased contraception and condom use; reduced number of sexual partners; and later initiation of first sexual intercourse (fonner et al. 2014, maticka-tyndale, 2010). a cochrane’s review of 41 randomized controlled trials in europe, the united states, nigeria, and mexico also reported that cse prevents unintended adolescent pregnancies (oringanje et al., 2009). ghana has had inconclusive debates about the content of se programs in schools. although there is a convergence on ensuring that ghanaian children get the very best of education, cse still elicits very strong emotions from the populace be it the religious, civil society, political or conservative media practitioners (awusabo-asare et al., 2017, ngula, 2019). to sustain school-based sexuality education initiatives in ghana, there have been several initiatives within the teacher training sector aimed at equipping pre-service teachers with the requisite knowledge and skills to teach se. in 1976, for instance, sexual and reproductive health education was introduced into pre-service teacher training programmes (awusabo-asare et al., 2017). this was followed by the life skills education programme which was introduced in 1987 as part of the implementation of the new education reforms of 1987. in 1998, this was replaced with social studies in coe. it was not until the early 2003 that the current woh module was developed as an education sector response to the hiv/aids epidemic in ghana by the ministry of education (moe). the program was dubbed “window of hope” as the term referred to young persons aged 5-15 not infected with the aids virus. according to william et al. (2007), the woh module was designed to positively affect the hiv/aids prevention knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of trainees (aged 18+). it was initially delivered within other curriculum subjects and as a co-curricular activity; with coe encouraged to form and nurture hiv/aids clubs for trainees. an evaluation of the woh program by william et al., (2007) revealed that it produced significant teaching and learning. however, some college principals were not supportive of kolapof text box 3 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 4 the program as it was not considered part of the academic requirements of coe. they also found that tutors often focused on didactic methods instead of the non-formal, interactive methods proposed by the program. the report attributed the above challenges to several factors. first, the woh module was not a stand-alone subject and thus had no official place on the college timetable. second, tutors were required to integrate hiv/aids education into their main subjects. third, the content was too large. finally, it was not examinable, so trainees were not assessed in any form. these flaws formed the basis for a review of the module in 2008. following the outcome of the evaluation by william et al., (2007), world education, ghana, teacher education division, and institute of education of the university of cape coast conducted a series of workshops to revise the module. the result was a reduction in the content of the module. there was also an addition of a one-credit component on the methodology of teaching aimed at introducing trainees to adult learning participatory approaches that are more engaging for assessing personal risk, and attitudinal and behavioural change. the module was also made examinable, and it gained an official place on college timetables (one hour weekly for the content and methodology of teaching se respectively). international standards for teacher training championed by unesco have since been developed to guide the development of se programs aimed at the preparation of pre-service and in-service teachers after the development of the woh module. given that there has been no attempt to revise the woh module since the last revision in 2014 which was not based on international technical guidance, how does this module compare to the recommendations of technical guidance for se teacher training? purpose the purpose of this study is to compare the processes of developing woh module and its content to the technical guidance for se teacher training. the technical guidance developed by unesco adopts the national teacher preparation standards framework drawn up by future of sex education (fose 2014). the unesco technical guidance programme has been used to guide the development of sex education curriculum for pre-service teacher training in jurisdictions such as eastern and southern africa (see cheetham, 2015, p.12). the comparison will enable us to identify the strengths and weaknesses of woh module as compared to the recommendations of technical guidance for sexuality education teacher training regarding knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours and teaching competencies they promote. this study will enable us to make recommendations that will contribute to strengthening sexuality education at the teacher training level in coe in ghana. gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 methods documents related to the woh module were analysed for this study. the document analysis for this study served two purposes. first, it provided the opportunity to illuminate the context of the woh module by exploring the planning, development and implementation stages, the objectives, the content, and the expected outcomes. second, we were able to compare the processes of planning, development, and content of woh module with technical guidance. although document analysis can be affected by limitations such as documents having insufficient details, low retrievability and biased selectivity, the cost-effectiveness, time efficiency for analysis, availability of documents, broad coverage, stability, and the exactness of documents make these limitations potential flaws that are manageable (bowen, 2009). we had personal copies of the woh syllabus issued by the institute of education (ioe), university of cape coast (ucc), woh trainees module handbook and woh tutor’s module handbook. the other documents were sourced from the websites of world education, ghana, unesco, and future of sex education respectively. the documents analysed for this paper and the purpose they served in the analysis are shown in table 1. table 1: documents and data analysed document and source data analysed from document 1. woh syllabus issued by the ioe, ucc objectives, content, and assessment criteria of woh. 2. strengthening hiv/aids partnership in education (shape i and ii evaluation report) by william et al., (2007) planning, development, implementation and initial evaluation of woh and the training and professional development given to tutors before and during the implementation 3. woh trainees module handbook objectives, content and expected outcomes 4. woh tutor’s module handbook objectives, content and expected outcomes and suggested teaching techniques and activities 5. fose (2014). national teacher preparation standards for sexuality education: new york ** sexuality education teacher preparation standards adopted to ghana and used to compare to woh. 6. cheetham, n. (2015). regional module for teacher training on comprehensive sexuality education for east and southern africa. unesco, paris, france how national teacher preparation standards were applied to the development of a teacher training module ** retrieved from https://www.advocatesforyouth.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/teacher-standards-1.pdf kolapof text box 5 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 6 thematic analysis was used to analyse the documents. pre-determined themes are useful when the document analysis is supplementary to other methods (bowen, 2009). as this study was part of a larger study exploring the experiences of woh tutors (yakpir, 2020) , it was supplementary to the interviews we conducted and so we used pre-determined themes; development process, content, duration and time, behaviour modification theory guiding woh, expected outcomes, and teacher selection, training and support. we read through the documents and identified aspects that corresponded to these themes and interpreted them accordingly. findings 1. development process a team composed of professionals of varied backgrounds developed the woh module. the team included representatives of the moe, national council for curriculum and assessment erstwhile curriculum research and development division, national aids control program (nacp), princof, tutors, teacher trainees, africa consultants international (aci), world education, ghana, and usaid. compared to the technical guidance programme for se, the composition of the team had some noticeable absences including religious and faith-based organizations, community, and traditional leaders, persons living with hiv/aids (plwha), lesbians, gay, bisexual and transsexual (lgbt) groups and the media. 2. content the technical guidance for sexuality education teacher preparation has seven standards marked by a set of expected outcomes (shown in square parenthesis). they are (1) professional disposition [pre-service teachers demonstrate comfort with, commitment to and self-efficacy in teaching sexuality education]; (2) diversity and equity [pre-service teachers show respect for the individual, family and cultural characteristics and experiences that may influence student learning about sexuality]; (3) content knowledge [pre-service teachers have accurate knowledge of the biological, emotional, social and legal aspects of human sexuality]; (4) legal and professional ethics [pre-service teachers make decisions based on applicable local laws, regulations and policies as well as professional ethics]; (5) planning [pre-service teachers plan age-and developmentally-appropriate sexuality education that is aligned with standards, policies and laws and reflects the diversity of the community]; (6) implementation [pre-service teachers use a variety of effective strategies to teach sexuality education] and (7) assessment [pre-service teachers use effective strategies to assess student knowledge, attitudes, and skills in relation to sexuality]. these standards have been adopted for international usage, therefore, gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 indicators that do not reflect the local ghanaian environment have been adapted to reflect the ghanaian situation. for instance, ghana is not a federal state and has a centralized education system, so it has only one set of laws governing all, thus reference is made to national laws rather than state laws. in table 2 we present our analysis of the content using the standards and indicators. the woh module does not address the standards for professional disposition, diversity and equity, and legal and professional ethics. professional disposition stems from trainees gaining confidence in the subject matter and practice, from ability to identify their values, beliefs, biases, and experiences and from being able to appreciate the demands of the curriculum in that regard. to the extent that woh comprehensively covers hiv/aids education, trainees may gain confidence in teaching the subject provided it is well taught, but they cannot reconcile it with their personal beliefs and experiences which are not explored as part of the content. when presented with issues concerning puberty and adolescence, teen pregnancy, lgbt rights, abortion, and many others, trainees may be found wanting. although the professional disposition also required that trainees appreciate the importance of sexuality education, we found that the module did not provide opportunities to discuss this. kolapof text box 7 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 8 table 2 evaluation of woh module content using technical guidance for sexuality education teacher preparation standards indicators how woh addresses the standards remarks 1. professional disposition teacher confidence. addresses teacher confidence in terms of the potential knowledge to be acquired. trainees may acquire knowledge about hiv and sti if these are appropriately taught to their understanding. however other sexuality issues not addressed by woh may pose a challenge and affect confidence. as personal values, beliefs, biases and experiences are not part of woh, trainees’ professional disposition may not be appropriately developed. appreciation of the importance of se. not addressed in the true sense of sex education. the emphasis is on knowledge of hiv/aids. personal values, beliefs, biases and experiences. not addressed. appreciation of the need for cpd (continuous professional development). does not identify avenues for cpd and does not present se as an evolving subject. 2. diversity and equity recognise individual differences. not addressed. trainees are not trained to identify individual differences concerning sexuality beliefs, values, and knowledge. thus, they may be able to create a safe classroom in a homogenous class. heterogeneous classrooms may pose a challenge. ability to create a safe and inclusive teaching and learning environment. the methodology component addresses classroom management, motivation and appropriate pedagogy for sex education. gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 3. content knowledge knowledge of biological, emotional, social and legal aspects of human sexuality. woh content addresses knowledge of hiv and stis comprehensively and addresses the social and emotional implications of hiv/aids rather than sexuality. all the others are not addressed. whilst knowledge of hiv/aids and stis is comprehensively addressed, trainees will find it challenging with other sexuality issues such as healthy relationships, communication, lgbt, behaviour change approaches and legal aspects of sexuality. ability to identify accurate and reliable sources of knowledge. assumed with competence. familiar with state laws relating to sexuality. state laws are not addressed in woh. familiar with health behaviour theories and models. not addressed. aware of sources of valid and reliable sexuality information, health products and services. woh provides sources of accurate sexual health information, products and services (vct, ppag, contraception). 4. legal and professional ethics ghana education service regulations and policies regarding sex education. not addressed. legal and professional ethics concerning sexuality education are not addressed during training. state laws and safeguarding practices. not addressed. confidentiality and safeguarding practices and procedures. not addressed. kolapof text box 9 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 10 note: standards 5 and 6 were put together and the indicators harmonised because the implementation (6) involves putting the plan into action. 5. &6. planning and implementation ability to plan and implement sex education lessons. addressed in part 2 of woh (experiential learning cycle and techniques, learning objectives, tlms and lesson plan formats and evaluation techniques). woh part 2 addresses the preparation of trainees to be able to plan and implement sex education in classrooms although behaviour theories are not taught. ability to apply behaviour theories to se. behaviour theories are not taught. ability to identify and use appropriate resources to guide lessons. addressed as part of lesson planning. effective strategies to teach se. addressed in part 2 of woh (experiential learning techniques, peer learning techniques and motivation). 7. assessment ability to assess students’ knowledge, attitudes, skills, and behaviour using diverse strategies. addressed in part 2 of woh though the focus is on the cognitive domain. more needs to be done to develop appropriate assessment techniques even for the assessment of trainees. the current assessment trend is cognitively centred. analyse assessment results and use to plan future lessons. not addressed. gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 regarding diversity and equity which is defined as respect for the individual, family and cultural characteristics and experiences that may influence student learning about sexuality (fose, 2014), trainees are taught only classroom management skills. however, the sensitive nature of sexuality and related issues will require an in-depth discussion of individual, religious, and cultural differences in the context of sexuality. from the comparison in table 2, the content of woh is comprehensive in terms of hiv/aids and stis. however, significant sexuality education topics covering the emotional, social, legal and policy aspects of sexuality were absent. the indicators for achieving legal and professional ethics are not addressed at all. the sensitive nature of sexuality, and the fact that teachers have the responsibility to ensure a safe classroom and school environment means that teachers need to be aware of their professional responsibilities and avenues for the redress of infractions. we found this was not peculiar to the woh module in ghana. for instance, unesco/unfpa (2012) in a review of sexuality education curricular in ten eastern and southern african countries concluded that the curricular did not mention “reporting requirements for teachers who encountered disclosure of sexual abuse during delivery of sexuality education programmes” (p.25). the content of woh part 2, including topics such as experiential learning cycle and techniques; learning objectives; teacher – learner materials and lesson plan formats and evaluation techniques satisfies the indicators (see table 2) for planning, implementation and assessment outlined, except for behaviour change theories and how to use assessment results. therefore, if well taught and understood, trainees might be able to plan, teach and evaluate sexuality education lessons using the cognitive assessment techniques they have been exposed to through their training. 3. duration/time the original content of woh module was designed to be taught over 65-hour sessions. however, a follow-up review discovered that most colleges allocated two hours a week for the module and with a 16-week semester, it was determined that only about half of the sessions were taught (william et al., 2007). the content was reduced to 18 hours in 2005 and a onehour a week session on the methodology of teaching woh was introduced. the latest review by the institute of education, university of cape coast in 2014 reduced the 18-hour sessions to 13-hour sessions and assigned it a one-credit value (ioe, ucc, 2014). the methodology component has also been reduced to 11-hour sessions. kolapof text box 11 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 12 4. behaviour modification theory guiding woh module behaviour modification theories have long guided the development of public health intervention programs and many studies have reported the success of theory-driven interventions (darnton, 2008). behaviour modification theories support interventions by describing how behaviours develop and change over time and therefore help us understand behaviour and identify the underlying factors that influence it and subsequently the approaches that are likely to bring about the desired change. our analysis looked out for the theory guiding the development of the module as well as the teaching of behaviour modification theories as part of the content. we found that the woh module did not have an explicitly stated behaviour modification theory as the guiding principle. in addition to this, the content did not include behaviour modification theories as a topic. trainees should at least be familiar with behaviour modification theories. however, many activities and case studies in the module could be linked to certain theories. activities such as ‘alone and frightened’, a musical recording by philly lutaaya, the risk game which dwells on the risk of contracting hiv/aids, the movie, ‘uncut: playing with life’, respectively portrayed the brutality of the aids virus in africa and will suggest there was a desire to expose beneficiaries to materials that put fear into them about sexual behaviours. in addition to these media, the trainee’s manual copiously quotes statistics from botswana, south africa and ivory coast and avoids providing statistics about ghana presumably because this will be very low and will not contribute to the fear such statistics are intended to create. these statistics have remained a central part of the module despite changes that have occurred over time. for instance, the trainees manual quotes a prevalence rate of 35.5 to 43.7% for pregnant women in botswana contrary to the current prevalence rate of 21% (who, 2017). we concluded that the module relies on the fear arousal approach. 5. expected outcomes the notable absence of key topics outlined in the previous sections suggests the woh is not comprehensive and may not be able to deliver the expected outcomes of a sexuality education teacher training program including gaining knowledge about hiv/aids and stis, acquiring hiv/aids and sti prevention skills, using the knowledge and skills acquired to modify sexual behaviour, and creating a supportive environment for plwha as well as pupils (william et al., 2007; ioe, ucc, 2014). there is no reported national evaluation of the impact of woh since the evaluation of the pilot program by william et al. (2007). however, the institute of education, university of cape coast has subsequently reviewed the content on two separate gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 occasions, the first in 2011 which augmented the content to include the alert module which had been introduced earlier in basic schools; and the second, in 2014 which did not change the material content but brought forward woh to the first of the then six-semester pre-service teacher training program. in their evaluation of a similar module applying the integration model for initial teacher training (itt) in zambia, oki and phiri, (2009) using qualitative methods (focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and classroom observations) noted the limited nature of the module and reported that although the woh program was effective in promoting college-wide dialogue on culturally sensitive issues of sexual behaviour including harmful practices, gender and sexuality, both tutors and trainees were nervous when cross-generational and transactional sex topics were mentioned. the ghanaian government has long recognised that high-quality, cse is essential for the healthy development of adolescents and their transition to adulthood (awusabo-asare et al., 2017). in recent times, public discourse in ghana has been dominated by calls for the implementation of a school based cse due to the numerous media reports of rape, defilement, and high incidence of teenage pregnancy (unfpa, 2017; brew, 2016). consequently, the ghanaian government through the national population council (npc), ghana health service, ghana education service and development partners led by unfpa have tasked a consultant to develop a national guideline for cse in ghana to address the shortcomings of the current sexuality education modules taught in schools (unfpa, 2017). hopefully, the proposed guidelines together with ghana’s new national teachers’ standards and teacher education curriculum framework will trigger a review of the sexuality education for pre-service teachers. 6. teacher selection, training and support though not documented, selection of college tutors to train for the teaching of woh module was probably not based on a clearly defined criteria of the skills and competences needed. in their evaluation report, william et al., (2007) observed, the test of this commitment will come primarily from assigning a competent tutor to the subject, rather than assigning it to the tutor who is newest or has the least influence over scheduling decisions and reconciling the assigned tutor’s instructional load so that it is not an extra burden but is a part of their normal teaching load (p.26). the above will suggests that the review discovered that tutors were selected using criteria other than competence. as recommended by world education, ghana, training programmes based on the kolapof text box 13 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 14 content of the curriculum and participatory methods of teaching were offered to selected college tutors at the inception of the programme and regular follow-up training was recommended to ensure consistency and quality in content delivery (william et al., 2007). the main methods of delivery recommended to tutors were non-formal participatory approaches which included games, discussions, dramatisation, debates, seminars, lectures and lecturettes, film shows, simulations and role play. it was also recommended that resource persons from the local communities be used to share ideas and challenges encountered in hiv/aids/sex education (william et al., 2007). the itgse (2009) recognized the importance of specialised training for teachers to cope with the new concepts and methods associated with sexuality education. it also advocates that training programs be driven by clear goals and objectives and provide practice in participatory learning methods. as well, it should provide a good balance between learning content and skills and be based on the curriculum that is to be implemented. finally, it should provide opportunities to rehearse key lessons in the curriculum. all of these can increase the confidence and capability of the educators. the initial training offered to tutors in preparation for woh addressed the content of woh and teaching methods (pedagogy). however, the duration of training raises concerns about the quality of training. doubts have been raised about the potential of such short-term or one-time training activities to affect teacher competence and confidence over the long term (unesco, 2015). in addition, effective sexuality educators need to have interest in teaching the curriculum, a personal comfort discussing sexuality and the ability to communicate with trainees. the initial training given to tutors did not address their own attitudes and personal comfort in discussing and communicating about sexuality with trainees. an effective teacher training program should “have an impact on teachers themselves at a personal level, helping them examine their own attitudes towards sexuality and behaviours regarding hiv, stis and early and unintended pregnancy prevention, understand the content they are teaching, learn participatory teaching skills, and gain confidence to discuss sensitive and controversial topics” (unesco, 2015, p. 25). in their review of the woh program, william et al. (2007) recommended continuous professional development (cpd) programs to sustain the quality of teaching as well as motivate the teachers. however, there is little evidence of opportunities available for tutors to access cpd. no literature can be offered detailing cpd for tutors since the implementation of the revised woh module in 2007. as part of the implementation of the woh, some teaching-learning materials were supplied gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 to facilitate the module delivery. however, in their evaluation of the woh program, william et al. (2007) raised concerns about the ability of coe to sustain the availability and use of the materials due to funding challenges and changing demands of technology. discussion of findings the aim of our study is to compare the processes of developing woh module and its content to sexuality education technical guidance so as to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours and teaching competencies of the woh module. we also sought to make recommendations aimed at improving sexuality education teacher training in ghanaian coe. the results of our analysis were reported in six themes: development process, content, duration and time, behaviour modification theory guiding woh, expected outcomes, and teacher selection, training and support. first, we found that although many stakeholders were involved in the module development, some very significant groups were not consulted. these included religious leaders, traditional leaders (chiefs and queen mothers), lgbt groups and the media. these constituents are important social units and make significant contributions to the socialisation of their members. christianity, islam, and african traditional religion are rooted in every aspect of the ghanaian’s life and culture, therefore, the absence of these socially influential groups that have well-defined positions on sex and sexuality raises concerns about broad consensus especially as sexuality education has a reputation for raising tensions in many communities. although ghana has largely been spared of such tensions in the past, members of the media, religious groups, civil society organizations, traditional leaders, politicians, influential individuals, as well as the public in ghana overwhelmingly disapproved recent attempts by unfpa and ghana education service to introduce cse in ghanaian schools (see ngula, 2019) because they believed the proposed content would corrupt young people. this highlights the importance of carrying out broad consultations when developing sexuality education programmes. there are emerging good practices in how to engage the most conservative social groups to accept the content of cse. in an intervention study in east and south africa, religious groups have been engaged positively in the development and teaching of cse through appealing to the leadership of identifiable religious faiths in a training program led by members of the international network of religious leaders living with or personally affected by hiv/aids [inerela+] (save the children international, 2015). the involvement of this network of religious leaders was credited as the key to the success of the intervention as kolapof text box 15 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 16 local religious leaders demonstrated appreciable levels of recognition and trust when inerela+ was mentioned. second, our analysis revealed that the content of woh did not meet many of the criteria set out by the se technical guidance. even for criteria that were addressed by the woh, we found that the content was inadequate and therefore had the potential to not support the overall goals of the module. for instance, we found that the content knowledge was comprehensively achieved only to the extent that it addressed the knowledge of hiv/aids and sexually transmitted infections (stis) but not the broad subject of sexuality. thus, key sexuality topics such as healthy relationships, communication, lgbt, behaviour change approaches and legal aspects of sexuality are not addressed by the module. trainees will thus be inadequate in terms of their capacity to support a cse module. notably, key itgse criteria including diversity and equity, professional disposition and legal and professional ethics are not addressed by the module at all. for trainees to be effective as sex educators, they need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills about sexuality concepts such as sexual diversity, heteronormativity, personal safety, social and cultural definitions of sexuality as well as other sexuality topics (carman et al. 2011; unesco, 2018). the lack of diversity and equity material in the module content means that trainees are not getting the requisite knowledge and training to address issues of diversity in their sexuality education lessons. studies (mcquarrie 1998; tatar et al., 1994; taylor and sobel, 2001; wood, 1993), including some conducted in sub-saharan africa (wedekind, 2001) but not ghana, have reported teachers and pre-service teachers’ limited knowledge, the experience of, or in some cases dispositions to, addressing diversities in the classroom. in the absence of training about the legal and professional dimensions of sexuality education, there are implications for the ability of trainees to offer and uphold safeguarding responsibilities in schools. legal and professional ethics must form an integral part of any sexuality education program so that beneficiaries can be taught to exercise and demand their rights. we also found that the assessment methods are cognitive centred as trainees are required to write and pass a sit-down examination. many studies have reported the influence of examination on the attitudes, conduct and behaviour of both teachers and students towards a subject or course (alderson and wall, 1993; biggs, 1998; crooks, 1998; havnes 2004; posner, 2004; shepard, 2000; yaratan and firat, 2013). these studies found that teachers and students often focus on areas most likely to be examined to the neglect of other areas of the gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 subject. it should be noted that examinations were introduced after a review of the first three years of woh, which found that although teaching was going on in most colleges, the programme lacked support from college managers as it was not considered an academic requirement for trainees (see william et al., 2007). teaching to enable students to pass an examination and to also modify behaviour are not necessarily antithetical. in a study by yakpir (2020) involving woh tutors, concerns were expressed about the influence of examination with respect to behaviour modification, which is the objective of the module, although a few participants in that study recognised that without examination, trainees and even tutors were not likely to attach any seriousness to the module. there is an increasing concern across low – middle and high-income countries about the capacity of examinations to assess values and skills which is the main objective of sexuality education programs (see cheetham, 2015; keogh et al., 2018; meier, 2012; unesco, 2010; unicef, 2012). practitioners are therefore beginning to explore assessment methods that place emphasis on students’ views, beliefs, attitudes, and values towards sexuality topics. for instance, oerton and bowen (2014) developed and taught a sexuality education program to students at the school of social sciences, university of south wales, united kingdom that did not involve a sit-down examination as assessment. instead, they adopted and implemented an assessment system that involved students identifying sex and sexuality issues of interest to them and making a presentation in which both sides of the issue were argued out and the student took a position which articulated a personal view, belief, and attitude towards the subject of interest. these views, beliefs and attitudes towards the subject matter were then subjected to discourse in the classroom and students encouraged to incorporate the accepted changes into the second part of the assessment. this second part of the assessment required students to develop a ‘manifesto or position paper (students expanded on their earlier presentation to make posters, leaflets or flyers targeting a wider audience and suitable for public display). student presentations were then assessed on five equally weighted criteria: “clarity and development of standpoint; knowledge and understanding; supporting evidence; links to broader cultural, social and historical factors; and presentational style” (oerton and bowen, 2014, p.684). this method of assessment enabled students to develop their opinions; express them within an environment where there was regard for diversity and dissenting views and empowered them with knowledge and the confidence of speaking up and reaching out to a wider audience. the criteria for assessment used by oerton and bowen (2014) was comprehensive as it covered the indices of knowledge, attitudes and behaviour also recommended by unicef (2010) for sexuality education programs which typically aim at modifying behaviour. kolapof text box 17 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 18 third, the original version of woh was designed to cover 65hour-long sessions though the colleges allocated only 30 hours for it on their timetables. although subsequent revisions have reduced the content, recommended activities such as video shows, role-plays, games etc remain a part of the module and these can hardly be covered within the current one hour a week schedule for a 16-week semester as practised in coe. although there is no fixed duration for effective sex education programs, it is generally reported that programs that last just a few hours are unlikely to cover much-needed content in a comprehensive way, appeal to young people or increase the likelihood of beneficiaries learning and practising the skills and attitudes the programs intend changing (pound et al., 2017; kirby et al., 2007b). others (fisher and fisher, 1998; mckay and bissell, 2010; jewkes, et al., 2010) in both highand low-income countries have reported that effective programmes provide sufficient time in the classroom to achieve program objectives. a 16-hour duration, part of which is used for preparation towards examination in the form of quizzes and revision tutorials, is unlikely to provide sufficient time for activities that can enhance or support behaviour modification which requires repeated activities, skill practice and opportunities to engage in discussions about the challenges of beneficiaries. indeed, tutors have cited inadequate time as one of the challenges of teaching the woh module (citation to be provided after peer-review due to anonymity requirements). fourth, we found that the woh was not guided by a clear theory of behaviour modification. instead, many activities in the module handbook were aimed at highlighting the effects of pre-marital or multiple sexual relations and hiv/ aids as a way of putting fear into trainees. as such, statistics from countries that had high prevalence rates of stis, such as hiv/aids were heavily relied on to the neglect of reporting the situation in ghana which has relatively low prevalence rates. the promotion of fear is common to many sexuality education programs, especially in sub-saharan africa. a recent review of sex education curriculums in 10 countries (botswana, lesotho, kenya, malawi, namibia, south africa, swaziland, uganda, zambia, and zimbabwe) by unesco/unfpa (2012) supports this conclusion. the fear approach has proven not to support young people to understand risks associated with preand multiple or intergenerational sex and similarly does not help in developing young people’s sexual decision-making skills (kirby et al., 2007a; sani et al., 2016; unesco, 2009; unesco/unfpa, 2012). if trainees are trained with this approach, they are likely to implement the same in basic schools when they begin their practice. this approach is therefore inimical to the success of sexuality education in ghana. yet, the module has activities such as negotiation skills, role play, condom use skills, games and video media linked to the social gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 cognitive theory that could support behaviour change. although interventions based on social cognitive theory have been reported to be effective (kirby et al, 1994; kalichman et al., 1996), the fidelity of implementation of these activities is uncertain as teacher educators could very well choose the fear-driven activities given that their training did not include behaviour modification theories and the appropriate activities that could lead to the attainment of the desirable change. many reviews of sexuality education programs from across the globe have identified that clearly defined theory-based sexuality education programs are effective in comparison to those that do not identify specific theories as their guiding principles (kirby et al., 2007a; sani et al., 2016; unesco, 2009). as a teacher training module, the content should not only have been hinged on a defined theory, but also address behaviour modification theories as a topic to prepare trainees to be able to identify and choose appropriate activities concerning the modification, they want their sexuality education lessons to address. fifth, we concluded based on the notable absence of key topics outlined in this report, the woh module is not comprehensive and may not be able to deliver the expected outcomes of gaining knowledge about hiv/aids and stis, acquiring hiv/aids and sti prevention skills, using the knowledge and skills acquired to modify sexual behaviour, and creating a supportive environment for trainees and their potential pupils (william et al., 2007; ioe, ucc, 2014). finally, literature available from ghana suggests cpd is generally lacking across the teaching profession (awusabo-asare et al., 2017; essel et al., 2009). awusabo-asare et al. (2017) cited a national level policymaker to illustrate official acknowledgement of nonsustainable funding for continuous professional development of sexuality educators: “we do in-service training for those who are teaching. but this [occurs] in bits and pieces. it is done when funds are available...” (p.34). although cpd is acknowledged as important in ensuring the sustained quality teaching of woh (william et al., 2007), no sustainable plan was put in place to guarantee it for woh tutors. in addition, the absence of a mandatory requirement for cpd (as practised in many jurisdictions such as singapore; sweden; and china; see kempton, 2013) within the ghanaian education sector has contributed to participants viewing cpd as the sole responsibility of the employer and their partners. although current developments within the education sector in ghana is changing the narrative around cpd and making it a requirement for renewing teacher licenses, the structures and support systems required to make this effective may not yet be available. kolapof text box 19 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 20 recommendations based on our findings we make the following recommendations for teacher training in ghanaian coe. any future revisions of the woh module should be based on broad consultations including members of religious groups, the media, civil society organizations, traditional leaders, special interest groups such as the lgtb community, politicians, and influential individuals. apart from ensuring a broad acceptance, this will enable the development of a module with acceptable content to support the socialisation and education of members of all these groups. the approach used in eastern and southern africa by save the children international (2015) could be a model approach and leaders of these identifiable groups could be exposed to sexuality education materials using members from those groups already involved in sexuality education. for instance, many media houses in ghana have sexuality education programmes broadcast through their media. these members could become the point of engagement of other media practitioners. similarly, there are civil society organisations (csos) and non-governmental organisations such as planned parenthood international already involved in sexuality related education campaigns. they could be the intermediaries with other csos. the woh content needs to be reviewed and this review needs to be based on international technical guidelines and ghana’s proposed teacher training standards. using these two guidelines will ensure the woh is comprehensive and meets the needs of trainees as well as prepares them to teach sexuality education to younger people when they complete their training. concerning time, we propose three solutions. first, although woh module is identified as a one-credit hour course, there is no requirement that the colleges should assign strictly one hour to it. college authorities can assign more than the one hour they currently do. second, woh is currently studied for two semesters out of the eight (8) semesters. as trainees will spend six out of the eight semesters on campus, the module can be spread over six semesters. this will automatically guarantee more than 60 hours of teaching, close to the original plan of woh. third, (name deleted for blind review purpose) (2018) found that hiv/aids clubs which were part of the original implementation plan of woh in colleges have not been functional in most colleges. tutors, with the support of college authorities, could re-organise these clubs and use the meetings to address sex and sexuality issues not addressed in the main curriculum. gordon yakpir &juliet atawuula atuguba ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 finally, we propose that any future revisions of woh module should be based on a clearly defined theory, preferably the social cognitive theory which many studies (kirby et al, 1994; kalichman et al., 1996) have reported to be effective. we also propose the adoption of assessment methods focused on attitudes and behaviour towards sexuality issues rather than the cognitive assessment methods currently in place. being a teacher preparation module, behaviour modification theories should form a part of the content so that trainees are familiar with them to guide their future practice. kolapof text box 21 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 22 references acquah, f. 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(2007). strengthening hiv/aids partnerships in education. (shape i and ii evaluation report). retrieved from, http://ghana.worlded.org/past_projects.htm winskell, k., obyerodhyambo, o. and stephenson, r. (2011). making sense of condoms: social representations in young people’s hiv-related narratives from six african countries. social science & medicine, 72(6), 953-961. wood, j. (1993). the corporate closet: the professional lives of gay men in america. new https://www.who.int/hiv/data/country_profile_botswana.pdf?ua=1 http://ghana.worlded.org/past_projects.htm kolapof text box 27 does the window of hope training module for ghanaian teacher trainees meet the requirements of unesco’s technical guidance on sexuality education? ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 1-28 28 yorke: free press. yaratan, h. and fırat, h. b. (2013). the impact of external examinations on high school curricula: perceptions of science teachers. procedia social and behavioural sciences, 106, 2838-2843. yakpir, g. m. (2020). sex education: a qualitative study of the experiences of window of hope tutors in ghanaian colleges of education. doctor of philosophy, school of education, university of birmingham, birmingham, united kingdom. available @ https://etheses.bham.ac.uk/id/eprint/10329/7/yakpir2020phd_redacted.pdf https://etheses.bham.ac.uk/id/eprint/10329/7/yakpir2020phd_redacted.pdf email: h. mpate, hawa.mpate@udsm.ac.tz; g. campbel-evans, g.campbell_evans@ecu.edu.au; j. gray, jan.gray@ecu.adu.au pre-service teachers’ preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania hawa mpate1, glenda campbell-evans2, jan gray3 1 mkwawa university college of education, university of dar es salaam, tanzania, 2, 3 edith cowan university, western australia. abstract teachers are vital to the success of any education system. however, concern continues to be raised about the quality of teachers’ preparation in the teachers’ colleges and about the quality of teachers in schools in tanzania (global partnership for educational support in tanzania mainland, 2013; mgaiwa, 2018; makoro, 2020). in line with such concerns, this study explored tanzania’s pre-service teachers’ demonstration of knowledge and skills of teaching during teaching practice. the study was conducted in three secondary schools located in moshi rural district in kilimanjaro region in tanzania. it involved five pre-service teachers from one of the diploma teachers colleges, five supervisors from the same teachers’ college and mentor teachers from the three home schools where pre-service teachers were placed for teaching practice. the study is descriptive, employing qualitative methods of data collection. interviews, focus group discussions and observations were used to collect data. drawing on shulman’s (1986) categories of knowledge, data were analyzed thematically. the findings revealed that the pre-service teachers had limited skill in lesson preparation and classroom management, which negatively impacted their learning during teaching practice. based on these findings, the study recommends that teacher education colleges should take steps to better prepare preservice teachers to effectively handle lesson planning, teaching, and classroom management. keywords: teaching practice, preparedness, pre-service teachers introduction research attention continues to be directed towards understanding the contribution of the teaching practice component of teacher education in preparing better teachers for tomorrow (endedijk, donche, & oosterheert, 2013; white & forgasz, 2016; olmstead., 2020). this paper issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 95-120 mailto:hawa.mpate@udsm.ac.tz mailto:g.campbell_evans@ecu.edu.au mailto:jan.gray@ecu.adu.au https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 96 presents research which investigated pre-service teachers’ preparedness to teach in secondary schools during their school experience. in this study, pre-service teachers’ preparedness refers to the knowledge and skills that pre-service teachers take into the practice teaching context. more specifically, pre-service teachers’ preparedness consistent with three of shulman’s (1986) categories of knowledge: content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge. a growing body of research has revealed that the learning outcomes specified for the teaching practice are often not met (duman & erdamar, 2018; stenberg et al., 2016). in fact, studies show that during their teaching practice, many pre-service teachers fail to employ the teaching skills which formed the academic component of the course (castañeda-trujillo & aguirre-hernández, 2018; süral, 2019). different perspectives explain these results. while some views point to the quality of the support of the mentor teachers in the practice schools (butler & cuenca, 2012); others focus on the influence of the practicum placement (moulding et al., 2014; mungure, 2016), and others highlight the teaching and learning context referring to student characteristics and teaching (e.g.le cornu, 2015). also, the extent of pre-service teachers’ preparedness is said to contribute to not achieving learning outcomes (großschedl et al., 2015; hobbs & herbert, 2014). despite much research reported in the literature on the importance and the efforts towards strengthening teacher preparation (ali & khalid, 2015; ambrosetti, 2014; darlinghammond, 2006b, 2017; grossman et al., 2009), in tanzania there are still concerns about quality teacher preparation in the colleges and quality teachers in schools. in addition, there is insufficient empirical evidence to know the extent to which these and possible additional elements contribute to pre-service teachers’ level of preparedness in learning to teach. to further explore the issues of pre-service teacher preparedness in tanzania, shulman’s (1986) categories of knowledge informed the research reported in this paper. categories of knowledge to explore and understand pre-service teachers’ preparedness for teaching practice, shulman’s (1986) knowledge categories were employed. these categories provide a way of thinking about what constitutes the knowledge necessary for teaching. in these categories, shulman describes different types of knowledge including: “content knowledge (ck also termed subject matter knowledge); pedagogical content knowledge (pck); general pedagogical knowledge (gpk); curriculum knowledge; knowledge of learners and their characteristics; knowledge of education context; and knowledge of education ends, purpose and values” (shulman, 1986, p. 9). the work of shulman was further extended by scholars (e.g. darlingpre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 97 hammond & bransford, 2007; grossman et al., 2009) who confirmed the importance of ck, pck and gpk as the basic components of teachers’ professional knowledge. as such, many initial teacher education programs around the world recognise these three types of knowledge as the foundation for teachers’ effective teaching and learning (e.g.depaepe et al., 2018; lancaster & bain, 2019). the significance of these three types of knowledge is based not only on the unique features and functions of each type of knowledge, but also their integrated and interconnected nature (kind, v., & chan, k.h., 2019). the literature shows variations on what constitutes ck (rivera et al., 2015). however, the analysis of this literature shows that ck mainly constitutes the understanding of the content, and its disciplinary structure. teachers are expected to understand the ck across four different levels including: knowledge of the ‘what’ (or declarative knowledge facts, concepts, and ideas); the knowledge of the ‘how’ (procedural knowledge); the knowledge of ‘why’ (schematic knowledge); and the knowledge of ‘when’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ to apply the knowledge (bangir-alpan & koç-erdamar, 2019; vula & kingji-kastrati, 2018). however, the specific amount and depth of the ck that teachers should have is still debated. despite the uncertainty of the amount of ck needed for effective teaching, it is generally argued that ck is a crucial attribute for teacher quality (oliveira & weinburgh, 2017). pedagogical content knowledge (pck) is another type of knowledge deemed to be equally important for teachers’ effective instruction. shulman (1986) defined pck as “the knowledge that embodies the aspects of content most germane to its teachability” (p. 9). pedagogical content knowledge constitutes the most useful examples, demonstrations, illustrations, analogies, and the ways of formulating a subject so that it is more comprehensible and understandable to others. moreover, teachers need a better understanding of the pck to be able to transform the ck through ongoing preparation, re-ordering, re-arranging, and restructuring of the content knowledge for effective teaching (chang et al., 2020; lancaster & bain, 2019). teachers are expected to be able to employ different representations including metaphors, illustrations, analogies, and explanations while teaching. the use of these representations not only helps teachers to communicate easily with the learners but also helps with a better understanding of the topic by the learners through memory retention (reitano & harte, 2016). in more general terms, teachers’ understanding of the pck is crucial since effective teaching of the subject mainly depends on pck which constitutes teacher’s ability to hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 98 transform the content into easier chunks, organise them in an appropriate order and select appropriate representations for effective teaching of discipline content. however, the application of content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge is said to be challenging for many pre-service teachers. most appear to understand the ‘what’ to teach but the ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘how’ and ‘where’ to apply the knowledge remains a struggle (gess-newsome, 2015). for example, studies have depicted pre-service teachers’ poor preparation of the lesson plans as a result of poor pck (e.g. alanazi, 2019; großschedl et al., 2015; livy et al., 2016). others have highlighted pre-service teachers’ poor use of relevant representations, demonstrations and illustrations (e.g. aydeniz & gurcay, 2018; çelik & güler, 2018). moreover, deng et al (2018) indicated that pre-service teachers were not able to effectively communicate with students and design appropriate teaching activities to match the level of their students’ understanding. it is therefore likely that the foundation of the teaching knowledge can be built from a solid understanding of ck and pck. scholars also discuss the need for teachers to have general pedagogical knowledge (gpk). the conceptualization of gpk as one component of teachers’ professional knowledge is based on extensive research on the methods of effective teaching and classroom management strategies (könig et al., 2016; poznanski et al., 2018). there is variation in the way gpk is defined. these variations are found to be due to a lack of clarity in the specific domains that constitute gpk. for example, shulman (1987) asserted that gpk constitutes broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organisation that appears to transcend subject matter, as well as knowledge of learner characteristics, assessment, educational purpose and context. similarly, happ et al., (2016) and voss et al., (2011) defined gpk as classroom management skills, knowledge of various instructional techniques, knowledge of classroom assessment, knowledge of learners’ characteristics and the learning process. alternatively. in the united states gpk refers to teaching methods and educational foundations, while in germany, it denotes teacher understanding of the theories underpinning educational psychology, sociology, and history of education (abell, 2013; herring et al., 2016). generally, gpk constitutes four main components: general teaching methods; knowledge of classroom management; learning motivation strategies; and assessment strategies (abas, 2016; darling-hammond, 2017). therefore, to effectively teach, scholars suggest that teachers are expected to understand all four components that is: be able to employ a variety of teaching methods as they teach students of different groups and abilities; be able pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 99 to organise the classroom, design teaching tasks and organise students; manage the classroom, and be able to assess learners’ progress during the learning process (könig et al., 2015). studies indicate that pre-service teachers experience difficulties in applying different aspects of gpk. for instance, in the work of cavanagh et al. (2019) and gan and lee (2016), pre-service teachers demonstrated inadequate student assessment skills such as questioning techniques and developing appropriate rubrics. other studies revealed that pre-service teachers’ choice and application of teaching strategies were generally poor which limited their instructions (castañeda-trujillo & aguirre-hernández, 2018). similarly, other scholars reported pre-service teachers’ inadequate ability to manage the classroom (girardet & berger, 2018; könig et al., 2016). various reasons have been suggested as to what limits pre-service teachers’ ability to apply the three types of knowledge during their teaching practice including: not having enough exposure and training of this knowledge during their coursework; lack of teaching resources in the practice schools; insufficient time spent in teaching practice; and insufficient support from the supervisors and mentor teachers (lancaster & bain, 2019; lucero & roncancio-castellanos, 2019). generally, the work of shulman has been fundamental to the principles and content of many teacher education programs around the world including tanzania, as outlined in the following section. tanzanian teacher education curriculum to better understand pre-service teachers’ preparedness for their teaching practice experience, it is helpful to have an overview of the subject content and the knowledge categories evident in the tanzanian college curriculum. the two-year, diploma in secondary teacher education, specifies that pre-service teachers study five professional subjects. these include: curriculum and teaching; education foundations; educational psychology guidance and counselling; educational research, measurement and evaluation; and educational media and technology. these courses are purposively designed to equip pre-service teachers with general methods of teaching, classroom management, assessment, and motivation strategies: that is, shulman’s gpk. the structure of the curriculum requires that pre-service teachers complete one major and one minor academic subject. academic subjects include both science and arts subjects such as history, english, geography, chemistry and physics. these subjects are meant to equip pre-service teachers with an understanding of the knowledge of a subject (the what) and the purpose of teaching the subject (the why) of content. in line with each academic subject, prehawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 100 service teachers also take methodology subject units. the methodology subjects include curriculum and teaching, education psychology and education foundation. they are meant to equip pre-service teachers with appropriate methods, illustrations, models, and the techniques of teaching the academic subject. for example, the subject history is taught along with units in the methodology course called methods of teaching history. therefore, the college subject and methodology courses are consistent with shulman’s three categories of knowledge (ck, pck, gpk). methods this study explored pre-service teachers’ preparedness for their teaching practice. it was guided by cognitive constructivist theory which assumes that knowledge is constructed based on existing mental structures (prior experiences) by engaging learners in authentic tasks and acting on the real objects (huitt & hummel, 2003). the theory was deemed relevant since this study explored the knowledge and skills pre-service teachers bring into the teaching practice component of their study. to understand the phenomena as it occurs in its natural context, a qualitative approach informed by a case study design was employed (yin, 2015). participants the study involved participants from one diploma teachers college and three public secondary schools in moshi rural, kilimanjaro region of tanzania. once the participating secondary placement schools were confirmed, the pre-service teachers posted to those schools were invited to participate. five of these pre-service teachers (two males and three females) from across the social science subjects (history, geography, swahili, english and civics) agreed to participate. each pre-service teacher was mentored by a teacher in their respective subject/s making a total of five participating mentor teachers. five college tutors, referred to in this study as supervisors, who assessed the participating pre-service teachers were purposively selected. heads of each school also participated in the research. therefore, data were collected from a total of 18 participants. data collection data collection was conducted during the eight weeks of pre-service teacher teaching practice in schools. the reported data were collected through interviews, focus group discussions, document analysis and informal observations. there were three interview sessions for each pre-service teacher conducted at the beginning, middle and at the end of their teaching practice. these different interview sessions helped the authors understand pre-service teachers’ pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 101 consistency or variations in perceptions, feelings, and actions over the period of their teaching practice. each mentor teacher, college supervisor and head of school was interviewed once near the end of the placement period. following the completion of interviews, one-hour focus group discussions of five participants each, were conducted in the key stakeholder groups: preservice teachers, mentor teachers and college supervisors. these homogeneous group discussions were to obtain a collective voice, shared views, feelings, opinions, and suggestions about the phenomenon under study. the curriculum for the diploma teachers education was used to obtain information about various courses that pre-service teachers in diploma teachers college studied before they started teaching practice. their schemes of work, lesson plans, lesson notes, and teaching aids provided data on the extent to which they were able to prepare these documents in accordance with what they learned in the college. in addition, the document analysis reviewed supervisors’ assessment and feedback forms, and subject textbooks and supplementary books at each school. analysis of the documents was completed after the individual interviews, observations, and focus group discussions to validate the self-reported behaviours of the participants. analysis of these documents assisted in crosschecking the authenticity of the data obtained through other methods (bryman, 2016). non-participant observation was also employed throughout the teaching practice period to help gain an understanding of the duties performed by the pre-service teachers. observation helped to cross-check the self-reported behaviours as described during interviews and focus group discussion (creswell & creswell, 2017). these informal observations also helped the authors capture various contextual elements such as availability of teaching and learning materials, classroom and class size and staff facilities that would have contributed to the preservice teachers’ experience. the collected data were thematically analysed. first, data from interviews and focus group discussions were transcribed. the transcripts, observation notes and documents were read several times to gain an overview. three coding cycles were conducted from which a data map was created. various categories emerged from the data and key concepts identified and considered in terms of shulman’s (1986) knowledge categories. from these categories, findings were interpreted, discussed, and considered in light of current literature. the research had ethics approval from the [university to be named in final version] ethics committee (#15077) and the authors report there are no competing interests to declare. hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 102 results from analysis of the data, two main skills were identified as under-developed among preservice teachers. these skills were lesson preparation and classroom management. in addition, the college curriculum and course structure were identified as factors contributing to the preservice teachers’ experience. lesson preparation the participating pre-service teachers referred to different aspects of lesson preparation that they found to be challenging. these areas were: preparation of lesson plans, scheme of work, lesson notes, teaching aids, and setting appropriate lesson objectives. in this study, scheme of work refers to the structure and organisation of the curriculum content into a deliverable unit which can be implemented over a period of three weeks, a term or semester and a lesson plan is a teacher’s daily lesson guide of what will be taught and how. while a scheme of work is extracted from the curriculum, a lesson plan is extracted from the scheme of work. three of the five pre-service teachers could not prepare their own scheme of work and lesson plans. these pre-service teachers requested their mentor teachers’ scheme of work and lesson plans so that they could use them as examples while trying to prepare their own. for example, one pre-service teacher reported: “i just wanted to see how he [mentor teacher] prepares his own lesson plan so that i can learn something because we never prepared lesson plan at the college” (mf, i, 1). however, two of the five pre-service teachers prepared their own scheme of work and lesson plans without requesting any assistance from their mentor teachers. they explained that they learned about lesson plan preparation during the college coursework. one pre-service teacher confirmed: i made my own scheme of work and lesson notes. we learned on how to prepare them before we came for teaching practice (k, i,1). data from document analysis further revealed pre-service teachers’ insufficient skill in preparation of schemes of work and lesson plans. during the eight weeks pre-service teachers spent on teaching practice, only two schemes of work existed and were collected from two of the five pre-service teachers. moreover, thirteen lesson plans were collected from all five preservice teachers. an examination of the organisation and the content of the collected scheme of work and lesson plans revealed some deficiencies. for example, although the general objectives and the competence statements were well phrased in the schemes of work, the competence statements were unsatisfactorily stated in ten of the thirteen lesson plans collected. the following extracted general objectives and lesson competence statements illustrate: pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 103 scheme of work 1: general objective “at the end of the course student should be able to show an understanding of the composition of the earth geological time scale, structure and force that affect the earth and their economic importance” (geography subject scheme of work, collected from mf, examined on 21/4/2017). scheme of work 2: general objective “to understand the process of establishing colonial rule in africa.” (history subject scheme of work, collected from r, examined on 5/5/, 2017). according to tanzanian secondary school curriculum requirements for stating general objectives, these objectives were satisfactorily stated. the general objective is normally a broad statement with a general behaviour term such as understand, know, appreciate, apprehend, and appraise (tanzania institute of education, 2011). the general objective is stated in such a way that it aims to attain the desired behaviour at the end of the lesson, topic or course rather than at any point along the process of teaching and learning (tanzania institute of education, 2011). however, in both schemes of work and the thirteen lesson plans collected, the competence statements and the specific objectives were not in line with the secondary school curriculum format. according to the secondary school curriculum, the competence statements should show what the student will be able to practice in real life situations after learning a subtopic. this was not the case with the stated competence examined as evident in the following extract “students should demonstrate agriculture” (history subject lesson plan from k, examined 11/5/2017). a more satisfactory competency statement could be: by the end of the sub-topic, students should be able to understand and apply the concept of irrigation farming in their daily activities. furthermore, the specific objectives were not clearly stated in most of the collected lesson plans. according to the national secondary school curriculum (united republic of tanzania, 2018) clearly stated specific objectives should have the following characteristics: the target audience, for example, form one students with this characteristic denoted by the letter ‘a’; a set of behaviours to be developed such as; list, define, draw, interpret, evaluate, with this characteristic labelled with the letter ‘b’; the condition on which the behaviour is going to be shown such as a map, a piece of paper, or a drawing, with this designated by the letter ‘c’; and the degree of performance of the behaviour can be either an adverb, such as clearly, briefly or a number showing a repetitiveness or extent of comprehensiveness such as: list 3 characteristics or outline 4 behaviours of... and this character is denoted by the letter ‘d’. from the examined lesson plans, 10 the 13 lesson plans either had few or none of the mentioned characteristics. for example, see the following statement of specific objectives extracted from hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 104 one of the lesson plans: “within the period of 40 minutes student (a) should be able to understand the definition of trans –saharan trade” (history lesson plan from r, examined 27/4/2017). this specific objective lacks the following important characteristics: first, it does not show the specific behaviour to be attained at the end of the lesson, hence it cannot be measured. the word “to understand” as used in the statement is broad and thus cannot be tested within a lesson of 40 minutes. second, the statement does not show the degree of performance of behaviour (the d aspect). third, the statement does not provide the condition on which the behaviour will be demonstrated (the c aspect). the correctly stated specific objective could be: by the end of the lesson, a form one student (a) should be able to clearly (d) define (b) and outline on paper (c) the five key characteristics of trans –saharan trade. from two collected schemes of work and eight the thirteen lesson plans, the planned learning activities, teaching resources and the assessment activities appeared to lack student interaction, and higher order thinking skills. the learning activities were teacher-centred and incapable of involving students in active learning. see the following extracts of the planned learning activities as written in four different lesson plans. i. to guide students to mention all the things found in the soil; ii. to list all the things found in the soil profile; iii. students to write down the soil horizon; iv. observing learners and correcting them. preparation of lesson notes was another challenge for the pre-service teachers. in this study, lesson notes refer to a layer of the content to be taught during a lesson with the appropriate activities, illustrations and demonstrations. four of the five pre-service teachers demonstrated limited skills in the preparation of lesson notes and teaching aids. the lesson notes were reported to contain a lot of detail as they were directly copied from the textbook: “i use to directly copy the lesson notes from the book” (s, i, 2). pre-service teachers reported an inability to extract important points from the textbook and prepare appropriate summary notes for the lesson. “i have prepared my detailed notes and i don’t know how i shall make them summaries” (k, i, 1). however, the examination of the five copies of lesson notes from five pre-service teachers showed some improvement between the lesson notes prepared in the first three weeks (beginning of teaching practice) and those prepared in the last four weeks of teaching practice. the lesson notes collected at the beginning of teaching practice showed poor organisation of the concepts, with few or no illustrations and activities planned within the notes. this was completely opposite to the school curriculum requirements. the later lesson notes pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 105 showed improvement in terms of the way they were organised. the main points of the lesson notes were clearly outlined followed by the minor concepts, some clear demonstrations, drawings and activities were included, and the notes were brief and meaningful. furthermore, four of the five pre-service teachers expressed how they faced difficulties in the selection and designing of relevant teaching aids to suit the school context. in the context of this study, teaching aids are defined as representation of true objects that used to facilitate teaching: for example, pictures, drawings, a model, videos and charts. one pre-service teacher confessed that she could not make a connection between the knowledge she had and the context in which she was supposed to apply the knowledge. she explained: “although i learned how to prepare the teaching aids at the college, the school environment contradicted me as i could not relate and design the exactly teaching aid to help me teach” (s, i, 2). to triangulate this information, two teaching aids (the only ones available) were collected from two pre-service teachers and examined. the teaching aids collected were ‘manila sheets’ with illustrations related to the topic being taught. one teaching aid was found to be meaningful in the sense that it related to the essence of the concept being taught. for example, one geography pre-service teacher was teaching the sub-topic of soil profile and its characteristics. he prepared a diagram showing soil layers on a large manila sheet displayed on the side of the blackboard. the diagram showed different zones of the soil from the deepest to the top surface layer. he coloured the zones differently reflecting the important activities happening in a zone. this teaching aid was simple, easy to construct, relevant to the topic, and could be seen by all the students in the class during the lesson. another teaching aid examined was an illustration on the sub-topic of letter writing. the aid was not interesting and was no different to the pre-service teacher writing the content on the blackboard. the manila sheet was badly rolled and to straighten, took several minutes. this teaching aid was not big enough to be seen by all the students in the classroom. generally, the preparation of lesson plans and aids was a challenge for most of the pre-service teachers. classroom management classroom management was identified by most of the pre-service teachers as an area of difficulty. student misbehaviour was a significant challenge for pre-service teachers where they were posted for their teaching practice. all five pre-service teachers indicated they faced difficulties in dealing with those misbehaviours. one pre-service teacher explained that her classroom comprised of students who had low motivation for learning, while some were hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 106 frequently talking and asking unnecessary questions just to try test her (pre-service teacher) temper. i observed that students are not motivated to learn. there were also some students who were talking to others while i was teaching. others asked the questions while knowing the answers. i did not know what to do especially when you find those stubborn students are also academically leading in the class. (d, fgd, 1) another pre-service teacher affirmed that he faced dilemmas in wining students’ trust. this pre-service teacher believed that students were used to their subject teacher and therefore, trusting and adapting to the teaching style of the pre-service teacher was difficult. however, he expressed a sense of readiness to face and deal with the situation. he said: “i know students are used to their teacher and sometimes it may be difficult for them to understand me, but i will try my best” (k, i, 1). it was further reported that three of the five pre-service teachers faced difficulties when trying to discipline disruptive students. mentor teachers indicated this may be due to the physical appearance of some of the pre-service teachers in that they looked too young to be teachers. therefore, students refused to respond to disciplinary measures employed by pre-service teachers. in such cases, pre-service teachers were compelled to involve their mentor teachers for assistance. this is evident in the pre-service teacher’s comment: i teach a class with a lot of disruptive students. some will talk while you are teaching, others will leave the class before the end of the lesson and cause a lot of interference. i try my best to employ some disciplinary measures to keep them in order but most of them do not respond. when situation like this happen, i normally involve my mentor teacher to assist me. (r, fgd, 1) similarly, another pre-service teacher reported the same scenario: “the problem was when they misbehaved and when i tried to discipline them, they refused. i felt so bad and did not know what to do next” (s, i,2). three of the five mentor teachers confirmed pre-service teachers’ limited skills for classroom management as the following quotes indicate: it is quite challenging when a pre-service teacher tries to employ some discipline to some of the students who always misbehave. some of these students refuse to take the tasks given as part of disciplining them. this is because most of the pre-service teachers look young physically. some of them look even younger than some of the students. (mt1, i,1) pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 107 nowadays we have very young pre-service teachers coming for teaching practice. well, they may have good ability to teach but a lot of them have low confidence to control our classroom during the lesson. we have a huge number of students with various behaviours. some are cool students and others are disruptive. pre-service teachers need enough time to develop confidence and strategies to appropriately deal with these kinds of students. (mt3, fgd,1) pre-service teachers’ limited classroom management skill was also reported by four of the five supervisors who went to assess them. however, two supervisors said that these skills developed throughout the teaching practice: yes, at the beginning they struggled a lot with managing the students’ behaviours, but the situation was different when i went for the second assessment. they were so much improved and it seems like they just needed to couple with the classroom environment. (s2, 1, 1) however, another supervisor added that she observed pre-service teachers struggling with classroom management and there was not much improvement over time. she commented that a lot of effort should be invested towards enabling preservice teachers’ classroom management skills. she acknowledged that: indeed, there is a lot of problems with our pre-service teachers’ ability to control the classroom. i could not see much improvement in that area even after visiting them a couple of times for assessment. i think we really need to focus on helping them towards developing these skills since it can have severe consequence in their learning. (s3, fgd,1) classroom management is one of the important skills that can facilitate smooth interaction during the teaching and learning process (könig & blömeke, 2012). given classroom management was identified as a challenge for most of the pre-service teachers, their inability to manage the class limited their own development and likely the learning of the students. college curriculum and course structure the data show that the structure and the curriculum of the college course contributed to the pre-service teachers’ under-developed lesson preparation and classroom management skills. it was reported that before they were sent for their teaching practice, pre-service teachers were taught more units of the academic subjects (what to teach) than the methodology units (how to hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 108 teach. these subjects were designed to equip pre-service teachers with the necessary skills of planning and managing a lesson, managing the classroom, and dealing effectively with students’ behaviours. the teaching of these methods courses was deemed inadequate by the students in the sense that, there was little practical application to the classroom. for example, pre-service teachers were exposed to lesson preparation in a theoretical way during a brief seminar that was convened only a few days before they went to their teaching practice. in the words of one pst: i learned many units in my academic subject almost four. we did also some few units in courses of teaching methods curriculum and teaching and educational foundations. however, the units of preparation of the scheme of work and lesson plan were insufficiently taught. we were taught about lesson plan preparation in a brief seminar shortly before coming to the teaching practice. (r, i, 1) three of the five supervisors confirmed that they taught many units of the academic subjects and few of the methodology subjects. although they recognised that more methodology subjects were needed before pre-service teachers were sent for their teaching practice, it was the requirement of the college curriculum that in the first semester, pre-service teachers were exposed to more academic subjects. supervisors further reported that they used their own initiative to teach some important methodology subjects so that they enabled pre-service teachers’ skills of lesson preparation. sometimes it is upon a tutor him/herself to make good decision on which unit should come first. for example, teach them about classroom management and preparation of lesson is important before sending them to practice. however, the college curriculum recommends otherwise, that is, more units of the academic subjects and i don’t think it helps. (s2, i, 2) discussion from the findings, it is evident that pre-service teachers entered teaching practice with limited skills in their pedagogical content knowledge (pck) and general pedagogical knowledge (gpk). as per shulman (1986), pedagogical content knowledge constitutes the most useful examples, demonstrations, illustrations, analogies, and the ways of formulating a subject so that it is more comprehensible and understandable to others. in this study pre-service teachers had limited ability to prepare instructional plans (scheme of work and lesson plans), content pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 109 organisation (lesson notes preparation), design appropriate instructional resources and select appropriate teaching methods. at least sixty percent of the participating pre-service teachers could not prepare their own schemes of work and lesson plans and therefore sought assistance from their mentor teachers. these pre-service teachers did not have, or doubted their skills. the remaining forty percent believed that they had skills to prepare schemes of work and lesson plans and so they did not seek assistance from their mentor teachers. however, examination of all the collected pre-service teachers’ schemes of work and lesson plans demonstrated that most of these documents were not up to the standards and requirements of the secondary school national curriculum. even though some pre-service teachers relied on the skills they believed they had from the college while others relied on their mentor teachers’ guidance, they all struggled to prepare lesson plans and schemes of work to the required standard. considering that schemes of work and lesson plans are the roadmaps to classroom teaching (back, 2012; windschitl et al., 2020), pre-service teachers’ inability to effectively prepare schemes of work and lesson plans was likely to result in inadequate classroom teaching. through document analysis of scheme of works and lesson plans, it was evident that pre-service teachers could not effectively identify and unpack the big ideas to be taught in their subject. the organisation and sequencing of the ideas was problematic for them. it was further revealed that pre-service teachers had inadequate skills of selecting the key ideas from books, match them with the objective of the lesson, organise and structure them appropriately. this resulted in lesson notes so detailed that classroom instruction time was always insufficient. this reflected poor knowledge about the most important content to be taught. it was further evident that pre-service teachers could not appropriately choose and plan teaching strategies to match the content they were teaching. these results align with those revealed by kleickmann et al. (2013) who reported that due to insufficient pck, pre-service teachers were uncertain of the methods to be employed when teaching content. it was evident from this study that most of the pre-service teachers planned to use teacher-centred methods (passive) and did not employ learner-centred methods such as group discussion, role play, question and answer, regardless of the nature of the content and the level of the class they taught. although teacher-centred methods are common and a useful strategy to use in teaching (sever et al., 2013), this was not always the best method to deliver the content pre-service teachers planned. for example, one pre-service teacher planned to teach the subtopic of soil profile and characteristics. the teaching activity was to ask the students to identify elements in hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 110 the soil profile. since the activity was non-interactive, it was difficult for students to conceptualise; especially those without prior knowledge of soil characteristics. use of a more learner-centred activity may have been better suited to the task. this is consistent with scholars such as aydeniz and gurcay (2018), and schneider and plasman (2011) who contend that to successfully help learners understand concepts, teachers require knowledge of the range of strategies appropriate to help learners build on their pre-existing knowledge. it was evident that due to insufficient pck, the pre-service teachers could not design proper representations of their content which created difficulties in their teaching and eventually in students’ learning. for example, pre-service teachers employed teaching aids which although they matched the cognitive level of the students, were not attractive, not well improvised, small, not easily accessed by all students and thus not realistic. these kinds of teaching aids had little chance of assisting pre-service teachers to effectively convey the intended messages during the lesson and enhance student learning. moreover, the data showed that pre-service teachers had insufficient gpk illustrated by the pre-service teachers’ struggle with classroom management. classroom management is cited in the literature as one of the pedagogical concerns for most beginning pre-service teachers (könig & kramer, 2016). in this current study, most of the pre-service teachers faced difficulties in managing student behaviour. for example, they reported disruptions including students’ inattention, sleeping during the lesson, disturbing others by talking, frequently going from the classroom, and asking unnecessary questions. given the pre-service teachers were not able to manage these classroom behaviours, they experienced a loss of control and increased anxiety. pre-service teacher anxiety resulting from poor skills in managing student behaviours is well documented (eg. oral, 2012; reupert & woodcock, 2011). it was evident from the findings that when a student misbehaved, pre-service teachers took them to the staff room for their mentor teachers to help plan and administer a punishment. this implied that pre-service teachers in this study did not have sufficient skill or confidence to address classroom management issues on their own. as such, student misbehaviours were intensified and created a difficult and unpleasant environment for their teaching. these results are similar to those reported by yuan and lee (2014) who suggested that pre-service teachers’ inability to deal with student behaviour was due to a gap in their knowledge of classroom management strategies. reflecting on the data from the supervisors, it is possible to associate the problem of pre-service teachers’ insufficient knowledge of teaching (shulman, 1986), with the preparation pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 111 they had in the college coursework. this was apparent in the curriculum sequencing where most of the units taught during the first semester were focused on the ‘what’ (ck) rather than the ‘how’ (pck) to teach. this raises questions about the diploma curriculum: it’s content organisation, and/or timing of teaching practice. in addition, gpk development for the preservice teachers was limited in the school context as a result of insufficient guidance from the mentor teachers (author, author, author., 2021; darling-hammond et al., 2020). conclusion in this study, it was clear that the pre-service teachers did not have adequate preparation to meet the challenges of the classroom. while there was no evidence the pre-service teachers were lacking in content knowledge, there were clear gaps in pedagogical and general pedagogical knowledge. with regard to pck, nilsson and loughran (2012) revealed that content representations design (core) enhanced pre-service teachers’ articulation of their pck as they could develop an understanding of the important ideas to be taught and why they should be taught. therefore, core design could be a useful addition to curriculum to strengthen preservice teachers’ pck. as in the findings of this study, literature reports the pre-service teachers experienced difficulties applying different aspects of gpk. their choice and application of teaching strategies were generally weak which limited, for example, their capacity to give clear instructions (castañeda-trujillo & aguirre-hernández, 2018; chien, 2015). scholars researching these issues reported pre-service teachers’ inadequate ability to manage the classroom (coles et al., 2015; girardet & berger, 2018; könig & kramer, 2016). to enable pre-service teachers to understand different aspects of lesson planning and classroom management (gpk) prior to their school experience, teacher educators need to ensure there is both attention to and time for, building gpk within the teacher education course. the study highlights the potential benefit of revisiting the organisation of the college curriculum to find a balance of courses taught, to enhance the pre-service teachers’ development of ck, pck and gpk prior to the school experience. when the teacher education curriculum has a balance of the categories of knowledge, students are better prepared for the challenges of their school practice (eg. darling-hammond et al., 2017). regular and ongoing course review informed by the three knowledge categories is required. the study suggests that while the college should build a solid foundation of pre-service teachers’ knowledges before teaching practice, the mentor teachers also have a role in guiding, orienting and strengthening pre-service teachers’ ability to teach (duman & erdamar, 2018). hawa mpate, glenda campbel-evans, & jan gray ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 112 in this study, however, it was evident the mentor teachers were themselves lacking in skills and therefore not able to provide timely and meaningful support. the mentor teacher’s knowledge, skill and engagement are well documented as an important feature of teacher education classroom placements (see zikhali et al., 2018). mentor teachers also require awareness and understanding of shulman’s categories of knowledge in order to adequately support the preservice teachers. if mentors lack these skills, the college has a responsibility to provide opportunities for professional learning to enable them to fully support the pre-service teachers in the classroom. change is not an easy task and it may take time to address issues related to college curriculum and the teaching and learning practices embedded within such change. a large body of global research indicates the need to implement a curriculum that prepares pre-service teachers before they begin their teaching practice. the literature also highlights the importance of the skills and guidance given by mentor teachers. this study provides a deeper understanding of the challenges faced in preparing preservice teachers in tanzania, particularly regarding attention to shulman’s (1986) knowledge categories. while the study involved a small sample in a developing country, the findings have relevance for teacher education more broadly. authors contribution • dr hawa mpate is the first author of this paper. she contributed to the conceptualisation of the research, was the sole collector of data, and contributed to the data analysis. she filled the primary role of drafting the paper once the content and structure were agreed by the authors. • prof glenda campbell-evans contributed the initial conceptualisation of the research, interpretation, and representation of data. determining the content and structure of the paper was a major contribution along with feedback and edits on multiple drafts. • prof jan gray contributed to the initial conceptualisation of the research, interpretation and representation of data. determining the content and structure of the paper was a major contribution along with feedback and edits on multiple drafts. data availability pre-service teachers preparedness to teach during teaching practice in tanzania ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 95-120 113 • data used in this research was part of large research study submitted for phd award at edith cowan university, western australia in 2020. funding • funding of this research was mainly by edith cowan university, school of education research training program (rtp), western australia and partly by mkwawa university college of education, tanzania. references abas, m. c. 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(2018). student teachers’ experiences in the student teacher mentoring programme (stmp) in zimbabwe — a case for masvingo province. progressio, 40(1), 1-17. doi:10.25159/0256-8853/4708 effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria mabel ihuoma idika department of science and technology education, university of ibadan, nigeria abstract this study investigated the effect of the use of visualized case-based learning (vcbl) strategy on chemistry students’ academic achievement. the theoretical framework for this study is based on thorndike’s idea of transfer of learning. a sample of one hundred and forty-five (145) senior secondary school ii chemistry students drawn from four intact classes in two local government areas of ibadan metropolis, were used for the research. three well validated instruments were used to collect data. the vcbl package was developed following the smith and ragan instructional system design (isd) model (1999). this model comprises four stages: namely, analysis, design, development and implementation/evaluation. data were analysed by means of inferential statistics (ancova, emm and tukey’s post-hoc). results showed that there is significant main effect of treatment on students’ achievement in chemistry (f (2, 248) =17.539; p<0.05; η2=0.124); implying that the posttest scores of students’ achievement in achievement significantly differ between the treatment and conventional groups. it was concluded that vcbl strategy has the potential to enable students understand chemistry better by way of promoting transfer of learning. in light of this, implications were discussed and relevant suggestions made. keywords: visualization, cased-based learning, chemistry, inquiry, achievement african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 106-126 effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 107 introduction chemistry is central to all the physical sciences and is seen in virtually every aspect of life and it is central to man’s existence and survival. any nation that must develop cannot deny the place of chemistry in nation building and sustenance of development. the employment of chemistry principles dates back to the stone age when the early man discovered fire. presently, the knowledge of chemistry is visible in almost all sectors of human endeavour. it is applied in the areas of food and agriculture, manufacturing industries, health/ pharmaceuticals, power, works and housing, transportation, mineral exploration, space exploration, textiles, oil and gas, water treatment and almost all forms of engineering. by studying chemistry, students acquire scientific awareness and knowledge of their environment as well as information about the world around them. as a school subject, students basically rely on basic qualities like reasoning and creative skills. learning chemistry also requires an individual’s capacity to engage cognitive, affective and psycho-motor skills (woldeamanuel, atagana and engida, 2013). one of the aims of chemistry education in senior secondary schools is to show chemistry and its link to industry as well as everyday life. in addition, students also “develop and exhibit skills such as inquiry, critical thinking, objectivity, rational reasoning, experimenting, logical deductions, logical reasoning, among others” (idika and adesoji, 2020). olaleye (2012) rightly stated that chemistry provides answers to our natural curiosity about the world and allows learners to experience scientific methods which help in everyday life and in the understanding of nigerian students usually do chemistry as science students in the senior secondary schools. a distinction or credit pass in o’ level chemistry is usually a requirement for studying any science (physical) related course such as medicine, biochemistry, engineering and nursing in any higher institution, especially the university. the knowledge of this science subject equips individuals with the requisite problem-solving skills and sound judgment to function effectively in industries and the society in general. furthermore, chemistry students have a better chance in understanding global problems such as water and air pollution, poverty and global warming. he or she should be able to recognize, analyze, evaluate and suggest innovative solutions to these problems. mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 108 but, some researchers have asserted that despite the attempts made to improve pedagogical practices in chemistry, students’ performance in examinations in the subject, especially in nigeria, remains a source of concern (nbina and vico,2010; ezeudu and obi,2013). statistics obtained from west african examination council (waec) on students’ performance in chemistry from 2005-2016 show that students showed a dwindling performance. there is a notion that the persistent poor performance of students in chemistry is partly caused by their anxiety caused by the perception that chemistry is difficult, continued use of conventional teaching strategies and other teacher-centered methods inadequate infrastructures and teaching materials, teaching problems, non-availability of professional and well-trained teachers, lack of technical/laboratory assistants, non-existence of effective problem solving strategies, poor reasoning and poor mathematics background (jegede, 2007; aluko, 2008, nbina and vico, 2010; kolomuc, 2012; woldeamanuel, atagana, and engida, 2013, nbina (2012), ali (2012) and nnoli (2015). there seems to be a prevalence of the use of conventional teaching methods in most chemistry classrooms (omwirhiren and ibrahim, 2016). at best, the learning process is rigid and seems unappealing to the students. concepts are often taught devoid of opportunities for students to relate what is taught in class and everyday life. also, instead of promoting students’ reasoning and critical thinking capability, the learners spend additional time on writing notes and practically, looking at the board or just listening to the teacher. achimugu (2012) described conventional teaching strategy as theoretical, boring, disconnected and artificial. perhaps, the traditional approach to teaching chemistry poses a barrier in attaining the required success in chemistry education and there is an obvious need to adopt more innovative approaches to teaching the subject. case-based learning (cbl) is one of the instructional strategies that is derived from constructivist theory. it is an inquiry-based teaching strategy because it uses case studies as tools to activate learning. a case study is a typical story that engages the reader by presenting an impasse that can only be solved with a basic knowledge of scientific principles (mclean, 2016). case-based learning has been employed in the instructional practices in several disciplines and courses such as medicine, law, psychology and other subject areas apart from science. casebased instructional practices create an atmosphere that elicits curiosity, interest and delight in the effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 109 process of learning a task (yalcinkaya, geban and ozkan (2012). research has also shown that this pedagogical strategy, if appropriately utilized, is capable of developing students’ ability to think critically, solve problems, develop attitudes and skills, excel in verbal and written tasks, increase motivation and judge self objectively(williams, 2005). cases are not mere examples or illustrations but serve as primary structure for learning to take place. (allchin, 2013). in addition, a case-based learning class provides a stimulating, engrossing and interesting environment where learners can broaden the desire to cooperate and engage others through discussions and sharing of ideas with their classmates in a teacher-facilitated environment. the students are usually placed in small groups thereby providing opportunities for them to recognize misconceptions and acquire a different orientation towards the concept (williams, 2005). cases are usually made in two parts: (1) the case scenario or story/narration of an event for the purpose of instruction and (2) the questions relating to the case or story narrated. in some instances, cases are presented before the questions while in other situations the reverse is the case. according to cam and geban (2013), cases are to steer students’ thoughts toward a conclusion or provide resources and relevant context for group discussion or a structured, constructive debate in class. the stories or cases may be presented in varying forms. they may be in oral, print or electronic form, for instance, video. in this study, cases are presented to students in such a way that the characters can be seen and heard, it is therefore termed as visualised case-based learning. a set of questions relating to the selected cases that can aid students to appraise the possible conclusions, perceptions, and subjects in the case are directed to the learners for the evaluative purposes. also, an interesting case is expected to facilitate class/group discussions (williams, 2005) because learners are tasked to solve the problems presented in the case studies using their background knowledge. almost all instructors who have investigated the efficacy of case-based learning asserted that it is an excellent way to get students to scrutinize information, identify the vital aspects of a concept and distribute the presentation of challenging material (yadav, lundeberg, deschryver, dirkin, schiller, maier and herreid, 2004). the majority of teachers also confirmed their willingness to initiate case studies and other case-based learning strategies in their future teaching (rybarczyk, baines, mcvey, thompson, and wilkins, 2007). cam and geban (2013) stated that most chemistry teachers are concerned with innovative, effective and exciting means of teaching chemistry concepts to students. they, therefore, concluded that cbl instruction was mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 110 not only effective in improving students’ knowledge of chemistry; it also was efficacious in the elimination of certain misconceptions. in addition, the use of cbl in a chemistry class enhances meaningful learning since it is interactive and allows for students’ active participation. furthermore, cam and geban (2017) carried out an experiment involving 51 freshman primary pre-service teachers from an urban university in turkey. at the end, the researchers concluded that case-based learning motivates and improves students’ attitudes to chemistry. okediji (2015) also concluded that case-based learning had better effects on students’ learning outcomes (achievement and attitude) in chemistry than conventional teaching. in addition, one way to improve both students’ performance and interest in science is the use of different teaching approaches with illustrative tools such as graphs, animation, sound and video-clips. in a related study, turkoquz (2012) investigated students' attitudes to the use of visual media tools in a chemistry laboratory in turkey. the findings of the study showed that using visual media tools in chemistry laboratory contributes positively to students' behaviour, interest, skills and attitude to chemistry laboratory courses. also, berk (2009) submitted that watching a video programme, usually incites both external and even deep feelings and emotions which could be in form of exhilaration, anger, laughter, entertainment, love, and in some situations, boredom. berk noted that these emotions are often provoked by specific visual scenes, the actors, and/or the background music. in fact, a video can have a strong effect on an individual’s intellect and senses. a video can capture students’ attention, generate interest and encourage general participation. it is also believed to make students learn more while increasing motivation (cruse, 2013). the appropriate use of relevant video clips in the classroom may be most effective for introductory courses or introducing complex topics to lower achieving students and visual/spatial learners (abram, 2012). one of the aims of the newly revised chemistry curriculum for secondary schools in nigeria is to “show chemistry and its link with industry, everyday life activities and hazards”. it is suggested that chemistry ought to be taught in a more realistic manner. hence, the need to use visualised case-based learning since it can provide real-world context and cultural relevance of the topic taught (abram, 2012). this is likely to foster meaningful learning and promote transfer of learning. effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 111 therefore, this study investigated the effect of using visualized case-based learning on secondary school students’ performance in chemistry. hypothesis h01: there is no significant main effect of treatment on students’ achievement in chemistry theoretical framework theory of transfer of learning consequent on the scope and nature of this study, the theory of transfer of learning was chosen as the anchor of research. the theory generally conveys the idea in transmitting the knowledge and skills that a learner has acquired across two or more situations or tasks. it is believed that the goal of education is for an individual to be able to carry what he has learnt from one environment to make problem-solving decisions in a new environment (day and goldstone, 2012; hajian, 2019). this implies that when concepts are taught well, learners are able to connect, relate and apply them in everyday life as well as outside the school. visualised case-based learning as an instructional tool engenders the transfer from theory to practice (mclean, 2016). in other words, ‘transfer of learning’ represents the reliance of a person’s behaviour, performance or learning on his prior experience. this view was originally presented as transfer of practice by edward thorndike and robert s. woodworth in the 20th century. they explored how individuals would transfer what they have learned from one context to the other. this is concerned with how an upgrade in a cognitive function can affect an associated situation. this theory pointed toward the belief that transfer of learning depends on recognizable similarities between the learning task and transfer task. this was further explained by thorndike’s theory of identical elements. most cases of transfer in learning occur in situations that are very similar. in a constructivist environment, where learners construct their own learning, they acquire new perceptions based on previous knowledge. this is facilitated when they are able to make connections between what they have learnt before and what they are presently exposed to (hajian, 2019). in their article published in 1992, perkins and salomon pointed out that for one to say that learning has taken place; it simply means that the learning can be used in another context. this idea has its locus in the situation where a learner either acquires new knowledge or solves a new problem based on recognizing familiarities among the two situations (steiner, 2001). within a https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edward_thorndike https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/robert_s._woodworth mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 112 vcbl class, students engage in the process of watching videos of events and objects they already know. meaningful learning is expected to take place as this previous knowledge is used to unravel the problems in the cases provided. more importantly, the theory of transfer of learning is presented in this present time as the extent to which prior knowledge or experiences influence the knowledge acquisition or learning in a new situation (haskell, 2001). learner is able to make sense of the dynamics of a new situation with already learnt knowledge. this was buttressed by charles judd proposed the theory of generalization experience. judd’s theory states that what is learnt in a task ‘x’ can be transferred to task ‘y’, if when studying ‘x’, the learner is able to create a connection between similarities in both ‘x’ and ‘y’. experiences, habits, knowledge acquired in one situation can all be generalized, transferred and applied to situations that are similar. the theory further states that the intellectual ability of an individual could determine his/her ability to generalize knowledge (sharma, 2015). the process of transfer become practically involuntary when an individual has mastered the content that is being transferred. in cases where the new concept to be transferred is similar to the original situation that has already been mastered or learned, the differences will be catered for at the subconscious level. haskell (2001) also explained extensively that ‘transfer of learning’ is a thought/knowledge process and not just the product of instructional strategies or learning method. most tasks are connected in one way or another while others are fairly disconnected from each other. when learners attempt to transfer the knowledge of a situation in solving a problem that seems far-fetched, they do not automatically perceive the relationship between the problems. this is referred to as a far transfer and it usually requires a painstaking examination of the situation through profound consideration of the problems (perkins and salomon, 1992). the theory of near and far transfer is a relative concept in the process of teaching and learning because while some learners are able to carry out transfer between seemingly unrelated problems, others may not. this implies that the ability to transfer the knowledge that has acquired to a fairly dissimilar situation is not common to all students. unlike the postulations of thorndike, woodworth, the theory does not explain how the processes that foster far transfer can be inculcated in learners. low-road transfer is the development of skills that prompt transfers to attain the level of automation. this process is effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 113 perfected after several sessions of practice in different situations. simple tasks such as tying a shoelace, operating a cell phone, and driving a motor vehicle are common instances of skills where such automation can be accomplished. high-road transfer entails a conscious cognitive processing to understand; an active and deliberate action to analyse; and a purposeful application of knowledge across career-paths. it is an advanced form of transfer because it requires a deliberate creation of an idea to be transferred and a conscious use of the idea if and when confronted with a situation that requires the idea (perkins and salomon, 1992). visualised case-based learning and students’ achievement in chemistry in his unpublished doctoral thesis, okediji (2015) determined the effect of case-based learning, observational learning and conventional strategies on students’ learning outcomes (achievement in and attitude to) chemistry. out of 368 students who participated in the study, 135 of them were taught some chemistry topics (chemical reactions, ionic equations, redox reactions and ionic theory) using stories that were verbally narrated by the teacher. the findings of the study indicate that cbl was more efficacious in improving students’ learning outcomes in chemistry. however, geelan and mukherjee (2010) opined that the use of several representations can be helpful in reminding teachers and learners that our best understandings of scientific phenomena are often models of reality rather than the reality itself. no doubt, visualizations play a vital and essential role in education, especially in learning science. when woldeamanuel, atagana, and engida (2013) conducted a survey of causes of students’ negative disposition to chemistry, 77% of the students complained that chemistry is too abstract because they have never seen most of the things being taught. this, they argued, contradicts the key reason for teaching and learning chemistry. therefore, the researchers insisted that chemistry should be studied in a way that will enable students to identify the link between chemistry and industry, the environment and daily life in terms of its advantages and demerits. since, science subjects and topics are widely perceived as difficult and abstract, the use of visual aids to bridge the gap between content and instruction is hoped to make learning of science-related concepts relatable and concrete. findings from various studies have stressed that there are numerous advantages in the use of visual and audio equipment in the process of instruction especially with reference to improvements in students’ achievement. when compared to conventional/traditional teaching methods, cbl has been shown to have a positive influence on students’ learning outcomes in mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 114 areas such as reasoning, the ability to make objective judgments, problem-solving skills, students’ retention, higher-order skills on bloom’s taxonomy, and awareness of ethical issues such as students’ attitudes, class attendance. one of the great benefits of using cases to teach is that teachers get students’ attention because most students enjoy stories (cam and geban, 2013). to buttress this, the work and findings of rybosczyk et al (2007) showed that students exposed to case study-based learning performed significantly better and demonstrated use of higher-order thinking skills than those that were not taught with cbl. the researchers also submitted that students correctly answered questions that addressed misconceptions about cellular respiration than those in the conventional group. in contrast, when geelan and mukherjee (2010), experimented on the use of a computer-based scientific visualization, results indicated that teaching with visualizations did not make any significant impact on learning outcomes when compared to teaching without visualisations. recent studies showed that when teaching strategies are combined with technology, misconceptions decrease (turkmen and usta, 2007). the use of technology as an adjunct in teaching was found to be motivating and created a conducive environment for students’ learning, participation, communication and knowledge-sharing in a wide range of ways (turkmen and usta,2007). statement of the problem chemistry as a science subject is often regarded as difficult and abstract. perhaps, this is having an adverse effect on learners’ performance especially with respect to achievement. research shows that if what is learnt in the classroom is not transferable to a new situation and learners are not able to make connections between concept and everyday life, learning goals may not be achieved. it appears that this results from the use of uninteresting conventional teaching. research shows that teaching approaches which provide real-world context and cultural relevance of the topic taught can facilitate meaningful learning and encourage transfer of learning. one of such is case based learning. cases can be presented in various forms but there is a dearth in literature on the use of visualized cases. visualizations (which includes the use of videos) can elicit and improve students’ attention, motivation to learn and eliminate misconceptions. perhaps, this could lead to better academic achievement in chemistry. therefore, this study determined the effect of visualized case-based learning on students’ achievement in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria. effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 115 methodology population and sampling techniques the population of the study comprise all chemistry students in senior secondary schools in ibadan metropolis. the sample participants comprised 145 senior secondary school ii chemistry students from four purposively selected government public (mixed) schools from two local governments in ibadan metropolis which were selected by random sampling. from four of the six schools selected, an intact class each of ssii chemistry students was chosen to participate in the study, making a total of four (4) intact classes. the intact classes were randomly assigned to visualised cbl (experimental group) and conventional teaching group was the control. the students were taught some selected chemistry topics (water, water pollution, solutions and solubility) research instruments three adequately validated instruments were developed and used in this study. they are: 1. teacher instructional guide for visualised cbl (lesson plan): this comprises ✓ cases recorded in a video cd ✓ a worksheet containing questions and spaces for students to put down their answers or opinions ✓ a lesson plan for the teacher to use to teach the concept 2. teacher instructional guide for conventional teaching strategy 3. chemistry achievement test (α=0.73) development and validation of the video cd four cases for each of the four lesson plans used in the study were created and written by the researcher. the cases were developed based on the principles highlighted by herreid (2004). the cases were subjected to scrutiny by chemistry teachers and chemistry education experts. based on the comments received, some changes were made in terms of grammar, language of presentation and logic. the final writings were handed over to the experts in educational technology for development of the visualized case-based learning package. the video cd which bears the cases to be viewed in the visualized cbl class was designed and developed by the researcher along with experts in educational technology. the mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 116 package was developed following the smith and ragan instructional system design (isd) model (1999). this model comprises four stages; namely, analysis, design, development and implementation/evaluation. after production, the video was presented to 20 students who would not be part of the study and 6 chemistry teachers. the students answered the questions on the worksheet. the teachers were also asked to fill a rubric for evaluating educational videos. their responses were used to judge the videos in terms of relevance, timing, clarity of ideas, quality of sound and pictures. the average value obtained was 4.2. pre-test chemistry achievement test (cat) administered to all the subjects (both experimental and control groups). experiment during the experiment, the teachers taught the topics using the teacher instructional guide for visualized cbl for a duration of six (6) weeks. the control group was taught using teacher instructional guide for conventional teaching strategy. experimental group (visualised case-based learning) the steps to be followed include: step 1: • the teacher arranges the facilities and equipment to be used for the lesson. • the students’ prior knowledge is assessed by asking questions • the answers provided by the students are used to ascertain if they are ready to learn the new concept. step 2: • the students are grouped randomly in groups of five or six. • the teacher ensures that there is a relatively even distribution of students across the groups in terms of closeness, personality and academic ability. • each group appoints a representative. step 3: • the copies of the worksheets are distributed to each group. effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 117 • the learners are informed of what they are about to do. • the guidelines for the class are given to students. • the teacher tells the students to pay attention to the movie and make observations. step 4: • the teacher turns on the video. • a case is presented to the students. • the students are monitored by the teacher to ensure attention is given to the video. step 5: • the students have some time to discuss the video they have just seen. • the students write down their answers/opinions in the worksheets. step 6: • the teacher asks each representative to read out what his group has written. • the teacher and students discuss based on what each group has in their worksheets. • the teacher directs the flow of the discussion so that it is tailored towards the concept to be taught. step 7: • the teacher explains the concept by relating their responses to the new concept to be taught. • the teacher provides definitions and notes. • practical / experiments may be carried out by the students while the teacher guides. • the teacher is to, from time to time; refer to the case as he makes some explanations during the lesson. step 8: • the teacher evaluates by giving simple tests. • homework may be given to learners and submitted to teacher for marking. mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 118 post-test at post-test stage, the same chemistry achievement test (cat) was given to the students a week after the last topic. the results were collated and analysed. this was carried out with a view to identifying any significant variances in the students’ learning outcomes after exposure to treatment. data from experimental group were compared to those of the control group. duration of fieldwork was 10 weeks. the data collected were analysed using analysis of covariance (ancova). estimated marginal means (emm) was used to establish the magnitude of the scores while tukey’s posthoc test was used to determine the source(s) of such significant differences. all the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. results and discussions h01: there is no significant main effect of treatment on students’ achievement in solubility. table 1: analysis of covariance (ancova) of posttest scores of students’ achievement in chemistry with treatment using pretest scores as covariates. tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: pocat source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 16476.197a 18 915.344 10.543 .000 .433 intercept 11108.771 1 11108.771 127.951 .000 .340 prcat 8991.349 1 8991.349 103.563 .000 .295 treatment 3045.551 2 1522.776 17.539 .000 .124 effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 119 table 1 shows that there is significant main effect of treatment on students’ achievement in chemistry (f (2, 248) =17.539; p<0.05; η 2=0.124). this implies that the posttest scores of students’ achievement in achievement differ significantly across the treatment and conventional groups with the effect size of 12.40%. also, the percentage contribution of the endogenous variable to the variance of the exogenous (dependent) measure is given as 39.2%. therefore, the null hypothesis h01 (a) was rejected. the magnitude of the mean scores of achievement of each group was determined and is presented in table 2. table 2 estimated marginal means analysis of the posttest scores of students’ achievement in chemistry by treatment dependent variable: pocat treatment mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound visualised case-based 43.74a 1.37 41.04 46.44 conventional 33.18a 1.53 30.17 36.19 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: prcat = 28.9251. prcatpretest scores of chemistry achievement test table 2 indicates that the students in the visualised cbl group obtained the highest achievement score ( x = 43.74) while those of the conventional teaching (control) group obtained the lower score ( x = 33.18). the source of the significant difference was determined using tukey’s posthoc test and is presented in table 3. mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 120 table 3. tukey’s post hoc multiple comparisons analysis of treatment and achievement in chemistry concepts. dependent variable: pocatposttest scores of chemistry achievement test treatment n mean visualised case-based conventional 86 43.74 * visualised casebased conventional 59 33.18 * based on observed means. the error term is mean square (error) = 122.20. table 3 reveals that not all the possible pairs of groups are significantly different from one another. the visualised cbl group significantly did better ( x =43.74) than those in the conventional group. this further reveals that significant effect seen on table 1 was due to the differences between visualised cbl strategy and conventional teaching groups. the findings of this study showed that there is significant main effect of treatment on students’ achievement in chemistry. the posttest scores of students’ achievement in chemistry significantly differ between the treatment group and control group. the students in the visualised cbl group obtained the higher achievement score ( = 43.74) than those in the conventional teaching (control) group ( = 33.18). one can therefore submit that both visualised case-based learning (visualised cbl) is more efficacious in improving students’ achievement in chemistry than the conventional strategy. perhaps due to the inquiry-based nature of visualised case-based strategies. generally, inquiry-based strategies have been known to enhance students’ learning outcomes (burrowes, 2003; brickman, gormally, armstrong and hallar, 2009). in many chemistry classrooms in nigeria, it appears that the use of conventional, non-learner-centered, obsolete strategies is prevalent. students often find chemistry lessons boring and abstract. it also x x effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 121 seems that students often participate by answering questions based on knowledge acquisition instead of engaging in activities that enhance problem-solving, critical thinking, mental reasoning and transfer of learning. hence, meaningful learning is not achieved. while using this strategy, learners were not passive, and the students owned their learning. the engaging nature of the strategy elicited the application of suitable cognitive skills while learning in the classroom. in the course of the study, students in the experimental groups (visualised cbl), expressed renewed enthusiasm. they were happy about doing things by themselves. they were impressed and motivated by the fact that they could proffer workable solutions to new problems. since they worked in groups, the erstwhile ‘introvert’ members of the class ‘came out of their shells' to participate during in the practical and discussions sessions. furthermore, the findings of this study are in line with those of rybosczyk et al (2007) which showed that students who used the cbl exhibited a significantly greater learning gain than those who were not taught using cbl. the researchers also submitted that students were more likely to answer a question addressing misconceptions about cellular respiration correctly when compared to the conventional method group. turkmen and usta (2007) laid credence to the notion that when technology is introduced in classroom activities, there could be motivation and a conducive environment for students to learn, communicate, and share their knowledge and understanding in a wide variety of ways. however, geelan and mukherjee (2010) obtained a contrary result from their experiment on the use of a computer-based scientific visualization. the researchers concluded that teaching with visualizations did not make any significant impact on students’ learning outcomes relative to teaching without visualization. visualised cbl appeared to have a better impact on students’ achievement in chemistry perhaps because the video clips used during the lesson created a more relaxing environment than in the conventional class, whereby the students paid rapt attention. this could have also promoted a better understanding of the concept. also, the topic was presented in a way that made the students able to relate and connect chemistry to everyday life. they were provided the opportunity to think beyond the classroom and come up with their own opinions. this is in line with the suggestions of woldeamanuel, atagana and engida (2013). in visualised cbl, transfer of learning was more pronounced than in the conventional group and misconceptions were derived from the students and corrected appropriately. in addition, the video also elicited discussions mabel ihuoma idika ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 122 among the students. though guided by the teacher, students were encouraged to express their different views which were examined. incorrect or alternative views were cautiously corrected by the teacher and this, to a large extent, improved their knowledge of the concept. in this study, it was observed that after the students watched the video clips, there was a high level of readiness to learn the topic for the day. implications of the findings visualised case-based learning strategy is efficacious in improving students’ learning outcomes in this case, achievement. also, the use of videos in a case-based learning chemistry class improved students’ achievement. secondly, teachers can now recognise the importance of providing opportunities for transfer of learning by relating concepts taught in the classroom to everyday life. by so doing, students can see and identify connections between what they are taught in the chemistry class and the outside world thereby creating a positive reinforcement. conclusion from the results obtained in this study, it was concluded that constructivist-based strategies are efficacious in making students’ learning outcomes better than the regular conventional teaching strategies. achievement scores obtained from students taught with visualised cbl strategy were higher than those obtained from their counterparts in the conventional group. recommendations 1. pre-service as well as in-service teachers’ curriculum should be updated to include training in current approaches/methodologies/strategies to chemistry teaching. 2. teachers should be educated on how to formulate cases for teaching various chemistry concepts. using these cases, teachers would be able to make chemistry concepts less abstract for students. 3. cases can be used as adjunct learning resources in virtual or online classes. 4. due to the poor state and inadequacy of infrastructure such as electricity, laboratory and laboratory equipment, computers and other forms of classroom technology, the federal and state ministries of education should carefully look into the deplorable conditions effect of visualized case-based learning strategy on students’ academic performance in chemistry in ibadan metropolis, nigeria ajote vol. 10 no.1 (2021), 106-126 123 under which future science professionals learn and also develop operational and permanent policies that would make learning be better. suggestions for further study for further research, this study could be replicated in geographical locations other than ibadan, nigeria. also, researchers may consider comparing the effects of visualised cbl strategy and other related instructional strategies such as flipped classroom, blended learning and so on. finally, studies could be done on the effect of this strategy on other students’ learning outcomes such as attitude, self-efficacy, science process skills and so on. references abram, s. 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(2012). is case-based instruction effective in enhancing high school students’ motivation toward chemistry? science education international, 23(2): 102-116. basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning 1ernest nyamekye, 1daniel baffourkoduah, & 2esther asare 1department of arts education ́2department of ghanaian languages and linguistics university of cape coast, ghana. abstract this study sought to explore basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perceptions of ict integration in ghanaian language teaching. the study employed the explanatory sequential mixed method design. stratified random sampling was used to obtain data from 205 teachers in the bono, bono east and ahafo region of ghana. analysis of data collected through a selfdeveloped questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide reveals that ghanaian language teachers exhibit a positive perception of ict integration in education. however, in practice, they tend to integrate ict into their instruction on an occasional basis. also, it was revealed that lack of financial support for ict resources and lack of in-service training are factors that militated against ict integration in ghanaian language teaching. finally, the study revealed a statistically significant difference between degree and diploma holders’ perceptions of ict integration in teaching and learning keywords: information and communication technology, ghanaian language, basic school, teachers, integration, language teaching. 1. introduction “eii!! na twi nso yεde laptop na εrebεkyerε?” (wow!! are we going to use a laptop in a twi lesson?). i [ernest nyamekye] was amazed by this comment from one student-teacher during my first class as a ghanaian language (ghl) tutor for the institute of education (ioe) outreach program at the offinso university college of education. this comment passed by the student teacher upon seeing me with a laptop is a clear indication that using technologies in teaching ghanaian languages happens to be a weird experience in her perspective. in reality, it appears that the african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 242-264 basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 243 integration of information and communication technology (ict) in teaching and learning is a weird experience for most ghl teachers. this, therefore, necessitates a study of this nature. 1.1 ict integration in ghana ict is gaining more relevance in education in both developed and developing countries (law, pelgrum, & plomp, 2008). research, (liebenberg, chetty, & prinsloo, 2012, waluyo, 2019; hong, 2016) has shown that it is a predictor of quality education. nevertheless, scholars have raised concerns about the low level of ict integration in teaching and learning in ghana. for instance, edumadze (2015) states that ghana seems to be performing below the threshold in terms of provision and use of ict resources at various levels of education, especially at the college level. thus, it was recommended that the ghanaian government, in partnership with ngos, make ict resources available in schools to improve ict integration. according to adarkwah (2020, p.1666), as stated in the education sector performance report (2010), “the ministry of education of ghana introduced the ‘one laptop, one student’ policy where 1,000 laptops were dispensed to 30 schools (three schools in each region) across the country” as part of their effort to “meet economic, social, and political global demands” of the country. furthermore, the education sector performance report (2012) states that 6000 laptops were distributed to junior high schools across ghana to ensure that ict integration in education is possible. despite this, studies (agyemang & dadzie, 2010; antwi, bansah, & franklin, 2018) report that implementing ict-mediated instruction seems to fall below the expected standard. one of the reasons given for the lack of implementation of ict-mediated instruction in most schools (especially at the early stages of education) has to do with the unequal allocation of ict resources. most of these resources are distributed to reputable schools (usually labelled as category a schools) and schools in the cities at the expense of schools located in the rural areas (david, 2009). this problem seems to affect the rate of ict integration, especially at the basic levels of education. though there seems to be limited literature to show the state of ict integration in ghanaian language teaching, substantial literature suggest a low implementation rate in other fields of study. for instance, adjei and vogt (2011) report that ict integration in teaching mathematics is not up to expectation. factors such as limited knowledge on ict use was identified as a challenge. a similar challenge was identified as a hindrance to e-learning during the covid 19 period (adarkwah, 2020). despite these issues, little is known on the state of ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 244 ict-mediated instruction among ghanaian language teachers in the literature, hence the need for this study. 1.2 technology and language teaching one of the inevitable factors in human life is language. it is a medium through which people interact and share their thoughts. consequently, it is crucial to emphasize language education in various academic institutions. according to ahmadi (2017), the success of learning a language in a formal setting is contingent on the pedagogical approaches used by teachers to facilitate instruction. various language teaching methods such as grammar translation, audiolingual, and silent method has been widely used in most educational systems, for which ghana is no exception. nevertheless, since the advent of computers and other forms of technologies, there appears to be a paradigm shift concerning the strategies adopted by teachers in teaching language. pourhose in gilakjani (2017) asserts that language teaching has taken a new direction in academia due to the pertinent role of technologies. he further adds that with the advent of technologies, students learn based on their interests. this is because, through technologies, learning becomes appealing to learners' auditory and visual senses. similarly, pourhose in gilakjani and sabouri (2017) posit that technology gives learners academic independence because it provides learners with much information that teachers may not provide them in the traditional teaching environment. this, therefore, means that with technology, learner centredness in language learning is fully assured. also, according to becker (2000), one of the necessary aids of teaching language is technology. his assertion is based on the fact that teachers regard the use of technologies in learning as a necessary factor in ensuring quality education. technologies provide a wide range of instructional resources that ensure the effective delivery of language lessons. for this reason, genç lter (2015) opines that in most cases, teachers must motivate their students to integrate computer technologies in most of their academic activities if they wish to be successful in language learning. given the impact of ict in ensuring effective teaching and learning, ghl teachers must shift from traditional teaching approaches and embrace ict integration in this technological age. however, from a close observation of the instructional practices of most basic schoolteachers in the bono region of ghana, it seems that ghl teachers are reluctant to incorporate ict into their instructional practices. nonetheless, research on ict integration in basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 245 ghl teaching in basic schools, in particular, is scarce. as a backdrop, this study seeks to explore the use of icts in the teaching and learning of ghanaian languages. specifically, the following research questions and hypotheses have been set to guide the study. 1.3 research questions/hypotheses i. to what extent do teachers use ict in teaching ghl at the basic school level? ii. what are the perceptions of ghl teachers on the integration of ict in teaching and learning at the basic school level? iii. what challenges do teachers face in the integration of ict in teaching ghl at the basic school level? iv. h0: there is no statistically significant difference between teachers’ perception of ict integration based on educational qualification? the remaining sections of the paper are a detailed review of relevant literature, considering the theoretical framework, a brief conceptualization of ict, and some empirical studies on the topic under review. also, section 3 of the research addresses the research methodology, while section 4, 5 and 6 deal with the presentation and discussion of findings, conclusions, and recommendations respectively. 2. literature review 2.1 theoretical framework unified theory of acceptance and use of technology this study is rooted in the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (utaut) developed by venkatesh, moris, davis and davis (2003). as illustrated in figure 1, the theory is characterized by various variables, including use behaviour (ub), behavioural intention (bi), facilitating conditions (fc), effort expectancy (ee), and social influence (si). luhamya et al. (2017) state that ub, as the main variable in the model, is influenced by bi. ub refers to the extent to which technology is accepted and used by people in a given organization. on the other hand, bi is conceptualized as the intensity of one’s willingness to perform a given behavior. another factor explained in this model is fc; it relates to an individual's perception of the availability of required facilities in an organization. figure 1 shows the interaction between the various components of the utaut model. ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 246 venkatesh et al. (2003), page 447, figure 3. variables such as performance expectancy (pe; one’s perception that technology can improve job performance), effort expectancy (ee; the degree of ease as influenced by technology use) and social influence (si; one’s belief in the extent to which other people recommend him/her to use technology) tend to have an influence on the bi. luhamya et al. (2017, p.31) state that “bi is moderated by gender and age while that of ee on bi is moderated by gender, age and experience of the individual. experience is the expertise one has as a result of using a particular technology. the influence of si on bi is moderated by gender, age, experience and voluntariness of use”. the concept of voluntariness of use relates to one’s perception that using technology is out of his willingness. as shown in figure 1, the voluntariness of use interacts with si. one of the most relevant aspects of this model that seems to reflect this current study has to do with fc, which influences the use behavior. the relevance of using this model for the current research is that it backs the argument that ict integration in teaching and learning is contingent and influenced by factors such as resource availability. therefore, based on this theoretical framework, it is hypothesized that ghanaian language teachers’ perceptions and practices concerning the implementation of ict-mediated instruction may be influenced by the interplay between their behavioral intentions and factors such as pe, ee, si. moreover, these factors may be moderated by variables such as gender, experience, and age. 2.2 conceptualizing information and communication technology integration according to nikolopoulou (2018, p.89), using ict in singular terms “…is inadequate to describe the range of technologies and a wide variety of settings and interventions in which they basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 247 are used”. tondeur et al. (2018) assert that ict integration could be conceptualized in diverse ways. in view of ratheeswari (2018), ict has to do with technologies that provide access to information through telecommunication. comprehensively, unesco (2002) conceptualizes ict as “a scientific, technological and engineering discipline and management technique used in handling information, its application and association with social, economic and cultural matters.” according to ananiadou and claro (2009), ict competencies generally refer to one’s ability to use ict resources, i.e., functional use of digital literacy. thus, ict integration could be conceptualized as the use of any available digital resource to enhance teaching and learning. in other words, teachers who can facilitate teaching with technologies are said to have competencies in integrating icts in their instruction. isman (cited in ahmadi and reza 2018), defines ict integration as “…the practical use of knowledge particularly in a specific area and is a way of doing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or knowledge.” in simple terms, using technology to improve the educational environment is what we conceptualize as integrating technology (dockstader, 2008). pourhosein gilakjani (2017) concurs with dockstader as he posits that ict integration has to do with how teachers effectively use technologies in accomplishing an educational task. 2.3 significance of technology integration in language teaching there appears to be limited or no literature on the benefits of incorporating icts in teaching ghanaian languages. however, concerning other african languages, various studies have revealed the crucial role of integrating icts in language teaching. this section of the paper revisits some of the findings of related literature. ict has an essential role to play in ensuring the effectiveness of language learning. therefore, language teachers must cultivate the habit of using technologies to support the ghanaian language curriculum implementation. according to costley (2014), this enables learners to appreciate the use of technologies in developing their language skills. also, keser, huseyin and ozdamli (2011) add that learners' classroom cooperation would increase significantly by using technologies. alaba (2014) highlighted the efficiency of computer assisted language learning (call) among elementary schools in osun state of nigeria in pronunciation, reading and understanding skills in english. students involved in this study were split into two groups: category one was trained using ordinary classroom instruction, whereas category two was taught ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 248 using english language software (call). in comparison, students taught using call performed better than pupils taught using conventional teaching approaches. it was also found that the use of call often increases children’s understanding of the english language. finally, they concluded that call in nigerian primary institutions ensures quality education. conversely, ahinda et al. (2014) revealed that using ict tools to facilitate instruction has a negative impact on the academic achievement and language acquisition of pupils in lower primary in vihiga county, kenya. according to these authors, the negative impact resulted from the mismatch between the lessons taught and the choice of ict resources used. thus, it was recommended that teachers be actively involved in selecting appropriate ict tools to teach pupils in lower primary classrooms. 2.4 ict integration in teaching african languages: challenges and perception of teachers research on ict integration in teaching indigenous languages in most african countries has shown that most teachers and students are not used to this experience. though there appears to be a paucity of research in ghana to vindicate this position, literature abound in many african countries. miima et al. (2013) posit that kiswahili language instructors have not embraced the adoption of ict in language teaching despite the interventions of the kenyan government in providing the necessary ict tools to aid instruction. as indicated in the findings of their study that aimed at exploring the perceptions of secondary school teachers, teachers are yet to realize the benefits associated with ict-mediated teaching and learning. this has led to a low level of implementation of ict-mediated instruction. besides, it was found that teachers encounter challenges such as limited knowledge in executing ict-mediated instruction, insufficient software, and unwillingness to shift from the traditional paradigm of teaching. moreover, it was revealed that kiswahili teachers perceived ict-mediated instruction as a practice for the sciences; they, therefore, felt reluctant to incorporate ict in teaching language topics. mudasiru and modupe (2011) revealed that most chegutu district west region teachers in zimbabwe could not effectively use technologies to facilitate instruction. they further add that teachers in this region reported that their level of technological competence falls below average. also, it was revealed in this same study that the teachers’ incompetence regarding executing technology-mediated instruction was because they had no in-service training on the use of technologies to facilitate teaching and learning. the findings of this study do not differ significantly from the study conducted by banju (2014). banju’s research aimed at investigating the use of technology in teaching and learning in nairobi, kenya. out of his basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 249 assessment, it was revealed that most teachers encounter difficult situations in incorporating technologies in teaching and learning. according to banju (ibid), the challenge in implementing technology-mediated learning among teachers in nairobi could be attributed to lack of technology education, unwillingness on the part of teachers to spent time on using the internet to search for digital resources to assist teaching, unfamiliarity with the use of internet etc. also, amuko et al. (2012) explored challenges influencing ict integration in teaching and learning mathematics in secondary schools in nairobi county. this study revealed that teachers were faced with challenges of inadequate teacher training on the use of icts. it also, identified unavailability of the requisite ict resources to support teachers as one of the contributing factors that militated against ict adoption. in the context of efl teaching in africa, gilakjani et al. (2015) opine that instructors have always faced challenges in using ict to aid their classroom practices. according to these authors, several factors that deter efl teachers from using ict in teaching and learning are inadequate computer literacy, lack of financial support, and inadequate numbers of computers to use for teaching and learning. 2.5 studies on ict integration in ghana many studies in ghana have explored teacher’s perception of ict integration in other disciplines. for instance, buabeng-andoh (2012a) explored teachers’ perception of ict use in teaching and learning. not only did this study explore teachers’ perceptions, but it also looked at teachers’ skills and practices in second-cycle schools in ghana. the study revealed that teachers had a positive perception of ict integration. nevertheless, it was found that the ict skills of teachers were very low. hence, despite the introduction of ict in the ghanaian educational system, teachers subscribed to the traditional teacher-centered method of education. this implies that ict introduction has had no relevant impact on teachers’ practices. the reluctance on the part of teachers in adopting icts in assisting instruction in the ghanaian educational system has been attributed to several factors. buabeng-andoh (2012b), in a review of factors influencing teachers’ use of ict as a teaching and learning aid, outlined factors such as lack of confidence on the part of teachers, lack of in-service training on ict pedagogical approaches, inadequate ict resources, among others as a major hindrance to ict adoption in teaching and learning. agyei and voogt (2011) conducted a study on ict integration in the teaching of mathematics in ghana. this study also revealed that teachers rarely integrated ict into their ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 250 teaching practices. they also identified low knowledge of teachers in ict integration as one of the factors hindering ict-mediated instruction. similarly, acquah’s (2012) study sought to ascertain the extent to which the ict curriculum was being implemented at the basic school level. like that of buabeng-andoh (2012b), this study found that there were inadequate ict facilities at the basic level of education in ghana to support the implementation of the ict curriculum. though teachers appeared to be knowledgeable in ict use, their efforts to implement the ict curriculum remained a problem because of resource scarcity. availability of ict resources seems to be a general problem in ghanaian schools. as the outbreak of covid 19 pandemic demanded the need to use ict as a major means of education, reports by researchers like adarkwah (2020) indicate that students complained of not getting the needed ict resources to facilitate e-learning. there were also concerns about funding and technical problems like unstable internet connections and electricity supply. beyond the problem of availability was another one that seems to permeate through all levels of education in ghana; this has to do with resistance to change and the preference of most students for traditional teaching methods over technology-mediated instruction, as in the case of e-learning. this may be due to the ineffectiveness of ict-mediated instruction in ghana. 3. research methods we adopted the sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach in our study. this design was considered appropriate because after analyzing quantitative data there was the need to collect qualitative data to substantiate some of the quantitative findings. given the nature of the population involved, stratified random sampling was used to select participants from 3 regions (bono, bono east, and ahafo) in ghana. in all, a total of 205 participants were involved in the data collection. for the interview, six teachers were selected through a purposive sampling technique to be probed further on some relevant issues the study used a self-developed questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide. the self-developed questionnaire comprises three sections (a, b, c, and d). section a elicited data on the demographic characteristics of respondents. section b was allocated for obtaining data on the extent to which teachers use technologies to facilitate instruction, while section c obtained data on the general perception of teachers on the implementation of ict-mediated teaching and learning. the final section (d) set out to obtain data on possible challenges that may hinder ict use in teaching ghanaian languages. twenty-five respondents, making 10% of the sample, were considered in the pilot testing. according to baker (1994), a sample size of 10 basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 251 to 20% of the total population is considered appropriate for pilot testing. after data collection, the statistical package for social sciences (spss) was used to process and analyze the data. cronbach's alpha was calculated to assess the reliability coefficient. this helped to test the internal accuracy of the questionnaire objects. according to fraenkel and wallen (2000), a reliability coefficient of .7 or higher is appropriate. the alpha value derived was.784 (29 items) and was therefore deemed accurate and suitable for collecting valuable data for the analysis. on the other hand, the semi-structured interview guide was developed based on the findings of the quantitative analysis. it sought to elicit data on the teachers’ perception of ict use and some challenges that hampered their intention to use ict to support learning. the study was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. specifically, the means and standard deviation of the likert scale items were computed to answer research questions i, ii, and iii. concerning the research hypotheses, the mann-whitney u test was used to examine the difference in teachers’ perception of ict integration in ghl instruction based on educational qualification. on the other hand, the interview data were transcribed, sorted, and analyzed with the thematic analysis approach. 4. presentation and discussion of findings this section of the study is composed of 2 sub-sections. the first sub-section deals with the demographic characteristics of the respondents, while the second sub-section presents and discusses the findings of the study based on the research questions and hypothesis. 4.1 demographic characteristics of respondents table 1: background data of the respondents gender total percentage perceived ict proficiency male female excellent 20 3 23 11.2% very good 48 19 67 32.7% good 37 15 52 25.4% average 23 24 47 22.9% poor 8 3 11 5.4% ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 252 very poor 4 1 5 2.4% total 140 65 205 100.0% table 1 gives an overview of the background characteristics of the respondents who took part in this survey. a total of 205 teachers participated in the study. out of this, 140 participants were male instructors and 65, female. with regards to ict proficiency, only 23(11%) perceived themselves as “excellent” in ict proficiency. a majority (32%) of the total respondents reported that they are very good in terms of ict proficiency, while 25% of them perceived themselves as “good.” teachers who felt they have “average” ict proficiency were made up 22.9% of the entire population, while 11(5.4%) and 5(2.4%) believe they were “poor” in terms of ict proficiency 4.2 findings 4.2.1 to what extent do teachers use icts in teaching and learning? this research question sought to elicit response on the frequency of ict integration practices of ghl teachers in the classroom. to achieve this, responses were elicited through a five-point likert scale. table 2 interprets the mean values of the response. table 2: interpretation of the mean scores likert scale items 1.0 -1.9 never 2.0– 2.9 rarely 3.0 – 3.9 occasionally 4.0– 4.9 often 5.0 always in line with table 2, a mean value ranging from 1.0-1.9 means “never”, 2.0-2.9 means “rarely”, 3.0-3.9 means “occasionally”, 4.0-4.9 means “often”, while 5.0 means “always”. data concerning teachers’ use of icts in teaching ghl has been captured in table 3 mean score fr e quency basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 253 table 3: perceived frequency of ict integration in ghl teaching. statement m sd frequency i use ict resources to prepare lesson plan 2.97 1.10 rarely i use ict resources to project slides for students 2.27 1.21 rarely i use the internet to obtain more information on a topic 3.84 1.08 occasionally i encourage my students to make effective use of the internet during and after lessons 3.69 1.02 occasionally i use ict resources for record-keeping 3.42 1.20 occasionally i encourage my students to use the internet to seek more information on ghl topics 3.67 0.93 occasionally i use ict resources as a teaching and learning material (tlm) during ghl lessons 3.20 1.19 occasionally average mean 3.29 0.78 occasionally source: field data, 2021 based on the overall mean score (3.29) of the data in table 3, it appears that ghl teachers occasionally use icts to facilitate teaching and learning. however, it appears that using the internet to obtain more information on a topic, encouraging students to make effective use of the internet during and after lessons, and encouraging students to seek more information on ghl topics were the frequent practices of ghl teachers because these variables recorded the highest mean score of 3.84, 3.69, and 3.67 respectively. using ict resources to prepare lesson plans (2.97) and project slides (2.27) for students appears to be rarely practiced among ghl teachers in their teaching profession. 4.3 what is the perception of teachers concerning ict integration in ghl teaching? the objective of this research question was to ascertain the perspectives of teachers concerning ict integration in teaching ghl. specifically, it aimed at finding whether or not ict integration in ghl teaching and learning is imperative. data were analyzed by computing the mean values of likert scale items. table 4 below interprets the likert scale items. ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 254 table 4: interpretation of the mean scores of the likert scale items mean score level of agreement 1.0 -2.9 disagreement 3.0-4.9 agreement table 5: perception of ict in ghl teaching statement m sd agreement ict integration in teaching ghl can make teaching easier 4.50 0.69 agree ict integration in teaching ghl can make teaching more effective 4.47 0.73 agree ict use in teaching ghl will make communication with my students easier 4.39 0.58 agree i think using icts in teaching would make me more productive as a ghl teacher. 4.52 0.61 agree with the use of icts, i can diversify my ghl teaching techniques 4.40 0.65 agree icts increase the interest of students in learning ghanaian languages 4.40 0.64 agree with ict, preparation of course materials is very easy 4.21 0.80 agree students need to use ict because of the expansive use of technologies in the teaching of language 3.97 0.92 agree average mean 4.36 0.51 agree source: field data, 2021 table 5 summarises the overall perceptions of ghl teachers concerning the integration of icts in teaching ghl. based on the overall mean value (4.36) of the likert scale items, it appears that ghl teachers agree that ict integration in teaching ghl is a good practice. the results imply that teachers have a positive perception about using ict resources to facilitate the teaching and learning of ghl. some teachers indicated the relevance of using ict in ghanaian language teaching for certain practices in the ghanaian culture that are no longer common. hence, to give learners a feel of how such practices are done practically, lessons could be facilitated through video evidence. commenting on this issue, a teacher posited that, basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 255 i think that with the use of ict resources like a computer or maybe a mobile phone, teaching certain topics like libation performance will be easy. these days most students do not have access to certain cultural practices because they are not common, but there are video clips of such practices that have been uploaded online or on youtube. when you get such videos to show them, teaching can be easier. so, i think using a computer or any ict resource for teaching will be very helpful another teacher added that, in fact, computer as a teaching aid is very interesting to the student. i am saying this because i once brought my laptop into the classroom to show students how puberty rite among the krobo people is performed. since then, the students always wish they could get a visual sense of whatever i teach them. so i believe students will appreciate it when technologies are used to aid the instruction of the ghanaian language, especially topics that demand the use of visual aids the comments imply that despite teachers’ occasional use of ict resources to facilitate the teaching and learning of ghanaian languages at the basic level of education in ghana, they seem to exhibit great interest in such practice. 4.4 what challenges do teachers face in ict integration in ghl teaching? this research question particularly sought to find factors that could impede ict integration in the teaching and learning of ghl among teachers in ghanaian basic schools. to achieve this, the means and standard deviation of the likert scale items were computed. table 6 below gives a summary of the results. table 6: factors hindering ict integration in ghl teaching statement m sd i think icts are incompatible with ghl teaching 2.78 1.07 disagree my computer literacy is very low for me to use icts in teaching ghanaian 2.81 1.23 disagree there hasn't been enough training on the use of icts in teaching ghanaian languages for teachers. 4.13 1.07 agree all icts resources are written in english which makes access to information difficult. 3.98 1.10 agree ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 256 i have no interest in using icts in teaching ghanaian languages 2.41 1.14 disagree ict resources are not available in my school 3.94 1.13 agree school administrators would not allow ict resources to be used for teaching ghl in my school. 2.36 1.10 disagree it is hard for me to explain the use of computer applications for my students 2.80 1.16 disagree using icts may be frustrating because of limited accessibility to ghl fonts 3.58 1.05 agree students are not allowed to use ict resources in school. 2.64 1.23 disagree students may use ict resources for unacademic activities such as chatting, watching pornography etc 3.52 1.14 agree there is no financial support for ghl teachers to get access to ict resources 4.25 0.89 agree i have limited knowledge on the best way to integrate icts in ghl teaching 3.06 1.22 agree because of technical issues, ict can disrupt the flow of ghl lesson delivery 3.29 1.15 agree source: field data, 2021 based on the results captured in table 6, it could be said that ghanaian language teachers at the basic school level of education perceive the following as factors that tend to hinder them from integrating icts into their instructional practices. they agree that lack of enough training on the use of icts in teaching (m=4.13, sd=1.07), unavailability of ict resources (m=3.94, sd=1.13), lack of adequate training for teachers on how best they can integrate icts in language teaching (m=4.13), and lack of financial support for ghl teachers to get access to ict resources (m=4.25, sd=1.14) hamper the implementation of ict-mediated instruction at the basic level of education. that been said, they also concur that using ict to assist ghanaian language teaching may be a frustrating task because of limited accessibility to ghanaian language fonts (m=3.58, sd=1.05). they also believe that students may use ict resources for unacademic activities such as chatting, watching pornography etc. (m=3.52, sd=0.89). also, they believe that another factor that tends to hamper technology-assisted instruction may be technical problems (m=3.29, sd=1.15) that disrupts the flow of lesson delivery further, evidence from the interviews substantiated some of the quantitative analysis. with regards to lack of enough training as a challenge in the successful implementation of ictmediated instruction, a teacher expounded that: basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 257 in my opinion, i will blame how we were trained during our time in the college. all the courses being offered focused mainly on equipping us with the content knowledge without focusing on courses that could enlighten us on how to teach using technologies another teacher supported this claim with the view that even upon completion of teacher education, little opportunities are given to them to enhance their education in terms of ict integration. this is how he puts it, in the ghanaian language field of study, there is always limited attention on inservice training for those who were not born during the computer era. for instance, even if you teach me how to operate a laptop, i will forget a few minutes later. at my age, there is no need to stress myself so much on learning things i will not understand easily. this, therefore, indicates that apart from not getting the required training, there is also resistance to change as this teacher believes that technology is for young teachers born in the era of technological advancement. there also seem to be others who do not see the need to use ict in teaching ghanaian languages with the notion that ict is a thing for other fields of study. for instance, one teacher asserts in a local dialect (asante twi) that, twi nso deε woamfa computa ankyerε a deεn na εbεba? subject a εho nneεma biara nhyε da nni intanεte so deε wode computa ka w’adekyerε ho koraa a brε na wobεbrε authors’ translation what would you loose if you don’t use a computer to aid a twi lesson? there are limited materials on the internet, so if you bother using computers to aid instruction, it would rather impede your efficiency. for this teacher, using the traditional approach to teaching twi (one of the ghanaian languages) is rather effective than using ict-mediated instruction. it is believed that using ict may be irrelevant considering the fact that most information, especially those published online, are all english related, accessing information on ghanaian languages would rather lower the teacher’s efficiency beside the issues already discussed, other challenges that were probed further are resource availability and difficulties associated with the use of ict resources to facilitate ghl instruction. a teacher who taught in a remote are said this, ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 258 i do not think it will be possible for me to use a computer or even my phone as a teaching aid. i can say that i have the knowledge to illustrate examples with the use of laptops. the problem here is that there is no electricity even to power the laptops that the government has provided us in this community. and because of that, i can’t even use my phone too to get any relevant information because there is limited mobile network access. therefore, everything must be on the blackboard to make teaching easier this extract implies that there may be instances where ict resources may be available, but technical problems can hinder its use. this accords with adarkwah’s (2020) findings that unstable electricity power supply affected e-learning during the covid 19 pandemic 4.5 h0: there is no significant difference between teachers’ perception of ict integration in ghanaian language teaching based on educational qualification? this research hypothesis examined the difference between teachers’ perception of ict integration in ghl teaching based on educational qualification. the rationale for this research hypothesis was to examine whether or not teachers’ perception of ict-assisted instruction differ based on educational qualification. it was meant to compare the perception of ghanaian teachers who hold the diploma in education certificate and teachers with bachelor’s degree from the university. a mann-whitney u test was conducted to test the hypothesis. the test results indicate that the median (m=4.87) teachers with first degree is statistically higher than the median (m=4.37) of teachers with diploma in basic education at u= 2040.00, p=0.018 (2tailed). as such, the null hypothesis cannot be retained. with this test result, it could be inferred that teachers with a more advanced level of education exhibit a more positive perception of the integration of ict in teaching the ghanaian language than those with lower educational qualification 4.6 discussion of results based on the first findings, it could be argued that ghanaian language teachers in basic schools believe that ict plays a pertinent role in enhancing the success of lesson delivery. more specifically, the revealed perspectives of teachers show that ict could be a major determinant of successful student learning in the ghanaian language discipline. however, it appears that, in practical terms, ghl teachers have not developed the habit of incorporating ict in their lesson delivery since the overall mean of the first research question depicts that teachers use ict to basic school ghanaian language teachers’ perspectives on the integration of icts in teaching and learning ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 259 facilitate ghl instruction only on an occasional basis. the findings of this study appear to substantiate the findings of miima et al. (2013) and mudasiru and modupe (201) in that most african language teachers exhibit a positive perception toward ict integration in teaching. despite this, they are yet to operationalize this positive perception in the classroom setting fully. in an attempt to unearth factors that hinder the integration of icts in ghl lesson delivery, it was revealed that the most prominent factor is the lack of in-service training for basic school teachers on how to use icts to facilitate ghl teaching. also, teachers believe that there has not been adequate financial support to help them access ict resources to help them execute their function as teachers effectively. this appears to align with banju (2014), amuko et al. (2012), and gilakjani et al. (2015), who reveal that the lack of proper implementation of ictmediated instruction is a direct result of the problem of inadequate training on the use of technologies and inadequate provision of funds. it is also in line with buabeng-andoh (2012b), whose research highlights that ghanaian teachers in other disciplines face similar challenges in integrating icts in language teaching. 5. conclusion this study aimed at exploring the use of ict in teaching ghl among basic school teachers. specifically, it sought to ascertain teachers' perception of icts in teaching ghl and certain challenges that may have been an impediment to ict integration in ghl teaching. also, it looked at differences that may exist in teachers' perceptions based on their educational qualifications. based on the study's findings, it could be concluded that, in general, ghl teachers exhibit positive attitudes towards the use of icts to facilitate instruction. their perception of ict integration could be influenced by effort expectancy and performance expectancy as hypothesized in the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology model. despite this, there seems to be a gap between teachers’ perceptions and what they put into practice concerning ict use in teaching ghl. the reason being that ghl teachers at the basic level of education tend to use icts on an occasional basis. regarding the third research question, this paper concludes that the most prominent factors that seem to deter ghl teachers from incorporating icts into their classroom practice more frequently have to do with limited accessibility to icts materials in schools. the problem of limited accessibility, from the perspectives of ghl, stemmed from a lack of financial support from concerned stakeholders. additionally, another problem associated with teachers’ ernest nyamekye, daniel baffourkoduah, & esther asare ajote vol. 10.1 (2021), 242-264 260 reluctance to integrate icts in teaching ghl is inadequate proficiency in using ict resources as pedagogical tools to facilitate ghl teaching and learning. this, according to basic school teachers, is due to a lack of in-service training on the best ways to use icts in facilitating instruction. finally, the study concludes that teachers’ perception of ict as a teaching tool may be hinged on their educational qualification since there appears to be a significant difference between the perception of degree holders and diploma holders. thus, degree holders tend to exhibit a more positive perception of ict integration than diploma holders. 6. recommendation since basic school ghl teachers tend to exhibit positive attitudes toward ict use in teaching and learning, it is recommended that school administrators and concerned stakeholders prioritize the provision of the necessary ict resources to stimulate teachers’ interest in using available ict resources to facilitate learning. also, the ghana education service (ges) must see the need to provide in-service training for ghl teachers and teachers in other disciplines on contemporary teaching strategies that give priority to ict integration in instruction. teachers must also develop an intrinsic habit of using any available ict resource (such as smartphones, laptops, etc.) to help students learn effectively and ease the work. author contribution: • ernest nyamekye was responsible for the general research idea and write-up. • daniel baffour-koduah assisted in crafting the research instrument and also administered the questionnaire. • esther asare collected and analyzed the qualitative data. references acquah, b. y. s. 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(2019). the effects of ict on achievement: criticizing the exclusion of ict from world bank's education sector strategy 2020. malaysian online journal of educational technology, 7(2), 71-87. towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender university of johannesburg, south africa abstract 21st century requirements for teaching and learning, driven by ict advancements have opened doors for the development of models to guide and enhance ict integration. some countries have adopted international models and others have adapted them to suit their own environments. zimbabwe still remains silent on what model it is using as there is no clear framework (policy related to ict in education). in this paper, the authors focus on the zimbabwean teacher education landscape in the absence of a distinct localised model . using literature review, document analysis and reviews of a proposed model, by six teacher educators from three secondary school teacher education colleges in zimbabwe (carried out through semi structured interviews) this paper seeks to propose a framework for the integration of icts in teacher education curriculum. drawing from literature around the zimbabwean ict landscape and its ict policy framework, models proposed in the broader african and global contexts, we argue for a context-relevant and institution-based model of ict integration for the teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe. this proposed model privileges the localised contextual issues and takes a critical view of models which assume similarity of conditions across countries and institutions. moreover, the model has relevance for ict integration in the teacher education programmes of countries facing political and socio-economic challenges similar to those which zimbabwe is facing. key words: context-relevant, institution-based, teacher education curriculum, technology introduction with advances in technology, there has been a shift from traditional teaching to technologybased strategies leading to changes in teachers’ required competencies. to guide and advance the development of digital pedagogy skills among teachers, a few models have been developed. these models have been adopted by some countries as frameworks for developing ict skills. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 162-188 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 163 kenya, for instance, has adapted the models to suit their own contextual realities. for some, ict in education policies were drafted in line with global models to direct the process of adopting and implementing icts in education. zimbabwe, in turn, developed a national ict policy in response to the global demands and shifts in technology growth but does not have ict integration framework. the ict policy is generic with no detailed references to icts in education. for teacher training colleges, which are under the auspices of the university of zimbabwe’s department of teacher education, the only reference to ict is the directive for all pre-service teachers to pass a basic computer literacy course before they can graduate. studies in zimbabwe have shown that there is a gap in teaching, with teachers remaining attached to traditional non-technological methods of delivery in a context that requires technological integration (rubaya & chademana, 2020). various reasons have been proffered to explain the inability of teachers to technology integration. among these reasons are, inadequacy of technology tools and infrastructure, the digital divide and lack of internet connectivity. the digital divide is defined by srinuan & bolin (2011, p. 1) as “the gap separating those who have access to new forms of information technology from those who do not.” despite reported enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards the use of technology for teaching and learning, research has shown that teachers do not possess the relevant skills for teaching with technology (musarurwa, 2011). this implies a gap in training, leading to the following research questions: 1. what are the salient features of the policies and frameworks that guide curriculum development and implementation in pre-service teacher education in zimbabwe? 2. what are the gaps/shortcomings in the zimbabwean secondary school teacher training colleges’ ict integration curricula? in order to answer these questions, semi structured interviews were carried out with pre-service teacher educators (tes) based on a proposed framework designed by the researchers. the tes were asked what frameworks they use to guide and support their teaching and learning. they were also asked to outline the tenets of their institutions’ ict policy. in this paper we therefore try to answer the question as to the efficacy, if any, of the current ict integration models that guide teacher education curriculum development and implementation in zimbabwe. in the absence of a national ict integration framework, we suggest context and institution-based ict integration models as various teacher training tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 164 institutions face different levels of difficulty in technology adoption and implementation which consequently affects ict integration into their preparation of pre-service teachers. we respond to the research questions by reviewing literature on the unesco-ict competency framework, and comparing it to current practices within teacher education colleges in zimbabwe. the ict competency frameworks are key as a reference source for what learning outcomes are necessary and should be developed in teachers. a question which thus arises is whether teacher training colleges, in zimbabwe, through their various curriculum, enable the development of ict and ict integration skills? the paper presents a new dimension to the debate on possible framework for best-practice to be adopted for the effective integration of ict in zimbabwean education. in this regard we suggest a context-relevant ict integration model at both the national and institutional levels. this is a departure from many of the models currently extant in the literature which do not take into account national and institutional technological and human resource realities. the zimbabwean context and ict policy framework in this section, the zimbabwean political, social and economic context as well as the country’s ict policy framework is discussed. it is prudent to point out that zimbabwe does have a national ict policy which generally covers all government departments but lacks a dedicated ict in education policy which, arguably could better direct and serve the education sector as it implements ict integration onto the curriculum. rubaya and chademana (2020) posit that without a dedicated national ict in education policy, it will be difficult to improve the integration of icts in teaching and learning in zimbabwe. the paper then looks at some of the ict models that have been proposed for use in education. this is followed by a presentation of how the possible model by the authors was taken to lecturers at secondary school teachers colleges for their review. discussed after this is the institutional ictin-education policy in the zimbabwean context. this is done considering the participating lecturers’ responses to the proposed model. the paper concludes with an emphasis on the need for contextual factors to be taken into consideration in the integration of ict into education for pre-service teachers. zimbabwe’s political, social and economic environment is riddled with many challenges which affect effective implementation of ict in teaching and learning. despite the existence of a national ict policy, there are constraining circumstances to its implementation. economically, the country is operating in a hyperinflationary environment in which the aftereffects of the covid-19 are still being felt, for example, in terms of sub-optimal productivity. towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 165 according to nyamunda (2021), the zimbabwean economy will remain weak and the economic crisis will deepen due to sharply declining real wages and soaring inflation. the country is reeling under high and persistent poverty with a large number of its citizens having limited access to essential social services such as health, education and water sanitation (wadzanai, zhou & chirisa, 2018). in terms of icts, it is characterised by lack of resources, lack of computer skills, poor internet connectivity, lack of knowledge and awareness, lack of technical assistance, interrupted power cuts and high costs of computer hardware and software (ndlovu & moll, 2016; musarurwa, 2011; ndawi, thomas & nyaruwata, 2013). there are also systems and structural barriers such as rigid assessment structures, brain drain of human capital caused by a crumbling economy, lack of professional development programs and planning and management barriers (ndawi, thomas & nyaruwata, 2013). there has been an outcry over the lack of commitment by government to provide funding and support structures for the adoption and implementation of ict based education in education institutions across the country (ndlovu & moll, 2016). teacher education in zimbabwe struggles against a background in which, borrowing from mcmain & crockett (2010), learners are digitally expectant and digitally savvy while teachers are believed to be neither. it is, thus, incumbent upon teacher preparation institutions to up-skill pre-service teachers to embrace digital technologies so that they can guide their learners in the process of knowledge creation (kivunja, 2013). integrating technology into the pre-service teacher education curriculum serves the purpose of providing a model that preservice teachers can replicate in their classrooms after graduating. it also provides a foundation from which teachers can develop and sharpen more skills that support technology-based education. in an era where learners are more technologically adept, there is a need to create a confluence between teacher knowledge and skill, and learner knowledge and skill (khan, khan, jazim, al-mamary, abdurab, & al-ghurbani, 2021). failing to move into 21st century technology driven teaching and learning practices “will perpetuate the mismatch between digitally savvy learners of the 21st century and teachers stuck in the orthodox traditional pedagogy of the last century” (kivunja, 2013, p. 140). to ensure that there is no mismatch, teacher preparation institutions must rethink and redesign teacher preparation methods and strategies to ensure that pre-service teachers come out well equipped to function in the digital classroom (khirwadkar, 2007; kivunja, 2013; dangwal & srivastava, 2016; sadiku et al., 2019). pre-service teacher education has to change “the mental models that education is bound by in order to influence behaviour and professional practice to develop along the trajectory that tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 166 recognises that digital pedagogy is the new teaching and learning” (costa, 2000, p. 132). teacher education must therefore transform and recognise digital pedagogy as the new teaching and learning imperative. however, it is also critical to point out that the digital divide, globally, regionally and locally, can impede successful integration of ict within the curriculum. in zimbabwe, while the government is encouraging the use of digital platforms for remote learning, research has shown that many households have no access to the internet and reliable internet. for those who have access, it is usually unreliable with only 5.21% of zimbabweans having fixed internet broadband. radio and television are also possible alternatives, but only 26.5% of households have televisions and radios (afrobarometer, 2020). although 83% of the zimbabwean population is largely connected by mobile communication means with internet penetration standing at only 33.4% (afrobarometer, 2021). access to information technology, therefore, remains a huge challenge as smart phones and data charges remain high. data charges in zimbabwe remain too high for most of the citizens because of the harsh economic conditions and poor remuneration. for example, 25 gigabytes of data, which presumably lasts a month costs around 25usd (econet, 2021), a figure too high for the ordinary citizen. with such high data and mobile tools costs, very few zimbabweans have fixed access. the government has also not done much in terms of ict infrastructure development within its various education institutions. there are simmering social and economic inequalities across zimbabwean communities and in teacher education institutions, thus creating challenges for uniform ict integration within the curriculum. it therefore becomes critical that ict integration adopts the contextual realities within which the various education institutions operate. policy statement 11.1 in the zimbabwe national ict policy (2015) focuses on ict skills development, with the following strategic aims: a) work with relevant institutions and government departments to develop programs that increase ict human resource capacity and skills. b) facilitate the deployment and exploitation of icts in the educational system from primary school upwards. work with the relevant ministries to include ict training and education in schools, colleges and universities. c) provide equitable access to ict enabled education and training in all parts of the country, including disadvantaged communities. towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 167 d) promote e-learning and use of e-learning materials throughout zimbabwe. e) encourage, promote and apply research and development in icts in society. (zimbabwe national ict policy, 2015, p. 28). the government of zimbabwe’s ‘commitment’ to the development of ict skills to improve education shows the importance of integration of icts into teaching and learning. this means that education training institutions are expected to provide ict human capacity skills as these are central to improved teaching and learning. there is, however, no specific ict in education policy and very little is being done to capacitate public schools and higher education institutions with icts. policy statements are mere pronouncements which are rarely followed by practical implementation, thus causing inadequate attention to the actual resourcing of education institutions with technology. while other countries in southern africa have dedicated ict in education policies, zimbabwe has not shown any moves towards developing such policies that clearly outline the process of adoption and implementation for ict in education. south africa, namibia and botswana, for instance, have ict in/for education policies that outline the objectives for ict integration, procedures for adoption and implementation, minimum requirements for institutions in terms of ict infrastructure and monitoring and evaluation parameters. the next section interrogates existing models that have been suggested to facilitate efficient and effective integration of icts in teaching and learning. methodology the study adopted a qualitative methodology. as part of the fieldwork, the ict in education policy was presented to six lecturers from three secondary teacher training colleges in zimbabwe to collect views on how this model could possibly be applied in teacher education institutions. the lecturers were purposively sampled because of their involvement in teaching subject areas from which the main research was being conducted in courses across different curricula at the colleges. to solicit tes’ views on the researchers’ proposed framework, they were asked to provide a short review. the six tes were part of a broader research which focuses on ict integration strategies employed in developing pre-service teachers’ digital pedagogy skills. although the number of tes could have been larger, the collection of data was carried out in a very limited amount of time and some tes were not forthcoming as they indicated that they were not comfortable with being interviewed. despite assurances that this was for research purposes, many refused to cooperate. however, in keeping with the view that in qualitative tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 168 research, the focus should be more on the depth of the questions asked than the size of the sample (vasileiou, barnett, thorpe & young, 2018), the researchers felt that the number of tes selected would not negatively impact on the quality of the data gathered. existing models of integration models have been suggested at regional and global levels with the aim of guiding institutions in the process of ict integration in teacher education curriculum. however, these models assume that all countries have similar experiences in terms of access to technology, connectivity, adequate resources and expertise in technology use. the models are interrogated in view of the existing contextual differences that exist between the various countries and institutions in which technology has to be integrated into the preparation of pre-service teachers. unesco ict competency framework the united nation educational, scientific and cultural organisation (unesco, 2018) suggests a framework for defining ict competency based on the belief that: the use of new technologies in education implies new teacher roles, new pedagogies and new approaches to teacher education. the successful integration of ict into the classroom will depend on the ability of teachers to structure the learning environment in new ways, to merge new technology with a new pedagogy, to develop socially active classrooms, encouraging co-operative interaction, collaborative learning and group work. this requires a different set of classroom management skills. the teaching skills of the future will include the ability to develop innovative ways of using technology to enhance the learning environment, and to encourage technology literacy, knowledge deepening and knowledge creation. teacher professional learning will be a crucial component of this educational improvement. (p. 8) teachers are therefore expected to be competent at various levels of ict knowledge and skills. in this regard ict competency is measured by the teacher’s ability to move through different levels competencies. these include the possession of ict knowledge and skills at the levels of knowledge acquisition, deepening and creation in the context of policy and how it affects ict integration, curriculum and assessment, pedagogy, application of digital skills, organisation and management as well as teacher professional literacy. thus, teachers must possess content, technical and pedagogical skills to be recognised as ict competent towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 169 professionals. based on this argument, unesco (2018) provides an ict competency framework, shown in fig. 1 that summarises ict competency for teachers. fig. 1: unesco ict competency framework for teachers (unesco, 2018) the competencies in fig 1 above are categorised into three segments, namely, knowledge acquisition (ka), knowledge deepening (kd) and knowledge creation (kc) and are measured against understanding ict, curriculum assessment, pedagogy, application of digital skills, organisation and administration, and teacher professional learning. an ict competent teacher should possess both knowledge and skills for acquisition, deepening and creation across the six parameters. at the knowledge acquisition level teachers are expected to gain basic knowledge and skills in using technology as well as basic ict competencies. it is at this level that teachers need to appreciate the pros of integrating ict into teaching and learning as well as understanding national policies for the betterment of the school and to help in making key decisions where ict investments are being made. what remains in question at this stage is the overlooked availability of technology tools in most institutions. for one to possess knowledge about any technological tools, the tools must be available for one to gain practical knowledge of its uses and operations. the unesco ict tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 170 competency framework overlooks this important aspect of the process of knowledge building. furthermore, technology tools availability needs to be complemented by skilled personnel who guide teachers in the process of knowledge acquisition. an important question that needs to be addressed at policy level is whether ict in education policies exist at national and institution level to support knowledge acquisition in ict. thus, if policies are neither specific nor supported by implementation, knowledge acquisition remains a theory. at the knowledge deepening stage teachers gain ict competencies for facilitating student centred, collaborative and cooperative learning environments (unesco, 2018). furthermore, teachers develop the ability to “to link policy directives with real action in the classroom, have the capacity to build technology plans to maintain the school ict assets, and forecast future needs. in addition, teachers can study further by linking to national and global teacher networks (unesco, ibid). knowledge deepening is a critical element in the development of ict competent teachers, but it can only take off when buttressed by an environment in which the most fundamental elements of ict knowledge acquisition are in place. in the various institutions, it is critical to assess the capacity among teacher educators and teachers in training to utilise technology, link institutional policy directives with real action in lecture rooms and to network at institutional level before measuring ict competency against the ability to implement ict integration at national level. we argue that context-relevant and institution-based assessments are key in addressing ict integration gaps at both infrastructural and skills development levels for more efficient national ict integration in education curriculum. the third and last level that shows understanding and mastery of complex technology skills is that of knowledge creation. teachers develop competencies for modelling good practice and setting up learning environments in which learners feel encouraged to create novel knowledge of their own (unesco, 2018). thus, teacher education colleges need to re-align and re-design training curricula to ensure that they meet the demands of the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) as well as ensuring that both teachers and learners benefit from technologybased education. re-designing and re-aligning curricula, however, has to be done with contextual realities and differences in mind. although the teacher training colleges may be in the same country, they operate in different environments and are affected by different factors. for instance, some colleges have more technological resources than others. there may also be differences in individual teacher educators’ attitude and knowledge as well as skills in using towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 171 ict for teaching and learning. these contextual issues must be prioritised when making decisions about curriculum re-design. according to unesco (2018), a fully ict competent teacher must possess all three levels of competency. teacher training colleges are expected to provide curricula that fully equip pre-service teachers with requisite skills for them to effectively and efficiently transfer knowledge to learners. although the unesco ict framework is critical in guiding the development of teacher education programmes and curricula, its tenets are only possible and plausible in a context where ict has been adequately embraced at access, adoption and implementation levels. the context in which teacher education is carried out plays a pivotal role in ensuring holistic development of a teacher who possesses all the critical competencies. the context must provide access to ict tools, training, attitude change as well as supporting policy implementation frameworks. in this regard many african countries still lag behind in ict due to various challenges at economic, social and political levels (international telecommunications union, 2021). thus, there are contextual differences which must be taken into consideration to ensure that ict development is carried out using context specific models. ict-enhanced teacher standards for africa (ictetsa) the previously discussed model is a global framework developed to guide integration and development of ict competencies in teachers. having realised the existence of contextual differences in terms of infrastructure and adoption, the unesco international institute of capacity building in africa (iicba) developed an ict-enhanced teacher standards for africa (ictetsa) working with input from 54 african countries, zimbabwe included. this model is key to this discussion as it shows how countries can borrow from generic models to suit their own contexts. this implies that zimbabwe could potentially have adapted this model to suit its own context. there is, however, no indication that such an adaptation has been made from neither the unesco framework nor the ictetsa. the opportunity to draw from the framework is clearly laid out in the document in the form of the ict for teacher development model (ict4ted) for africa which takes account of the various challenges that african countries face in ict integration (engida, 2012). the model stresses the different stages through which pre-service teachers must be taken to develop effective ict skills. engida (2012, p. 67) stresses that each institution “has to work within the context of its own system to fit choices to what best suits its unique situation and culture.” this shows that each country and institution has its own unique needs and challenges which must be embedded into the framing tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 172 and implementation of each pre-service curriculum. this implies a non-directive approach to ict integration but instead a flexible framework from which african countries can develop their own relevant models. fig. 2 outlines the successive stages in the continuum ranging from emerging through to transformation. fig 2: stages of ict for teacher education development (unesco iicba, 2012). the model is aimed at enabling teacher educators to develop ict competencies for skills transfer to pre-service teachers. the stages in the model are as follows: 1. emerging stagefocuses on the exploration of possibilities and consequences of using ict for institutional management and ict integration into curriculum. at this stage traditional/ teacher-centred strategies are still in use. 2. applying stageteacher educators integrate ict for acquisition of subject-specific skills and knowledge. methodology for teaching begins to transform through ict support in both training and professional development. 3. infusing stage-embedding ict across curriculum through computer-based technologies in laboratories, classrooms and administrative offices. teacher educators are expected to “merge subject areas to reflect real-world applications” (p.63). it is at this stage that we believe training should integrate technologies representative of the different contexts pre-service teachers will experience post-training. 4. transforming stage-ict becomes part of everyday life at the institutions from administration to teaching and learning. teacher-centred strategies are replaced by learner-centred technology-based strategies. towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 173 the stages in the continuum are guidelines for how training institutions can integrate technology within curriculum. unique differences existing among institutions imply that these stages are attained differently. fig. 3 summarises the relationship between the stages and pedagogical uses of ict. fig 3: the link between ict usage and pedagogical uses (engida, 2012). engida (2012, p. 64) states that “competencies of integration are neither competencies of technology alone nor competencies of pedagogy. rather, competencies of integration are about the appropriate selection, use, mix, fusion and integration of many sets of competencies.” for appropriate selection to occur, there must be a range of technologies to select from and zimbabwe in particular faces the challenge of inadequate technology infrastructure in its schools. arguably, teacher training colleges are affected by the same challenge, leading to ineffective or non-integration of ict in the curriculum. unesco iicba (2012) in developing the ictetsa framework, believed that the interconnected relationship between continuum models, curriculum frameworks and ict competency standards would positively influence the levels of ict utilisation in teacher education in africa. however, frameworks and models that do not consider the uniquely different contexts of countries and institutions may merely be on paper, without any effective or meaningful implementation taking place. the process of planning for ict adoption and suggestions of models, must take place after considerations of infrastructural capacity-building models within the various sectors in which ict is utilised. tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 174 mukuna’s technology integration planning model the possibility of creating frameworks that suit country needs is evident in mukuna’s model for kenya. this model provides a reference and practical example for countries to not merely adopt models that do not best align with their contextual realities. mukuna (2013) instead researched on what was missing in the teacher education curriculum in kenya. the research conclusion was that it is important to inculcate knowledge and skills at pre-service teacher education stage so that they become effective in integrating technology into the curriculum post-service. mukuna (2013) proposed a framework for ict integration in teacher education in kenya in which essential conditions for technology integration are set. fig. 4 summarises the conditions. fig. 4: effective technology integration (mukuna, 2013). the conditions set by mukuna (2013) are key in determining the needs of teacher education institutions and what their localised challenges are. due to contextual differences, it is prudent that institutions measure and evaluate what their needs are to create a conducive environment for ict integration commensurate with their levels of e-readiness. mukuna (2013) further proposed a three-stage model (planning, implementation and evaluation) with six phases for kenyan teacher training colleges (ttcs). the model can, however, be adopted by other african institutions. the model is shown in fig. 5. effective technology integration shared vision empowered leaders standards and curriculum support required policies access to hardware and other resources for sustainability skilled personnel and opportunities for proffessional developemnt technical assistance appropriate teaching and assessment approaches engaged communities: prtnerships and collaborations towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 175 fig. 5: technology integration planning model for kenya (mukuna, 2013) phases 1 and 2 represent the planning stage where the institutions decide and determines on what the goals of integration are, what content is to be learnt, who the target learners are and what are their prior skills, knowledge and experiences, and their level of motivation. at this stage, the institution also determines ways for increasing and sustaining motivation, possible ways of learning and, the context and conditions under which learning must occur. this stage does not, however, indicate the importance of evaluating technology infrastructure available for the requisite integration. planning should not ignore determination of available technology tools and infrastructure as well as technology support in the form of connectivity because without ict infrastructure there will not be any integration. assuming that technology is available becomes a flaw in the integration process as institutions may not have similar capacity for adoption and utilisation of icts. phases 3, 4 and 5 represent the implementation stage. mukuna (2013) proposes that for effective implementation to take place, the institutions must consider potential types of technology most applicable to the learning situation, benefits and costs for choosing and using the potential technology, steps and sequence of integration corresponding to learning experiences. selection of monitoring and implementation team must also be done. although tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 176 mukuna’s (2013) proposition considers contextual determination of relevant technologies for integration, it is critical that implementation be done in line with institutional policies that clearly outline what the objectives for integration are. the last stage is evaluation where the impact of ict on learning experience is measured. evaluation procedures, types of feedback which optimise technology use and key hindrances to integration are evaluated and measured. this model takes into consideration the localised contextual issues and is more relevant than the global models which assume similarity of conditions across countries and institutions. the argument for integrating technology at preservice stage is that trainee teachers “have not yet formed habitual modes of instruction that are more difficult to change with experienced teachers. it is at pre-service stage that they are more open to learning how to infuse technology into instruction” (mukuna, 2013, p. 5). the integration of technology at the pre-service stage must be followed by consistent in-service training as new forms of technology are introduced daily. this model is critical in ensuring that teacher training be implemented based on the needs and conditions of each institution. based on the arguments raised in the reviewed literature, the researchers propose a model for teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe that draws inspiration from the unesco ict competency framework, ictetsa and mukuna’s model. the proposed model fig 6: a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model for teacher education curriculum towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 177 results: applying the model national ict in education policy the model suggested above was presented to six lecturers from three of the secondary teacher training colleges in zimbabwe to collect views on how this model could possibly be applied in teacher education institutions. the lecturers were purposively sampled based on their involvement in teaching subject areas from which the main research was being conducted in courses across different curricula at the colleges. all six lecturers interviewed, indicated the importance of an ict in education policy to drive and guide education at all levels of education in zimbabwe. the importance of a deliberate ict in education policy is that it will direct the implementation of ict integrated approaches. however, according to lecturer a the efficiency of such a policy, …can only be measured by the commitment of government to the provision of ict resources and relevant support in developing the right skills among teachers and learners. without adequate tools and skills as well as systems that support effective and efficient technology use, ict integration across the curriculum will remain a dream. this implies that the founding and grounding action towards ict integration is steeped in policies that support and drive ict use and integration. lecturer b commented on the national ict policy and averred that: it is an anomaly to have a policy that is not specific in terms of its outcomes and commitments to ict integration for such a key sector as the education sector. it becomes very difficult to align programs for ict integration in education if the government is not very clear about its vision for ict in education, hence the need for an education specific ict policy from which institutions can design their own institution-based policies which are more specific and more focused. we could draw lessons from other african countries that have specific policies around ict in education. namibia and south africa are such examples. both lecturers concur that these policies must be further supported by tangible efforts towards ensuring equal access to technology as well as adequate resources to enable a smooth transition from traditional methods of teacher education and development. resource mobilisation must therefore underpin the ict in education policy. the lectures further proposed that teacher education institutions must also play a key role in resource mobilisation by creating partnerships with private sector players who are in the ict sector. lecturer b pointed out that tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 178 while it is the role of government, through the relevant ministry, to assist institutions with funding for ict infrastructure teacher training institutions can also design plans and measures to increase ict resources for themselves. it is not sustainable to place the responsibility squarely on the government. thus, teacher training institutions, in their policies, must outline strategies for ict infrastructural development. institutional ict in education policy the second actionable step in ensuring ict integration in teacher education curricula must also be supported by institutional policies that borrow from the national ict in education policy. while the national policy is holistic in nature, institutional policies can be drawn from it by taking into consideration aspects that relate to the context of the institution. each of the institutions must assess its readiness for ict adoption and integration into the teacher education curriculum by taking into consideration the following factors as suggested by lecturer a: 1. quantity and quality of ict toolsinstitutions must lay out plans for how they intend to resource their institutions 2. key performance indicators (kpis) in line with objectives set out for ict integration in teacher education. that is, laying out the outcomes expected after each course level in line with the final outcomes of the total program that the pre-service teacher is undertaking. for instance, pre-service teacher must be able to create and deliver online content. curriculum outcomes must be anchored in contextual realities. while it is pertinent that pre-service teachers gain high levels of skill in ict integration, factors such as inadequacy of tools can be limiting. hence, teacher training institutions must provide a foundation for integration of ict in teaching and learning by using available resources. 3. an outline of potential ict partners to assist in resource mobilisation and skills development. this is key in any institution. institutional policies must, therefore, be grounded in the contextual realities of each of the institutions. contextual realities is a term which generally considers “the salient influences, such as demographics, cultural norms and so on, which are region specific, and have explicit bearing on the usage” and application of various tools, policies and many other initiatives (malhotra, 2015). what this implies is that each institution, in its attempt to integrate ict into teacher education curriculum, is affected by different factors. for instance, colleges that have towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 179 lower enrolment might be in a position to fully resource with technology tools that cater for all students but might be affected by other factors such as connectivity if they are located in areas where connectivity is a challenge. thus, each institution must fully assess its positioning as it draws up a relevant institutional ict policy. furthermore, all stakeholders within each institution must be committed to implementing the policy expectations. infrastructural assessment at institutional level is key to effective integration because studies have shown that the biggest hindrance to ict integration in education is the lack of basic technological infrastructure (apostolou, 2020). it is, therefore, critical that in developing curricula, institutions must understand what technology tools are available and accessible to both teacher educators and pre-service teachers in training. lecturer f pointed out that while it is without question that ict has transformed ways of learning and has created many opportunities for education, without infrastructure, teacher education institutions may fail to fully equip pre-service teachers with the right ict competencies to transfer knowledge posttraining. lecturer a concurred with this opinion and stated that ict integration should be done with cognizance of existing infrastructure. what this implies is that each institutional curriculum will have a different ict integration plan based on available ict tools. lecturers c & d also concurred with lecturer b who stressed the need for context-relevant and institution-based ict adoption and integration models in teacher education curriculum. lecturer e further indicated that internet support in the form of software and connectivity is also a key area that must be considered when determining what forms of ict integration should be linked to the curriculum. when asked if there existed an institutional ict policy all tes pointed out that they were sure that it existed, but when asked to produce the policy as evidence and for analysis. in terms of some tenets that they could refer to, all the tes could only state that students were expected to type their assignments and to pass the ict course as per dte requirements. the inability and hesitancy to produce an institutional ict policy could potentially point to its inexistence. what this implies is that teacher education institutions are operating in blindness with regards to ict integration in the subjects they train pre-service teachers in. in response to a question regarding the various contextual challenges that their institutions face which hinder the smooth integration of icts, the lecturers responses are shown in as indicated in table 1: tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 180 table 1: ict related challenges facing some teacher training institutions challenge lecturer a lecturer b lecturer c lecturer d lecturer e lecturer f hardware ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ power/ electricity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ internet connectivity ✓ partially ✓ ✓ partially partially in-service training in ict ✓ ✓ software ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ digital pedagogy skill ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ technical support ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ source: interview with lectures from three secondary teachers’ training colleges in zimbabwe in the interviews, the lecturers were asked if the above challenges were affecting ict integration in their institutions’ curricula. the responses show that the challenges are not universal and each institution is affected by different factors. lecturer a pointed out that electricity challenges are the most crippling and pose the most hindrance to the use of online based strategies as they may go for more than a day without electricity. at institution b, even though electricity is a challenge, it is not as bad compared to institution a because load shedding is only for a few hours on specific days of the week. this shows that institution a and b may have similar problems but at different levels of impact thus, their ict integration models must be different to cater for these differences. coupled with infrastructure assessment, teacher education institutions should also focus on assessing levels of ict knowledge and skills. this is important for ict integration as it towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 181 focuses curriculum planning towards areas that are priority for training. lecturer b stressed that curriculum integration cannot be generalized across the various teacher education institutions as there are varying degrees of differences in the type of students enrolled, adequacy of ict infrastructure, and access to internet support and various other contextual factors. level of ict knowledge and skills of teacher educators is key to effective integration of technology because “the way teachers use technology in the classroom is one of the most important factors for the success of the ict integration” (apostolou, 2020, p. 563). teacher educators play the role of modelling the knowledge and skills that pre-service teachers utilise post-training, therefore, it is important for institutions to adopt continuous in-service training for teacher educators. similar to the case in classrooms where teachers may not be as tech savvy as the learners, at teacher training colleges, some pre-service teachers may be more knowledgeable and skilled than teacher educators. this implies the need for a collaborative approach to teaching and learning at teacher training institutions. the curriculum must provide opportunities for students to utilise technology and to share their experiences, knowledge and skills. this resonates with the unesco ict competency framework for ict integration which sets out collaborative classrooms and networking as key determinants of an ict competent teacher. thus, teacher educators’ ict knowledge and skills competency need to be evaluated and assessed in order to plan for both curriculum development and in-service training. adoption of integration strategies and a hybrid curriculum aligned with contextual realities can then be done following the assessments done by teacher education institutions. the lecturers interviewed stressed the difficulty of moving from traditional methods of lecturing which seem easier than the ict based strategies. the socio-economic background of students also has an effect on ict integration, particularly where online lectures are concerned. lecturer a stressed the importance of involving students in the decision of what ict tools are easily accessible and available to them to ensure ease of access to lectures and learning material. discussion a national ict policy is an important document that helps in directing the operations of specific departments at government or institutional level. based on the lecturer participants’ views, the tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 182 national ict policy in itself is not adequate to influence real implementation on the ground. it must be supported by a dedicated national ict in education policy and dedicated budget to support icts. the national ict in education policy will become the source from which specific, context-bound institutional policies are drawn up and reviewed periodically to fit with occurring changes. the mopse and ministry of higher education, technology, science and innovation should spearhead the designing of the national ict in education policy as the lead stakeholders in developing ict competencies in both learners and educators. this view is corroborated in the namibian ict for education policy (2003) where it is stated that, if government leaders, especially the ministry of education in particular, do not take steps to intensify and strengthen the use of information and communication technology (ict) in our academic institutions and school, a generation of children-and a generation of adults as teacherswill be put at a colossal disadvantage with consequences and costs that will be difficult to reverse (p. 3). government leaders and relevant ministries should lead the drive for ict integration into the curriculum. in the case of zimbabwe, the ministry of higher education science and technology development, must show its commitment to the integration of technology in teacher education curricula by ensuring that teacher training institutions are well equipped with icts and have institutional policies that support ict integration. in terms of this research, it appears that technology uptake, technology resource acquisition and integration has been solely left in the hands of teacher training institutions. these institutions are currently struggling to provide basic resources to their students as a result of the poor national economic conditions. thus, without government support, the process of intensifying ict use and integration in schools and teacher training institutions will not take hold. ict integration must therefore be viewed as a holistic process which takes into consideration and collaboration all stakeholders. the covid 19 pandemic exposed ict skills deficiencies among teachers which affected continued learning through virtual learning which disadvantaged the majority of public schools in zimbabwe. as noted for south africa by ford & botha (2010) “despite the noble intentions and efforts driving implementation of information communication technologies in education, the integration of icts into teaching and learning has been wrought with challenges some of the challenges relate to the digital divide, adoption barriers and self-efficacy, inadequate ict resources, limited access to the internet, social status of potential users of ict, technophobia and fear of ict adoption as a result of advanced age (mooketsi & chigona, 2016). these towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 183 problems are varied across differing contexts in which ict is required thus leading to an implementation process “besieged with dispersed and uncoordinated implementation programs and projects’ (botha & ford, 2010, p. 1). such findings strengthen the argument for contextbased adoption and implementation models supported by localised policy frameworks which take into consideration the realities across institutions of education. zimbabwe is affected by the digital divide where access to technology across the country is unfavorably distributed. for instance, in a survey carried out by afrobarometer in zimbabwe, the findings made in july, 2018 highlighted that ▪ 95% of households in had cell phones, while 77% had radios, 49% had televisions, and only 23% had computers. ▪ fewer than half (43%) of cell-phone owners – and only 28% in rural areas – said their phones had access to the internet. ▪ only a quarter of zimbabweans said they used the internet “every day” or “a few times a week”. six out of 10 (62%) said they “never” went online. ▪ as of mid-2018, almost half (45%) of zimbabweans lived in areas without a public electricity grid. and only about three out of 10 respondents (31%) said their home had an electric connection that worked “most” or “all” of the time (moyo-nyede & ndoma, 2020, p. 2). it is within these contexts that the various teacher education institutions are situated. this implies that the institutions are also deeply affected by the challenges brought about by the digital divide. thus, if institutions are encouraged to develop institutional policies for ict integration that consider the context, ict adoption and implementation would arguably be in better shape across the country’s many education institutions. the suggested framework presented in this paper takes into account contextual issues that have a direct bearing on adoption and integration of ict. ict integration, we believe, should be subjective with options for continued learning and development. teacher education institutions’ focus must be directed at developing basic ict integration skills that allow for transfer of knowledge and provide a foundation for further training in-service in line with technological improvements so as to continuously build on existing skills. understanding the levels of ict knowledge and skills in both teacher educators and students is important in determining digital pedagogy skills to employ in the case of the former and to impart to the latter. teacher training institutions can determine levels of ict knowledge tendai dzinoreva, george mavunga, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 184 and skill among pre-service teachers through online surveys with incoming students. this will direct the levels of integration relevant for each particular intake and what kind of ict knowledge and skills are requires by the incumbent students. knowledge of ict skills and content levels of teacher educators determine relevant in-service up skilling programs to develop teacher educators’ skills in ict integration. teacher education institutions should also be clear on what level they want to integrate technology as it is critical to the selection of relevant tools and best practices for delivery of content. abraham & wadhwani (2013) suggest a range of levels at which ict can be integrated into technology and these are: ▪ ict for computer based instruction (digital pedagogy skills) ▪ ict for administrative work ▪ computer software knowledge and use ▪ ict for presentations ▪ ict for communication ▪ ict for research ▪ ict for evaluation ▪ ict for collaboration this list is not exhaustive but serves as a foundation for selecting relevant ict tools for integration into the curriculum to demonstrate how pre-service teachers can utilise technology to deliver content and enhance teaching and learning post service. context-relevant and institution-based models of ict integration create autonomy in the areas of teaching and learning that need to be prioritized. the ict adoption process is not a single step but ongoing and continuous. conclusion integrating icts into the curriculum for teacher education, at diploma level, is the foundation for driving effective teaching and learning with technology in schools. without the correct foundation for integrating technology, teaching and learning with technology will remain a dream for many. fuller & kim (2022, p. 2) clearly articulate the importance of marrying policy development with clear implementation frameworks in his observation: this blossoming policy discourse is replete with hopes for radically improving and transforming education systems. but how to define educational systems and then reshape them remains poorly defined. we cannot merely utter this ambitious goal towards a context-relevant, institution-based ict integration model of teacher education curriculum in zimbabwe ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 162-188 185 without precisely defining how to surround the system, identify potent levers for change, and rethink the aims and means of human learning on a fragile planet. ensuring a context relevant framework for ict integration at pre-service level is key in creating a foundation for developing ict competent teachers post-training. contextual factors such as an organization’s technical support, organization administrative support, organization infrastructure and resources, and organization ict policy’s effect on the commitment for use of technology are critical to the effective integration of icts. pre-service ict integration models must focus on providing teachers in training with experiences reflective of their lived realities with opportunities for continued learning and development. collaborative effort should also be made to scale up internet access that will improve the virtual learning environments in the various institutions to enable inter-institution collaborations for enhancement of teacher education curriculum. this will enhance technology-based teaching and learning in the classrooms at national level and consequently improving teaching and learning. references abraham, j. & wadhwani, r. 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(2018). characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies: systematic analysis of qualitative health research over a 15-year period. bmc medical research methodology, 18 (148), 1-18. machedze, r., wadzai, s., zhou, j. & chirisa, i. (2018). informal economy and social vulnerability in zimbabwe. friedrich ebert stiftung zimbabwe. students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning george bondzie university of education, winneba, ghana abstract this article examines the conditions (time and supervision) in achieving self-efficacy among distance education students on internship programme in the university of education, winneba. the purpose of this study was to find out if the conditions of time and supervision were adequately met for distance education students on internship programme in the university of education, winneba (uew) to accomplish self-efficacy. the descriptive survey design was used in conducting the study. data was collected by means of google docs; questionnaires were administered via students’ whatsapp platforms. a sample of 1,087 final year distance education students was derived for the study through the availability sampling technique. the study concluded that the condition of time allocation for octps to enable uewdestis to achieve self-efficacy were not adequately met in the sense that they had little time to learn more relevant teaching skills, practicalise teaching theories, participate in every activity, and practice all teaching activities learnt. in essence, uewdestis would need more time to practice and develop the teaching skills necessary to become more competent teachers. keywords: internship, student-teacher intern, self-efficacy, time and supervision introduction one of the major aims for which the university of education, winneba was established is to provide teachers with professional competence for all levels of education (act 672, ghana). to accomplish this aim, the university incorporated student internship courses into its undergraduate programmes of study to enable student-teachers to receive hands-on teaching experience. the major philosophy behind this idea is to ensure unimpeded transition from the issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 2 2022 pages 122-139 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 123 world of academia to the working environment. lajara, abayan, lianza, pagliawan, and aguirre (2017) asserted that internship is critical in education because it shapes learners and “enhances their full potentials in order for them to become able members of the society who are productive and responsive to the needs and demands of the society” (p. 155). parveen and nida (2012) pointed out that internship provides student-teachers a practical opportunity to develop true understanding of the teaching profession and future expectations of working conditions in the profession. it continued that the major purpose of internship programme is to develop and strengthen students’ skills and to prepare them for the profession. lubbers, bourland-davis, and rawlins (2008) posited that internship has taken on an increasingly important role in education over the past decade because it presents students with many advantages, ranging from gaining experience and obtaining career-related direction to networking with other students from various institutions. interestingly, the enactment of the university of education, winneba act 672 on 14th may, 2004, upgraded the status of the then university college of education of winneba to the status of a full university. act 672 mandates the university to provide “teachers with professional competence for teaching in pretertiary institutions such as preschool, basic, senior secondary school and non-formal education institutions” (p. 3). so, the designers of the uew undergraduate programmes integrated the student-teacher internship course into its undergraduate programmes so that the graduates of the university shall be complete, ever ready, productive and responsive to the needs of society. based on the forgoing, the university adopted the dual mode approach to fulfill its mandate of delivering education to the ghanaian people. muyinda (2012) described the dual mode university as those “universities which offer programmes of study either as distance or internal learning programmes or both” (p.34). this means that the curriculum for programmes being offered in both modes are the same. according to bondzie and pajibo (2020), the distance education programmes being run in the university of education, winneba apply the dual mode approach. the institute for distance and e-learning (idel), now the college for distance and e-learning (codel) of uew is the centralized institute – headquarters – where all the instructional designs and administrative activities originate. also, the learning mode is through self-study materials, that is, distribution of printed interactive course modules to students. the university of education, winneba currently has 13 faculties which offer undergraduate diploma and degree programmes cum master’s and doctors of philosophy degrees. all undergraduate final year students are required to take internship as a core course george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 124 during their period of study. the objective of the student-teacher internship (or teaching practice) in uew is “to evaluate student teaching” (p.1), and not only to help student-teacher develop appropriate teaching skills (student internship handbook, 2018). similarly, the student internship programme (sip) is described as an “intensive school-based student teaching-learning experience” aimed at providing structured, supervised, and clinical experience. the sip not only involves “practicing teaching” but also includes experiencing good practices with the students in a variety of ways…” (uew student internship handbook, 2018). additionally, it offers studentteacher professionalism through knowledge acquisition and development of a good teaching philosophy. internship and uew distance education generally, student internships programmes are unpaid positions providing students with practical experience enabling them to develop effective teaching and learning styles and good classroom management practices. hendrikse (2013) asserted that the student-teacher intern is afforded the opportunity to develop skills and gain experience in the practical application of his/her theoretical course work. annan, doe, ahiale, and anyamadu (2016) argued that the prime object of students’ industrial attachment programmes is to expose them to relevant industrial skills in an attempt to bridge the gap between theory and practice. this means that a student-teacher intern, after going through internship programme and graduation, should be able to put into practice theories learnt at school. it also implies that the student internship programme should present students with opportunities to apply their knowledge and skills in a professional setting while still in school. in effect, internship provides a platform for studentteacher interns to show evidence of acquisition of knowledge through practice. as indicated, the college for distance and e-learning of the university of education, winneba is responsible for the running of distance education programmes. the college runs 16 undergraduate and four postgraduate programmes, and as part of the requirements for completion and graduation, all final year students are required to take internship courses: oncampus teaching practice (octp), and off-campus teaching practice (ofctp). however, for postgraduate programmes, it is only the postgraduate diploma in education students who require octp and ofctp. it is important to mention that the weight of octp is three credit hours whilst the ofctp is weighted at six credit hours. the octp provides opportunity for uewdestis to practice teaching on campus during octp lessons. with this, each uewdesti is given an opportunity to teach – practice teaching – the class and be supervised by the tutor(s). also, the college for distance and e-learning tutorial timetable required that students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 125 the uewdestis hold octp lessons eight times in a semester, and on average spend three hours of practice teaching. in effect, in a semester, uewdestis do an average of 24 hours of on-campus teaching practice. for the off-campus teaching practice, uewdestis are provided with an ofctp assessment form and are required to do teaching practice in a well recognised public or private school in ghana, be supervised by trained mentors (headteachers and/or circuit supervisors) and be graded accordingly using the ofctp assessment form. it is understood that the uewdestis do 60 minutes of off-campus teaching practice – 1-hour lesson twice in a semester (personal communication, 20th august, 2020). in furtherance of that, internship students do their teaching practice in a well-recognized public or private school in ghana, and are supervised by trained mentors (headteachers and/or circuit supervisors) and graded accordingly using the ofctp assessment form. again, over 90% percent of uewdests pursuing degree programmes in basic and early childhood education have an education background. table 1 presents information on internship (teaching practice) situations in three public universities in ghana where education programmes are mostly run. notwithstanding, bukaliya’s (2012) argument may be true for the uew in that “the mode of delivery in open and distance learning institutions places the prospective student intern in a difficult position as he/she has to balance between the requirements of his/her full-time employment and the new role as an intern” (p. 119). it is against this backdrop that the study was carried out to ascertain whether time, resources, mentoring and supervision schedules on internship programme are adequate to achieve student self-efficacy and good professional development. conceptual framework of the study this study drew its theoretical sense and direction from the model of self-efficacy in relation to time and supervision. these factors are empirically essential in building professionalism among student teachers. it is worth noting that time in its sense means the length of period allocated george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 126 to the student-teacher intern to spend on his or her internship course. at the university of education, winneba, student-teacher interns are allocated one semester – four months – for the internship course (uew student internship handbook, 2018). the 4-month period for student internship is the normal (minimum) period for all public universities in ghana. krysher, robinson and edwards (2015) believed that activity versus productivity should be considered when allocating time for students’ internship course. in other words, the period spent on an activity should equally correspond with a measurable result – productivity. the question is whether uewdestis are spending the required time to be more productive. self-efficacy as defined by schunk (1985) as “a personal judgment of performance capabilities in a given domain of activity” (p. 208). again, self-efficacy can influence choice of activities. students who have a low sense of efficacy for acquiring cognitive skills may attempt to avoid certain tasks, whereas those who judge themselves more efficacious would participate more eagerly. lively (1994) cited bandura (1977) in that a person’s perception of self-efficacy, that is, his/her efficacy expectation, is the key factor in determining whether that person will engage in a certain behavior. the core question asked in this study is what kind of relationship exists between time and self-efficacy for the uewdestis. indeed, studies have shown a correlation between time spent on an activity and self-efficacy. krysher, robinson, and edwards (2015) asserted that self-efficacy may be affected by the amount of time a student-teacher spends engaged in activities during the student teaching internship. certainly, self-efficacy is a construct in the professional preparation of student-teacher. tschannen-moran, hoy, and hoy (1998) argued that higher self-efficacy during the student teaching internship increases the intern’s overall performance. the argument is that a student-teacher intern’s ability to achieve a reasonable level of self-efficacy on an activity depends largely on the amount of time spent on the said activity. again, self-efficacy is a requirement for developing a professional teacher. thus, the question is whether the distance education students of the university of education, winneba obtain adequate teaching duration to achieve self-efficacy during internship. furthermore, herdiawan (2018) submitted that supervision should be seen as the crucial way to develop the performance of teachers with respect to the teaching and learning process. it has also become an instrument to assist teachers to develop “an appropriate teaching model, content, and also instructions” (p. 30). this implies that improved teacher performance hinges on adequate supervision. cames (2007) defined supervision as all the efforts designated to school officials directed toward providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 127 in the improvement of instruction. he explained that this involves the stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of education objectives, materials of instruction, and methods of teaching, and the evaluation of instruction (cames, 2007, as cited in herdiawan, 2018). the literature on supervision indicates that any solution that enables the teacher to teach students effectively is called clinical supervision. according to greene (1992), the original approach to clinical supervision is rooted in the works of cogen and goldhammer. the category, clinical supervision, has been simply described by herdiawan (2018) as focused planning, observation, and receiving feedback. clinical supervision is defined as the actual process in which the supervisor systematically observes, analyzes, and evaluates the teacher’s performance. the question then is whether the distance education students of the university of education, winneba are well supervised during internship to enable them to achieve selfefficacy. statement of the problem according to du-babcock (2016), internship is a process of integrating classroom education with practical experience to enable student teachers to develop their professional knowledge and skills. nunan (1990) also classified clinical supervision as an ongoing process of teacher development that is based on direct observation of classroom teaching performance. notwithstanding, these brilliant philosophies may not be evident in the distance mode of education due to its settings. in other words, the concepts may be challenging to implement with the distance mode of delivering education. therefore, this study aims to solicit information on the conditions for self-efficacy among distance education students on internship programme at the university of education, winneba. the study seeks to ascertain whether distance education student-teacher interns can achieve self-efficacy vis-à-vis the time allocation for internship in their distance learning. the study also determines if the uew distance education student-teacher interns are adequately supervised to enable them to achieve self-efficacy in their professional development. purpose of the study the purpose of the study was to look at the perceptions on the conditions for self-efficacy among distance education students on internship programme in the university of education, winneba. george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 128 objectives of the study specifically, the objectives of the study were to examine whether uewdestis a) had adequate time for on and off-campus teaching practice (octps) to enable them achieve self-efficacy; and b) were adequately supervised during on and off-campus teaching practice (octps) to enable them achieve self-efficacy. research questions the following research questions guided the study: i. was the time allocated for octps adequate to enable uewdestis to achieve selfefficacy? ii. were the uewdestis adequately supervised during octps to enable them to acheive self-efficacy? methodology and design in examining conditions for self-efficacy among uewdestis on internship, the descriptive survey design was deployed in conducting the study. the rationale was to elicit data on the conditions – time allocation and supervision for self-efficacy among uewdestis. best and kalm (1998) explained that descriptive survey design involves studying events or situations long after they have occurred thus preventing variable manipulation. in this case, the subjects examined were distance education student-teacher interns who undertook internship and had completed the course. thus, there was no avenue for variable manipulation. also, wellington (2000) made a case that descriptive survey is a method of research whereby the phenomena under study are looked into in a particular moment and described precisely. consequently, in this study, information was obtained on octps regarding time, self-efficacy and supervision, and described accordingly, using the survey method. gay, mills and airasian (2009) opined that descriptive research studies are designed to obtain information concerning the current status of phenomena. indeed, the design was appropriate in the sense that it surveyed uewdestis’ experiences on internship, focusing on a phenomenon (internship) which had long taken place, and duly describing the findings. students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 129 data collection procedure cohen, manion and morrison (2000) argued that descriptive survey design employs the use of questionnaires and interviews in sampling views on a phenomenon by selecting unbiased samples to respond to the questionnaires and interviews. as it were, the data for this study was collected through the use of google docs. google docs was used to prepare and distribute structured interview questionnaires via the whatsapp platform of all final year education students who took internship as a course. intrinsically, this mode of questionnaire administration encapsulated the deployment of probability sampling method, specifically, availability sampling technique. this means that all final year education students who were available on their respective whatsapp platforms at the time of the administration of the questionnaire, i.e. 10th – 24th june, 2020, had the chance to respond to the questionnaire. population and sample the population for the study was all 9,196 of the final year students who enroll in education related programmes. these final year distance education students, as required for graduation, did internship, and therefore, constituted the accessible population for the study. table 2, presents the number of respondents (percentage) plus actual number of final year education students who took internship as a course. in all, 1,087, or 12% final year distance education students responded to the questionnaire. validity and reliability according to anastasi (1969), the choice of validation mechanism primarily depends on the purpose of the test instrument. additionally, heale and twycross (2015) argued that construct validity refers to the extent to which a research instrument (or tool) measures the intended construct. considering the main function of the instrument developed in this study, the researcher used construct validity as the most suitable approach for establishing the validity. george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 130 construct validity of a measure is directly concerned with the theoretical relationship of a variable with other variables. the questionnaires were read through by senior colleagues within the department to detect possible lack of clarity in the phrasing of the questions and to enhance the comprehensibility of the items. few ambiguities were detected and corrected before administering the questionnaire. all the items were constructed using simple language to avoid any ambiguity that might arise. this was to ensure that all respondents understood all items in the questionnaire. the same questionnaire was administered to the study centres after two weeks. this test-retest procedure was aimed at ensuring the reliability of the instrument. data analysis the data collected was analysed using google docs. simple percentages were used showing the statistical description of the various responses. again, data was analysed in relation to the theoretical framework of the study. this meant the responses were juxtaposed in relation to the dictates of the theoretical frameworks. findings and discussions the findings of this study are presented on bar charts figures 1 and 2. responses for research question 1 have been presented in figure 1 whilst that of research question 2 are in figure 2. discussion of the findings follows the presentation of the findings. as indicated, figure 1 illustrates the responses for research question 1, which solicited information from uewdestis on whether they had adequate time for octps to enable them achieve selfefficacy. also, figure 2 shows responses for research question 2, which requested information from uewdestis on whether they had adequate supervision during octps. students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 131 figure 1: keys s1=i can say that through octps i can practicalise teaching theories learnt at school. s2=i can say that time spent on octps was adequate thus i participated in all teaching activities. s3=i can say that time spent on octps was adequate thus i practiced all teaching activities. s4=i am confident that i would be a more competent teacher if more time was spent on octps. s5=if more time was allocated for octps i could have practiced more and developed more teaching skills. s6=i can say that the allocated time for octps was not enough and could have learned more teaching skills if more time was allocated. george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 132 keys s1=octps supervision was adequate because developing appropriate teaching model and content has become easy. s2=octps supervision was adequate because my teaching skills and or instructions has become more professional. s3=octps supervision was adequate because it has stimulated my professional growth and development as a teacher. s4=octps supervision was adequate because i am able to select and revise education objectives aptly. s5=octps supervision was adequate because i am be able to choose right materials of instruction, and methods of teaching and evaluate my instruction. s6=during octps supervision, the supervisor observed, analyzed, and evaluated my performance systematically. the data obtained for research question 1 point out that 64% of the respondents – uewdestis – believed that time allocation for the octps was adequate in the sense that it students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 133 enabled them to learn more relevant teaching skills whilst approximately 25% thought otherwise. also, 11% of the respondents were unsure about the adequacy of time allocation for octps. likewise, 94%, 64% and 70% of the respondents believed that time spent on octps was adequate as it enabled them to practicalise teaching theories learnt, participate in all activities within the time provided, and practice all teaching activities respectively. however, about 6%, 36% and 30% of the respondents did not believe this to be the case. the findings seem to be in line with hendrikse’s (2013) assertion that during internship, the student-teacher intern is afforded the opportunity to develop skills and gain experience in the practical application of his/her theoretical course work. primarily, these results illustrate that the objective for which the internship course was mounted in the uew undergraduate programme is being achieved in the sense that the uew student internship programme not only involves “practicing teaching”, it also includes experiencing good practices with the students in a variety of ways…” (uew student internship handbook, 2018). notwithstanding, 83% of the respondents believed that they would be more competent teachers if more time were spent on octps. also, 89% as well as 79% of the respondents thought that they would have practiced, developed and learned more teaching skills if more time were allocated for octps. in effect, they thought that the time spent on octps was inadequate for them to be more competent teachers. this finding defies krysher, robinson and edwards’ (2015) assertion that activity versus productivity should be considered when allocating time for students’ internship course. furthermore, time spent by uewdestis on an activity (octps) might not equally correspond with a measurable result – productivity (more competent teachers) in this case. selfefficacy, defined by schunk (1985) as “a personal judgment of performance capabilities in a given domain of activity” (p. 208), is being measured here. thus, the results from the study indicate that self-efficacy levels of the uewdestis might not necessarily be adequate, and that more time is needed for them to develop, practice and enhance their teaching skills to become competent teachers. this is in line with the view expressed by krysher et al., (2015) that self-efficacy may be affected by the amount of time a student-teacher spends engaged in activities during the student teaching internship. additionally, the findings show that selfefficacy levels of the uewdestis might be low because, as tschannen-moran, hoy, and hoy, (1998) believed, higher self-efficacy during the student teaching internship increases the interns’ overall performance. to sum up, the ability of uewdestis to achieve a reasonable self-efficacy becoming more competent teachers was hampered by the amount of time spent george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 134 (inadequate) on the activity (octps). largely, uewdestis needed more time to develop adequate competencies in teaching. with regards to supervision, 85%, 71% and 75% of the respondents thought that octps supervision was adequate as developing appropriate teaching models and content became easier, teaching skills and instructions became more professional, and this in turn stimulated their professional growth and development as teachers respectively. this implies that 6%, 19% and 18% of the uewdestis thought otherwise whilst 8%, 10% and 7% were respectively unsure. this finding affirms herdiawan’s (2018) position that supervision has become an instrument to assist teachers to develop “an appropriate teaching model, content, and also instructions”. it means that octps supervision assisted uewdestis to develop appropriate teaching models, content, and instructions. moreover, 76%, and 92% of the respondents held the belief that octps supervision was adequate because supervisors were able to select and revise education objectives aptly, choose right materials of instruction and methods of teaching as well as evaluate instruction. these findings appear to suggest that uewdestis octps supervision encapsulated the assertion made by cames (2007) that all efforts of designated school officials directed toward providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instruction; it involves the stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of education objectives, materials of instruction, and methods of teaching and the evaluation of instruction (as cited in herdiawan, 2018). this means that uew distance education managers are making strides in ensuring that uewdestis improve on instruction, stimulate professional growth, and develop as teachers. equally, uewdestis can select and revise education objectives, choose the right materials of instruction and methods of teaching as a result of octps supervision. also, 88% of the respondents believed that during octps supervision, observation, analysis, and evaluation of performance were done systematically. these findings agree with the objective of the studentteacher internship programme in uew (teaching practice), that is, “to evaluate student teaching” (student internship handbook, 2018). it is also in line with herdiawan’s (2018) argument that supervision is a crucial way of developing the performance of teachers with respect to the teaching and learning process. this fits well in the definition of clinical supervision which involves a process where the supervisor observes, analyzes, and evaluates the teacher’s performance systematically. hence, the findings clearly answer research question 2 in that uewdestis do have adequate supervision during octps supervision. students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during their internship programme. a case study of the university of education, winneba college for distance and e-learning ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 135 conclusion based on the discussions of the findings, the following conclusions were reached. the uewdestis believed that the condition of time allocation for octps to enable uewdestis to achieve self-efficacy was not adequately met. they had little time to learn more relevant teaching skills, practicalise teaching theories, participate in every activity, and practice all teaching activities learnt. thus, uewdestis need more time to practice and develop additional teaching skills to become more competent teachers. the question can be addressed whether uewdestis experience fit with the assertion made by lajara, abayan, lianza, pagliawan, and aguirre (2017) that internship shapes learners and “enhances their full potentials in order for them to become able members of the society who are productive and responsive to the needs and demands of the society” (p. 155). will uewdestis be able members of society who are productive and responsive to the needs and demands of society? this study shows that octps supervision was adequate in the sense that it enabled uewdestis to select and revise education objectives aptly and choose right materials of instruction and methods of teaching. students were also diligently supervised. altogether, the adequacy of octps time allocation and supervision for uewdestis does not necessarily translate into uewdestis becoming more competent teachers. effectively, the question that came out of the study to be answered was what uew distance education managers can do to ensure that octps time allocation and octps supervision commensurate with result. recommendations based on the findings and the conclusions reached, the following are recommended: 1. to increase self-efficacy levels of the uewdestis, the management of the college for distance and e-learning (codel) of the university of education, winneba should ensure that uewdestis fully use the entire four months earmarked for the off-campus teaching practice. 2. purely qualitative research should be done in the same area of research to enable management of the college for distance and e-learning to obtain more detailed information on the distance education student internship course for decision making and implementation. equally, it is recommended that a tracer study be done to determine how able uewdestis are as well as how productive and responsive they are to the needs of the society they live in after successful completion of school. george bondzie ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 122-139 136 3. effort should be made by the uew distance education managers to ensure that octp’s time allocation and octp’s supervision are commensurate with measurable result. students’ perception of conditions for self-efficacy during 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(2000). educational research: contemporary issues and practical approaches. london: continuum. university of cape coast (2022). internship. available at: https://ucc.edu.gh/courses/industrial-internship university of ghana (2022). internship. available at: https://uceap.universityofcalifornia.edu/programs/university-ghana/internships https://www.jstor.org/stable/3587097 http://rer.sagepub.com/content/68/2/202 https://uceap.universityofcalifornia.edu/programs/university-ghana/internships african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ali mazrui centre for higher education studies university of johannesburg, south africa abstract this paper argues for the notion of african identity to be placed at the centre of creating a new african university as part of the education decolonisation project. defining the african university does not mean a total negation of western ideas and epistemologies, but rather the foregrounding of african identity, traditions and culture. the paper recognises that africa is part of a global economy, hence african university curricula must (among other phenomena) be responsive to the fourth industrial revolution (4ir), pandemics and climate change. drawing on recent african identity-driven curriculum transformation developments at four south african universities, the paper recognises differences in institutional initiatives, some with detailed curriculum transformation plans and others with no clear plans. based on a literature review and document analysis methods, the results suggest that progress in curriculum transformation is mediated by context and history, as well as differences in institutional commitment to the decolonisation education project. the authors suggest that – with support from government and policymakers – a clear and detailed programme of curriculum transformation is needed, underpinned by a moral imperative to foreground african identity in the transition to the new african university. keywords: african identity, new african university, fourth industrial revolution, curriculum transformation, decolonisation. introduction african identity is in many ways at the centre of debates on transitioning to the new african university. it is invoked in the notions of indigenisation, africanisation and decolonisation issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 119-143 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 120 linked to institutional cultural transformation (maringe, 2017; metz, 2017). the notion of african identity is not defined by race but by the ideologies and philosophies of african people’s morals, culture, beliefs, practices and traditions. according to mino, et al. (2022), the colonialisation of education in africa separated educated africans from indigenous knowledge and created a loss of identity. in this paper, while focusing on the notion of african identity in this broader institutional context, the authors are concerned with exploring african identity visa-vis the education decolonisation project, with specific reference to curriculum transformation at universities. in south africa, curriculum reform is at the core of every educational transformation initiative in both the previously white universities and black universities. according to lumadi (2021, p. 1-2), a decolonised curriculum should address the following key questions, “who is teaching? who is being taught? what is the learning content? how is it being taught? in the hard-core version of decolonisation, african knowledge must replace western knowledge at the centre of the african curriculum”. while the push for curriculum transformation in south africa has been there since 1994, it was the student protests of 2015 and 2016 that precipitated and necessitated a renewed interest in the transformation of universities (le grange et al. 2020). le grange et al. (2020, p. 1) argue that, “the decolonisation of the curriculum is an important conversation, and long overdue, given that the western model of academic organization on which the south african university is based, remains largely unchallenged”. decolonising the curriculum involves the process of interrogating a formerly colonial country’s curriculum with a view to inclusivity; thereby recognising the diversity of people’s identities, cultures and experiences. as contended by sithole (2016), there is a need for diverse ecologies of knowledge and for promoting a pluriversalised idea of the world. similarly, latin american scholars have argued for the recognition of indigenous and diverse knowledge as part of the broader universal knowledge base (see for example, grosfoguel, 2007). however, as part of a global economy, the envisaged african identitydriven university cannot be immune from global developments impacting the social and economic lives of citizens. though not immune from global developments, african identitydriven universities should embrace characteristics and beliefs that distinguish them from others that are not african. ebewo and sirayi argue that: during the apartheid rule in south africa, established universities and other tertiary institutions were forcibly segregated to serve particular racial groups. some critics have stated that the apartheid regime in south africa supported an exclusively western african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 121 model of education, and that university education was based on a mono-cultural approach with bias towards western values and expectations (ebewo & sirayi, 2018, p. 82). instead, as further argued by ebewo and sirayi (2018, p. 82), “the transformation of the education sector is supposed to boost the africanisation (african-oriented content) of the syllabus, foregrounding the cultural practices and values of the african people”. as such, curriculum transformation at south african universities, in recognising their african heritage, should take seriously the project of foregrounding of african traditions, beliefs, culture and practices in the same way that european (or any other) universities foreground european culture and traditions. this does not mean rejecting western ideas and epistemologies that have relevance for curriculum change in the african context. if such sensitive and inclusive transformations are embraced, south african universities would be locally relevant, yet globally responsive. with the above context in mind, this study explores curriculum transformation developments in four south african universities, two predominantly black (usually referred to as the historically disadvantaged) and two predominantly white (usually referred to as the historically advantaged) universities. the emphasis is on the period since 2015 when student protests refocused attention on education decolonisation. of relevance here is that the historically disadvantaged black universities were financially and materially deprived, relative to their white counterparts, resulting from the separate development policy of apartheid in south africa. kadhila and nyambe (2022) concur when arguing that african higher education has a history of limited resources, inadequate capacity and a history of neglect which makes it struggle to effectively transform and respond to increasing social and economic demands. in addition, they suggest there is a lack of capacity for effectively advancing the project of curriculum decolonisation in african higher education; yet this capacity is necessary to prepare current and future generations to transform society and the economy (kadhila & nyambe, 2022). drawing on developments at selected historically black and historically white universities, the authors suggest that much needs to be done to deepen understanding of the epistemological importance of african identity and the decolonising of the curriculum at african universities. there is also a need to understand the social and educational imperatives driving african curriculum design and pedagogical choices. in so doing, african philosophies – and how they inform approaches to an african identity-inspired university – need phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 122 foregrounding. the dilemmas of african curriculum design and how institutions position themselves within the dilemmas beg interrogation, together with the integration of different components of the african curriculum in practice, without neglecting contextual peculiarities. as emphasised by modiba (2017, p. 6), in discussing decolonising curriculum in higher education, “successful decolonisation is context sensitive but is not context-driven”. african identity: a literature review according to kanu, “the knowledge of the identity of a thing helps you to know what the thing in question is and what may be legitimately attributed to it. the quest for an african identity in african has the same undergirding principles” (kanu, 2013, p. 34). thus, african identity highlights the distinguishing characteristics of africans and africa as a continent. kanu (2013) further argues that historically three factors gave rise to the emergence of the quest for african identity, ideological race classification, the slave trade and the dehumanisation of africa, as well as colonialism and the exploitation of africa. ndubuisi (2013, p. 222) suggests that, “the discovery of african identity is pertinent for a holistic emancipation of africa. it is for the african thinkers…to find self-knowledge from within and not outside their culture”. africans need to rediscover and situate themselves on the right track away from western-labelled identity, which regards pre-colonial africa as static or dead. it is against this background that africans need to rise above racial and colonial slavery, and situate and place themselves in their rightful world to realise meaningful developments. as ndubuisi (2013) further asserts, there is no need to create a new african, but rather to know, understand, clarify, articulate and synthesise the african experience. this vision was captured by former south african president thabo mbeki, in articulating his african renaissance vision, prompted by his shock at the ‘slave mentality’ of black south africans when he returned from exile in 1990. mbeki drew on his renaissance vision to impress upon fellow south africans to embrace both a new south african identity as well as a new african identity as elaborated in his famous 1996 ‘i am an african’ speech: i am an african. i owe my being to the hills and the valleys, the mountains and the glades, the rivers, the deserts, the trees, the flowers, the seas and the ever-changing seasons that define the face of our native land…i am formed of the migrants who left europe to find a new home in our native land. whatever their actions they remain part of me. in my veins courses the blood of the malay slaves who came from the east…i am the grandchild of the warrior men and women that hintsa and sekhukhune led, the african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 123 patriots that cetshwayo and mphephu took to battle, the soldiers moshoeshoe and ngungunyane taught never to dishonour the cause of freedom” (mbeki, 1996). as noted by adebajo (2020), beyond advancing an african identity, mbeki’s african renaissance vision also recognised the importance of reintegrating africa into the global economy. for metz, african identity means: …self-understanding on the part of those reared in sub-saharan cultures and environments…obtaining a firm grasp of one’s society, which has shaped, and will continue to shape, the individual. one must therefore become familiar with the values, norms, cultures and institutions of the community in which one lives (metz, 2017, p. 35). the original authentic african identity from the horse’s mouth (africans themselves) is encapsulated in the notion of ‘being-with’ as opposed to the western individualism, communalism as oppose[d] to collectivism. african ‘self’ is rooted in the family-hood” (ndubuisi, 2013), thus emphasising the collective ‘we’ as opposed to the individualistic ‘i’. the notion of ‘being-with’ emphasizes doing things together as a collective, increasing wellbeing by connecting and co-existing with others in a shared space. it stresses being in tune with the feelings and needs of others, being there for other people, lending a helping hand without financial expectations. as such, the notion of ‘being-with’ stands in contrast to ‘western individualism’, which privileges individual ability, ambition and competition. african identity is people-oriented, relevant to african people’s needs and aspirations, and is a function of culture, group and collective identity. according to ndubuisi (2013, p. 224), colour is another element for identification and ‘black’ is one of the fundamental elements of african identity. as further argued, “there is a particular continent where we have a large concentration of black people, and that continent is called africa. therefore, any man that has a black colour is called an african” (ibid). colour is appreciated as a positive attribute of one’s identity. of course, in today’s non-racial and integrated world, “colour” as a concept is quite fluid as many light-skinned persons are regarded as black. africans have also identified themselves as being able to welcome other people into their communities. african identity in ndubuisi’ (2013, p. 224) words, centres on african self-hood, being-with-others (weexistence), african brotherhood, african extended family system and integrated network. africans live in communalism/being-with and this is an integral part of explaining african phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 124 identity. it is defined in terms of ‘we’. this is consistent with waghid’s (2017) articulation of the african philosophy of ubuntu as a form of human engagement, drawing on both individual and collective decision-making. to find himself or herself, in the words of ndubuisi: the african now wishes to concretize his social, political, religious, economic and cultural ideas as an independent free and mature human being. he or she wishes to be the master of his/her world with its burden and joy to count and to be counted in the family of nations. africans wish to move away from dependence on the west, technological inertia and determine their destiny in the scheme of things in the comity of nations (ndubuisi, 2013, p. 225). africans want to reclaim their original value systems and worldviews which were distorted and destroyed by the assimilated western civilisation which impinged negatively on african society. as noted by ezeani: it is a pathological distortion of the mind: a mental state in which a person unconsciously despises what is his or hers and who he is or she is, and thus instead, an inordinate love or irrepressible desire to be the other person-the colonized (ezeani, 2005, p. 45). the search for african identity thus aims to reclaim the traditional identities disrupted and destroyed by colonialism. according to ndubuisi (2013, p. 225), colonialism distorted the psyche of the african man and deranged his mental state, ultimately impoverishing africans and worsening their conditions. it is about freedom from states of intellectual solitude, and it is also about knowing oneself, knowing the environment in which one lives, regaining existential integrity, selfactualisation, self-discovery, economic consolidation, social progress and using their culture to become conscious of oneself (ibid). ndubuisi (2013, p. 226) is further convinced that african identity is found in the african traditional worldview. to him, african identity is also about physical and african spiritual realities rooted in the family and community. an african finds meaning in the company of others, acknowledging the idea and reality of the other. ubuntu constitutes the fulcrum of interpersonal relationships, making the “i” coincide with the “we”. reference is always made to one’s family and community. an african’s good and bad things, fortunes and misfortunes are shared by and become that of the society, finally ushering in corporate responsibility, and making african reality homogeneous. african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 125 elaborating on language, coloniality and resistance abdirachid and knaus (2022) argue that to redress the systemic silencing of linguistic and ethnic identity, institutions’ visions have to be transformed, wherein the purpose centres unity across racial, ethnic, and linguistic realities through sustaining multilingual populations. african identity involves foregrounding african languages. as mazrui (1998) contends, africa’s linguistic dependence or eurocentrism excludes ordinary people from the affairs of state and public life, making the pursuit of development and democracy so much more difficult to realise. as will be discussed, the question of language is central to curriculum transformation at african universities. additionally, zeleza (2006, p. 14) argues that: “africa is as much a reality as it is a construct whose boundaries – geographical, historical, cultural, and representational – have shifted according to the prevailing conceptions and configurations of global racial identities and power”. echoing these sentiments, wright (2001, p. 1) points out that discussing african identity is both a daunting and frustrating task because “africa has long been relegated to the margins of global considerations of culture, economics and geopolitics and secondly because african identity is a category that is already over-determined and spectacularly overgeneralised and homogenized”. african identity in relation to curriculum transformation in universities according to nyoni (2019, p. 2), “african education curricula remain largely eurocentric and continue to reinforce white and western dominance and privilege and at the same time are laced with stereotypes, prejudices and patronising views about africa and its people.” similarly, citing mamdani (2016), fomunyam argues that, the modern african university as we know it was built on a european model intended to colonise the minds of students and perpetrate a eurocentric vision of society” (fomunyam, 2019, p. 1). arguing for the centring of african knowledges to decolonise higher education, gumbo, gasa and knaus (2022) assert that while the bulk of universities across the african continent enrol and teach black students, the mechanisms of teaching, research and service remain tied to western models with the scope, sequence and infrastructure of knowledge related to african universities remaining supremacist-informed, western-centric and anti-black. african identity is about restoring african values. higgs (2016) argues that the curriculum is a critical element in the transformation of higher education, and as a result, the inclusion of an african epistemic in higher education is imperative. nyoni (2019, p. 2) argues that, “university generation of postcolonial knowledge and epistemologies need to be agile and accommodate waves or demands of curriculum transformation and change to accommodate afrocentric developmental phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 126 projects.” as such, the curriculum in african universities ought to be africanised in line with african values entrenched in african culture. a foreign curriculum cannot serve african values, culture and all african embodiments well. institutional cultures and practices in african tertiary institutions need to be africanised including transforming the curriculum to pursue the agenda of african philosophy. echoing these sentiments, botha argues that: as curriculum is the vehicle that transports education, the filter through which life is strained, the lens through which adulthood is viewed and the door through which selfidentity is entered, a revised view of life, adulthood and self-identity should be accompanied by a revised, relevant curriculum (botha, 2007, p. 208). according to fomunyam: a decolonised curriculum would be predicated on the values of social justice, equality and critical pedagogy, so as to breed new agents of change in the society. decolonising the curriculum, therefore, stands to make higher education institutions the indisputable microcosm of society in which they are located (fomunyam, 2019, p. 1). the curriculum that fosters african identity in an african context should acknowledge and incorporate indigenous african knowledge, award it its rightful place, and employ it as a tool in african higher education teaching. the curriculum must communicate the african experience to show commitment to africa and african solutions. transforming the curriculum would mean changing the organisation of teaching and learning in african universities from the colonial and western ideas and injustices underpinning it. that would mean “decolonization of africa, thereby confirming the connectedness of african universities to africa and promoting a unique african philosophy and culture at these institutions” (botha, 2007, p. 207). this does not mean entirely discarding western experiences which have proved to be beneficial to african universities. instead, “decolonised” european experiences can be adopted and co-exist with african experiences, cultures and philosophy to make an african university. it is clear that the curriculum is made to match its own context, in this case, the african context as “people are not separate from the earth and other living things” (botha, 2007, p. 214). as nyoni (2019) asserts, africa must completely rethink, deconstruct, reframe, and reconstruct the eurocentric and colonial curricula as well as teaching methods at universities. the curriculum needs to be emancipatory in nature and fulfil the emancipatory mission towards africans in the new african university and incorporate self-knowledge from within their african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 127 cultures, away from the labelled identity. it has to revoke considerations of africans as inferior, backward, static and non-developmental. it is also imperative that the curriculum situate and place africans in their rightful world, clarifying, articulating and synthesising the african experience. among others, the curriculum must harbour the original, authentic african teachings and values of communalism, togetherness, family-hood, african people’s needs, unity and group consciousness. such values should be encompassed in african culture, emphasising (as multicultural) the feasibility amid the negative african labels as “not one but many peoples and races with a diversity of cultural beliefs, languages and traditions” (ndubuisi, 2013, p. 224). the curriculum should acknowledge negatives and use them positively for african holistic development, not allowing such views to derail the mission of the envisaged african university with an african curriculum. it can be argued that student learning and learning outcomes require deconstruction considering the lines of africa’s complex colonial history. the curriculum needs to cherish and appreciate africans’ black colour as the fundamental element of african identity and the qualities and traits of africans as welcoming to other races, drawing on the african communal experience. at a basic level, the colour “black” must not be taught in the eurocentric sense of representing “darkness” and “evil”, it should be taught as something “bright” and “good”, with the power to be warm and embracing. it has to embrace and move with african technological innovations dictated by the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) to avoid technological inertia, restoring africans’ original value systems and traditional identities in their plurality. emphasising the above values, the curriculum would help africans to regain existential integrity, self-actualisation, self-discovery, economic consolidation and social progress (ndubuisi, 2013, p. 225). it must harbour the aspirations of african physical and spiritual realities rooted in the family and community, emphasising ubuntu as one of the cornerstones of african life. this involves prioritising african languages, with africa’s linguistic independence promoted through an african curriculum. in south africa, the nationwide student protests of 2015 and 2016 induced more intense conversations on the decolonisation of universities, including but not limited to, curriculum transformation as one major component of redress in south african higher education. for example, malabela (2020) writing about the experiences at wits university and ndelu (2020) on those at the university of cape town, both identified students’ call for a decolonised/more afrocentric curriculum and the transformation of institutional cultures as key student demands, among others, such as free and equal education. most universities have responded differently phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 128 to the call for curriculum transformation in line with the individual contexts in which they find themselves. the institutional cases differ in form and content. the majority of institutions in south africa have since been engaging in extensive public lectures, summits, conferences, workshops and seminars to address the curriculum transformation challenge. this has seen a resurgence in research and publications, on the theme of africanising the curriculum at south african universities (tella & motala, 2020). in most cases, the grappling of the universities with the demands of curriculum transformation and its decolonisation amounts to mere rhetoric and superficial engagement, lacking clear direction. it is against this background that le grange et al. (2020) question whether the unique institutional responses to curriculum transformation are geared towards real decolonisation of the university curriculum or is it just ‘decolonial-washing’. as further argued, some institutions resort to instrumentalist and quickfix solutions to transform curricula, and that results in decolonial-washing and political symbolism rather than substantive change (le grange et al. 2020). resulting from student protests, the department of higher education and training for south african universities pronounced at a summit held on october 2015 the need to africanise and decolonise the curriculum. some universities responded by appointing committees with coordinators to lead and steer processes to explore ways in which the university curriculum could be transformed. according to nyoni (2019, p. 6–8), the decolonising of african curricula needs to decage the mind to realise a reimagined, humanised andragogy and pedagogy within the understanding of africa as well as inclusion and cultural diversity. presently, as knaus et al. (2022, p. 1) argue, institutions of higher education in many cases reflect the scope, sequence, structure and ideology of western academia at the expense of indigenous african systems. this paper focuses on how, initiated by the 2015 and 2016 student protests across the country, two predominantly white universities (historically advantaged institutions) and two predominantly black universities (historically disadvantaged institutions) with different cultures and backgrounds and located in different provinces in south africa have responded to the call to africanise and decolonise the curriculum. amidst the curriculum conversations, the question is: are universities practically transforming their curricula? or are they engaging in decolonialwashing whereby they provide false or misleading information about the environmental soundness of their curriculum transformation emanating from the instrumentalist and quick-fix process? this paper explores whether curriculum transformation at various south african universities conforms to the african identity imperatives in the context of transitioning to the new african university. as such the case studies explore curriculum transformation against african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 129 african epistemic constructions, philosophy, conditions, innovations, indigenous knowledge systems, experiences, solutions, historical developments and values entrenched in african culture. in so doing, the paper explores whether curriculum transformation in south africa is fulfilling the emancipatory mission towards authentic african teachings, values and qualities– which include communalism, togetherness, family-hood, unity, group consciousness and being welcoming. such authenticity is also founded on african cultural beliefs, languages, and traditions, as well as physical and spiritual realities. south african higher education policy context relating curriculum transformation to the decolonisation of african higher education from across the continent, including the south african higher education policy context, maluleke (2022) argues that the curriculum can be decolonised by changing policy guidelines, rewriting the curriculum, centring indigenous elders and community leaders as well as encouraging writers and scholars to produce culturally relevant literature. this concurs with the assertion of chipindi et al. (2022) that, to advance the decolonisation of higher education in the global south and north, it is important to localise knowledge systems and integrate them into the academic pursuit of faculty members, and enhance epistemological plurality within the academy at the researcher, institutional and community level. the policy imperative for the transformation of south african universities may be traced to the mid-1990s. “the higher education system must be transformed to redress past inequities, to serve the new order, to meet pressing national needs and respond to new realities and opportunities” (government gazette, 1997). post-2000, the transformation of universities has been premised on the above obligation with policymakers reiterating calls for the transformation of universities in the context of postapartheid south africa, its location in africa and in the world at large (department of education, 2008). more specifically, south african universities were seen to have a duty to africanise the curriculum to suit african identity imperatives as per the higher education summit of october 2015. as such, it has become imperative from an official government level for the universities to redress past inequities and adopt transformation plans in line with african identity and decolonial imperatives. methodology according to mohajan (2018), a qualitative research approach can be used to explore several areas of human behaviour for the development of organisations. the approach enables a deeper understanding of experiences, phenomena and context (bryman, et al. 1996). in this study, a phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 130 qualitative research approach was used in the gathering of data, which included a literature review and documentary analysis. the review of the literature constituted an important part of the methodology to explore and understand african identity and curriculum transformation in the four sampled south african universities. document analysis as a qualitative research method was used, involving the analysis of content from written documents to identify key themes. according to bowen (2009, p. 31), document analysis as part of qualitative research methods has advantages in terms of efficiency, availability, cost-effectiveness, lack of obtrusiveness and reactivity, stability, exactness and coverage. the approach is less timeconsuming as it requires data selection (rather than data collection); meanwhile, many documents are already in the public domain, gathered and available because of internet connectivity (bowen, 2009, p. 31). the approach makes documentary analysis cost-effective, stable, non-reactive and suitable for repeated reviews providing broad coverage of many events over a long time as bowen (2009, p. 31) further argues. data were examined and interpreted to elicit meaning and gain an understanding of african identity and curriculum transformation in south african universities. those such as the university of johannesburg (uj) and university of limpopo (ul) gave a rich experience. two universities falling under the historically and predominantly white universities, uj and nelson mandela university (nmu) and two from the category of the historically black universities, university of fort hare (ufh) and ul, were sampled. selection of uj was on the basis that it is a comprehensive university offering a combination of programmes after the merger process whereby the rand afrikaanse universiteit (previously a predominantly white afrikaner university) merged with technikon witwatersrand (a former white technikon), and the soweto and doornfontein campuses of vista university (a relatively small former black institution). nmu, previously known as the university of port elizabeth, was also a white university. fort hare university is an old university in the transkei, catering predominantly for the black xhosa ethnic group of the ciskei and transkei, both former rural homelands under apartheid and where many political leaders studied. these include statesmen in south africa (e.g., nelson mandela and mangosuthu buthelezi) and the rest of africa (e.g., former president robert mugabe of zimbabwe). the university has a history of struggle and student revolts against white minority rule. ulis a predominantly black university where almost all students are black and dominated by black staff members. known as the university of the north under apartheid, african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 131 it has a history of student protests dating back to apartheid years. many struggle heroes studied at ul (e.g., the current president of south africa, cyril ramaphosa). the selection of two historically privileged white urban-based institutions, with strong financial resource bases and two historically under-resourced black institutions in rural south africa, will yield a rich, fertile ground for comparing and understanding african identity and curriculum transformation in different contexts. data were analysed using a comparative approach over the period from 1994 (at the dawn of the democratic dispensation) to the national student revolts of 2015 and 2016 to date. the availability of institutional policies driving curriculum transformation was sought. the following case studies offer a descriptive analysis of initiatives towards african identity-inspired curriculum transformation. data were obtained from various sources including the department of higher education websites regarding higher education agenda, policies and legislative frameworks, university websites, media and academic articles. data were analysed to understand the contextual situation of the curriculum transformation initiatives and historical roots of the institutions. african identity in relation to curriculum transformation in the historically advantaged universities nelson mandela university despite student protests (ongoing since 2015 and 2016) at nmu, no clear guiding document has yet been adopted for the curriculum transformation of the institution (le grange et al. 2020). only limited progress on the transformation itself post-1994 has been made. but as le grange et al. (2020) argue, this could be regarded simultaneously as a major weakness or an opportunity since it gives different stakeholders lower down at faculty level the leeway to be creative and innovative without having to follow a specific script. the university’s vision and mission statements do not directly address the transformation and decolonisation of the university and curriculum. the other major challenge is that most staff members at the university do not support the call for decolonisation (le grange et al. 2020). as such, university transformation is slow as only a few staff members in the faculties support changes. despite such challenges, teaching and learning at the university focus on interdisciplinary conversations about curriculum decolonisation and africanisation – though not in a coordinated way (le grange et al. 2020). nevertheless, amid the challenges, the university faculties are making efforts to decolonise the curriculum. this could be regarded as a first step in the university curriculum transformation. decolonisation and africanisation processes are phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 132 addressed on the institution’s website with specific reference to teaching and learning. emphasis is placed on the importance of curriculum conversations to guide the africanisation and decolonisation of the curriculum. the centre for critical studies in higher education at nmu is where conversations around curriculum transformation are held in the form of public lectures and seminars. another endeavour is that the university, in consultation with the community, names its student residences and university buildings after individuals who became heroes and heroines in the liberation struggle. although only symbolic, it is a movement signifying recognition of the importance of decolonisation and university transformation. individual faculties are making strides to transform and renew the curriculum, e.g., the faculty of education. terminology such as “transformation” and “curriculum renewal” is prominent on the university website. efforts have been made to include african writers in the reading lists of the university's language department (such as chinua achebe, sol plaatjie and athol fugard). however, as argued by le grange et al. (2020), this has not decentred western knowledge. although these are important small steps, curriculum practices at nmu reflect a largely eurocentric view of the world. as garuba (2015, p. 8) argues, the practice amounts to “decorating the master’s living room by adding raffia chairs” and argues instead for a rethinking of the theories that frame the curriculum. students display dissatisfaction regarding curriculum transformation and decolonisation by engaging in protests. this tends to make the relationship between the university management and students tense. the university management is very often accused of being reluctant to transform and of not negotiating in good faith on internal issues of decolonising the curriculum. there is always an element of mistrust between students and the university management. students usually accuse the university management of hijacking the university decolonisation process and see nothing transformational and decolonising to the curriculum (le grange et al. 2020). what is apparent is that transformation and decolonisation of universities and the curriculum cannot be accomplished in days, months or a year. common ground should be forged by all university stakeholders to provide a shared understanding of what constitutes curriculum transformation and decolonisation in line with african identity imperatives. however, although the curriculum is largely eurocentric, strides have been made by both students and some academics in certain faculties (e.g., in the humanities and social sciences where discussions in seminars, workshops and conferences regarding curriculum change have african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 133 started). overall, the university has just started its efforts at placing african identity at the centre of its curriculum transformation project. university of johannesburg similar to nmu, uj had its own way of approaching university curriculum transformation and decolonisation. according to the 2016 guidelines for curriculum transformation, in line with uj’s strategic plan 2025, the university has adopted global excellence with a pan-african focus in teaching and learning as its strategic objective (uj, 2016). the university has aimed to have “intellectually rigorous curricula which respond innovatively to the challenges of the 21st century” grounded in the wider positioning of the university as “the pan-african centre for critical intellectual inquiry, with the primary goal of achieving global excellence and stature” (uj, 2016). uj has also complied with the resolutions of the higher education summit of 2015, which stated that universities have a responsibility to review university curricula and forms of knowledge production that are not sufficiently situated within african and the global south contexts, and are dominated by western worldviews (higher education summit, 2015). the above led to the uj senate agreeing in 2016 that “decolonization should be conceptualised in terms of teaching and learning and research” and that while there is much contestation around the term decolonisation, discussions and engagements must be held within the broader academic community of the university (uj, 2016). as argued by the senate (uj, 2016, p. 2), the purpose of the guidelines was “to provide academics with an initial set of ‘tools’ required to review curricular as well as teaching and learning practices, in line with the call to decolonize our curriculum”. the further realisation was made and acknowledged that “decolonization demands interrogation of the underlying assumptions, values, principles, absolute truths, epistemologies and pedagogies across the disciplines” (uj, 2016, p. 2). the following standards to guide the review of the curriculum were established (uj, 2016, p. 2): • academic leadership: faculties and academics must own the project of decolonizing the curriculum. • transparency: being open to interrogation of the curriculum and how it is constructed. • access: recognizing the need for epistemological access for students. • context: movement away from monolithic perspectives and locating curriculum, teaching and learning in the context of africa. phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 134 • critical review: using peer and other forms of review and student inputs to facilitate curriculum changes. • curriculum reform: initiate and reflect on the existing curricula with a view to locating and acknowledging knowledge from marginalized knowledge systems. • process: recognizing that decolonizing the curriculum is not a destination but an ongoing process. the above guidelines, as put forward by the university (uj, 2016, p. 3), would serve as possible transformative triggers for academics who are reviewing modules, courses and qualifications. the university has recognised the importance of reviewing the curriculum by questioning the assumptions underpinning the eurocentric knowledge systems. the academics were given an option of either adopting a content-driven approach in their specific disciplines, expanding on the curriculum already in place or adopting a different approach interrogating the assumptions, values, principles, absolute truths, epistemologies and pedagogies of all disciplines (uj, 2016, p. 3). emphasis is put on questioning as a central issue in curriculum decolonisation and transformation. the university made strides by initiating decolonisation and transformation of the curriculum whereby the disciplines are reviewed to “examine the extent to which the traditional boundaries of the discipline can be expanded beyond the existing parameters to incorporate the context and knowledge of africa and more broadly, the south” (uj, 2016, p. 3). the university further took it upon itself to review textbooks, reading resources and other learning materials for a greater diversity of content, also reviewing pedagogical approaches in the teaching and learning environment (uj, 2016, p. 3). additionally, the university undertook to review assessment criteria, tasks, knowledge production, research agenda, assumptions of knowledge, and the theoretical content of the courses offered, further interrogating whether the content of the courses speaks to a diverse student population in a developing democracy in africa (uj, 2016, p. 3–4). however, the progress of the above initiatives has been slow, with some faculties being slower than others (uj, 2016). questions have abounded as to whether the curriculum offered at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels is fit for purpose and the context in which we live (uj, 2016, p. 3). is the curriculum equipping students with relevant, real-world problem-solving skills, considering the diversified nature of the university’s student population, their experiences, teaching and learning, and assessment criteria? critical questions have also been african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 135 asked concerning how disciplines are conceptualised and taught. the university has also taken it upon itself to consider key discipline-specific debates on post-colonial theory, engage with alumni and current students, and seek their views on specific courses and content. the university further fosters actions to be taken within faculties where discussions have to be held on the broader issues emerging from the curriculum decolonisation and transformation debates. the deans of faculties are entrusted with the task of providing the academic deputy vicechancellor with progress reports on initiatives undertaken within their faculties. they also have to provide a plan of action that includes milestones and timeframes for implementation and provide feedback on the reports, to the established curriculum task team (uj, 2016, p. 4). emanating from the above broad guidelines for curriculum transformation, uj has established research bodies in different faculties entrusted with multidisciplinary research related to decolonisation and transformation of the curricula. pan-african studies take the lead in various faculties with peer-reviewed articles and books published on decolonisation and transformation of the curricula. the ali mazrui centre for higher education studies (amches) in the faculty of education is one such body, where decolonisation and social justice debates, public lectures, seminars, conferences, summits and webinars are held. a vast body of literature has thus been produced with several papers and books published in amches to that effect. similar to other universities, uj has named university buildings, student residences and research bodies (e.g., amches) and sections after the renowned african writers or africans who took leading roles in the african search for identity. collectively, these initiatives display commitment and dedication to an african university with an african identity, thereby countering accusations of narrow political symbolism (jansen, 2002; le grange et al. 2020). appointment of black personnel in strategic positions of management, research and lecturing positions is a further step towards the realisation of the curriculum intentions of the university. to show further commitment to the curriculum africanisation course, the university introduced the “african insights” module at the undergraduate level of study. the university is making progress to include african epistemic, values, philosophy, conditions, innovations, indigenous african knowledge, experiences, solutions, teachings, beliefs, languages and traditions as african identity imperatives. but much still needs to be done to be representative of the african university in africa, through curriculum transformation. well-acknowledged in its guidelines is the fact that curriculum transformation is a process, it cannot be implemented overnight. phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 136 african identity in relation to curriculum transformation in the historically disadvantaged universities university of fort hare as argued by the south african human rights commission report (2010, p. 2), “issues of transformation are not only the concern of previously white universities but equally concern previously black universities...though on a different scale depending on historical backgrounds and context”. ufh is not immune to transformation challenges. the report stresses (2020, p. 86) that “universities must relook and reinvent their transformation programmes to ones that are goal-driven and that mobilizes active participation by staff and students”. significantly, there is no curriculum transformation plan at ufh. as one of the historically disadvantaged institutions, the university is still pre-occupied with quality imperatives, as set out in the institutional improvement plan recommendations by the higher education quality committee (heqc) to ensure that the overall quality of the educational experience offered to students and staff in the alice campus is not compromised by plans for the growth of the east london campus (heqc, 2009, p. 1). in terms of transformation and institutional culture, the university is urged to develop a comprehensive human resources strategy which takes into account equity targets and issues of xenophobia amongst staff and students (heqc, 2009, p. 5–6). the policies that affect the quality of teaching and learning have to be finalized, consolidated, implemented and monitored. to improve the quality of student experience at the university, the university has to create mechanisms to give effect to the goals of teaching and learning in the development of the curriculum. to succeed in that, the university has to undertake a review of its committees dealing with curriculum transformation. vice-chancellor dr mvuyo tom asserts that, as recommended in the soudien report (doe, 2008 p. 13), the university needs to “revisit transformation issues...and to move from its cruder and simplistic manifestations to a far deeper understanding which straddle[s] pedagogy and curriculum, institutional cultures, democratization of higher education and its role in development”. as acknowledged, the university still has a long way to go. makura et al. (2020, p. 3) argue that, “research on best practices in higher education aimed at empowering the disadvantaged learner is scanty”. emphasis is put on student access to education by the previously disadvantaged groups and the academic development programmes to bridge the gap between secondary and higher education. overwhelmed by a deluge of under-prepared african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 137 students, little regarding curriculum transformation to suit african identity imperatives is talked about. academic interventions focus on coping mechanisms aimed at increasing student throughput and retention rates as part of transformation. the university mostly nurtures what is already available with limited transformation to the new reality of changing to an african university with african identity features. as a rural university catering mainly to black students, the historically disadvantaged institutions have a feeling that they are already africanised. they forget that a huge task of africanising, decolonising and transforming the curriculum awaits them besides being historically black universities. the naming of university buildings after political heroes and heroines is construed to mean a decolonised university, though eurocentric curricula and other practices still prevail. most of the historically disadvantaged south african universities, ufh included, are characterised by educational under-preparedness. the key issue is to continually review the curriculum and interrogate its relevance in an african context. this needs a common understanding of what it means to transform the curriculum to portray african identity aspirations. transforming the curriculum asks every university stakeholder to take a critical stance to interweave multiple perspectives and interrogate every voice and knowledge that comes into the transformation process. that should be incorporated into the vision and mission statements of the university as well. robert sobukwe, the former president of the fort hare student representative council and who is regarded as a doyen of pan-africanism (1949), called for ufh to be “the barometer of african thought” (mbabela, 2018, p. 1). the call was given renewed energy by the 2015 and 2016 #feesmustfall demonstrations. changing all the management personnel, lecturing staff and research personnel to black without changing curriculum content, the curriculum will remain colonial and eurocentric. fort hare as an african university should not produce students who are culturally alienated (mbabela, 2018). it should be truly afrocentric in every approach, though not entirely discarding important, helpful and necessary european developments. as sobukwe asserts, “institutions of higher learning in south africa and in africa should be an embodiment of african thought and aspirations of the people and contribute to a new order” (cited in mbabela, 2018, p. 3). university of limpopo at ul, strides have been made in diversifying the academy by empowering black and female academics, upgrading employee qualifications, institutional naming of buildings and promoting a diverse student life in student residences with almost 99% of student occupants in the residences being black (south african association of political sciences [saaps], 2017). phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 138 there are also extensive ongoing discussions and critical reflections on curriculum decolonisation taking place, with most of them looking at, amongst others, radical economic transformation at the university, theorising transformation and the journey from decolonisation to the africanisation of the university (saaps, 2017). diversifying institutional culture to satisfy the majority, forces the university to remain a divided community because the minority feels side-lined and silenced. this results in diversity not being fully appreciated, by the minority staff members in particular (saaps, 2017). as one of the historically disadvantaged universities, evaluation of the impact of transformation at ul rests on various issues, such as whether the university's vision and mission statements are aligned with its african academic obligations as an african university. is the university well-resourced to deal with transformation issues? is the university culture and management well-placed to effect transformation as per the required legislation? analysing the situation regarding the above, during its official inauguration, ul transitional student representative council (src) which was enacted in 2020/2021 painted a bleak picture when asserting that: “ga gona transformation mo moes” (a pedi sentence meaning that, there is no transformation taking place here at the university) (mobile.twitter.com>ulvarsity>status, 2020). this is several years post-1994 democratic dispensation and after the 2015 and 2016 student protests. other restructuring and previous merger processes with the medical university of south africa, including cash-flow challenges as well as enrolment plans, constituted the university’s major focus at the expense of curriculum decolonisation to display african identity. the university leadership has to take the lead and be prepared to positively influence the university community in complying with the legislation enacted and promote transformation with clear terms of reference. change should go with accountability and responsibility. curriculum transformation should be governed by a set of rules and activities which should be coordinated professionally by the university leadership in line with its values of accountability, transparency, integrity, academic freedom, excellence and professionalism. but above all, it should be governed by african identity imperatives inclusive of western good practices. the university’s motto is, ‘finding solutions for africa’. it is a good motto in terms of the university's transformation intentions. yet, it needs to be accordingly implemented to reach the goals intended. to be a truly leading african university embodying african values and aspirations, the university therefore should live up to its motto, ‘finding solutions for africa’. african identity and curriculum transformation at universities in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 139 though catering for a majority of african students, with almost all university student residences, university halls and other university buildings named after previous student leaders of influence, influential politicians and african heroes and heroines, the university lags behind in terms of decolonising and transforming the curricula to be representative of an african university and its embedded values as entrenched in african identity. the faculty reports do not indicate a clear action plan and time frames to practically effect curriculum decolonisation and transformation. as such, ul has a long road to travel in curriculum decolonisation and transformation efforts, drawing on the experiences of institutions that have made greater progress, such as uj. in reflecting on the trajectories of the fours institutions, emerging from a privileged white background, nmu has only just started its efforts at placing african identity at the centre of its curriculum transformation project. uj is making progress to include african epistemic, values, philosophy, conditions, innovations, indigenous african knowledge, experiences, solutions, teachings, beliefs, languages and traditions as african identity imperatives. nevertheless, much still needs to be done in terms of curriculum transformation to achieve the african university in africa. well-acknowledged in its guidelines is the fact that curriculum transformation is a process, it cannot be implemented overnight. the black universities, ul and ufh, mostly nurture what is already available with limited transformation towards a new african university reality and identity. as rural poverty-stricken universities with limited resources catering mainly for black students, historically black institutions tend to have a feeling that they are inherently africanised. conclusion understanding of curriculum decolonisation and transformation differs across the four institutions, with more progress being made at historically white institutions than at black institutions. there is uneven transformation depending on institutional context, institutional will, exposure and historical background. curriculum transformation gradually loses its vigour and revolutionary impulse because of the higher education landscape that continues to reflect the legacies of segregated development. in all the universities, curriculum planning needs to change to curriculum implementation, with careful monitoring and evaluation of progress. for example, the much-needed grassroots curriculum conversations could take place under the auspices of faculty coordinators reporting to well-constituted and representative university task teams. there must be a strong moral imperative to foreground african identity as the driving force in the transition to the new african university. overall, an unambiguous, detailed phafane peter mashilo, logan govender ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 119-143 140 programme of curriculum transformation is needed. moreover, besides university leaders and managers playing their part, government and policymakers need to play a more supportive role in addressing sectoral resistance and in responding to student realities and demands. these steps can also help to confront the decolonisation of the mind challenge posed by steve biko, thabo mbeki and others as part of the broader education decolonisation project. it is recommended that more studies be done to critically examine the changing concepts of african identity and curriculum transformation, 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(2006). the inventions of african identities and languages: the discursive and developmental implications. 36th annual conference on african linguistics, pennsylvania state university, somerville. symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie university of johannesburg faculty of education south africa abstract the inclusive education movement generated many changes in the education system worldwide, resulting in teachers needing to change their practice and beliefs and implement inclusive teaching strategies to accommodate a more diverse learner population. numerous professional development courses were conducted in south africa, however the expected change in attitude and practice proved difficult to achieve for many. even after attending such courses, teachers found it challenging to establish inclusive learning environments, believing they did not have the necessary skills and resources to teach learners with divergent learning needs. this study explored the pivotal role of teachers and their personal perspectives of themselves as inclusive practitioners in south africa after attending a professional development course on inclusive education strategies. a qualitative, interpretative research design was utilised whereby visual symbols alongside written reflections were analysed to identify changes in teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and practice. findings revealed that teachers’ knowledge had increased, their attitudes towards learners with diverse needs was more positive, they felt more confident in their own abilities and more equipped for the task. critical reflection emerged as an essential skill for teachers to be able to question their beliefs and rethink their practice but that this skill needed to be actively taught and encouraged in order to change prevailing perceptions of diversity and improve teaching practice. keywords: attitudes, critical reflection, inclusive teaching strategies, knowledge, practice, visual symbols african journal of teacher education issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 1 2021 pages 127-152 elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 128 introduction whenever there are changes made to current education policy in any education system, these changes need to be communicated to all relevant role players. this is usually done through the conducting of continuing professional development courses (cpd) especially for in-service teachers to inform them of the new policy expectations (darling-hammond et al., 2017) cpd courses usually have two broad objectives; firstly, to impart changes in policy to practising teachers and secondly to initiate change in teachers’ knowledge and skills as well as their attitudes, beliefs and values regarding the envisaged educational reforms (guskey, 2002).the inclusive education movement, inspired by the resolutions taken in salamanca, changed the education environment significantly in many countries (braunsteiner, 2016). as classrooms became increasingly diverse and learners with different cultural, ethnic, economic and learning abilities were included in mainstream schools, many cpd programmes relating to inclusive education were conducted. the assumption being that after attendance at a cpd training course on inclusion, teachers would be able to change their initial perceptions and beliefs concerning diversity in the classroom and become more inclusive in their teaching practice (engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015; guskey, 2002). numerous research studies attest to the fact that while most in-service teachers were accepting of the premise of inclusive education, they still lacked knowledge and skills and self-efficacy in their ability to work confidently with diverse learners (donahue & borman, 2014; engelbrecht, nel, smit, & van deventer, 2015; forlin & sin, 2017; rouse, 2008; swart, et al., 2002). pantic and florian (2015) have argued that the manner in which teachers address learner diversity in inclusive classrooms appears to be dependent on their knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, their school context and resources as well as the practical strategies they employ and that these are the determining factors in becoming inclusive practitioners. since schools have been touted as being the best vehicle to change attitudes towards people living with disability, it follows that teachers’ attitudes are important as teacher attitudes directly influence and impact the attitudes of the learners they teach (dreyer, 2017). in south africa, the promulgation of the new constitution in 1996 set the stage for the transformation of the education system. the aim was to encourage social justice and promote diversity to redress the inequity of the previous regime, hence various legislation was introduced to change the existing system into one based on the philosophy of inclusion. the real journey into inclusive education began with the introduction of education white paper 6 (ewp 6) in 2001 symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 129 (doe, 2001), which sought to address a wide range of learning needs within regular classrooms, promote diversity and create a safe learning environment for all learners. strategic objectives were identified in all areas to move towards a more inclusive education system that would provide quality education to all learners, especially for those learners who had previously been excluded from the system. however, the years since the promulgation of ewp 6 have placed significant demands on teachers. not only have teachers needed to change in order to fit in with the transformation of the education system into a more just and equitable system in response to previous injustice, they have also had to adjust to new policies, curricula and diverse classrooms with learners with different disabilities needing to be accommodated. one of the defining features of an inclusive education and training system according to ewp 6 is the “changing of attitudes, behaviour, teaching methodologies, curricula and the environment to meet the needs of all learners” (doe, 2001 p. 16). a number of research studies have likewise reported that teachers in south africa agree that all learners have the right to access quality education and that the philosophy of inclusive education promotes the principles of social justice and human rights. nevertheless, this acceptance of the ideals and values of inclusion has not always translated into practice. the prevailing attitudes in many schools has remained less positive towards learners with disabilities and diverse learning needs. negative perceptions and prejudice persist in many communities due to lack of knowledge, discriminatory attitudes and even superstition around disability (rieser, 2013). deficit thinking appears to be still deeply ingrained in some teachers contributing to their beliefs that they are not able to teach learners with disabilities (dbe, 2016). this has unfortunately led in some cases to an attitude of hopelessness and even to a rejection of inclusive teaching practices by some teachers (oswald & swart, 2011). for the vision of an inclusive education system to become a reality, education departments around the world realised they would have to develop a multifaceted approach which would enable all schools to recognise the learning potential of every child as well as accommodate a wide range of learning needs. in particular, in-service teachers would need to be convinced to become more inclusive in their attitudes and teaching practice (pantic & florian, 2015). elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 130 the important role of teachers different research studies have acknowledged the role of teachers worldwide as being paramount to the success of the implementation of inclusive education and the transformation of the education system (donohue & bornman, 2014; engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015; pantic & florian, 2015). therefore, in order to realise transformation, the pivotal role of teachers was recognised and numerous training courses have been conducted to inform and support teachers in their understanding of inclusive education and the sharing of best practice to accomplish a more inclusive education system (walton, 2010). different research studies have acknowledged the role of teachers worldwide as being paramount to the success of the implementation of inclusive education and the transformation of the education system (donohue & bornman, 2014; engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015; pantic & florian, 2015). therefore, in order to realise transformation, the pivotal role of teachers was recognised and numerous training courses have been conducted to inform and support teachers in their understanding of inclusive education and the sharing of best practice to accomplish a more inclusive education system (walton, 2010). the role of inclusive teachers encompasses being able to effectively support learners with diverse learning needs through the development of inclusive teaching practice and strategies thus, improving overall achievement. moreover, this role also comprises the development of social justice, the creation of an inclusive environment, collaboration with all stakeholders and the development of their capacity to reflect on their own inclusive practice (engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015; guskey, 2002; pantic & florian, 2015). without the ‘buy in’ of teachers, the creation of a more inclusive and equitable education system that could reasonably accommodate all learners would not be possible. it has been asserted that in combination with providing teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to become more inclusive in their practice, it is just as important to instil the appropriate beliefs and attitudes to realise a commitment to teaching inclusively (forlin & sin, 2017; nel et al., 2016). education authorities can develop and legislate changes in policy but it is far more difficult to change the existing attitudes of in-service teachers (madikana et al., 2007). the attitudes of in-service teachers and their beliefs around inclusive practices within their own schools and classrooms is one of the most important factors to consider when planning cpd training courses in inclusive education. moreover, the attitude of teachers’ towards implementing symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 131 inclusive practices in their classrooms is also influenced by their peculiar systemic contextual factors (engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015). high quality cpd courses should consider the context of the cohort of teachers attending a specific cpd course and ensure that the content being presented is pertinent to that context if the training is to be successful in changing the attitudes of in-service teachers (darling-hammond et al., 2017). developing an inclusive culture within schools whereby diversity is valued and all teachers and learners are supported, is frequently influenced by the existing attitude at any school (donohue & bornman, 2014). however, at the time inclusive education was implemented, most practising in-service teachers had been trained with a view to teaching in a general education classroom from which children with any type of disability were usually excluded. teachers were predisposed to medical-model thinking in that learners with any special educational needs or learning barriers were to be placed in specialised schooling environments and taught by teachers specially trained to manage such learning needs. these long-standing misconceptions about disability and the achievement potential of learners with disabilities needed to be confronted. therefore, the essence of many publications and cpd training courses on inclusion, was to initiate change in teacher’s attitudes and beliefs from the medical model of thinking about learners with learning barriers to a more social rights or inclusive model of supporting all learners under the principle of normalisation (hehir et al., 2016). central to such training courses was an underlying assumption that expounding an inclusive philosophy and good teaching practice would be accompanied by a change in thinking about disability leading to acceptance of diversity and positive outcomes for all learners as teachers became more inclusive and reflective practitioners (forlin & sin, 2017). however, this has proved to be a daunting task as although many teachers have been exposed to cpd courses on inclusion, mere exposure to new knowledge has proved insufficient in transforming attitudes and teaching practice. in part this has been attributed to the initial teacher training which tended to promote deficit model thinking particularly in south africa (engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015). other research studies report that the response from teachers has largely been one of feeling unprepared and unqualified to teach learners with disabilities, resulting in poor implementation of inclusive teaching practices and little change in their beliefs and thinking about disability (hehir et al., 2016). the implementation of inclusive education practices in south african schools has been hampered by a lack of teacher skills and adequate training (dalton et al., elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 132 2012), a lack of clarity in educational policies, negative attitudes and inadequate resources (donohue & bornman, 2014). some studies have reported that while teachers have indicated an improved understanding of the precepts of inclusive education this has not necessarily translated into a more empathetic understanding of disability or the accommodation of learners with different learning needs in general education classrooms (madikana et al., 2007; rouse, 2008; muzata, 2021). however, if in-service teachers receive good, practical training in inclusion and inclusive teaching practices, this can have a positive effect on their attitudes towards including learners with different education needs successfully in their classrooms. with appropriate training, teachers can develop positive attitudes toward learners with diverse abilities, realise they have agency in being able to use the skills they already possess and improve their teaching practice ensuring constructive learning outcomes for all learners (forlin & sin, 2017, muzata & ndonyo, 2019). to this end many research studies on inclusive education and practice found that shortterm further training for in-service teachers is largely ineffective as change in attitude is difficult to accomplish and is often a long-term process (darling-hammond et al., 2017). liu (2013) proposes that transformative learning resulting in a change of teacher’s attitude and behaviour can be developed through cultivating the habit of critical reflection. while there is much debate on what critical reflection means, the construct is usually associated with thinking about the assumptions that teachers make about teaching, their beliefs about those assumptions and being able to question how they act on those assumptions in the classrooms (mezirow, 1997). critical reflection skills for teachers to enable teachers to work effectively in diverse classrooms, a number of aspects are involved. these include imparting theoretical knowledge about inclusive teaching methodologies, encouraging and developing a new way of thinking about disability; thus, changing commonly held beliefs and values and the practice of becoming reflective about their own actions and beliefs in the classroom (forlin & sin, 2017). the skill of being able to critically reflect on one’s practice has been touted as an important characteristic of an inclusive teacher (darling-hammond et al., 2017; lui, 2013). addressing prevailing attitudes to make teaching practice more inclusive is difficult to teach, however, challenging teachers to think reflectively about what they are doing and what the effect of their actions are, can help them gain insight into their own teaching practice. enabling teachers to develop self-reflection skills is one method that can be taught as a purposeful symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 133 exercise in changing attitudes. teachers most often view critical reflection as taking a punitive look at their practice and then not knowing what to do with the result, while teacher educators tend to view critical reflection as a practice that challenges assumptions and beliefs and seeks to improve teaching practice and promote effective learning in the classroom (liu, 2013). this process involves the teacher examining their current teaching practice, questioning their actions and the effect of those actions and then rethinking their actions in the light of having been exposed to new knowledge about teaching practice. other researchers have also recommended that cpd courses on inclusive teaching practice should include training in critical reflection skills. mezirow (1997) for instance, contends that the capacity to reflect deeply on one’s own assumptions, values and beliefs can result in a fundamental change in practice. critical reflection and the examining of the values and beliefs teachers hold about inclusion, disability and their own view of being an inclusive practitioner can be a valuable exercise leading to the improvement of their professional practice (shandomo, n.d.; smith, 2011). however, teachers find the concept of critical reflection difficult as it is easier to reflect on what others are doing than to reflect personally on their own motivation, assumptions and actions. being a reflective teacher requires being able to be introspective but open-minded towards changing personal education practices and attitudes. liu (2013) asserts that critical reflection is a complicated cognitive process and that teachers need support to able to develop this skill. critical reflective feedback from in-service teachers can provide valuable insight into the experience and needs of teachers and can be an additional method of assessing the effectiveness of their learning after attending a cpd training course. teachers who are able to reflect critically on their own sense of purpose in relation to their understanding of social justice, beliefs and attitudes towards diversity and their competency in inclusive teaching practices are better positioned to transform institutional structures and cultures (pantic & florian, 2015). developing this capacity is of particular interest in the south african context. an approach described by rouse (2008) and adapted by florian (2012) in the inclusive practice project at the university of aberdeen may be considered useful in the training of inservice teachers to reflect critically on their inclusive pedagogy in south africa. the premise being that for cpd courses to be successful in the changing of teachers’ attitudes, it is important to consider the theory teachers need to know, what they are expected to do with this knowledge and what they believe about being inclusive practitioners. this approach sets out three aspects; that of elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 134 knowing, doing and believing. for the purpose of this study, these aspects have been interpreted as in the discussion below. florian (2012) asserts that knowing, or head knowledge, refers to the teachers’ understanding of the philosophy of inclusion, the appropriate legislation, and policies, what the different learning disabilities are and how to identify, assess and support learners who learn differently. this would constitute the theoretical component of a cpd training course. doing, or hand knowledge, refers to teachers being able to implement the knowledge they have gained in practical ways to develop inclusive teaching strategies and enhance their practice. this component would consist of practical activities and demonstrations on how to become a more inclusive practitioner in the classroom. this would create a balance between theory and practice resulting in believing or heart knowledge. this in turn refers to a change in beliefs and attitudes whereby teachers realise that all learners can learn and need support and that they are capable of teaching learners with disabilities as they do possess the necessary skills and agency to respond to diversity in their classrooms (rouse, 2008; florian, 2012; pantic & florian, 2015). this research study formed part of a larger study which is aimed at proposing design principles for cpd training courses in inclusive teaching strategies. the focus of this study was on how a group of south african teachers perceived themselves as being inclusive practitioners after attending a cpd course in the form of a short learning programme on inclusive teaching. the study sought to ascertain the teachers’ perspectives of themselves as competent inclusive practitioners in respect of possible changes in their attitudes towards learners with a wide range of learning needs and in feeling more equipped to teach and support all learners in a diverse classroom through a process of reflection. to this end, time was intentionally ‘built in’ to the programme and participants were encouraged to think about and reflect on what they had learnt and how it might impact on their classroom practice. short learning programmes in inclusive classroom practice as learning-teaching techniques that work for inclusive practice is an important factor in the changing of attitudes of teachers, the university of johannesburg (uj) conducted short learning programmes (slps) in four south african provinces over a period of five years. the slps consisted of screening and identifying learners with barriers to learning, diagnostically assessing those learners and designing inclusive strategies to support them in the classroom as well as symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 135 developing individualised educational support plans to target specific needs. the courses were designed around two, one-week sessions with the aim of balancing vigorous academic theory with practical usefulness. universal design for learning (udl) (cast, 2018) principles were utilised as a foundation to present the slps which included content such as inclusive education, learning support, curriculum differentiation, collaborative teamwork, creating of resources and online learning. participants were encouraged to reflect individually on their learning and the impact of that learning on their beliefs regarding learners with disabilities after completion of the course. participation in the programmes was voluntary, although due to budget constraints, only one participant per school was chosen by the education department officials in each province, with the stipulation that the chosen participants would cascade their learning to colleagues at their respective schools. the participants were all qualified teachers, largely female, accurately reflecting the gender composition of primary school teachers in south africa, with the average age being between 41 and 50 years. many of the participants chosen were from rural schools with few resources. the cpd courses were conducted in english, however the cultural background and the languages spoken differed in each province, with some provinces showing more diversity in this regard than others. code switching was permitted for clarity and understanding of the concepts being discussed, but for many of the participants english was their second or third language. hence the verbatim quotes reflect the authentic responses of the participants even though the english grammar may not always be correct. ethical clearance (sem 1 2019-014) was obtained from the ethics committee of the faculty of education at the university of johannesburg. informed written consent for the taking of photographs and the use of personal reflections was obtained from each person who participated in this study. participants were also free to choose whether to participate in the research activity or not (ramrathan et al., 2017). research design and method this was a qualitative interpretive research design rooted in phenomenology as this approach attempts to explore and understand people’s behaviour, attitudes and beliefs in regard to a particular phenomenon and their own specific social reality (cresswell, 2014, haradhan, 2018, nieuwenhuis 2020). phenomenology is concerned with the investigating of the lived experiences of individuals of a particular phenomenon from their personal perspective. moreover, it is an elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 136 attempt to determine the meaning the individual ascribes to their experience. this approach was chosen as it seeks to gain insight into the participants’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions of themselves as inclusive teachers. as qualitative research is usually inductive in nature; the purpose of this study was to describe the meaning the teachers attending the cpd course attributed to themselves as inclusive teachers. the data collected was analysed manually with codes being assigned to data segments. these codes were then used to identify common essential themes to develop a composite description of the essence of the meanings of the teachers’ perceptions of themselves as inclusive teachers (cresswell, 2014, nieuwenhuis, 2020). in this study the thematic findings from the data analysis were contrasted and compared to the ‘head, hand and heart’ approach described by rouse (2008) and florian (2012) to confirm the effectiveness of the learning achieved during the cpd courses in changing the beliefs and attitudes of teachers in implementing their theoretical knowledge. in qualitative research, data collection can take many forms including group or individual interviews, analysis of photographs, videos, artefacts and even art work (van der vaart et al., 2018). in this study two methods of data collection were used to determine the participants’ attitudes in relation to inclusion and their views of themselves as teachers in diverse classrooms. the first set of data collected was that of clay symbols. participants were given a small lump of clay and asked to use the clay to make a symbol that best represented their view of themselves as inclusive teachers. photographs were taken of the symbols made during each training session. open coding was used to put the symbols into categories according to what they represented (nieuwenhuis, 2020). in the first iteration during the first two cpd courses, participants were asked to make clay symbols and were then asked why they had chosen a specific symbol. in the following six cpd courses where participants were asked to reflect on themselves as inclusive practitioners by making clay symbols, they were also asked to write an explanation of why they had chosen to represent themselves with a particular symbol. the symbols were categorised according to what they represented, however the meanings that accompanied each symbol were further categorised into different themes. in a second analysis these themes were then compared to the head, hand or heart knowledge metaphors. findings: clay symbols characterising an inclusive teacher symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 137 a total of 328 clay symbols from eight different cpd training courses were analysed. it must be noted that many of the participants found it difficult to symbolise themselves as inclusive teachers, with some being quite hesitant at first to work with the clay. therefore, after the first two workshops, critical self-reflection was explained as being the process of thinking about what an inclusive teacher is and how they could describe themselves as inclusive teachers using the characteristics of different symbols. a practical example was shared with the participants to stimulate the process. participants were also urged to discuss their ideas in groups before making their symbols. after the drying process, photographs were taken of the different symbols. this was done as the participants were encouraged to take their symbols home as a reminder of what they had learnt about themselves and becoming more inclusive in their practice on the course. the clay symbols were categorised into groups such as shapes, objects, animals, celestial bodies and nature. most of the participants made unsophisticated representations such as pots, snakes and different shapes but there were some that displayed an ability to fashion more detailed symbols. however, of greater interest was the meaning attached to the symbol and not the artistic merits of it. the number in brackets serves to identify the specific cpd course and participant while upholding the confidentiality of the participant. the explanations of the symbols ranged from uncomplicated short phrases to extended metaphors with deeper meanings. the majority of symbols represented some form of light generation. celestial bodies such as the sun, moon and stars were made in different forms as were candles, lamps, light bulbs, torches and flashlights. the meanings attached to these symbols were given as variations of “i bring light to all learners (pc1a18)”; “i represent light and knowledge (pc1a16)”; “i bring light and hope to all learners with disabilities (pb3-29)”; “as a candle that shines in the dark i give hope and i see clearly where others don’t see, i am able to identify barriers that others cannot(pb3-19)”; “i bring light to the learners so they can reach their potential (pc2a33)” and “i give light to the whole community pc2a28).” a second common symbol was that of a pot, bowl or calabash. this symbol was related to food with food being a metaphor for knowledge and sustenance. this was illustrated by comments such as “i provide food for different learners (pb4-22)” and “i give food and feed my learners with elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 138 good education and accommodate all learners irrespective of physical and learning challenges (pb5-3).” another very commonly depicted symbol was that of a heart shape in different forms. the meanings attached to this symbol related more to love for all learners and acceptance of diverse learners despite any disabilities. this was shown by comments such as “love is all we need; i have a big heart with enough room to accommodate all the different learners (pb3-30)”; “i have an open heart for all children irrespective of their differences (pc2a19)”; “to always treat each learner with love and respect (pc2a62)”; “to always have a positive attitude to the learner (pb4-25)”; “a good heart to learners will make the difference in the learner (pb4-34)” and “i am a symbol of love to my learners that accommodates everyone (pb5-6).” symbols representing hands were fairly common with hands being described as “helping hands to learners who are struggling (pd2b2)”; “to catch them with, to hold them with, to make them feel safe (pc2a65)” and “i am moulding children’s minds (pb2-14).” some participants presented symbols which included different people, objects, animals, shapes, places and plants. these symbols were accompanied by a more detailed metaphorical explanation. animal symbols presented alluded to the characteristics of the animals. a participant symbolised herself as a sheep, explaining that “the wool represents my knowledge which i always impart to (sic) all learners. i make sure every learner feels warm in my class. i don’t shout to those struggling learners but i bring them close to me so that they can learn easily. i don’t complain about workload (pb3-26).” another participant symbolised himself as an elephant being the image of a wise teacher who is “always thinking of strategies and approaches to all learners, emphasising the value of a teacher and the importance of a child (pc1a12).” the symbol of a lion was presented with the comment: “i choose every child’s insecurities like a lion that pretends to be hurt by their young’s bite in order to motivate them and make them aware of their abilities (pb4-7).” a symbol of an eagle was presented with the comment: “[an eagle] can use her 5 layers in her eyes to help learners with difficulties. if i fail to help then i will go back to find help on how to do it like the eagle when she sharpens her beak (pb4-8).” other symbols included a seated figure such as the famous stature of the thinker by auguste rodin which was presented with the comment that “teachers must think deeply about the learners symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 139 and find ways to help (pb2-33).” a few participants further depicted different variations of roots for plants or trees. one participant stated: “i’m strong to hold all the learners as leaves or branches. nurturing, loving, empowering them, always there for them whatever the need (pc2a42)” and “anchoring the plant body to the ground and supporting it (pc2a43).” unique symbols presented by singular participants included a padlock to “unlock the minds of the learners irrespective of the challenges they might have. education is the key to everything (pb4-6)”; a chain symbol depicting “that we are all linked together and must work as a team (pd2b1)”; a saucer with the description: “i carry a cup and a teaspoon, if the tea spills it falls on me even if the spill is caused by me stirring. the cup i carry represents teachers and the spilling tea represents learners who are not accommodated in the lesson. i shall carry them with my inclusive education differentiation (pb3-27)”; a crossroads symbol with the comment: “this shows that you are exposed to choices and must choose which way you will go (pd2b3)”; another made a symbol of an axe and explained in this way: “for me to work well i need to be well sharpened (pb3-23)”; a mini bus taxi, a typical mode of transport all over south african, was commented on as: “i always carry my learners to where they need to be. when one is ready to get off, i pick up the next one as there’s always place for one more (pc2a50)”; a car with the comment: “i can carry light and heavy loads, i am powerful. all learners with barriers can be scaffolded from lowest level to highest level. i have different parts that move me to different directions. i’m in different shapes and colours to accommodate different levels of barriers (pc2a56).” to give a more balanced view of the teachers’ beliefs and attitudes about themselves as inclusive practitioners, a second set of data was analysed. at the end of each cpd training course, a feedback activity was done to gauge perceptions of the learning that had occurred during each of the workshops. participants were encouraged to write personal reflections on the course and their personal learning. findings: feedback activity on personal learning these written reflections were analysed and comments relating to their views of themselves as inclusive practitioners were systematically interpreted using thematic analysis to identify common categories (nieuwenhuis, 2020). these categories were then related back to the head, hand or heart elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 140 knowledge metaphors described by florian (2012). from the analysis of these reflections two broad themes emerged each with several sub-themes. new knowledge the first theme was knowledge gained, illustrated by comments such as: “i acquired new knowledge (pc1a101)” and “i’ve learnt a lot of things (pb4r10).” however more detailed comments elaborated further on the type of knowledge gained. for instance, knowledge gained (head knowledge) was linked to a deeper understanding of education policies in south africa: “equipped with more knowledge about inclusive education (pc1a2)”; learned a lot about sias [screening, identification, assessment and support policy] which is a very important aspect of inclusion (pc1a62)”; “knowing what is inclusive education (pb2r12)”; “learning about curriculum differentiation (pb2r28)”; “inclusivity is not a giant phenomenon (pc1a60)” and “it opened a window in my mind which was closed about inclusive education (pc1a16).” knowledge gained was also extended to supporting learners within the classroom: “how to help learners with disability (pb2r17); “all learners can learn only if they are accommodated and supported (pb3r5)” and “understanding the learner’s barriers and knowing how to support them (pb5r26).” closely associated with the facet of support was that of learning strategies to use when supporting diverse learners in the classroom (hand knowledge): “as long as you plan, assess and report you will know where your support is needed (pc1a1)”; “now we have learned the strategies of helping them (pb2r32)”; “different strategies on how to teach the 4 modalities in language (pb2r14)” and “i learn about the assessment methods (pc1a11).” strategies learnt was further elaborated on and described as practical skills that were associated with the different strategies learnt: “i was empowered in skills on making various ltsm [learning and teaching support materials] (pb2r45)”; “i liked the new ideas of introducing a lesson by using teaching aids (pb3r54)”; “learned how to recycle used material to use them for teaching as cost-effective learning material (pb5r15)” and “i have learned about uploading in the website (pb5r16).” symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 141 the last sub-theme that emerged under knowledge was that of collaboration and working as a team: “we learn to work as a group and the importance of collaboration (pc2a65)”; “i’ve learnt more about teamwork (pb3r7)” and “there was a lot of creativity that i learn from my colleagues (pb2r4).” changed attitudes the second theme was related to attitudes that had become more positive about inclusive teaching (heart knowledge). this was seen in variations of comments such as: “now i’m happy because i’m going to teach learners well (pb2r11)” and “makes me feel how wonderful being a teacher is (pc1a1).” this second theme was also broken down into a number of sub-themes. the change in attitude was also reflected in comments that related to a renewed confidence in their own abilities as teachers: “learnt a lot and feel more confident and competent in my work (pb4r25)”; “given me confidence i will be able to support educators and assist them on how to deal with learners with barriers (pb3r20)” and “i am better equipped and skilled in how to handle children with barriers (pb3r57).” the renewed confidence in teaching learners with barriers was in turn linked to a change in attitude towards learners with barriers in the classroom. this sub-theme revealed the most detailed comments about a change in attitude: “i also got information that each learner is unique, i must treat them as such, these kids are also humans who have dignity in our society (pc1a64)”; “i have a revival of willingness to help lsen [learners with special education needs] (pc1a94)”; “all the learners have a right to learn with other children (pb2r48)”; “it is not correct to treat all learners as that they have equal capability (pb3r1)”; “it instilled transformation and willingness to work irrespective of the challenges experienced at schools (pb3r14)”; “i have discovered how we usually disconsidered [sic] the potentiality of learners when teaching as educators. the course unlocked my understanding of teaching challenged learners and the support needed for such learners (pb3r15).” attitudes were linked to improved teaching practice: “a change of attitude towards it as i learnt new skills of dealing with problems in the classroom (pc1a6)”; “it helped me to develop interest to gain knowledge and acquired knowledge about how to teach the underachievers at elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 142 school (pb2r23)”; “i learned about interesting ways of teaching (pb2r47)” and “learnt how to accommodate all learners in a school environment (pb5r33).” improved teaching practice was closely linked to an attitude where teachers were more willing to implement inclusive teaching practices: “they capacitated me a lot on implementing the inclusive education in my school (pc1a13)”; i’m ready to deliver and implement information i got from the whole programme (pc1a24)”; “improved my attitude in implementing strategies of inclusive education and putting the knowledge into practise (pb3r46)” and “sharing ideas and being creative (pb2r43).” discussion of the findings critical reflective thinking is widely held as being the ability to think about what one is doing and what the effects of that action are. it has also been described as a way of improving professional practice across the social sciences by examining beliefs and professional identity rather than just reiterating theoretical knowledge (smith, 2011). this study sought to investigate teachers’ perspectives of themselves as inclusive practitioners and whether their attendance at a cpd course had influenced their perspectives. in particular, to gauge whether the cpd course had had an effect on the beliefs and attitudes of the participants and their understanding of their role as an inclusive teacher in impacting learner achievement in the classroom. hence participants were encouraged to reflect critically on their own learning in different tasks. critical reflection seemed to be a new concept to many teachers with a number of the participants having difficulty being able to reflect critically on their own practice. this finding was also mooted by makoelle (2012) who stated that the practice of reflection was one that needed to be developed in south african teachers. a number of participants opted not to make a symbol but rather to just “play with the clay.” much of the feedback was written more from the viewpoint of what the participant enjoyed about the course rather than what they had personally learnt. however, the results provided some encouraging evidence that participants are beginning to think more critically about their role, challenge their beliefs and assumptions about their knowledge and change their attitudes towards teaching in a classroom with a wide range of diverse learning needs. head, heart, hand knowledge? all three of these elements were echoed in both the personal reflections and the clay symbols to a greater or lesser degree. each of these facets of knowledge are closely interlinked and influence symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 143 each other. clay symbols and written reflections often combined two or more of the facets embedded in the meanings depicted. many of the clay symbols that were made represented common items in the south african context and were similar across all provinces. some of the clay symbols were accompanied by a simple but profound explanation while others represented an extensive metaphorical narrative. what was of interest was the pragmatic and deeper metaphorical meanings attached to the symbols as used to describe personal perspectives of being an inclusive teacher. different symbols often represented the same meanings. however, most of the written personal reflections were not critical reflections but more appraisal comments. those that were actual personal reflections were honest and revealing, exhibiting a willingness to change their teaching practice to enhance learning and promote social justice practices for all learners. this confirms the sentiment that critical reflection is part of the growth process and should be engaged in regularly in collaboration with colleagues to evaluate and make appropriate changes to improve inclusive teaching practice (makoelle & van der merwe, 2014). theoretical knowledge pertaining to inclusion, inclusive education policies and legislation and identifying, assessing and supporting learners with diverse needs were all mentioned in personal deliberations. the responses revealed that some participants had acquired new knowledge around different aspects of inclusion. moreover, others who had prior theoretical knowledge about inclusion revealed that they had not really understood it and had not known how this knowledge should impact their practice. they described a better understanding of the precepts of inclusion as well as policies such as the sias document (dbe, 2014) and how to complete it. these findings are in line with those of previous research which states that whereas teachers have accepted the idea of inclusion, that knowledge had not translated into change in teaching practice in the classroom. this deeper understanding of inclusion and related education policies led to a realisation of the need for inclusive strategies to be implemented to meet the needs of diverse learners. this was reflected in comments relating to abilities to identify and assess learners with barriers to learning. this phenomenon was observed in the meanings behind many of the clay symbols where the participants had made symbols relating to food, light and even some of the animal symbolism. light was used in the sense of giving knowledge and direction and food as an analogy of sustenance for growth. this symbolism revealed the knowledge the participants now felt they elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 144 possessed in order to be able to support all their learners and teach them despite their different learning needs. the heart symbol which was made by many participants across all the cpd courses was most encouraging. the heart is a common analogy for love. in the accompanying explanations of this symbol, participants expressed their ‘love’ for learners with different abilities signifying an acceptance of difference and an understanding that as teachers they could support these learners in particular. the written personal reflections confirmed this acceptance in comments that were made about the different barriers to learning and inclusive support strategies that they could use in the classroom. most gratifying was the expression of feeling more confident in their abilities to manage diverse classes and include all learners in teaching and learning activities. this confidence in personal agency also extended to being able to assist colleagues who were not on the training course. the idea of being part of a team and collaborating with other teachers was also observed in the written reflections adding to the sentiments represented by the clay symbols. the personal narratives created by some of the participants when making the clay symbols were of particular interest as they revealed a more in-depth self-reflection. characteristics of particular animals such as the sheep, eagle and lion and other everyday items such as the taxi and the saucer, told stories of teachers who were indeed combining head, hand and heart knowledge to become more inclusive practitioners. therefore, asking participants to make a symbol representative of themselves in reflecting on their own teaching practice appeared to be more successful than just writing a personal reflection. we live in an increasingly visual world and much of our social reality can be organised more readily in a visual form making it easier to reflect on and then write about (bagnoli, 2009). creswell (2014) notes that visual images together with written explanations allows access to different parts of human consciousness and thus a person’s perceived reality which more traditional methods of data collection might miss. inferences about social reality can be made unobtrusively and used as indicators of social activity and beliefs (emmison & smith, 2000). these observations can then be confirmed by more traditional data collection methods. limitations of the study it was not possible to determine long-term changes because of the number of participants and the large geographical area they represent. thus, while education department officials affirmed that symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 145 the participants on the cpd courses had learnt a lot, it was not possible to follow-up to find out how the participants view of themselves as inclusive practitioners had changed after the training course or whether changes in attitude were sustained after their return to their respective schools. the cpd training courses although based on international best practice were specific to the south african situation and may not be able to be generalised to other cohorts of teachers. conclusion and recommendations educational change can be challenging to one’s beliefs about one’s profession. having to teach inclusively is very different to teaching in the traditional way. it requires an understanding of the philosophy of inclusion, a willingness to adapt teaching methodologies and a paradigm shift in personal attitudes and beliefs to be able to successfully include learners with a wide range of learning abilities and needs in general education classrooms. cpd has been described as “a planned, continuous and lifelong process whereby teachers try to develop their personal and professional qualities, and to improve their knowledge, skills and practice, leading to their empowerment, the improvement of their agency and the development of their organizations and their pupils” (padwad & dixit 2011, p.7). to be able to do this, teachers need to use an effective framework for inclusive practice which benefits learners and increases their capacity and confidence in being able to teach learners with different disabilities. as teachers have found this challenging, a constructive cpd course on inclusive education should incorporate a balance between head, hand and heart knowledge in its conception to enable teachers to become effective agents of change. teachers who have been trained in inclusion and who value diversity and respect the rights of learners with disabilities are able to change their attitudes and successfully develop good inclusive teaching practices. critical personal reflection is an important skill for teachers to develop to be able to change their practice in line with current educational thinking and become inclusive practitioners. critical personal reflection or being able to think critically about one’s practice is essential for teaching inclusively and should be actively encouraged. the ultimate purpose of critical reflection should always be to enhance the learning of the learners in the classroom but at the same time encouraging the teacher to challenge their beliefs and attitudes towards diverse learners (liu, 2013). schools in south africa as social institutions are based on the principles of human rights and social justice. elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 146 schools and teachers therefore have a role to play in the transforming of their communities to become more just and inclusive, and accepting of difference. this can only be done if teachers are able to critically reflect on their practice, change their actions to enhance learning and promote social justice practices for diverse learners (liu, 2013). as most of the teachers in this study had difficulty in being reflective about their practice it is recommended that this skill is actively modelled and taught during cpd courses on inclusion. visual images such as the making of clay symbols is a useful technique in developing critical reflective skills. teachers in this study were able to fashion a symbol which represented their perspectives of themselves as inclusive practitioners. symbols such as a star, a heart, a candle, a calabash and even a taxi represented meanings about their lived social reality as well, if not better, than an answer on a questionnaire. the use of visual images in the data collection process proved to be additional facet to understanding teacher attitudes and enhanced the findings in this study. the use of visual images through different art forms needs to be explored more as a technique for making inferences based on what participants actually think and do. visual images can aid the researcher to test whether their speculative inferences are valid and can enhance the findings of more traditional data collection methods (emmison & smith, 2000). the use of creative images facilitates the exploring of multiple layers of meaning which often times participants of all ages may find difficult to express in words (bagnoli, 2009). this is because images allow for metaphorical communication and the interpreting of social reality from a different perspective. being able to critically think about one’s practice is an essential skill for teaching inclusively. in this study the making of clay symbols encouraged critical personal reflection among practising teachers. the value of this research design is that it was conducted in real-life situations and is therefore context-bound while still providing a rich description of the underlying beliefs and values of the participants and at the same time remaining sensitive to cultural influences (haradhan, 2018). the role of inclusive teachers encompasses being able to effectively support learners with diverse learning needs through the development of inclusive teaching practice and strategies thus improving overall achievement. moreover, this role also comprises the development of social justice, the creation of an inclusive environment, collaboration with all stakeholders and the development of their capacity to reflect on their own inclusive practice (engelbrecht, nel, nel, & symbolic representations as teachers reflect on inclusive education in south africa ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 147 tlale, 2015; guskey, 2002; pantic & florian, 2015). without the ‘buy in’ of teachers, the creation of a more inclusive and equitable education system that could reasonably accommodate all learners would not be possible. it has been asserted that in combination with providing teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to become more inclusive in their practice, it is just as important to instil the appropriate beliefs and attitudes to realise a commitment to teaching inclusively (forlin & sin, 2017; nel et al., 2016). education authorities can develop and legislate changes in policy but it is far more difficult to change the existing attitudes of in-service teachers (madikana et al., 2007). the attitudes of in-service teachers and their beliefs around inclusive practices within their own schools and classrooms is one of the most important factors to consider when planning cpd training courses in inclusive education. moreover, the attitude of teachers’ towards implementing inclusive practices in their classrooms is also influenced by their peculiar systemic contextual factors (engelbrecht, nel, nel, & tlale, 2015). high quality cpd courses should consider the context of the cohort of teachers attending a specific cpd course and ensure that the content being presented is pertinent to that context if the training is to be successful in changing the attitudes of in-service teachers (darling-hammond et al., 2017). declaration this study received a specific grant as part of the teaching and learning development capacity improvement programme, which is implemented through a partnership between the south african department of higher education and the european union. elizabeth hooijer is a specialist in remedial and inclusive teaching strategies. she is involved in the teaching and supporting of learners with barriers to learning and their teachers in mainstream schools. she has worked as an assistant lecturer in the training of remedial teachers and learning support educators. her research interests lie in the field of inclusive education and learning support in diverse classrooms. she has presented papers at international and national conferences on learning support strategies in inclusive classrooms. elizabeth hooijer, martyn van der merwe, & jean fourie ajote vol.10 no.1 (2021), 127-152 148 dr van der merwe is involved in the teaching of the post graduate certificate in education, the advanced diploma in remedial education, the post graduate diploma in inclusive education, the honours in inclusive education, as well as the masters in educational psychology programs. he is a teacher educator who firmly believes that who the teacher is, is more influential than what the teacher knows in educational interactions. interactions based on invitational and authentic relationships form the core of his beliefs. his research interests are located in particularly the inclusive pedagogies and strategies that teachers use to facilitate equitable learning spaces. a further interest lies in the teacher disposition and the identification and development of such dispositions for the changing teaching profession. these interests are grounded in a critical realist position in ascertaining the structural factors which may facilitate or constrain the agency of newly qualified teachers to act as change agents in the teaching profession. dr jean fourie is an educational psychologist who lectures at the university of johannesburg in the faculty of education. she is involved in the training of educational psychologists; school counsellors and remedial teachers. her research focuses on inclusive education and learning support. she has worked extensively in special needs education. she has presented papers at international and national conferences on supporting children with neurodevelopmental disorders. references braunsteiner, m. 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(2010). getting inclusion right in south africa. in intervention in school and clinic, 46: 240 doi: 10.1177/1053451210389033 http://isc.sagepub.com/content/46/4/240. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej915885.pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.17169/fqs-19.2.2961 http://isc.sagepub.com/content/46/4/240 emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse dept of educational foundations and counselling faculty of education, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria abstract with a view to providing empirical information on the factors that influence online counselling communication among nigerian university students, this study investigated the influence of emotional intelligence and social networking skills on the effectiveness of online counselling communication among students of obafemi awolowo university (oau). through a descriptive survey research design, the study sampled 100 students purposively from users of the university online counselling platform, on the basis of being able to have established complete counselling interaction with any of the counsellors online during the harmattan and rain semesters of 2017/2018 session (or over a period of 12 months.). the results showed that 78.0%, 19.0% and 3.0% of the students demonstrated high, moderate and low levels of online counselling communication effectiveness respectively and that emotional intelligence has significant influence on online communication effectiveness (β = 0.790, p < 0.05). the results further showed that social networking skills has no significant influence on online communication effectiveness (f = 3.457, p > 0.05) and no significant interaction effect of emotional intelligence and social networking skill was found on online counselling communication effectiveness (f = 0.546, p > 0.05). the study concluded that the only factor that influenced online counselling communication effectiveness among the students under study is emotional intelligence. keywords: communication effectiveness, social networking, emotional intelligence introduction the major activity involved in counselling interaction is communication. the clients communicate their concerns involving emotional troubles, fears, anxiety, prospect, and worries to the counsellor, while the counsellor communicates in return their competencies, counselling skills, and guidance material to the client. this is done generally using verbal and/or non-verbal communication. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 37-52 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 38 counsellors take into cognisance the verbal expressions of clients while reporting their experiences, dreams, frustrations, anxieties, and even their state of mind. of critical importance is the careful attention given to client’s non-verbal communication in a counselling encounter. communication is a process comprising of elements, the sender, encoding the message, transmitting the message through a medium, receiving the message, decoding the message, feedback, and noise. these elements in the communication process determine the quality of communication. keyton (2011) argued that a problem in anyone of these elements can reduce communication effectiveness. communication becomes effective when the receiver obtains the message and provide (an) indication that the message has been received and understood as intended by the sender. effective communication, therefore, is an essential component of relational success at the interpersonal, intergroup, intragroup, or organizational levels. any hitch to or conflict with any of these elements can reduce communication effectiveness (keyton, 2011). for example, information must be encoded into a message that can be understood as the sender intended through a particular medium that must be carefully selected for effective communication. conditions required for communication effectiveness in face-to-face encounter has been roundly debated and largely agreed upon. for instance, several communication theorists (cheney, 2011; keyton, 2011; tourish, 2010) have gleaned elements of good communication, which are particularly applicable to both the sender and the receiver. these elements, together with a basic understanding of the communication process itself, should provide a good foundation for developing and maintaining effective communication skills, which counsellors can use when communicating in a face-to-face encounter. however, given the limitations commonly expressed for online communication especially for online counselling in which communication effectiveness is of paramount importance, exploring factors which will promote communication effectiveness becomes germane. online counsellors need to be sure that the information provided the client across the internet or any other online media is received and understood as intended in order to determine the type of feedback that will be effective in the counselling relationship, the next line of action in the counselling process, referral provisions and the effectiveness of the counselling relationship itself. it is also expected that the increasing acceptance of online counselling require that effective communication on this mode of counselling be explored. however, despite the increasing acceptance of online counselling amongst service users, factors that could help to improve communication on it have received very little or no attention. emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 39 for instance, from search in literature, it was not shown where personal factors like emotional intelligence (ei) and social networking skill (sns) have been studied in connection with effectiveness of online counselling communication. for much of the previous centuries, emotion scholars generally subscribed to cultural theory of emotion in which emotion were believed to be culturally specific learned behaviours that could only be experienced by observing other people expressing such emotions (creed & beale, 2006). this includes the ability to accurately perceive and express emotion, identify emotion in the self and others, assimilate emotion into thought, and use information that explains felt emotions in order to prioritize and direct thinking. these factors of ei are said to influence the effectiveness of communication between sender and receiver. scientists and psychologists of emotional intelligence theory argue that emotional intelligence may also lead to improved communication skill (hazard, 2000). goleman (2002) suggested that to be emotionally and socially intelligent is to effectively understand and express oneself, to understand and relate well with others and successfully cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures. individuals with better emotional intelligence can better perceive emotions, use them in thought, understand the meaning of thought, encode it in proper message and can manage their emotions well. there is thus a need to study emotional intelligence in relation to communication to enhance its effectiveness. one of the first steps to sending a message is encoding it, that is, the process of converting information into another acceptable form, for transmission. decoding reverses this process in order to interpret the information. encoding is done using words, symbols, pictures, symbols and sounds. when encoding a message, the sender begins by deciding what he/she wants to transmit. it is important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. a good way for the sender to improve encoding of their message is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver’s point of view. the encoded message must now be delivered to its audience via a message channel. a message channel is a term that refers to the medium that carries the message from the sender to the receiver. it therefore follows that when a message is not properly coded, even if it is received and it generates an understanding, there will be chances that the understanding generated will be in variance with what the sender intends. in computer mediated communication, social networking skills are considered germane to communication effectiveness as this represent the skills of encoding message to receivers which are commonly friends, online acquaintances and other eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 40 contacts. some of these social networking skills include use of emoticons, computer literacy, typing ability and speed, online text-chatting skills and so on. since social networking is increasingly popular amongst people regardless of geographical location, background and age, developing social networking skills is very vital. these skills help in forming strong and formidable relationships on different online social media platforms. thus, there is a compelling need to explore the link between social networking skills and communication effectiveness in online counselling. objective of the study the main objective of this study is to investigate the influence of emotional intelligence and social networking skills on the effectiveness of online counselling communication among students of obafemi awolowo university (oau), ile-ife. the specific objectives are to: 1. determine the level of online counselling communication effectiveness among the students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife. 2. investigate the influence of the students’ emotional intelligence on the effectiveness of online counselling communication. 3. examine the influence of student’s social networking skills on the effectiveness of online counselling communication. 4. investigate interaction effect of emotional intelligence and social networking skill on communication effectiveness of online counselling communication. research questions 1. what is the level of online counselling communication effectiveness among the students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife? 2. what is the influence of the student-client’s emotional intelligence on the effectiveness of online counselling communication? 3. what is the influence of student-client’s social networking skills on the effectiveness of online counselling communication? 4. what interaction effect does emotional intelligence and social networking skill have on communication effectiveness of online counselling communication? methodology the study adopted the descriptive survey research design. the population consisted of all undergraduate and postgraduate students of obafemi awolowo university. the oau online emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 41 counselling platform is synchronous, where counsellors and clients can have instantaneous interactions. however, clients can leave offline messages for counsellors in case they are not online when they visit. the online counselling platform was designed in such a way that students/clients who visit can engage with counsellors using pseudo identities that could not be traced to them. interactions with student-clients are recorded under these pseudonyms that are given by the client and subsequent or follow-up visits to the online counselling platform are based on them. information given by a client is only accessible to the online counsellor and such client. copies of online questionnaire were sent to the users of the platform out of which 100 copies were selected for analysis. the selection was based on only those who had successful counselling relationships with the online counsellors with full and complete counselling sessions/interactions until their issues of concern were completely resolved. the questionnaire contained 4 sections. section a contained information on participants’ demographic variables, including gender, age range; faculty of affiliation; undergraduate. section b, below, contained items on social networking skills developed by author (2013). s/n online social networking skills none novice fair good expert 1. computer literacy 2. typing speed 3. online text-chatting skills 4. creativity in self-expression through writing. 5. ability to use audio/video teleconferencing facilities. 6. using emoticons (seen a helpful nonverbal indicators). 7. time effectiveness (fulfilling online appointments and durations) 8. finding a website i visited before 9. ability to change who i share online content with (e.g. friends, friends of friends). 10. ability to download files. 11. ability to open new tab in my browser. 12. ability to bookmark a website. 13. ability to click and go to a different webpage 14. ability to complete online forms. 15. ability to connect to a wi-fi network information. eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 42 section c, below, is a scale on respondents’ communication effectiveness developed by francis (2016) designed to measure the communication effectiveness of counsellors and clients in online counselling relationships the participants choices of response were a=always, s=sometimes, r=rarely and n=never. s/n items a s r n 1. my online counsellor’s statements are clearly constructed and easily understandable 2. i believe the words i choose in communication with the online counsellor will convey most of my message 3. once i read the statement sent to me by the online counsellor, i can predict what his/her conclusion will be. 4. when i’m not sure about what s/he is saying to me, rather than ask questions, i’ll wait to learn more. 5. when my counsellor asks, “do you understand,” i say “yes” even if i’m not entirely sure. 6. i believe effective communication can be achieved in online counselling simply by taking turns to exchange messages 7. my counsellor uses open questions to find out facts 8. the counsellor makes use of appropriate net lingo (emoticons, abbreviations and symbols) 9. the counsellor helps to summarize my thoughts to ensure understanding 10. the counsellor uses easily understood everyday words and expressions that everyone is familiar with 11. i can imagine the counsellors’ non-verbal communication during online chats 12 s/he avoids the use of jargons and technical languages. 13. s/he knows when to use a coded questions to get ‘yes/no’ answers. 14. s/he structures their thought in a logical and rational way to help others to understand their world. 15. the counsellor keeps our communication confidential section d on the questionnaire below was developed by davies (2008) and was designed to measure the emotional intelligence of counsellors and clients in online counselling relationships. participants’ choice of answers were a=always, s=sometimes, r=rarely and n=never. s/n items a s r n 1. in online counselling relationships, i always know which emotions i am feeling and why 2. through online counselling relationships, i am able to realize the links between my feelings and what i think, do, and say 3. through counselling, i recognize how my feelings affect my performance emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 43 4. through counselling relationship, i have a guiding awareness of my values and goals 5. i am open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and self-development 6. during online counselling session, i am able to show a sense of humour and perspective about myself 7. during counselling, i manage my impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well 8. i think clearly and stay focused during counselling relationships 9. i meet commitments and keep promises with my online counsellor 10. i hold myself accountable for meeting my counselling objectives 11. i take fresh perspectives and risks in my thinking through counselling 12. i continuously learn from my counsellor in order to improve my performance 13. i am willing to make personal sacrifices to meet my counselling goals data collection was done by preparing the questionnaire as google forms with the link sent to participants through the online counselling platform. respondents’ questionnaires were automatically returned when they clicked a submit button when their responses were registered in the database of the researchers’ mailbox from where they were transcribed on to the excel data format and then converted to spss for analysis. the data were analysed using frequency counts, percentage, and linear and two-way anova. results research question #1: what is the level of online counselling communication effectiveness among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife? to answer this research question, the responses provided by the research participants were scored in such a way that when a respondent chose an “always” option in the section c of the online questionnaire, s/he is allotted a score of 4 and when a “sometimes” option, a score of 3 was allotted. also, when a “rarely” option was chosen a score of 2 was allotted and when the respondent chose a “never” option, s/he was allotted a score of 1. the resulting scores were aggregated and was made to constitute a measure of communication effectiveness indicated by each of the respondents. on the measure, the maximum value obtained was 58 while the minimum value was 17. also, the mean score was 48.13 with a standard deviation of 6. however, the values were categorized in line with the original version of the scale (francis, 2016) in which a score of 30 or less on the measure was said to be of low level of communication effectiveness while a score of 31 to 45 was said to be moderate level and any score in excess of 46 was said to be of high level of communication eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 44 effectiveness. these categories were summarized descriptively, and the result is presented in table 1 table 1: level of online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students level of communication effectiveness frequency percent low 3 3.0 moderate 19 19.0 high 78 78.0 total 100 100.0 table 1 presents the summary of the level of online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students. the table also shows that most of the respondents (78%) experienced a high level of communication effectiveness during their online interaction with their counsellors while 19% experienced moderate level. only a very small percentage (3%) indicated that they experienced a low level of online counselling communication effectiveness. research question #2: what is the influence of the student-client emotional intelligence on the effectiveness of online counselling communication? to answer this research question, the student-clients’ responses to section d of the online questionnaire were scored in such a way that when a respondent chose an “always” option, s/he was allotted a score of 4, for a “sometimes” option, a score of 3 was allotted and when a “rarely” option was chosen, a score of 2 was allotted. also, when a “never” option was chosen, s/he was allotted a score of 1. the resulting scores were aggregated and was made to constitute a measure of emotional intelligence possessed by each of the respondents. this measure was subjected to linear regression analysis using the communication effectiveness as the dependent (predicted) variable while emotional intelligence was used as the influencing (predictor) variable. the result of the model obtained was summarized in table 2 along with the anova test of its significance. emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 45 table 2: influence of emotional intelligence on online communication effectiveness experienced by oau students. model summary anovab model r r square adjusted r square f sig 1 0.741a 0.548 0.544 118.987 .000a a. predictors: (constant), ei b. dependent variable: commeff table 2 presents the test of influence of emotional intelligence on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students. the table also shows that the r-square value obtained in the test was 0.548 and the adjusted r-square value was 0.544. this may be interpreted to mean that emotional intelligence can explain a maximum value of 54.8% of the variance observed in the online counselling communication effectiveness experience by oau students in the course of online counselling and a realistic value of only 54.4%. the f-value obtained in the test of significance of the model was 118.987 at p-value of 0.000. since the p-value is less than 0.05, it can be concluded that the model is significant. this implies that emotional intelligence has a significant influence on the online counselling communication effectiveness experience by oau during of online counselling. the table of coefficient is presented in table 3. table 3: coefficient of the strength of influence of emotional intelligence on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 13.382 3.216 4.161 .000 ei .790 .072 .741 10.908 .000 a. dependent variable: commeff table 3 shows the strength of influence of emotional intelligence on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students. it also shows that emotional intelligence wielded a strong influence on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 46 students as b-value obtained is very high (0.790) with a t-value of 10.908 which is significant at 0.05 level of significance (significance value was less than 0.05). research question #3: what is the influence of the student-client social networking skills on the effectiveness of online counselling communication? to answer research question 3, the student-clients’ scores on social networking skill was obtained by scoring the responses provided by the research participants to the section b of the online questionnaire in such a way that when a respondent chose an “expert” option, s/he was allotted a score of 5, for a “good” option, a score of 4 was allotted and when a “fair” option was chosen, a score of 3 was allotted. also, when a “novice” option was chosen a score of 2 was allotted and when the respondent chose a “none” option, s/he was allotted a score of 1. the resulting scores were aggregated and was made to constitute a measure of social networking skill demonstrated by each of the respondents. this measure was subjected to linear regression analysis using the communication effectiveness as the dependent (predicted) variable while social networking skill was used as the influencing (predictor) variable. the result of the model obtained was summarized in table 4 along with the anova test of its significance. table 4: influence of social networking skills on online communication effectiveness experienced by oau students. model summary anovab model r r square adjusted r square f sig 1 0.185a 0.034 0.024 3.457 .066a a. predictors: (constant), sns b. dependent variable: commeff table 4 presents the test of influence of social networking skills on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students. the table also shows that the r-square value obtained in the test was 0.034 and the adjusted r-square value was 0.024. this may be interpreted to mean that social networking skills can explain only a maximum value of 3.4% of the variance observed in the online counselling communication effectiveness observable among oau students and a realistic value of only 2.4%. the f-value contained on the test of significance of the model was 3.457 at p-value of 0.066. since the p-value is greater than 0.05, it can be concluded that the model is not significant. emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 47 research question #4: what interaction effect does emotional intelligence and social networking skill have on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students? to answer this research question, the student-clients’ scores on online counselling communication effectiveness were subjected to a test of between subject effects via two-way anova. the result is presented in table 5 table 5: tests of between-subjects effects source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 4017.310a 89 45.138 1.980 .118 intercept 132971.440 1 132971.440 5832.081 .000 sns 801.072 27 29.669 1.301 .343 ei 1618.061 17 95.180 4.175 .013 sns * ei 560.303 45 12.451 .546 .918 error 228.000 10 22.800 total 235895.000 100 corrected total 4245.310 99 a. r squared = .946 (adjusted r squared = .468) dependent variable: commeff table 5 presents the test of the interaction effect of social networking skills and emotional intelligence on the online counselling communication effectiveness. it can be seen from the table that the f-value obtained for the interaction was 0.546 at p-value of 0.918. since the p-value is in excess of 0.05, the interaction effect cannot be said to be significant, that is, the interaction between social networking skills and emotional intelligence has no significant influence on the online counselling communication effectiveness. it can be observed that although the r-square value rose to 0.946 but the adjusted r-square value was depressed to 0.468. this can be interpreted to mean that although, the interaction can account for a maximum of 94.6% and a realistic value of 46.8% of the variance observed in the online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students, this cannot be attributed directly to the interaction between the two variables. it may be due to sampling error or mere chance. eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 48 discussion of findings research question one was posed to investigate the level of online counselling communication effectiveness among students of obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife. the result obtained shows that most of the respondents (78%) experienced a high level of communication effectiveness during their online interaction with their counsellors while 19% experienced moderate level. only a very small percentage (3%) indicated that they experienced low level of online counselling communication effectiveness. this is consistent with the findings by asamu (2014) and shahram and sepasi (2012) where the larger percent of their respondents in online interaction possessed high level of communication effectiveness. this is because online communication allows individuals to explore the meaning and essence of the message sent before giving response (asamu, 2014; shahram & sepasi, 2012). also, because one of the factors that enhance communication is emotional intelligence, we attempted in this study to investigate its influence on online counselling communication effectiveness as experienced by oau students through research question 2. result shows that emotional intelligence significantly influences communication effectiveness. hazard (2000) and jadhav and gupta (2014) suggested that emotional intelligence may lead to improved online communication effectiveness. similarly, goleman (2002) suggested that been emotionally intelligent in online communication is to effectively understand and express oneself and to understand and relate well with others. individuals with better emotional intelligence can better perceive emotions, use them in thought, understanding the meaning of thought, and then encode/decode them in a proper message. jadhav and gupta (2014) show that emotional intelligence serves as a common ground in understanding online and global communications and in initiating effective communication (sinha and sinha, 2007) especially in online platforms (mayer et.al, 2004; deeter-schmelz and sojka, 2003). the second factor examined in this study is the influence of social networking skills on online communication effectiveness among oau students in online counselling relationship. result shows that social networking skills have no significant influence on communication effectiveness among oau students in online counselling relationship. this is consistent with the findings of ellison, steinfield, and lampe (2007). they concluded that though social networking skills may be used to strengthen relationships that already exist and can enhance the feelings of closeness to others, as far as communication effectiveness was concerned, there were no perceived benefits of social networking skills. they suggested that this might be due to participants in online interactions being submerged in the social networking world and not considering how these emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 49 activities are impacting their communication skills and their lives in general. also, drussell (2012) indicated that despite online social networking skills been very popular among students and other young adults, especially those of higher institutions of learning, a significant influence of social networking and social networking skills on effectiveness of online communication have not been found. this is because social media is an outlet which allow users to communicate in a manner they consider fit for themselves, often using for example, grammatically incorrect words, and spellings and emoticons etc., which have now become “normal” mode of online communication (witmer & katzman, 1997; marvin, 1995). however, this hampers communication effectiveness in online interactions as the use of these signs and languages may not really convey the message to the receiver, and the receivers of the message sometimes may find it difficult to comprehend the meaning of the words as truly intended by the sender (walther & d’addario, 2001). this may then have a negative influence on the effectiveness of communication in online counselling relationship (veytia-bucheli, gómez-galán & vergara, 2020). we also tried to determine the interactive effect of emotional intelligence and social networking skill on online counselling communication effectiveness among oau students. the study result shows that the interaction of social networking skills and emotional intelligence has no significant influence on online counselling communication effectiveness, possibly because social networking skills may emotionally inhibit online media participants from positively responding to the emotions shown by other parties involved in the communication process (benson, ploeg & brown, 2010) or because the use of social media among adolescents may not improve their ability to understand and share the feelings of others, thereby leading to ineffective communication (merwe, 2013). author contribution • eli segbeyon gabriel was responsible for writing the draft background section as well as the literature review for this study. he was also involved in facilitating communications with the students during the online counselling sessions. • olusegun fatai adebowale was the chief counsellor who related with the students on the online counselling platform in question during the study. he oversaw the collection of data from the students/clients during the online counselling interactions. he also was involved in facilitating communications with the students during the online counselling sessions. eli segbeyon gabriel, olusegun fatai adebowale, oluwaseun solomon omotehinse ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 50 • oluwaseun solomon omotehinse was responsible for the analysis and interpretation of the data. he also was involved in facilitating communications with the students during the online counselling sessions. references adebowale, o. f. 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(2006). multiple and extended interactions with affective embodied agents. in c. peter, r. beale, e. crane, l. axelrod & g. blyth (eds.), emotion in hci: joint proceedings of the 2005, 2006 and 2007 intl. workshops, 123-136. stuttgart: fraunhofer irb verlag. davies, t. (2008). youth work and social networking: interim report. leicester: national youth agency. deeter-schmelz, d., & sojka, j. (2003). developing effective salespeople: exploring the link between emotional intelligence and sales performance. international journal of organizational analysis, 11: 211–220. drussell, j. (2012). social networking and interpersonal communication and conflict resolution skills among college freshmen. retrieved from sophia, the st. catherine university repository website: https://sophia.stkate.edu/msw_papers/21 emotional intelligence, social networking skills and online counselling communication effectiveness among students of oau, ile-ife, nigeria ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 37-52 51 ellison, n., lampe, c., & steinfield, c. (2007). the benefits of facebook “friends:” social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. journal of computermediated-communication, 13, 210-230. francis, i., & chyke, g. (2016). effective communication as a tool for efficiency and sustainability in modern organizations. international journal of innovative development and policy studies, 4(3), 1–6. goleman, d. (2002). primal leadership: realizing the power of emotional intelligence. boston, ma: harvard business school publishing. goleman, d. 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(2010). auditing organizational communication: a handbook of research, theory, and practice. new york, ny: routledge. veytia-bucheli, m. g., gómez-galán, j., & vergara, d. (2020). presence of new forms of intercultural communication in higher education: emojis and social interactions through whatsapp among graduate students. education sciences, 10(11), 295. doi:10.3390/educsci10110295 walther, j. b., & d’addario, k. p. (2001). the impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in computer-mediated communication. social science computer review, 19(3), 324–347. doi:10.1177/089443930101900307 witmer, d., & katzman, s. (1997). on-line smiles: does gender make a difference in the use of graphic accents? journal of computer-mediated communication, 2(4). http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol2/issue4/witmer1.html http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol2/issue4/witmer1.html against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education mukovhe masutha ali mazrui centre for higher education studies university of johannesburg, south africa abstract on the back of decades of austerity, marketisation, credentialization and related neoliberal conceptions of education and society, a student debt crisis has emerged in higher education (he). despite the well-documented history of government-guaranteed income contingent loans (icls) indenturing students and their present and future families, such loans continue to be canvassed by policymakers and interest groups as an ideal ladder of educational opportunity, particularly for students from traditionally excluded communities. in this paper, the author brings together insights from jeffrey williams’ pedagogy of debt, carter g woodson’s miseducation, ha-joon chang’s idea of bad samaritans, and kwame nkrumah’s theory of sham independence as conceptual building blocks to reinforce the wall of resistance against the orthodoxy of debt as a paradigm for he funding in south africa. to add to the student debt abolition movements and the voices calling for freeing public he, this paper critically reviews the recommendations of south africa’s 2017 fees commission report. this is done to offer an analysis that makes explicit the likely impact of the proposed student loan policy on south africa. as we imagine transitioning towards the new african university, this paper makes a case for freeing public he for all, on the basis of mutual aid, transitional and reparative justice. keywords: miseducation, pedagogy of debt, student debt crisis, free higher education, reparative justice, post-apartheid south africa introduction settler colonialism has fundamentally been about european invasion, displacement, enslavement, dispossession and elimination of african and other indigenous people of the world, and during the pre-colonial and post-colonial era, debt servitude has played a crucial issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 48-68 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 49 role in enabling and sustaining this process (lees et al., 2021; mamdani, 2001). south africa remains one of the countries where the project of settler colonialism continues to be incubated in educational settings—particularly in the curriculum—in ways that reproduce european dominance and control of the colonised (mpofu-walsh 2021; mamdani 2001). in learning whiteness, sriprakash et al. (2022) correctly emphasise that “education has played a central role in cultivating and maintaining the power of whiteness in australia and other british settler colonies, and it is through this agenda of white domination that some people benefit and others are harmed” (p. 5). as we imagine possible transitions to a new and just african university, using south african settler-colonial state as my context, this paper offers a set of conceptual building blocks aimed at reinforcing the wall of resistance against the orthodoxy of student loans and debt as a primary paradigm of higher education (he) funding. i theorise the violence and pedagogy of debt and their miseducative effects as enduring pillars of settler-colonial structure that must be unmasked and resisted at all costs (ndlovu-gatsheni, 2013). several reasons justify the continued critical examination of the intersection of student loans/student debt crisis, indenture and settler colonialism. first, there is clear conflict between the prevalent repurposing of he into debt-service training, emancipatory notions of he and efforts to decolonise and free public he from settler-colonial ideologies. as masta (2019) has shown, there is a need to disrupt the unjust relationship between settler-colonial ideology and he spaces. second, as battiste (2019) wrote, “education, like the institutions and societies it derives from, is neither culturally neutral nor fair. education has its roots in a patriarchal, eurocentric society, complicit with multiple forms of oppression of women, sometimes men, children, minorities, and indigenous peoples” (p. 159). he institutions therefore present ideal spaces to study the varied and yet intersecting ways through which settler colonialism is both advanced and resisted. third, despite the seemingly general commitment to decolonised education futures, ndlovu-gatsheni (2013, p. 10) cautions that “what africans must be vigilant against is the trap of ending up normalising and universalising coloniality as a natural state of the world. it must be unmasked, resisted and destroyed because it produced a world order that can only be sustained through a combination of violence, deceit, hypocrisy and lies”. in heeding ndlovu-gatsheni’s (2013) caution, this paper sounds the alarm regarding predatory inclusion as an undercurrent of icl regimes. https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/z9tr+4hgr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/z9tr+4hgr https://paperpile.com/c/f5wpa2/jlyl+stdu https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/egsu https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/egsu https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/wcsi https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/wcsi https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/1kwr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/1kwr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/rrln https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/rrln mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 50 decades of austerity, marketisation, financialisation and related neoliberal conceptions of education and society (brown & carasso, 2013) have witnessed a repurposing of higher education into a commodity that must be bought and sold, a shift from he as a public entitlement to a private service, the systematic phasing out of student grants to make way for the troubling rise of student loans financiers (eaton, 2022) and a consolidation of the orthodoxy of debt as a paradigm of higher education funding (williams, 2006). out of this has emerged a global student debt crisis (adams, 2017; mitchell, 2021; shermer, 2021a). as debt captures the heart of the post-welfare university, as well as our participation in it, the very soul of public he is at stake. for those of us in settler colonies like south africa, inadequate attention has gone to examining and conceptualising the implications of youth studying under indebted and further-indebting circumstances. in this paper, i argue that the orthodoxy of student loans as a paradigm of he funding represents one of the central pillars of settler-colonial society and how it reproduces itself in and through education. i thus theorise that resistance against student debt and student indenture represents one of the progressive means of unmasking and resisting the reproduction of settler colonialism in and through education. how we choose to fund students in he is inextricably linked to what, and for whom, we believe education is for. whatever the choice, the implications have stretched well beyond the walls of our universities. over the years, student funding models have greatly transformed the sector and its perceived role in enabling and/or hindering efforts to achieve a more just and equitable society (boliver, 2017). this denotes the need for us to shoulder a lot more care and responsibility in the views we advocate for, the values we choose to promote or demote, and the interests we ultimately advance or overlook. in south africa, my context, despite the well-documented reputation of governmentguaranteed income contingent loans (icls) indenturing students, and their present and future families (van der merwe, 2022), such loans continue to be canvassed and prescribed by policymakers, university leaders and interest groups as a necessary, rational and sole means of attaining, a sustainable ladder of educational opportunity. neither the loud voices of the #feesmustfall movement nor the current student debt crisis in american he and similar systems have deterred ongoing efforts to hand over south african youth—and arguably south africa’s sovereignty—to commercial banks through icls. this paper, as part of the author’s research and advocacy work, is aimed at disrupting this master narrative, by offering analysis that makes explicit the likely impact on south african students, families, communities and the settler-colonial state as a whole, of government-guaranteed icls sourced from commercial https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/o8b5j https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/o8b5j https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/mjkgm+g3swy+lf0yv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/mjkgm+g3swy+lf0yv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/thnor https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/thnor https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/99wr2 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/99wr2 miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 51 banks. in this paper, the author brings together insights from jeffrey williams’ pedagogy of debt, carter g woodson’s miseducation, ha-joon chang’s idea of bad samaritans, and kwame nkrumah’s theory of neo-colonial client states, to explain why students, families, communities and broader society should resist icls as a financial aid model. to add to voices in support of free public he and the student debt abolition movements, i employ a qualitative document analysis methodology (bowen, 2009) to critically review the icl model recommended in the fees commission report by the south african government's commission of inquiry into higher education; the latter was aimed at offering a qualitative analysis of the likely impact of ongoing attempts to introduce government-guaranteed icls in south african he. although underutilised, qualitative document analysis remains a powerful methodology in social policy research, providing background and context to events, generating rich in-depth insights and offering a means of generating additional research questions (bowen, 2009). documents are central to the bureaucratic functioning of modern society, particularly in the domain of educational policies. documents not only bear witness to key past events, but they also “exist within social fields of action … and are therefore not mere records of social life, but integral parts of it” (dalglish et al., 2021). more recently, educational researchers, such as eaton (2022); mitchell (2021); shermer (2021), have drawn from policy documents to study the history, evolution and impact of he student funding policies on students, families and communities. the fees commission report carries he funding policy proposals recommended to the south african government in response to the #feesmustfall protest movement, and thus its content can be analysed to interpret and make sense of broader implications of such policy proposals for south africa and related contexts. i conclude by making a case for freeing public he for all on the basis of mutual aid (simkhovitch & kropotkin, 1903), transitional and reparative justice in education (sriprakash et al., 2020). debt and the battle for the soul of public higher education scholars, activists, and more recently politicians (schneider et al., 2019), have mounted a mainstream pushback against student loans and debt as a primary means of funding he, by making a case for student debt abolition and the scrapping of tuition fees. while its intentions are not in question, much of this mainstream pushback falls short at very crucial moments. it tends to swim in the same waters dominated by what berman (2022) calls the problematic yet “dominant economic style of reasoning”, the very style of reasoning that, as berman and others have argued, brought about the very student debt crisis. in this style of reasoning, efficiency is https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/r0xdp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/r0xdp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/r0xdp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/r0xdp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/r0xdp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/o7f7n https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/o7f7n https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt+ls7dj+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt+ls7dj+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qezac https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qezac https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bzfit https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bzfit https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/i8djr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/i8djr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ttclr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ttclr mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 52 prized above all else (including justice), social policies have to make “economic sense”, and they are tolerated only to the extent that they converge and do not infringe on the interests of the market—particularly those of financial institutions. in this mainstream pushback resides inherent complicity with the very destructive notion of he as an end-user/self-funded commodity. by embracing this style of reasoning, the mainstream pushback against marketisation and commodification of he outsources representation of the problem (bacchi, 2012)—back to forces that are responsible for the very crisis—and thus confining and limiting our ability to imagine a more humane and just he policy. for example, the hiking of student fees to balance university books owing to austerity cuts and the reimagining of students as consumers has not only unjustly “passed the buck” to families; it has also consolidated debt as an accepted paradigm of he funding and propelled the troubling rise of financiers in he (eaton, 2022). there is thus a need for a pushback that transcends majoritarian narratives of what constitutes a just and equitable he funding model, one that makes explicit the trail of destruction that indenture and debt servitude have inflicted on our universities and the constituencies they serve (love, 2004). this paper seeks to contribute to such pushback efforts. context: south africa’s fees commission report and its proposed icl student funding model as a post-conflict society, south africa presents a unique and interesting context to study he systems in transition. it is one of the most unequal societies in the world, with an he system bestowed with a policy mandate that frees itself from the enduring legacy of the country’s colonial and apartheid past (wiseman & davidson, 2021). three decades since the democratic dispensation, south africa and south african he continues to be characterised by intersections of race, class, geography and gender dimensions, and how these shape, reproduce and sustain the country’s income, wealth and spatial disparities in access to, and successful outcomes in education (masutha & naidoo, 2021; pomerantz, 2019). a recent study by von fintel & orthofer (2020) estimates that “about half of the wealth is owned by the top 1%, and 93% by the top 10% of the population” (p. 8). as the income and wealth inequality gap widens globally, south africa presents an extreme end of these patterns and thus offers important insights for other countries (chatterjee et al., 2021). to mitigate against the exclusion of students from low-income households, the democratic government established the national student financial aid scheme (nsfas), an https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/yktxz https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/yktxz https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bqtlc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bqtlc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bqtlc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qth4b+l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qth4b+l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9wekj https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9wekj https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9wekj https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/xkhqn https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/xkhqn miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 53 icl model aimed at transforming and widening participation for students from historically marginalised communities. despite the nsfas’s noticeable contribution to transforming the demographic makeup of the student population, the limitations of this icl model have ranged from administrative deficiencies, unfunded and underfunded students, misalignment with student needs, high non-completion rates and the violence that accompanies graduates/and or dropouts who leave university with a mountain of debt (masutha & naidoo, 2021). most recently, the nsfas icl model was at the centre of annual sector-wide instability when the #feesmustfall student movement protested against continued experiences of financial exclusion that have been a consistent feature of marketisation of he in post-apartheid academy (booysen, 2016). following a wave of #feesmustfall student protests against student loans and in demand of free, decolonised he, in january 2016, former president zuma established a commission of inquiry led by retired judge jonathan heher (the fees commission) to add to the body of knowledge and evidence that will inform the government's decision making process in pursuit of a sustainable solution to the ongoing he funding crisis. the attitude of the fees commission report towards the idea of free he is captured in the following excerpt from the report: the commission is persuaded that higher education brings with it substantial private benefits. at the most basic level no student attends university or a tvet [technical and vocational education and training] college because he or she intends in so doing to benefit the state and increase taxes. he or she does so for the potential increase in personal or family advancement, status, income, future opportunity or simply, selfgratification. what can be concluded without fear of rational contradiction is that to typify higher education as exclusively or even essentially a public good is to ignore reality (rsa presidency, 2017, p. 56). the fees commission then recommended the adoption of government-guaranteed icls as a primary means of funding all students in south african he. for the reasons which we have set out at length it is the advice of the commission that the income contingent loan model is best suited to the achievement of the goals of the ndp [national development plan], and will not be hampered by restricted public resources, will provide a huge step towards the attainment of universal access to higher education that the constitution guarantees, is equal and fair in its operation; is cost efficient, doing away with https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/gldgv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/gldgv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/gldgv mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 54 substantial administration costs; is easily collected and recovered; will be the most likely model to provide long–term sustainability; and is feasible subject only to willing, serious and informed negotiations between the public and private sectors. the icl model that should be created in the best interests of all should be designed by a committee of experts that will pay due regard to models used in australia, new zealand, the united kingdom and elsewhere (fees commission report, 2017, p. 532). although president zuma’s cabinet rejected the icl model recommended by the fees commission and opted for a grant-based free he model to students from the bottom 90% of south african households, the post-zuma era has seen efforts to reintroduce governmentguaranteed icls (department of higher education and training, 2022). the next section turns to the reasons why south africa and related contexts should continue to resist the government-guaranteed icls as means of funding students in he. the pedagogy of debt and the spirit of indenture: debt fosters miseducative experiences in light of the growing public awareness of the trail of destruction that student loans with few exceptions continue to leave behind, surprisingly little focus has gone to examining educational implications of students studying under indebted and indebting circumstances (callender & mason, 2017; wozniak, 2017). to contribute to addressing this gap, i invoke the first conceptual building block necessary to reinforce the wall of resistance against the orthodoxy of debt as a primary means of funding students in he, by drawing from jeffrey williams’ seminal works, namely “the pedagogy of debt” (2006) and “student debt and the spirit of indenture” (2008). observing student loans becoming the new paradigm of he funding, williams (2006) cautioned that student loans would revive the spirit of indenture by producing a generation of indentured students who would proceed to live as indentured citizens. he projected that students would “pay their transport through he in hope of reaching the shores of a decent job in exchange for agreeing to a future of debt peonage” (williams, 2006, p. 162). he pointed at the lengthy terms of the personal contracts students were made to sign with limited recourse, the role of brokers and the targeting of the youth as illustrative of how student loan debt would revive the spirit of indenture. as a result, debt would permeate and colour our social experience to the extent of determining the very texture of our lives (williams, 2008). the evidence suggests that williams was spot on (eaton 2022; shermer 2021). https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/zuhml https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/zuhml https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/5mp1i+jl5wh https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/5mp1i+jl5wh https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/5mp1i+jl5wh https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt+ls7dj https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ok3nt+ls7dj miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 55 we must resist the orthodoxy of student loans because, as (williams, 2006) convincingly argued, “debt is not just a mode of financing but a mode of pedagogy” (p. 162). in making this argument, williams urged us not to think of debt as something extraneous but rather “central to people’s actual experience of the current university” (williams, 2006, p. 162). williams invited those of us responsible for teaching and learning in he to also grapple and contend with the lessons that debt teaches and the implications of our students studying under indebted and indebting circumstances. taking inspiration from williams, i would like to emphasise at least three ways in which debt fosters what john dewey called miseducative experiences (dewey, 1986), and canvass these as crucial building blocks in the wall of resistance against icls in south africa: first, debt reduces teaching and learning in he to an act of debt-service training (wozniak, 2017), by imposing itself on both the content and form of study. for example, the defunding of humanities in favour of business majors is an example of how student loans have imposed themselves on the content of what is studied (hutner & mohamed, 2015). debt teaches a student from a village with no medical facility that actuarial science is a more rational choice and better fit than nursing or midwifery. second, debt teaches a market-centric worldview. according to (williams, 2006) “student loans directly conscript college age students into the market. debt teaches that the primary ordering principle of the world is the capitalist market and that the market is natural, inevitable, and implacable” (p. 164). third, debt teaches that the worth of a person be measured not because he or she is human or their contribution to our collective wellbeing, but according to their future earning-potential. for those of us in settler-colonial states like south africa, we must resist student loans on the basis that a life in service of debt has a neutralising effect; it weakens human solidarity and normalises our collective submission to a humiliating system. this, in turn, undermines our ability to imagine our own version of freedom from persisting conditions of coloniality. black debt, white debt: ‘there would be no lynching if it did not start in the schoolroom’ where jeffrey williams falls short is in his insufficient attention to the racialised nature of student debt. in building the wall of resistance against the orthodoxy of debt as a paradigm of he funding, there is a need to pull the black student debt crisis from the crowd in order to avoid obscuring this group’s unique relationship with student loan policies and the disproportionate impact that these policies have had on black students and black communities. for example, a report by scott-clayton & li (2016) found that in the united states, the black-[lb16] white disparity in student loan debt more than tripled after graduation, with black graduates bearing the worst brunt, despite also being consistently underserved by he institutions. these findings https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/2umhk https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/2umhk https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/5mp1i https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/5mp1i https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qsaml https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qsaml https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qsaml https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/er3fl https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ndxfg https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ndxfg mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 56 are consistent with earlier findings by hamilton et al. (2015) in their report “umbrellas don't make it rain”, finding that “black families whose heads graduated from college have about 33 percent less wealth than white families whose heads dropped out of high school”. fortunately, where williams falls short, student debt abolition advocates such as mustaffa and dawson (2021) among others, have picked up the button and continued to invite us to disrupt race-neutral understandings of the student debt crisis. the two convincingly argue that it is not enough, as has been the case to merely make reference to student debt and rates of racial inequality—“any nostalgia for an he system that worked for all relies on an ambivalence towards anti-black violence at every turn” (mustaffa and dawson, 2021, p. 6). even the growing calls for the return to he as a public good must account for how (in the case of such countries as the united states and south africa) the public, did not include black people (mustaffa & dawson, 2021). in “white debt, black debt”, the american sociologist seamster (2019) makes the case for resisting racialised debt (i.e., all debt) on the basis that “racial discrimination shapes who feels debt as a crushing burden and who experiences debt as an opportunity … unlike white debt, black debt represents a race up an eroding hill of sand: black debt means higher interest with lower returns. black debt also represents the past and ongoing theft of black assets” (p. 32). crucially, our universities have been active drivers in speculating and profiting off black indebtedness. mustaffa and dawson (2021) remind us that “the early colonial colleges … used black slaves as collateral to accrue and pay off debt and created academic disciplines to justify treating black people, not as humans, but commodities” (p. 3). recently, revered institutions such as columbia, harvard, georgetown and princeton have all published reports confirming that they did not only benefit from the indenturing of black people as commodities, but they also helped justify it (reilly, 2017). it is therefore crucial that the black student debt be pulled from the crowd and understood within its historic and current contexts. importantly, in the south african settler-colonial state, we must resist icls in order to prevent the repeat of a history of speculating and profiting off black indebtedness in and through education during the colonial and apartheid era (bond, 2014). in sum, visions of transitions towards the new african university should resist the orthodoxy of debt because, as carter g. woodson cautioned in “miseducation”, the “violence inflicted upon black people has always begun at the level of ideas and knowledge”. woodson https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/4nzej https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/4nzej https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/4nzej https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fktqr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fktqr https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/arzho https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/arzho https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fdy9r https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fdy9r miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 57 further observed that “there would be no lynching if it did not start in the schoolroom”. afterall, “why not exploit, enslave, or exterminate a class that everybody is taught to regard as inferior?” (woodson, 2006). government-guaranteed icls as predatory samaritans’ “baited hook”. third, government-guaranteed icls should be resisted because, in their design and intent, they represent predatory samaritans’ ‘baited hook’; that is, a carefully constructed debt trap that coopts our educational aspirations and, under the cloak of inclusion, exploits our individual and collective repayment struggles (mitchell, 2021; mustaffa & dawson, 2021).the troubling rise of financiers in he resembles what chang (2007) called bad samaritans to describe highly trained academics from the global north, mostly hired by their governments to advise less developed countries, who misled poorer countries by prescribing development policies that have no history of success in their countries of origin. these policy prescriptions to poorer countries also happen to represent the exact opposite of how much the global north has actually developed (chang, 2007). similarly, icls have not been a neutral attempt to address the he funding challenge. for example, although their sustainability claim is contingent on students’ future income earning ability (loan recovery), in reality, icl financiers have been found to particularly target those who are least likely to pay back the money (eaton, 2022; mitchell, 2021; shermer, 2021a). in january 2022, the new york times reported that navient, one of the largest student loan companies in the united states, ‘repeatedly and deliberately … engaged in deceptive and abusive practices, targeting students who it knew would struggle with repayment, and placing an unfair burden on people trying to improve their lives through education’. the private loans were according to legal filings—in navient’s own words, ‘a ‘baited hook’ to reel in more federally backed loans’ (cowley & bernard, 2022). as the navient case shows, “student loans are perfect for racial capitalism because they answer demands for social access and inclusion, and reproduce both the disposability and dispossession of black people’s everyday lives” (mustaffa & dawson 2021, p. 19). a client state, sham independence and the grip of a virtual senate the fourth conceptual building block to reinforce the wall of resistance against governmentguaranteed icls in south africa stands on the basis that an indentured student is an indentured (present and future) family, and indentured families will ultimately constitute and contribute to the reproduction of an indentured south african settler-colonial state. given the state of south https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/76kda https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/76kda https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bonok+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/0t82n https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/0t82n https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/0t82n https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/0t82n https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ls7dj+ok3nt+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ls7dj+ok3nt+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/ls7dj+ok3nt+mjkgm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qyshq https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qyshq mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 58 africa as one of the most unequal societies in the world in terms of wealth and income distribution (chatterjee et al., 2020; greenwood, 2018; von fintel & orthofer, 2020), and the nsfas’s history of less than 5% student loan recovery rates (presidency, 2017), all indications are that the bigger fish to be reeled in through the government-guaranteed icls baited hook is the very sovereignty of the state (i.e., the loan guarantor), or whatever remains of it. further indebting the south african state will arguably reproduce its neo-colonial character or what kwame nkrumah referred to as a client state or sham independence (nkrumah, 1969). nkrumah, in his ‘handbook of revolutionary warfare’ (nkrumah, 1969), theorised that ‘a state can be said to be a neo-colonialist or client state if it is independent de jure and dependent de facto” (p. 8). a client state, in theory, “has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty’ but “in reality its economic system and thus its political policy is under the control of international finance” (nkrumah, 1969). the effect of a client state and its neo-colonial character is that it delivers itself to the grip of what renowned scholar noam chomsky referred to as ‘a virtual senate of lenders and investors’ (murray & kocharova, 2010). importantly, the virtual senate of lenders, in turn, arrests the ability of the indentured state to preside over the direction of its own social and economic policy. the virtual senate conducts moment-by-moment referendums on government policies. if the virtual senate determines that those policies are irrational—meaning that they are designed to benefit people, not profit—then it can exercise its “veto power” by means of capital flight, attacks on currency and other means (murray & kocharova, 2010). all of these have occurred in post-apartheid south africa (bond, 2014; mpofu-walsh, 2021; sergeant, 2013; terreblanche et al., 2002). during the #feesmustfall protests, the south african government’s frantic attempt to balance the interests of students/families on the one hand and the banks on the other as shown in the fees commission report, is illustrative of a government serving what chomsky calls a dual constituency (murray & kocharova, 2010). our transition to a new african university should thus reinforce the wall of resistance against the orthodoxy of debt as a paradigm of he funding because the unguarded blurring of lines between the state and the powerful elite minority has a well-established track record of pursuing “policies that benefit them and harm everyone else” (chomsky, 2017). in the absence of formidable opposition, the concentration of power that primarily flows from the masses into the hands of a privileged few results in a vicious cycle that feeds into what adam smith called the vile maxim of the masters of mankind—“all for ourselves and nothing for anyone else” (chomsky, 2017). in sum, what is at stake when a state is indentured to the virtual senate of https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9wekj+l8w8d+25ijm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9wekj+l8w8d+25ijm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fnrqm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fnrqm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fnrqm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/fnrqm https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/eg2co https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/eg2co https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/eg2co https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/eg2co https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/kbgrd+hfty+fdy9r+oh1ej https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/kbgrd+hfty+fdy9r+oh1ej https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/kbgrd+hfty+fdy9r+oh1ej https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/eg2co https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/eg2co https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/oigdc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/oigdc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/oigdc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/oigdc https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/oigdc miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 59 lenders (the new masters of mankind), is best described by words attributed to the former canadian prime minister, william lyon mackenzie king, when he said: once a nation parts with the control of its credit and money, it matters not who makes the nation’s laws. until the issuance of currency and credit is restored to government, and recognized as its most sacred responsibility, all talk of sovereignty, of parliament, and of democracy, is idle and futile (mcmurtry, 1999). to paraphrase james baldwin, we must resist any further indenturing of south africa to avoid waking up one day to “discover that the flag to which we have pledged allegiance … has not pledged allegiance to us, that the country which is our birthplace, and to which we owe our lives and our identity, has not in its whole system of reality evolved any place for us” (buccola, 2020). a critique of government-guaranteed icls specific to the fees commission’s report the commission’s recommended icl scheme has resulted in disastrous experiences internationally (callender & jackson, 2004; coughlan, 2017). whereas the commission’s proposed icl model is anchored in the aim of cutting social spending to reduce government debt; elsewhere this model has in practice had the opposite effect on government debt. in england, the institute for fiscal studies (ifs) found that “more than 77% of those taking out student loans will have some or even all of the loans paid off by the government because graduates will not earn enough to repay their loans within that time … and that the abolition of the last maintenance grants in 2015 had disproportionately affected the poorest, while students from the richest 30% of households would run up lower average borrowings” (adams, 2017). in july 2017, andrew adonis, former british education minister and one of the architects of the icl model in england has referred to the model as “a politically diseased ponzi scheme with catastrophic effects” he never anticipated; he subsequently called for the model to be scrapped (mortimer, 2017). second, owing to high non-completion rates, general economic stagnation, a shrinking labour market, falling wages and unregulated university fee hikes, two thirds of england’s graduates are unable to repay their student debt even when given a 30-year repayment period, resulting in the government incurring a debt crisis (adams, 2017). in south africa, research into non-completion he (masutha & naidoo, 2021) illuminates how the dropout rate alone, which disproportionately affects low-income students, would result in both students and the south african government incurring a debt crisis. for example, the 2013 report of the https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/vnvsk https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/dxnol https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/dxnol https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/dxnol https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/vx6xf https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/vx6xf https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/yw91a https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/yw91a https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lf0yv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/tvqod https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/tvqod https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lf0yv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lf0yv https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/l0dl4 mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 60 department of higher education and training’s ministerial committee on the review of the nsfas, revealed that between the years 2000 and 2010, of the 656 000 students funded through nsfas, 67% were no longer in he by 2010. of this group, 67%, 72% dropped out without completing their studies and only 28% graduated (masutha & naidoo, 2021). third, the fees commission report affirmed that available “evidence suggests that the generation of work opportunities by and in relation to students who graduate will be sufficient to support the stability of the scheme” (presidency, 2017, p. 539). this prediction was not supported by empirical evidence and has turned out to be wrong. even before the covid-19 pandemic, south africa was already experiencing record levels of unemployment (“south africa’s unemployment rate jumps to new record high,” 2021). of particular relevance to this point, the latest evidence from statistics south africa’s quarterly labour survey shows a worrying trend of growing unemployment amongst university graduates (chabalala, 2022). lastly, the recommended icl model of the fees commission was widely rejected by the most important constituency in south african he, the students. some student leaders viewed the commission’s recommended icl model as a debt trap worse than the pre-2017 nsfas icl that converted up to 40% to grants upon graduation. in their media statement, the south african students congress rejected what they termed “a corporate-inspired fees commission report” (dispatch, 2018). cape peninsula university of technology’s src secretary-general mbaliyezwe madikizela told radio station ofm that the fees commission’s icl model was “worse than anything we could've ever expected … we are very, very disappointed … all i can say about the report is that we reject it” (news, 2017). speaking to the sabc, the economic freedom fighters student command echoed the same sentiment, saying “free quality education is our generational mission, not this nonsensical report”. student leader’s stance against icls were consistent with research by (callender & mason, 2017) which found that the fear of student debt and its lifelong implications deters and undermines the participation in he. of youth from low-income households. overview discussion from fee-free to freeing public higher education first, my advocacy for a free public he is anchored on the notion of freedom as inscribed in south africa’s freedom charter of 1955 (freedom charter, 1955), one of the founding documents of south africa’s struggle for liberation and freedom from settler colonialism and apartheid. free means a free publicly funded he for all. the freedom charter, a 66 year old https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/l0dl4 https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/m3afb https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/m3afb https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/m3afb https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/znvtb https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/znvtb https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lhkld https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lhkld https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/yitbw https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/yitbw https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/jl5wh https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/jl5wh https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lpubw https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/lpubw miseducation, predatory samaritans and an indentured client state: a case against the pedagogy of debt in south african higher education ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 48-68 61 document adopted at a gathering of the congress of the people in kliptown, declares that the “doors of learning and culture shall be opened!” it further declares that: education shall aim to teach the youth to love their people and their culture, to honour human brotherhood, liberty and peace; education shall be free, compulsory, universal and equal for all children; higher education and technical training shall be opened to all by means of state allowances and scholarships awarded on the basis of merit … the colour bar in cultural life, in sport and in education shall be abolished. (freedom charter, 1955) the call for a free public he should thus not be reduced to a system that is merely free of charges at a point of access—the so-called fee-free higher education or deferred charges. he needs to be freed from the destructive market logics and pressures that have repurposed our universities into a marketplace where settler-colonial structures of power, domination and subordination are reproduced (brown, 2016; r. brown, 2010; carnevale et al., 2020; naidoo & whitty, 2014). as brown and carasso (2013) have shown, treating universities as a marketplace is achieving in he what neoliberalism has done to society as whole. (i.e., facilitating an unprecedented concentration of wealth, power and opportunities in the hands of those already well-placed and a steady rise in chronic levels of insecurity and precarity for those already in the margins of society). as academics, we must resist the further marketisation of he in order to avoid formalising ourselves into what robin dg kelley recently called mere “functionaries and cogs” in the neoliberal machine’s “spectacular acts of violence” (yancy, 2022). mutual aid, transitional and reparative justice the tenet of mutual aid is kropotkin’s idea that “we all have a natural and voluntary will to cooperate and help our fellow beings, and that we are predisposed to help one another, and need not be coerced to do so” (simkhovitch & kropotkin, 1903). there are ample examples of this around us, we just need to foreground this idea in our development of social policies. the covid-19 pandemic has reminded us that there can be no truly sustainable future if that future is shared and rooted in the spirit of collectivism. the author also advocates for freeing public he for all as a pathway to reparative justice and future. in their recent background paper for unesco’s futures of education initiative, sriprakash et al. (2020) make a case for reparative futures in education as a commitment and recognition that “past injustices, even when they appear to be distant in time or over, will continue to endure in people’s lives in material and affective ways unless, and until they are consciously and carefully addressed” (p. 2).with the https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/aglim+bhsjt+obsww+yqhbp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/aglim+bhsjt+obsww+yqhbp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/aglim+bhsjt+obsww+yqhbp https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/o8b5j https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/o8b5j https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9blta https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9blta https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/9blta https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qezac https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/qezac https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bzfit https://paperpile.com/c/vy0oql/bzfit mukovhe masutha ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 48-68 62 enduring legacy of its colonial and apartheid recent past, nowhere is reparative justice more needed than in south africa (mpofu-walsh, 2021). freeing south african he for all represents one of the avenues through which the unjust afterlives of south africa’s recent transition can be redressed. conclusion i conclude this paper by putting forward two practical measures that must accompany efforts to free he for all in south africa: the introduction of a wealth tax and contextual admissions. a recent study by chatterjee and his colleagues at the southern centre for inequality studies found that a progressive wealth tax on the top 1% richest south africans could raise a conservative estimate of r70–160 billion (that is between 1.5% and 3.5% of south africa’s gross domestic product). the upper bound of this estimate is more than three times the current budget of the nsfas. contextual admissions are necessary to address the flaws of colour, gender, geography and class-blind meritocracy in admissions (gorard et al., 2018). furthermore, as we imagine varied pathways to the new african university, it is recommended that educational researchers continue to peel off and carefully examine what the author considers to be the black box of south african he—where black working-class dreams, individually and collectively, go to die under policies of predatory inclusion—seemingly progressive policies that often achieve the opposite of their stated intentions. as shown above, the government-guaranteed icls proposed in the fees commission report fits into the category of policies of predatory inclusion. it is for this and other reasons outlined in this paper that a case for freeing public he is made. references adams, r. 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white-indifference-is-normalizing-spectacular-acts-ofviolence/?etype=emailblastcontent&eid=77e07376-4f26-4746-9b6e-12d42fb0f129 https://truthout.org/articles/robin-kelley-white-indifference-is-normalizing-spectacular-acts-of-violence/?etype=emailblastcontent&eid=77e07376-4f26-4746-9b6e-12d42fb0f129 https://truthout.org/articles/robin-kelley-white-indifference-is-normalizing-spectacular-acts-of-violence/?etype=emailblastcontent&eid=77e07376-4f26-4746-9b6e-12d42fb0f129 combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ali mazrui centre for higher education studies, university of johannesburg, south africa abstract as former colonies of western imperial powers, virtually all aspects of african life have been invaded by forces of western hegemony. colonial mentality is the blind assimilation or internalisation of the colonial powers’ socio-cultural forms resulting in the destructive and disruptive abandonment of the ways of life of the colonies. as it applies to africa, colonial mentality is a product of african cultural invasion in which, having been exposed to colonial experience for a long time, an average african has internalised foreign ideas and ideals—so much so that she has lost the authentic african ways of life in the process. using philosophical methods of argumentation and critical engagements, this paper contends that a connection exists between colonial mentality and the observed failure of african universities to efficiently effectuate their relevance as africa’s development partners. the paper identifies four key areas in which colonial mentality plays out most profoundly in african universities, namely, the nature of knowledge produced, the mode of certification, the language of instruction, and research funding. the paper argues that the incursion of colonial mentality in these vital areas continues to impede african universities’ capacity to substantively contribute to african development drives and aspirations. given this close nexus, the paper maintains that african universities may never realise their potential as a critical sector in african development discourse. this qualitative research is based on critical inquiry through a process of identifying, questioning and assessing deeply held assumptions about western hegemony. the paper concludes that decolonisation in learning spaces can only be a feasible project if it is accorded the seriousness that it deserves by all stakeholders both within and outside the university. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 94-118 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 95 keywords: colonial mentality, western idea of university, african universities, african development aspirations, decolonisation introduction by “colonial mentality in higher learning spaces”, we mean the unpatriotic disposition of african intelligentsia to reject things that are of african cultural origins, and cling to things that are foreign to their cultural orientations and social ontology. such a mindset has pushed african epistemology to the margins of learning spaces and has saddled the continent with irrelevant knowledge that disempowers africans. this disposition is historically embedded in the colonial experience to which africans were, and are still being, exposed. colonialism stayed long enough in africa for its people to develop cultural dementia, altered identity and distorted reality. ndlovu-gatsheni (2017) describes colonisation as an immense project covering the alienation of power, space, time, being, nature, gender, spirituality, aesthetics and knowledge. africans have been denied, and are thus devoid of, history, context and the ability to understand themselves in relation to others. it is thus of paramount importance to articulate that altered identity which snatched away african voices in the arrogant face of the status quo. although physical colonialism has long left africa, africans continue to act in ways that undermine their mental freedom in a post-independence era (thondhlana & garwe, 2021). this point is reinforced by taiwo in a recent article where he accuses african leaders and intellectuals of what he calls acquired independence deficiency: the irony is that the african fought for the independence with mirth and main but have done little to exercise independence or provide evidence that it occupies any serious place in their lives, in the design of their institutions— social, cultural, economic, political or legal—or in their embrace of borrowed practices and processes. (taiwo, 2019, p. 33) with the foregoing backdrop, the central claim of the paper is that a nexus could be established between the uncritical acceptance of the western idea of a university, occasioned by the phenomenon of colonial mentality and african universities’ ongoing inability to effectively play their roles as the continent’s development partners. hence, the paper aims at achieving three principal objectives, distributed along three sections of the paper. in section one, the paper reviews the idea of a university. this section is very important because it reveals the genealogy of the idea of the university, as currently reflected in the african case, as the invention of the babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 96 western hegemony foisted on the continent during colonial rule. section two of the paper identifies areas in which colonial mentality most profoundly plays out in the african university system. in doing this, the paper primarily aims to demonstrate how the western-inflected idea of university continues to hamper the extent to which african universities can go in the realisation of their essence as major players in africa’s development agenda. in section three, the paper reiterates the urgent need to decolonise african universities if they are to have a reasonable impact on the african development drive. to avert confusion as far as our position is concerned, there is a need to clarify some of the assumptions undergirding the central thesis of the paper. two such assumptions are worth mentioning from the outset. the first is our view on the nature of african identity, and the second is the variant of decolonisation that we adopt in the paper. in the first place, the paper accepts the essentialist view of the african identity. essentialism in matters of african identity is the view that, as a people, africans1 have a uniqueness that differentiates them from any other group of human beings in the world. this essentialism derives from the concept of culture, which has been widely accepted to be a way of life for a group of people. however, given the non-static nature of culture within the historical context, our essentialist framework allows for changes within the socio-cultural milieu. these changes are rather accidental, not substantial, in the sense that they do not affect the core values, beliefs and socio-cultural outlooks of a people. they are merely transformative developments within every culture, which account for cultures’ evolutionary progress from being simple to more sophisticated. for instance, that people move from simple culinary or linguistic culture to a complex one does not mean that they discard their local foods or languages in favour of foreign ones. on the contrary, it means that they have improved the ways they prepare their foods or have expanded the scope of their vocabularies in accordance with the dictate of the current realities. given the compatibility of our essentialist view of identity with (accidental) change within a culture, the paper resists possible objections to essentialism based on the alleged 1 we adopt agbakoba’s criteria for defining who is an african. for him, an african cannot be strictly determined by the criterion of being domiciled in the african continent, given that there are people who are geographically classed as africans, but whose descent and evolution find a better explanation outside of africa. this description is apt for the north africans. agbakoba also rejects the classification of africans based on racial/biological criterion, which views an african as a negro or a negroid, the reason being that there are individuals in this class who, having lost their link with their african roots, are only superficially african. he settles for cultural and ideological criteria for identifying an african. accordingly, an african is “a person who shares in african culture and/or the history of african culture and is involved in its re-creation and evolution” (agbakoba, 2014, p. 98). we take this description to be a near representation of an african. combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 97 neglect of the historical development of the university culture as an incursion of western heritage on african identity. for one, our essentialism significantly diverges from what agbakoba (2014) derisively refers to as the “immutabilist” view of identity because it can yield change. our position is that the changes do not alter the identity from what it is to what it is not, much as the changes occurring in a growing child do not alter the child from who she is to who she is not. agbakoba’s (2014) own “mutabilist” account grossly misunderstands the nature of identity. when the question of identity is asked, what is usually expected is some enduring markers which differentiate one thing, person or people from another. the mutabilist view of identity thus blurs this demarcationist apparatus of identity, thereby denying each cultural group its uniqueness. as for the variant of decolonisation being espoused here, the moderate version presents itself most forcefully. not all aspects of african universities can be decolonised without the universities themselves being dispensed with altogether. to be sure, africa needs universities to generate relevant knowledge that can benefit her in her development drive. however, while we cannot decolonise the need for african universities to research and teach to generate knowledge, the kind of knowledge generated and taught to african students should constitute a great concern to africans. this is because not all kinds of knowledge are beneficial or profitable to africa; this is contrary to the saying that “no knowledge is lost”. the idea of a university the idea of a university and higher education has been hazily and indistinctly defined and conceptualised by several scholars since the middle ages. there is no consensus on the meaning, conceptualisation and narratives of the very idea of a university and what it constitutes. the notion of a university and higher education as we know it today has been predominantly shaped and conceptualised within the distinctive features of european historical trajectories. the “idea of a university” here refers to the essence of a university. in the ordinary manner of speaking, “essence” means the most fundamental aspect of a thing. the essence of a thing is that property that makes that thing what it is. philosophically speaking, the essence of an object comprises the most intrinsic property of the object. according to metz (2018, p. 221), “a thing’s essence is those properties it would have in any possible world in which it exists”. the essence of a thing thus defines its existence. an object loses itself (i.e., fails to be what it is) when it loses its essence. the essence of a knife is to be able to cut; so, if it fails to cut, it has lost its essence as a knife, even though its physical structure persists. babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 98 with this essentialist background, to talk about the idea of a university is to ask about the most essential aspect(s) of a university. what are these features of a university? everyone will agree that the idea of a university is incomplete without features such as teaching, learning and research. some interconnectedness exists among these three features. teaching is usually accompanied by learning (of what use is teaching without learning?). teaching is a matter of sharing relevant information, while learning is the receiving thereof; hence wherever there is teaching, learning is always present. given that it is a place where there are teaching and learning, the idea of a university is also characterised by the intercourse between teachers and students (alemu, 2018). the uniqueness of the university system lies in the role that research plays in teaching and learning. the function of the university was to advance knowledge by original and critical investigation, not just to transmit the legacy of the past or to teach skills (anderson, 2009). even though teaching and learning are important elements of university life, the direction of what is taught and learnt is properly determined by the kind, model and quality of research available. this is the so-called “principle of unity of teaching and research”, which is the first out of the three undergirding principles of the idea of a university identified by humboldt (1809). the principle of unity of teaching and research is “critical both of research divorced from teaching, undertaken by private scholars or in separate research institutes, without the stimulation of sharing those investigations with young minds, and of higher education divorced from original enquiry” (lucas & boulton, 2008). hence, given the centrality of research to the humboldtian idea of the university, while it may be possible to conceive of the idea of a university without teaching and learning, it is almost impossible to have a university without research. the other two principles upon which the idea of a university is based, identified by humboldt (1809), are freedom of teaching and academic self-governance. freedom of teaching could be interpreted to mean that university professors have the discretionary capacity to determine the contents of their curricula in line with their years of academic discoveries and intellectual convictions. this presupposes or demands that university professors have a sufficient level of academic maturity and leadership required to utilise the freedom of teaching to the advantage of their students and society at large. the principle of academic selfgovernment, on the other hand, is meant to protect academic work from the distortions of government control (lucas & boulton, 2008). the search for truth, which is the hallmark of combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 99 research activities within the university, should not be meddled with to preserve the integrity of research outcomes. hence, university professors are meant to be unfettered (in their pursuits and dissemination of truth) by any agent that may put their research activities at risk of compromise or distortion. in summary, the humboldtian principles aim at the idea of a university wherein teaching is informed by research, where the contents of teaching and learning are products of critical studies and rational convictions of academic staff, and where the autonomy of knowledge producers is guaranteed in its fullness. another scholar whose thought has shaped the western idea of a university is henry newman. as cited in lucas & boulton, (2008), with less emphasis on research than humboldt, newman views the idea of a university as a place where: students come from every quarter for every kind of knowledge; … a place for the communication and circulation of thought, by means of personal intercourse. … it is the place to which a thousand schools make contributions; in which the intellect may safely range and speculate. it is a place where inquiry is pushed forward, … discoveries verified and perfected, and … error exposed, by the collision of mind with mind, and knowledge with knowledge (lucas & boulton, 2008, p. 3). fundamental to newman’s definition is the idea of a university as a place for teaching universal knowledge (alemu, 2018; fuller, 2004). this, to him, implies that the object of a university is, “on the one hand, intellectual, not moral; and, on the other, that it is the diffusion and extension of knowledge rather than the advancement” (newman, 2008, p. ix). according to newman, the fact that there are students in the university indicates that its primary essence is neither a scientific nor philosophical discovery. this downplays the place of research as the essence of a university. newman’s conception of the university as a place where universal knowledge is taught continues to generate controversies. specifically, the notion of the universality of knowledge has raised a few questions. if a piece of knowledge is generated in a particular region of the world, then it becomes questionable how such knowledge attains the status of universality. gwaravanda & ndofirepi (2021, p. 1) rhetorically ask, “if research method arose within a particular culture and context, how do they gain universality?” what makes a piece of knowledge universal: is it its origin or its validity across cultural and temporal boundaries? of babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 100 course, being universal cannot be tied to geographical origin, for that will imply that people of other origins cannot generate universal ideas, which will be unacceptable. also, it would be difficult to grant that an idea always applies to all peoples because that would undermine ontological differences among a variety of peoples and the uniqueness of each temporal reality. given this and other controversies in which the concept of universality is shrouded, scholars of the global south are beginning to explore an alternative to universality, popularly known as pluriversality (gayá, 2021; gwaravanda & ndofirepi, 2020; mignolo, 2018). it is not the aim of the pluriversalists to entirely reject universality as an epistemological doctrine; what they are up against is the universalisation of universal thinking (vasconcelos & martin, 2018). hence, instead of having an overarching epistemological paradigm which dominates or reigns over all, and the destructive silencing of other equally valid epistemological paradigms, the pluriversalist explores the possibility of having several competing epistemological worldviews slug it out in the marketplace of ideas. it is the acknowledgement that a tree does not make a forest as far as knowledge production is concerned. in the pluriversal mode of thinking, knowledge is a multi-tiered venture that takes into consideration the possibility of coexistence among many worlds and paradigms of meaning. hence, pluriversality is convivial, dialogical and pluralogical in its epistemological approach to reality (gwaravanda & ndofirepi, 2020). it could, therefore, be submitted that the universalist model of the idea of a university is an extension of the imperialist hegemonic and megalomaniac strategy for keeping the global south continually epistemologically impotent, culturally alienated and ontologically disoriented in questions most critical to their survival, and to which they have rich and more epistemologically viable alternative responses. obsessed with the appetite for the production of globally accepted knowledge, african universities have been made not to see what truly matters within the context of their existence; and have become engrossed in the production of academic content that they neither entirely understand nor are they needing. keim (2008, p. 32) observes that “african scholarly production is oriented neither towards the local peers nor to one’s own society, but towards the overseas public.” besieged by the philosophy of limits in which (post)colonial african education is circumscribed (taiwo, 2019), the quest for universality has continued to encumber african universities from being truly independent in every critical sector of knowledge production. the two views of the idea of a university considered in this section, namely, humboldt and newman, represent the two dominant western models of university. the first, as we have combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 101 demonstrated, takes the primary essence of a university to be research, given that the quality of teaching and learning is determined by the quality of research available. the second holds the idea that a university is a place where universal ideas are taught and learnt, and that knowledge acquired in the university setting is not meant for other purposes beyond the knowledge itself. both views could be reconciled by arguing that, since research drives teaching and learning, and both are supposed to result in universal ideas, then the real essence of research is to produce universal outputs. however, given the identified link between the politics of universality and the imperialist project of neo-colonialism in learning spaces, especially in postcolonial africa, this idea of a university becomes suspect. as we have also noted, research is the driver of teaching and learning. hence, if research is not well motivated, properly intended and culturally oriented, the result would be an intellectually shallow, socially confused and culturally alienated generation of scholars, and a university system that is irresponsive to its responsibilities as an agent of social transformation. the idea of a university in which the academic staff has absolute freedom to invest their time researching whatever catches their intellectual fancies—regardless of the social, political, or economic relevance of the outputs on the overall wellbeing of the tax-paying populace—is not only insensitive but also wasteful. it is our position here that the essence of the university in africa should be seen in the light of its relevance to africa’s development agenda. hence, africa must occupy the central concern of the african universities’ overall activities. this is not intended to mean that african universities have no use for research, teaching or learning of other people, only insofar as it contributes to the understanding of the african situation and how to enhance it. the truth remains the ideal end of every academic inquiry. however, we contend that not all truths are of developmental relevance to africa. african universities must thus be selective in their search for truth by limiting their search to only the truths that have beneficial consequences for african realities. in the following section, the paper identifies and discusses four areas in which african universities manifest colonial mentality, and how these hinder them from realising their essence as africa’s development partners. colonial mentality within learning spaces colonial mentality is a culturally inauthentic attitude or state of mind, occasioned by the historical antecedence of colonialism that results in deep-seated animosity towards self. it also babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 102 causes the rejection of the indigenous ways of life of the colonised in favour of the ways of life of the erstwhile colonial powers, which are considered better, more civilised and acceptable. hence, for alicia soller (2017), “colonial mentality is a form of internalised oppression that conditions colonised people that their ethnic or cultural identity is inferior to western culture or whiteness. therefore, they live their lives striving to be westernised and learning to hate their indigenous roots.” colloquially dubbed “colo-mentality” by kuti (1977), one of the foremost nigerian musicians and activists, the colonial mentality is the tendency among african elites to consider everything african inferior and everything western to be extolled as a standard for human existence. it is a multidimensional construct that refers to personal feelings or beliefs of ethnic or cultural inferiority (david & okazaki, 2006; utsey, et al., 2015). there are elements in the african university system that continue to hold on, unabated, to vestiges of colonial mentality. a critical review of african universities reveals several such elements, but in this section, we shall identify and critically discuss four of them. they are: first, the belief that a university is a place meant for acquiring knowledge for its own sake (knowledge-for-knowledge’s-sake argument); second, the emphasis on paper qualification; third, the instructional methodology—with emphasis on foreign languages as the medium of instruction; and fourth, research funding in african universities. in discussing these themes, the section is motivated by two objectives, namely, to demonstrate how the elements constitute barriers to the relevance of african universities to the development aspirations of africa, and the need to decolonise african universities in these areas. one of the legacies bequeathed to african universities by the colonial regime is the belief that knowledge is to be sought for its own sake. newman specifically holds this position (anderson, 2013; anderson, 2009). this is to say that knowledge is intrinsically good, which implies that it owes its goodness not to its relationship to anything else, but solely to its own nature (kraut, 2010). the foundations of this belief are diverse. one of them is the distinction philosophers have drawn between extrinsic or instrumental value on the one hand and intrinsic or ultimate values on the other. extrinsic or instrumental values are those sought not for their own sake, but for the achievements of further values. intrinsic or ultimate values, in contrast, are not sought for the sake of bringing about further values or good; rather, they are sought for themselves. kraut (2010, p. 450) defines intrinsic value as referring to “what is good in itself, or good for its own sake, or good as such, or good in its own right, or good without qualification, or good absolutely, or good tout court, or good san phrase”. evidence abounds combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 103 that philosophers such as aristotle (irwin, 2019), ross and ross (2002) as well as moore (hurka, 2021) have identified knowledge, either explicitly or implicitly, as an intrinsic value or good. canonical as the knowledge-for-knowledge-sake argument seems, there are reasons2 to doubt its neutrality as far as its affiliation with colonial mentality is concerned. three such reasons are discussed here. first, the belief is deeply rooted in western individualism; thus, it is selfish and un-african. it contradicts the african philosophy of communalism and the moral principle of ubuntu, which gives primacy only to actions done with the good of others in view. there is a need to show how knowledge for its own sake wears the badge of individualism. the history of western philosophy is replete with agreements on the description of knowledge as a form of intellectual pleasure. in ancient greek philosophy, scholars like plato and aristotle recognise knowledge as a higher pleasure. in plato’s republic, for instance, socrates suggests that there is a particular kind of pleasure peculiar to each part of the human soul, taken respectively in profit, honour and knowledge and its acquisition (rowe, 2012). since the rational part superintends over the appetitive and spirited parts in plato’s tripartite division of the soul, it is easy to see that the pleasure peculiar to it, that is, knowledge and its acquisition, takes the highest form of pleasure. also, aristotle includes intellectual pleasures in the list of his human highest good. mill (1863, chapter 2), in his outline of the utilitarian principle, writes that “[t]here is no known epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation.” the hedonistic conception of knowledge betrays its selfish tendencies and its insensitivity to, or detachment from, surrounding realities. it views knowledge as neatly and indisputably within the purview of the individual will, with little or no concern for realities outside the individual. this manner of thinking is deeply rooted in the egocentric philosophy of descartes, whose cogito ergo sum (i think, therefore i am) formalises western individualism and capitalist orientation and attitude of the mind. in descartes’ epistemological vision, the 2 here we are not denying that some areas of research such as mathematics, logic, theoretical physics, etc., could be studied for their own sake; neither are we discouraging african scholars from engaging in these legitimate areas of enquiry. the point we are defending is that in engaging with these subjects, african scholars should be primarily motivated, unlike their counterparts elsewhere, not by mere satisfaction of their academic curiosity or enjoyment of mental pleasure. our argument is that, as third-world academic professionals, it is morally imperative on african scholars to look beyond the parochial tendencies of their disciplines and start to reflect concerns for african predicaments in their research. it is our position that every discipline has capacity for this just demand. babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 104 knower is taken out of the worldly context and locked up within the bounds of her own ego, where she lives on the illusion that she alone exists in a world populated by others. because the individual in descartes’ epistemology cannot go beyond herself and, thus, must ratify other knowable objects in the light of her subjectivity, the knowledge of the self becomes absolute, and the knower so content that the knowledge acquired is raised to the level of pleasure, which is sought for its own sake. the kenyan philosopher, john mbiti, was perhaps the first african scholar to identify the absurdity in descartes’ philosophy. whereas descartes “believes that a human being is essentially self-contained and self-sufficient; an inherently rational, mind-bound subject, who ought to encounter the world outside her head with scepticism” (birhane, 2017), mbiti (1969) points out that such an introspective knowledge-stance is irreconcilable with an african epistemological framework. as he puts it in what has now become a cliché within academic circles “i am because we are, and because we are, therefore, i am” (mbiti 1969, p. 106). thus, in the place of the crude individualism that characterises western epistemology, africans recognise communion (metz, 2020), organicism (gbadegesin, 1991), harmony (mokgoro, 1998), cohesion (masolo, 2010), and community-belongingness (iroegbu, 2005; nkondo, 2007). the summary of this african collectivist ontology is succinctly captured by metz: on the one hand, there is what i call “identifying with” others or “sharing a way of life” with them, that is … considering oneself part of the whole, being close, belonging, being bound up with others and feeling integrated. on the other, there is exhibiting solidarity with other[s], and caring for their quality of life, namely, achieving the good of all, being sympathetic, service, being committed to others’ good, and being concerned for others’ welfare. metz (2020, p. 125) the above will lead to the second reason why we take “knowledge for its own sake” to be unafrican, namely, that africans do not do things just for the purpose of doing them. there is always a reason for doing something, and this reason transcends the parochial considerations of the doer. when one asks a typical african, “why did you do x?”, one is not likely to get “i did x because i felt like doing it” as a response. in the traditional african ethics of ubuntu, the “i” is relegated to the barest minimum for the “we” to emerge. unlike the i-consciousness that pervades the western cultural philosophy of personhood, ubuntu proponents believe in interdependence; hence they emphasise that: “a person is a person through other persons” (waghid et al., 2018, p.55). with this outlook on human nature, every action or inaction is combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 105 inspired by the desire to affect others positively, alleviate human conditions, and make the world a better place for its inhabitants.3 to put it within the context of the current discourse, the ideal end of knowledge is to be measured by how well it conduces to human wellbeing, and not by its satisfaction of the pleasure-seeking appetite of an individual’s intellectual sensibilities. following from the above is our third afro-centric case against the knowledge-for-itsown-sake argument: it is insensitive, unpatriotic and wasteful for knowledge to be sought for its own sake in a continent struggling with the woes of underdevelopment in virtually all critical sectors of its existence. a properly decolonised african university cannot pride itself on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake in the face of the deprecatory state of human conditions and infrastructural challenges in africa. metz (2019, p.1) asks if it is justified for a scholar on the continent of africa to spend her time pursuing knowledge for its own sake, and for a public university to pay her to do so, given the ubiquitous problems of poverty, unemployment, oppression, poor healthcare, lack of quality education, worsening insecurity, unprecedented inflation, frustration, etc., which a large percentage of africans currently experience. balogun offers a triumvirate of arguments, specifically within the context of philosophy as an academic discipline, to answer metz’s question in the negative. balogun’s first and most salient argument against knowledge for its own sake appeals to the social context of african philosophy (metz, 2019, p.4). the warrant for this argument is that philosophy develops in context, and given that no philosophy exists in a vacuum, the contents of philosophical inquiries should reflect the realities (contexts) of the social, political and economic milieux within which it is practised (balogun, 2008a, 2013). in his second argument, balogun (2008b) opines that the african context of the concept of an “educated person” presupposes a life of service to the community to which the educated person belongs. after an educational experience (whether formal, informal, or non-formal), it is expected that the educated should be able to turn his or her acquired skill and knowledge into a citizenship service … the emphasis on the intrinsic value of knowledge and other related experiences shows again, the point of divergence 3 that many africans do not live or act in the manner described, or because there are problems in africa, does not seem to disprove our position here. in contemporary africa, people are either christian, muslims or traditionalists. none of these religions support the violence going on in africa today. yet, it is wrong to deny either that the majority of africans are christians, muslims and traditionalists or that none of these religions preaches violence. babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 106 between the african understanding of an educated person and the western conceptual model. (balogun, 2008b, p. 123–124) this may be properly called a pragmatic approach to education. the third argument advanced to show the impropriety of seeking knowledge for its own sake by balogun is hinged on an african moral viewpoint that “it would be immoral to devote time, money, and other resources to an inquiry that is unlikely to make a practical difference in people’s lives” (metz, 2019, p. 8). this last argument is especially forceful, not only because the resources expended on a “profitless” venture are scarce but also because they could have been spent on other critical sectors with more possibility of yielding practical utility or benefits to people’s lives. although metz has raised some objections to balogun’s submission, especially the first two arguments, our position, has a similar point of departure to that of balogun. the university system is a huge public investment, gulping up several billion in annual budgetary allocations in each african state. given its capital-intensiveness, the financial cost of running universities in some african countries has become so burdensome that it has negatively impacted the financing of other critical sectors of their national lives. as an investment, african universities are expected to yield practical profits, not merely equipping the younger generation of africans with knowledge and skills required for better lives in an increasingly competitive global community, but more importantly, in the production of research outputs consciously intended to raise the quality of lives of africans. thus, they must not pursue esoteric knowledge that bears no relevance whatsoever to their communities of origin. just as an individual does not stand aloof from the community, so african universities must not live lives of their own, but rather the lives of the communities that established them. this way, african universities are only free insofar as freedom is a protective mechanism against unnecessary external interferences that may impinge on the realisation of this essence. the second colonial element in the african educational system generally and in african universities, particularly, is the emphasis placed on paper qualifications. being educated is increasingly being equated with possessing degree certificates. but it has now been widely established that contrary to the widespread belief that they were absent, formal and informal education were actively present in africa prior to the arrival of colonialism (ezeanya-esiobu, 2019; mosweunyane, 2013). writing on the specific case of nigeria, taiwo notes that: combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 107 given the available evidence in history, sociology, anthropology and political science, there is sufficient warrant to say that many of the indigenous communities attained a very high level of social differentiation as well as of material and cultural development in the period before the advent of the alien historical movements which disrupted their capacity for autochthony. the only problem is that little has been done to research this mode of knowledge production system and describe their characteristics. taiwo (1993, p. 894) what taiwo avows above is probably true of all african societies. this is because it might be very difficult to sustain the claim that africans were living in an epistemological vacuum before colonialism arrived in africa. evidence exists that africans were both theoretically and practically learnt in their precolonial mode of existence. for instance, it remains a thing of surprise and intellectual wonder how the primitive africans were able to develop such a highly complex epistemological system as the ifá divinatory device found among the yoruba of nigeria. in fact, “considered as a system of knowledge, the ifá corpus not only had its complement of specialised personnel; it also had, in many communities, spaces exclusively reserved for its dissemination to those who sought to acquire the knowledge it contained” (taiwo, 1993, p.893). this implies that there were not only professional teachers and practitioners of ifá knowledge, but there were also designated centres or, more precisely, schools, where it was taught and learnt. practically speaking, africa was also not an isolated tabula rasa. there are indications that africans were fashioning farming and hunting tools to advance their existence and survival. mosweunyane (2013, p. 52; see also adeniji, 1983, p.82) argues that “the fabrication of metallic tools and implements, textile production, traditional medicine or food processing, involved the application of various techniques, principles and propositions arrived at through observation of the environment and experimentation at various levels”. the knowledge of herbs for curing various illnesses and diseases ensured that they lived in good health despite the negative impacts of environmental forces that were against them. scholars like dugard (2012) identify how artisans wove cloths and baskets, and how they brewed beer from bananas and grain. several other aspects of the indigenous knowledge production mode that are yet to be investigated—and from which scholarly inquiries are sure to benefit—include the system of music education, technological education and priestly training, among others (taiwo, 1993). babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 108 although a large corpus of literature has built up around the precolonial african educational system, there has been scant scholarly evidence on the mode of awarding african “students” on successful completion of their courses of training. amid these limited scholarly resources, the igba-boi business school or apprenticeship model, practised among igbo people of south east nigeria readily comes to mind (agozino & anyanike, 2007; lady-franca, 2016; iwara et al., 2019; oyewunmi et al., 2020). under this practice, an apprentice (i.e., an aspiring entrepreneur [usually] male) lives under a master entrepreneur for a period, during which time he both learns the art of trading and serves the master. after this learning and serving period, the master “settles” him either by giving him money to establish his own business or by giving him some wares to initiate it (iwara et al., 2019). furthermore, such linguistic evidence as bí ọmọdé bá tó l’ọkọ, a fun l’ọkọ (that is, when a [male] child is mature enough to be given a hoe, he is given a hoe) underscores a similar practice among the yoruba of southwest nigeria. here, a “hoe” represents concepts including freedom, maturity, readiness, independence and responsibility. it is a way of saying “having satisfied all conditions required for this training, i hereby certify you sufficiently knowledgeable in the craft”. there may be other ways in which this purpose is achieved in other parts of africa. notice, however, that in all of these, no other “certificate” is given for having completed a round of education (e.g., apprenticeship, training) beyond practically assisting the “student” to start the craft after evidence of sufficient proficiency has been established. our submission, therefore, is that paper qualification is not only foreign to the african educational system but has also impacted negatively on the quality of university education in africa. given the significance of certificates to their survival outside universities, a high number of african undergraduate and graduate students alike are now more interested in these pieces of paper than the actual acquisition of knowledge and skills made available in the university. the race for certificates has largely compromised the standard of higher education, resulting nowadays in all manner of corrupt practices in african universities. as highlighted by mohamedbhai below, the ripple effects of this alien practice on contemporary african universities are quite worrisome: it was reported that in may 2015, south african authorities shut down 42 bogus colleges and universities that were offering fake and unaccredited programs, including three bogus, supposedly us-based universities offering degrees in 15 combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 109 days. in nigeria, which has the largest higher education system in africa, areas, where corruption occurs most frequently among academic staff, are … promotions, journals and book publications, extortion of money for handouts and marks, and sexual harassment. in a 2012 anonymous survey among 475 students in three east african universities, about a third of the students admitted to plagiarism and to fabrication of references, 25 percent to collusion in an examination to communicate answers, and 5 percent to impersonating someone else in an examination. even a small country like mauritius has not been immune to fraud. a couple of supposedly branch campuses of private indian universities, set up in mauritius without the necessary approval of indian authorities and offering degrees that would not be recognised in mauritius or india, are in the process of being closed down. (mohamedbhai, 2016, p. 13) among others, the above challenges have crippled african universities, preventing them from adequately playing their role as agents of social transformation in their respective national domains. laziness, dishonesty and irresponsible attitudes among african university students are now so widespread that one wonders what the future holds for these students as professionals in their respective fields, including in the field of education. the third colonial element we identify in african universities is the instructional methodology, with emphasis on the language of teaching and learning. language plays a crucial role in the decolonisation project. what one finds, however, is a gravely contradictory situation in which the decolonisation project and conversations are driven by the languages of colonisers such as english, french, german and portuguese. a laughable instance will suffice as an example. in 2021 at the obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria, the faculty of social science organised a workshop tagged “rethinking decolonisation of knowledge: a critical scrutiny of african progress”, where all the lofty observations and submissions, including the communique of the workshop, were rendered in english. the height of it all was when a senior faculty of the university insisted that she was grateful for colonialism because, without it, she would not be able to speak as fluent english as she now can, a colonial mentality at its peak! ironic as this case is, it is a commonplace occurrence as far as decolonisation discourse is concerned. the language question has been raised at various disciplinary levels in african scholarship. scholars like (balogun, 2021; makinde, 2010; saro-wiwa, 1992; and wa babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 110 thiong’o, 1986) have respectively raised the question in the context of african philosophy and literature. for instance, balogun (2021, p. 300) has insisted that to “continue to do african philosophy in non-african languages is the very perversion of philosophy, which thrives richly on language”. although this point is made in relation to the specific case of philosophy, it is probably also valid for other areas of inquiry. this is because central to every discipline is the task of revealing the aspect of reality that it studies. the various aspects of reality studied in different disciplines are revealed to the intellect through thoughts and are expressed through language. in essence, language mirrors reality, and dictates the extent to which the intellect can go in investigating reality. if language affects the way we represent ontology and given the distinction between western and african ontologies, then the use of the former’s language to represent the latter’s ontology incites a fundamental problem of loss of identity. this problem forcefully manifests in the “black skin, white brain” or what fanon (2008) calls “black skin, white mask” syndrome which is evident in the africa of today. the use of european languages as a medium of instruction in african universities not only helps implant the dominance of white people’s culture in the psyche of african students but also creates a confused generation of africans who are neither genuinely african nor sufficiently western. this is not limited to students alone; it also restricts the scope of research carried out in the universities because of the linguistic constraints it poses on what can be researched. many research interests would have benefitted africa immensely, but which language of research cannot contain. an aspect of the foregoing problem worth mentioning here is the proclivity among africans to take foreign language proficiency as evidence of intelligence. the corollary of this may play out in two major ways. one, it is possible for a teacher to be sufficiently knowledgeable in an area of study but lack the linguistic competence to communicate it both in the contexts of research dissemination and imparting knowledge to students. the implication of this may be dire not only for the productivity of the hypothetical teacher but also for the quality of her pedagogy. this way, african academic staff, besides the responsibility to research and publish outputs in their respective fields, have an extra burden of improving on the foreign language in which they conduct their research and deliver their teachings. two, some students would have done better in their academic pursuits but for encumbrances posed by foreign language incompetence. succeeding in the university is inherently difficult, but with the addition of the need for language proficiency, success becomes even more so. with results combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 111 ranging from disengagement and non-commitment to outright withdrawal, language continues to be a vehicle for promoting a culture of silence, challenging students’ success at universities, and in many ways, tending to have a direct bearing on students’ access to knowledge, academic performance and meaning-making, to mention a few (mayaba et al., 2018). the fourth and last colonial element in which postcolonial african universities are deeply entrenched is foreign funding for african research. research is the heartbeat of a university. however, research is greatly impeded in the absence of adequate funds to execute it. given that research requires money, the extent to which a university can go in terms of its research outputs is directly proportional to how much funding is made available to its academic staff to pursue their research activities. except in a few african countries, however, the majority of african universities lack the required funds to match the research obligations of their academic staff. in consequence, african academics hugely depend on the monies they get from foreign funding agencies to facilitate their research and career advancements. research funding is a form of aid. scholars like moyo (2009), as well as taiwo (2019), have condemned what they term development aids to africa on the grounds that no country ever gets developed on an aid model. as it pertains to african universities, foreign aid is given in the form of grants, fellowships, conference subsidies, awards and scholarships, among others. in whatever form it takes, it is our opinion that foreign aid remains an imperialist campaign against the intellectual freedom of africa. the presence of these aid-giving agencies is so pronounced in contemporary africa that some african universities not only have separate offices for them on their campuses (for instance, there is an office of the carnegie corporation of new york in obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria), but they also measure the academic success of aspiring vice-chancellors by how many foreign grants they attract to their universities. the mere appearance of such agencies as the african humanities programme (of the american council of learned societies), andrew w. mellon foundation grants, humboldt research fellowship, fulbright scheme, commonwealth scholarship scheme and the leventis fellowship is enough to incite envy and aspiration from colleagues. meanwhile, the imperialist intent of these agencies is often concealed behind the façade of financial attractiveness. as research funders, they dictate the trajectory of research activities in african universities by specifying areas of research sponsorship. the politics are aimed at getting african universities to be committed to generating ideas that are not in tandem with their developmental aspirations, while at the same time furnishing the funders with critical babalola joseph balogun, emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 112 information about africa upon which further imperialist actions are taken. pauperised both by their governments and the socio-economic realities of their respective states, african scholars have continued to search for a better life by attuning themselves to the dictates of research funders while abandoning their responsibilities to their local communities. who is to blame for this trend? on the one hand, the blame for underfunding public universities in africa can be apportioned to the government whose poor financial support for higher education and obnoxious policies on higher education and cognate sectors have continued to weaken the research capacity of public universities in africa. also, one cannot fail to mention high-level corruption by public officeholders and the politicisation of the education sector. this has created loopholes in africa’s research agenda that are effectively explored by the imperialist powers to their own advantage, and the disadvantage of africa. african governments must stop paying lip service to research if they expect the university to play its role as an effective development partner. on the other hand, the african academics themselves have not played a strong role in the entrenchment of good governance in african countries. academia has always exempted itself from politics on the grounds of neutrality. in this neutrality, the african university is guilty of being passive about things that can either boost or destroy the university’s relevance on the continent. conclusion the whole essence of the decolonisation project in african universities is rooted in the imperative of beginning to relearn to be african. colonialism has done so much damage to the african psyche, that it requires drastic effort to be extricated from its many alluring hooks. the logic of dependency on which neo-colonialism thrives must be deconstructed for african universities to reclaim their relevant place in the scheme of african development. african universities must resist the urge to be mere imitations of their western counterparts. for instance, fredua-kwarteng (2019) expresses doubt about whether copycat university culture will help to produce the relevant attitude needed to advance the continent’s economic growth, provide direction to bolster existing industries and create new opportunities. for every academic curriculum that an african university imitates, there is a bigger picture of which africa is not a part. hence, what it means for african universities to decolonise is to prioritise african needs in the design and implementation of their curricula, research and pedagogical activities. combating colonial mentality within higher learning spaces: the case of sub-saharan african universities ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 94-118 113 how, and to what extent, is this prioritisation achievable? one option is to take a radical approach and reject outright anything not reconcilable with african ontology and her developmental agenda. a motivation for this radical stance may be that, given her ontological and historical difference from the rest of the world, africa must reinvent for herself a uniquely african developmental strategy that is in tandem with her socio-historical ontology. every aspect of african life must be consciously harnessed towards the achievement of this grand plan. this approach demands a holistic cultural overhaul with african ontology as its theoretical foundation, african epistemology as its conceptual framework, and african logic as its underlying reasoning principle while african ethics provides its moral operational modalities. the university, which serves as the intellectual base of this cultural renaissance, has the responsibility of coordinating other aspects into a cooperative whole. this radical approach to decolonising african universities faces some challenges. primary among them is the doubt whether it is feasible for postcolonial africa to discountenance all foreign cultural practices, and still survive the complexity of the contemporary world. with historical experiences of slavery, colonialism and other incursionary violence against african agency, such a purist decolonial stance appears untenable. hence, decolonising the whole notion of african universities is questionable because the idea of “university” itself is not ontologically rooted in african ontology. can africa dispense with the whole idea of the university? can africa unlearn everything her contacts with foreign cultures have brought her way? how is that to be achieved? these and other issues make the radical approach unattractive as a way forward. the other option, more practicable in our opinion, is the application of the principle of adaptation “which is based on taking a concept and making it one’s own through creative modification or tweaking” (fredua-kwarteng, 2019 p.1). this principle involves the creative indigenisation of foreign (and seemingly universal) content and other university practices with the sole aim of relativising them to meet local 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(2018). rupturing african philosophy on teaching and learning: ubuntu justice and education. springer. teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities magdalene simalalo1, velisiwe g. gasa2, & kenneth k. muzata1 1 school of education, university of zambia 2college of education, university of south africa abstract well-prepared teachers are a determinant in the successful implementation of expanded core curriculum. teachers can give learners skills according to the way they are prepared. learners with visual impairments in special schools and students at tertiary level manifest deficits in critical skills required in academic success and transition in general. the nature of education of their teachers and challenges encountered during teacher preparation were not well established. the present study explored challenges faced in the preparation of teachers of learners with visual impairments in expanded core curriculum. purposive sampling was used to select twenty-two teachers, two special education curriculum specialists and three teacher educators. open-ended questionnaires were used to collect data from teachers of learners with visual impairments and semi structured interviews were conducted with teacher educators and curriculum specialists. the findings indicated that teacher education/preparation in ecc was insufficient, and the institutions concentrated on braille literacy; and orientation and mobility. the remaining skills in ecc were ignored. preparation incorporated few practical sessions and was highly theoretical. the major challenges among others were time constraints; insufficient resources in education; enrolments of student teachers; discrepancy between education and implementation; methodological issues. the opportunities were available to improve education were: employ more staff; embark on specialised education; advocacy and collaboration: offering continuous professional development for teachers. the study highlights the nature of preparation of teachers of learners with visual impairment. the teacher education institutions need to realign the curriculum through collaborative approach with other stakeholders so that teachers can effectively deliver skills to the learners. keywords: expanded core curriculum; visual impairments; access to curriculum; teacher preparation issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 166-189 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 167 background over the years teachers of learners with visual impairment have realized the need to give instructions beyond reading, writing and mathematics (hatlen 1996). despite studying the basic academic subjects also called core curriculum which the sighted equally do, learners with visual impairment need to learn additional skills known as expanded core curriculum (ecc). the ecc is sometimes referred to as disability specific skills or vision related skills. a study by brown and beamish (2012) asserted that teachers of the visually impaired learners ranked ecc as most important area and most frequently taught. in fact participants in the study by brown and beamish (2012) indicated that teaching ecc to the visually impaired is one way of advocating for the right to inclusion of the persons with visual impairments in many sectors of life. instruction, regardless of setting, must be provided by professionals thoroughly prepared and qualified to teach learners with visual impairment. teachers for learners who are visually impaired should have teaching teams working together to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate programming and services (alberta education 2006). a certificated teacher must direct and lead the learning team in developing goals and objectives that are educationally relevant. according to the american foundation for the blind, (2013), the skills and knowledge needed can be defined with three classifications. firstly, the teacher must have a foundation in regular education, including methodology in teaching reading, mathematics, and other areas of subject matter. secondly, the teacher must learn the techniques for curriculum adaptation for visual learning experiences so that the concepts taught remain the same with adapted teaching methodology and materials (muzata & mahlo 2019). thirdly, the teacher must know how to assess skills and deliver instruction in the specialized areas of independent living skills, social skills, career education, and specific areas of academics. the combination of knowledge and skills needed in order to provide appropriate educational services to learners who are visually impaired requires intensive preparation in a teacher education program. according to brown and beamish (2012) the roles of teachers in the education of learners with visual impairment are changing. in one of their surveys, brown & beamish (2012) found that teachers of learners with visual impairment have four major roles. these are; supporting learners and administration, teaching ecc, collaborating with the general education magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 168 teacher and ensuring that learners with visual impairment have access to the curriculum. these multifaceted roles have implications on the workload, accountability and quality of instruction. in as much as teachers would want to concentrate on the ecc other responsibilities take up their time. with such a change in the roles of teachers of learners with visual impairment, a way to balance additional responsibilities and teaching is necessary. it may be assumed here that teachers of learners with visual impairment would deliver better if they collaborated with other professional if they focus on teaching alone. the trained personnel is expected to offer hands on experiences and tactile explorations to enable learners to have direct access to information. the education of the visually impaired lacks qualified personnel in the various fields or disciplines like academic, vocational and technical skills. in zambia, the lack of skills among teachers has been noted in different studies and acknowledged by the ministry of general education (muzata & ndonyo, 2019; ministry of general education, 2014). sapp and hatlen (2010) and boame (2009) found that current education of teachers of learners with visual impairments focused on education in ecc along with the other curriculum. this approach was found to be faulty in that graduates did not feel confident to offer skills in ecc. equally institutions for teacher preparation felt that they did not have enough time to prepare graduates in ecc. teachers without skills in ecc will most likely not transfer the skills which they do not have. zhou, parker, smith, and griffin (2011) have shown that many teachers had significant deficits in assistive technology use for the visually impaired. about 55 (74.32%) of the 74 assistive technology competencies that were examined and that 57.5% of them lacked adequate confidence about teaching assistive technology to learners. the study further recommended that assistive technology for learners be embedded in university education for teachers. the study proposes that personnel preparation, baseline skills in teacher education in ecc and professional self-improvement of ecc are key to successful implementation of ecc. in another study by papadopoulos and goudiras (2005) teachers reported that one barrier to ecc implementation were deficiencies in teacher skills. this challenge was reported by 67 percent of the respondents. it was strongly felt by participants that there was the need for further development of teachers’ skills through on-going teacher education. in zambia, a study by mtonga (2013) revealed teachers lack of skills in using computers to teach learners with visual impairment, vis vi inadequate computers and other assistive devices to aid learning and teaching. muzata, (2020) revealed the failure by the school of education at the university of zambia to use computers to improve the learning teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 169 of students with visual impairment. inclusive education for student teachers in teacher education institutions calls for a skills in the use of assistive devices that can help deliver skills to learners with visual impairment (muzata, simalalo, kasonde-ng’andu, mahlo, banja, & mtonga 2019). it is clear from this background that teacher preparation in especially skills for ecc is in dire need. learners with visual impairment need skilled teachers to be able to learn not only the core curriculum but all the expanded core curriculum skills in order to integrate well in their environments. what is not certain in zambia is the status of teacher preparation in ecc and hence this study endeavours to answer the following research question: research question 1. what is the status of teacher education/preparation in ecc and the challenges encountered in zambia? 2. what could be the hindering factors to the implementation ecc in teacher education curriculum? 3. what are the opportunities for ecc in zambia’s teacher education course? method participants a total number of three (n=3) e teacher educators at university and college level were involved in the study. a sample of twenty two (n=22) teachers was also considered for the study. . the teachers were drawn from three special schools for learners with visual impairments. two (n=2) special education curriculum specialists were recruited to participate in the study. the profiles of participants in the study are presented in the tables 1-3. table 1: profile of teachers a total number of 22 teachers participated in the study. these were 13 male and 9 female. qualification gender male female certificate 2 2 magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 170 diploma 8 5 degree 3 2 masters 0 0 total 13 9 table 2: profile of teacher educator a total number of 3 teacher educators participated in the study. table 2 below presents their profiles. code gender work experience te1 male 5 years te2 male 5 years te3 female 4 years table 3: profile of curriculum specialists two special education curriculum specialists took part in the study. their profiles are presented in table 3 below. code gender work experience cdc01 male 12 years cdc02 male 10 years in order to select the sample for the study, purposive sampling procedure was used. all the three schools and the university were sampled because they were directly involved in the matter of education of learners with special needs. instrumentation in order to achieve an in depth understanding of the expanded core curriculum for learners with visual impairments, a qualitative case study (qcs) design was selected for this study. the protocols for data collection, data analysis and data representations lead to narrative data that are thick and descriptive in scope. this study used semi structured interview guides to collect data from teacher educators and curriculum specialists and semistructured questionnaires with teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 171 open ended questions were used on teachers. the two instruments yielded rich text information which is required in any qualitative study. procedures questionnaires were administered to teachers. teachers were given a brief background of the study. teachers were allowed to respond to the questionnaire in their own time after which the questionnaires were returned to the researcher after seven days. interviews were conducted with three teacher educators and two special education curriculum specialists. the researchers opened communication lines with the participants to plan on when and where the interviews were to be conducted. interviews were conducted in the offices of the participants and participants were given an opportunity to give detailed accounts and the researcher was able to probe or seek further clarifications on issues within the set questions thereby gathering rich and thick data. the interviews were audio recorded after consent was given by participants. data analysis the first strategy in the data analysis was the transcription of audio recorded interviews. this involved critical listening and typing of the actual words used to narrate. the typed scripts were sent to the participants for verification especially to indicate the correctness of the transcribed information. some participants gave a bit more information after going through their respective scripts. the second stage was to identify nodes or themes used in coding the data. saldana (2009) describes coding as a transitional process between data collection and analysis. having identified the codes or nodes and grouping them in line with the research objectives, the researchers had to begin coding the data in nvivo software. the coding process involved going through each script and coding information on the identified nodes or themes. sub-categories or themes also emerged. these were coded under the main themes. the quotations that made up the nodes were analysed to arrive at significant findings. ethical consideration before commencing the study, approval was obtained from the university of south africa research ethic review committee (rerc) with reference number 2015/06/17/50790773/5/mc. further permission was sought from the ministry of general magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 172 education in zambia. furthermore, ethical aspects such as confidentiality, anonymity and rights to withdraw from the study were considered. results the findings of the study are discussed under the following heading; status of teacher education in ecc; challenges: time constraints; methods; insufficient collaboration; education staff; enrolments in teacher education; discrepancy between education and implementation; education resources. status of teacher education in ecc skills in a question to find out if the teachers were prepared in the education for the learners with visual impairment, particularly ecc, most of them indicated that they were not prepared in teaching ecc skills to learners with visual impairments. the education preparation of teachers for learners with visual impairments was done at diploma (two years) and degree (where there was one course taken in an academic year and focused on teaching learners with visual impairments) levels. the courses offered at diploma level were mainly 3, namely orientation and mobility, braille and low vision (tt2, tt3). the teacher educators mentioned that the other skills in ecc were embedded in the three main courses. tt3 elaborated on this aspect as follows: the main courses are braille, low vision, orientation and mobility. under those we have components like devices, ict they fall under these areas as content of the programme. there are 3 main course, braille, low vision and orientation and mobility. activities for daily living (adl) are under orientation and mobility. assistive technology is in low vision. braille stands alone. at university level ecc skills were part of content of a course called visual impairments in the four-year programme (te1). the course run throughout the academic year and ecc skills are just part of the main topics taught in the course. the teacher educator (te1) made the following submission on this matter: yes, we do train the teachers, but i think i must be very sincere we do talk about them. we do talk about this ecc skills but i wouldn’t say we do train the students to really use them. for example, in the syllabus or in the lecture plan we do have a topic on ecc, we do have a topic on that. so, we do talk about them maybe two there weeks. teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 173 what we don’t do is the actual practice of the actual areas we may mention under the ecc but we do really teach them. . .ecc skills they come as part of the course content. just as i mentioned we have a topic on expanded core curriculum. as a way of breaking down, orientation is part of the course content apart from mentioning it in the ecc then we have time devoted to orientation and mobility, we also have time for assistive technology. he indicated that the course has a topic on orientation and mobility and also assistive technology. te1 further amplified that at the university, there was a course which runs for one academic year where student teachers are taught how to teach learners with visual impairments. at the university braille, which is a skill under compensatory and functional academics, was taught the entire academic year to the student teachers. as a practical component of the course, braille skills seemed to be a dominant area in teacher preparation for learners with visual impairments. according to te1, student teachers learn braille as a mode of communication. in terms of short intensive courses in ecc the university did not have such programmes while the study college offered short programmes in the form of rehabilitation and other courses, all these were offered in collaboration with donors for serving teachers. for te2 the institution offered rehabilitation for those who lost sight suddenly. the programme which lasted for six months focused on orientation and mobility. there was also mention that the institution offered short courses in braille education. the views are presented below: yes, the college offers short programmes which run for six months. in the department of education for the visually impaired, we receive serving teachers who may want to sharpen skills in braille. when they enrol they are given the basics in writing and reading braille. furthermore, we also have a programme for six months for orientation and mobility. on this one we receive clients that become suddenly blind. te3 had a slightly different position from that held by te2 as she stated that the college did not have short courses running directly but there was working in collaboration with other partners that offer short courses in the northern region of the country. this was mentioned to be the only short course the college was offering. from the confessions by participants in this study, there appeared to be a deliberate neglect of ecc skills emphasis in the preparation of teachers for learners with visual magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 174 impairment although some content was inadvertently embedded in the teacher education curriculum in form of braille, and orientation and mobility skills. it can be concluded on this theme that ecc skills for teachers are not covered in teacher education curriculum as an intended curriculum issue but rather latently delivered. latent delivery may not specifically address the education needs for teachers teaching learners with visual impairment. challenges to the implementation ecc personnel vs methodology in teacher education teacher educators indicated that one challenge was limited number of staff to offer practical skills. teacher educators reported that they were unable to adequately teach because a combination student enrolments, inadequate teaching staff impacted the choice of teaching methodology. . in the view of te1 stated the following: . . . actually for the members of staff we are only two with addition of other courses. . that’s why at the end of the day lecture method becomes the normal way rather than using some pedagogical approaches……. no, practical are not adequate because i presume most of the activities in ecc are practical in nature. while we lecture them by teaching our students, it would only make a lot of sense if there is a lot of practice. indeed, with a class as large as 150 students against two members of staff coupled with a lack of teaching resources, the educator felt justified to use lecture methods to teach ecc skill without giving the demonstration and practical aspect of education. on the contrary, the college had different experience in terms of numbers of students. the college showed concern on the small number of students wanting to train in blind education. te3 clearly brought out this point by saying: because most of the time we are dealing with in-service teachers our enrolment numbers are very low, especially the full-time students, issue of study leave they have to be on the education plan. it could be that there are a lot of institutions offering special education. our numbers are affected. so, in the full time programme the number and class size are small, especially in our department because when the students apply and come they tend to have this perception that braille is very difficult, so they avoid picking this programme. that’s another negative effect on numbers. you find that other departments have lots of students while we have small numbers. teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 175 discrepancy between education and implementation te1 and te3 talked about the discrepancy between education facilities and the actual implementation on the ground. the university or college may give the skills but teachers in the schools may not be teaching these skills to their learner due to a number of factors such as lack of materials, too many subjects to teach and lack of motivation. te1 stated the following: the other thing is i also think that even if sometimes we teach all these things, the implementation on the ground is weak, because you find that in schools they will just focus on academic aspect of the pupil without really looking at these areas which need development. already that is creating a problem because you work hard you teach them but they have nowhere to implement except braille. braille is there but other things may not be implemented. it’s a challenge there is no motivation for the students. in agreeing te3 stated that teachers may not find some equipment they were exposed to during education. an important component of teacher education is hands on experience. this is one aspect which students should have. in his submission te1 mentioned the following: and maybe lastly, we do not have a lot of areas where our students could go and practice these things even before they go to schools. i would have loved if we had a situation where we are talking about physical education for blind children, maybe we go out, let them see how it should be done in real situations. but you find that there would be no transport to do that. teacher education resources teaching and learning resources are among the requirements of effective education of teachers. the finding of this study was that resources were a challenge in teaching and learning process. the difficulties were observed right from the point of procurement of resources required in the education of teachers. te1 indicated that there were challenges in procurement of the materials within the institution. the procurement procedures were long and cumbersome. besides, most of the materials for learners with visual impairments were not readily available in the country. in teacher education institutions non availability of resources affected education. this was reported by the teacher educator. at university level the teacher educator indicated that magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 176 resources such as computers, braille production equipment were in short supply. te1 indicated the seriousness of the situation by saying this: apart from that already the university doesn’t have enough materials to help our students practice these things. i would give you an example, i know recently we bought braille frames and paper but we don’t have perkins brailler so that they can learn. these are some of the things students use in schools. we don’t have enough computer with screen readers so that out students get acquainted with assistive technology. we do not have the material that could be require for our students to understand orientation and mobility for example blindfold. similarly, te2 further argued that: the use of computers in the institution, we don’t have that technology for our students. it appears they are so much behind as far as technology is concerned. . . we also receive students that have just become blind. even in education they seem to be in denial. moving with those students in the programme is a challenge. . . .this may go actually to the whole community and how they look at the vi. it may not be our institution but the whole community. the vi become isolated, they fail to socialise with other. as a result they lag behind. the lack of materials for teacher education was echoed by te3 that the institution had no materials for students who are visually impaired. the materials that would be used in education teacher would be the same ones students with visual impairments might need to use for their academic work. the teacher educator stated the following: the college does not equally offer good counselling to students with visual impairments. this may contribute to the person with visually impairments’ failure to become included in the academic world and also community life. te2 mentioned lack of materials in the correct medium, lack of assistive technology for these students as well as inadequate counselling to enable the students cope with college life. his submission is presented below: time constraints the major challenges experienced in teacher education for learners with visual impairments included a lack of time to cover the work in the teacher education schedule. this was stated by teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 177 te1 and te2. at teacher education level time was limited to cover all ecc skills. tt1 felt that students were doing a lot of courses and the course on visual impairments was just one of the many students were supposed to cover. for students at the university the bachelor’s degree in special education did not provide specialisation in disability groups but students cover courses from all disability categories. the teacher trainer (te1) admitted that the university was unjust in educating teachers for learners with visual impairments because teachers were inadequately trained in ecc skills. the teacher educator explained as follows: adequate time to impart the knowledge is a challenge also. our students are doing so many courses and this course ecc is just one of the many courses that they are doing. what it means is that for instance here is a student who has five course and has ecc, it means that time to do a lot of other things is limited by the fact that the student must also attend to other courses. . .because in my view it’s the issue of time to do practical for each of these is a challenge. in a way we give students to practice by demonstrating to the friends in a particular situation, for example shirt wearing and buttoning. equally, lack of time was found to be one of the factors influencing choice of methodologies used in education. at the college the reduction in the duration of education from three years to two year meant not having ample time to handle all areas in the ecc. tt2 stated the following: as it is our programme is a crash programme because within two years our teacher do peer teaching, macro teaching and teaching practice. certain things are not covered fully. . . looking at the number of skills we want to share, am of the opinion that the time we have is not enough. opportunities for ecc in zambia participants reported several opportunities for ecc to flourish in zambia’s teacher education curriculum. favourable opportunities can best flourish when a number of challenges presented earlier are addressed. however, key among the opportunities are the enrichment of the ecc curriculum, employment of staff, increase in teacher education duration, promotion of continuous professional development, advocacy and collaboration. participants deliberated on the emergent themes as follows: magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 178 enrichment of the curriculum in ecc the curriculum used in education was not sufficient. this was reported by curriculum specialists and the educator. what we are teaching in colleges is like they are going to lecture, if you look at the way the syllabus is, there are no things like how to help a vi child acquire braille skills. these are not there. it’s like we are training lecturers to go and tell students to look for other things (cdc02). the education programme at college level comprised three areas of ecc (orientation and mobility, assistive technology and compensatory and functional academics) while the other aspects like social skills, recreation and leisure, self-determination, independent and life management and visual efficiency were not availed to trainee teachers. similarly, at university level emphasis was put more on braille education and orientation and mobility. as it is our programme is a crash programme because within two years our teacher do peer teaching, macro teaching and teaching practice. certain things are not covered fully (tt2). the implication here is that teachers did not receive sufficient education in ecc, therefore were not able to teach the learners all skills, which they did not have. employment of more staff deficits in staffing levels were quite vivid at university and the college levels. this situation affected instruction in ecc. te1 suggested that the institution should employ more staff to supplement the staffing levels. in his submission, the teacher educator identified large classes with a small number of teaching staff as a hindrance to effective education in ecc. the proposal was to have more staff employed to enhance the practical aspects of teacher education for learners with visual impairments. he put his suggestion in this manner: firstly, for instance the big classes, they could just say we may need more members of staff. that requires administrative will. we need more members of staff dealing with this course. if we can have, for argument’s sake, if we are 5 members it would be easier to spread ourselves across quite a lot of other areas: attending to braille, practice of orientation and mobility. a tutorial group which is doing some braille and at other times they go for orientation and mobility, they are attending to all those area teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 179 increase time for teacher education in ecc the finding of the study was that both at college and university level, teacher educators felt that time allocated to the teaching of skills in blind education was not adequate and that there was a need to increase it. at the college, the teacher educators submitted that the reduction of the number of years in education from three to two years had a negative impact therefore the duration of education for the diploma programme should be reverted to three years. te2 made the following submission on this way: in a period of three years we should be able to cover all the skills in ecc. as it is our programme is a crash programme because within two years our teacher do peer teaching, macro teaching and teaching practice. certain things are not covered fully. if pushed to three years we can manage. . . in three years, we would exhaust all these other skills in order to benefit the children out there. curriculum specialists suggested that teachers in special education need to specialise in one disability area for them to be more effective. further, the curriculum specialists advocated for inclusive schooling and the role of the special teachers as resource persons. this was against the backdrop of the current education at university where the teachers for learners with special needs were trained using a holistic approach. cdc 02 had the following to say: teachers at the college should specialise and sit in resource centres in special schools. around the special education schools, these should be inclusive schools whose teachers can get support and resources from the resource centres in the special education schools. if a teacher specialises they should be at a location where they offer services to other schools, for example at a zonal centre. if we had resources as a country; all schools should have had somebody specialised in one field or another. however, cdc01 had a different view; that even with a holistic approach to teacher education, teachers could still graduate with skills to teach ecc. all they needed was to specialise in core subjects such as science and mathematics where learners with visual impairments were denied access due to lack of teachers. magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 180 continuous professional development another aspect of teacher education was the need for continuous in-service education of teachers in ecc skills and education on how to make teaching and learning aids. the curriculum specialist said: we need to continue certifying and capacity building of these teachers. you would be surprised to hear that most schools for the visually impaired, mathematics, science and other practical subjects are not taught. it’s the issue of specialisation, we don’t have a teacher specialised in physics and braille, woodwork and sign-language. the teacher should learn braille from the resource room. our teachers are not innovative they need to come out of college with these skills, making teaching aids. even in the holistic approach, if these skills are given teachers would function well (cdc02). the curriculum specialist also suggested that a resource centres be set up where teachers would meet to learn certain skills, especially classroom strategies and methodologies. he said the following: but when teachers are specialised they don’t stay, where they go we don’t know. maybe the mainstream, but if we have a resource centre, all teachers would go there to learn how to teach instead of sending pupils to special education schools. all teachers specialising cannot work. advocacy and collaboration empowerment of persons with visual impairments calls for teamwork. teacher educator recognise this requirement. there are many stakeholders who need to contribute to making empowerment of the learners achievable. for te1, teamwork brings about success in the provision of education for learners with visual impairments. he further submitted that people who have knowledge on the special needs of learners with visual impairments should take a leading role in advocating for service provision. he made the following proposal: we cannot change the blind people in this country unless we introduce them to ict. i am saying that even those that need to come to institutions like university if they can come with computer knowledge then they will make life very easy for everyone. because if he knows how to read and write on the computer he can get soft copy notes from the teacher educator, no struggling for someone to do braille. some teacher educators have teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 181 books on soft copy, they can give a blind person and he can read on his own. it will make life a lot easier for blind people. we are so behind in zambia because someone in our school and probably our teacher education, we have not done so well in terms of providing ecc. teacher educators mentioned that the government was the major source of resources for teacher education especially in public institutions. therefore, the government needed to do more to support teacher education for learners with visual impairments. te1 had this view: most of these challenges can easily be resolved. one, by involving the government. as you may be aware the equipment for vi is expensive. as an institution, we don’t receive enough funding to buy these. we need perkins brailler and braille paper. secondly, organisations can be brought on board to help us with audio books, braille books. we can also record these books for our students to read. teacher educator also proposed the active engagement of other stakeholders to help the special schools acquire the equipment and materials such as computers. in this way, there would be no gap between what they train the teachers to do and the actual teaching in the schools. to this effect, schools were called to pay attention to teaching ecc skills by allocating time for ecc skills in the school timetable to ensure delivery of skills. te1 explained in the following way: i know it requires a lot of concerted effort. schools have ended up concentrating on academic provision. that academic provision depends on braille. we need other stakeholders to come on board, like those that can support our students to go out, maybe for excursions where they are able to see in reality on how to implement some of the ecc activities... we were discussing with someone that we need to influence zambia information communication technology authority (zicta) to begin focusing on blind schools in a different way by helping acquire a number of computers for their development. the submissions of the teacher educators were progressive and suggested that what was needed was to collaborate with the identified partners. a collaborative approach is necessary for the implementation of ecc. magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 182 discussion status of ecc in zambia and the challenges in its implementation the findings of the study point to number of aspects in ecc. teachers graduating from college and university lack many skills that are supposed to be taught to learners. this was quite serious because it meant that the teachers were not qualified to handle learners in ecc. teachers without skills can actually not deliver what they do not have. this finding confirms the one conducted earlier by boame (2009) which showed that education of these learners lacks qualified personnel in the various fields or disciplines like academic, vocational and technical skills. in zambia, mulenga and muzata (2020) reported similar findings, though not on ecc but on grade four (4) learners with visual impairment in ndola who found it difficult to write braille grade 2 competently due to factors such as lack of early intervention, inadequate teaching and learning resources; and inadequate practice of reading and writing braille grade 2. the teachers’ role is critical in the delivery of ecc. for them to effectively contribute to the teaching of learners with visual impairment, they need to be well qualified. teachers did not report receiving in-service education either. ideally, the teachers must have foundations in general education, methodology, curriculum adaptations, must know how to assess and deliver instruction in ecc and other subject areas. the curriculum for teacher education in ecc was extremely limited. only few skill areas were taught to teachers. the major focus was teacher education in braille literacy and orientation and mobility. these skill areas were only two out of the nine identified, independent living, career education, social skills, recreation and leisure, self-determination, assistive technology and visual efficiency the implication is teachers teach that which they were trained (sapp & hatlen 2010). one plausible explanation for limited curriculum was position that at university level students were not specialising in the field of visual impairments but were expected to have aspects of all categories of special needs in their teacher education. curriculum specialists were very categorical and attributed poor skills exhibited by teachers in school to lack of specialised teacher education in vi education at university. according to moe (2013) colleges and universities were expected to offer specialised teacher education in four main disability groups including visual impairments. this means that at college level the students take courses in visual impairments for three years, while those at teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 183 university level concentrate on visual impairments for the duration of four years. this would give the teacher education institutions enough time to comprehensively teach ecc skills. this finding is in line with sapp and hatlen (2010) and boame (2009) found that current preparation of teachers for learners with visual impairments focused on education in ecc along with the other curriculum. this approach was found to be faulty in that graduates did not feel confident to offer skills in ecc. teacher education curriculum for learners with visual impairments has a bias toward preparing teachers in ecc. the core subjects can be cotaught by regular teachers who may request for assistance from specialist on specific topics of difficult. the preparation of teachers equally engages mainly lecture and discussion methods with practical lessons been quite few. ecc skills are practical in nature and demand hands-on education. the lack of demonstration and practical in ecc in teacher education impacts on the teacher skills. inadequate teacher education methodologies mirror into the human and material resources available in ecc education in the institutions. the number of teaching staff are not commensurate with student enrolment levels, particularly in the university. huge classes are common with as many as 300 students being taught by 2 teacher educators. such large classes pose a challenge when it comes to conducting practical sessions for the students. besides the teacher educators who are qualified to train in visual impairments have other courses to teach within the university. this is partly the reason lecture methods were widely employed to teach ecc. teaching and learning resources were equally inadequate as teacher education at university focused mainly on procuring materials used in braille literacy: braille writing frames and braille paper. other resources like mobility cane used in orientation and mobility, equipment in independent living skills were non-existent. assistive technologies for the vi were not available for demonstrations during practical sessions. the lack of teacher education materials equally made it difficult for students to practice skills in their own time to perfect them because they did not have the devices. the limitation in teacher education materials was partly the reason educator to simply lecture or discuss these skills without giving practical. lack of teaching and learning resources was compounded by the fact that most resources for the visually impaired were not readily available for anyone to purchase within the country. magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 184 time constraints were indicated to negatively affected teacher education in ecc. at college level reduction in diploma duration from 3 years to 2 years implied a reduction in practical sessions for the three areas braille literacy, orientation and mobility, low vision education and pedagogical subjects. in as much as the teacher educator mentioned the areas of ecc, these skills were not taught as stand alone courses but embedded in the three main courses. at university level challenges with time could be understood in terms of lack of specialisation in visual impairments. students train in special education for 4 years, during which time they cover all disability groups. in this programme students have a stint in counselling, assessment, research and intervention in all disability areas. as a result, students have limited time to focus on education of the vi. teacher education in ecc skills requires time and teaching materials as well as staff to train. the scenario at the university was far from the ideal way of educating teachers to teach skills to the learners. the link between preparation and implementation is essential when assessing whether ecc skills are taught in schools. even where they have skills, teachers who had little practical experience during their preparation exhibit inertia in engaging learners in relevant activities. a combination of limited curriculum and defective methodologies in preparation have an impact on the difficulties schools experience to impart skills on learners. the difficulties learners encounter in day to day living emanate from the inadequate education in ecc skills by teachers. opportunities teacher education in ecc requires review, if learners with visual impairments were going to learn ecc skill. in as much as there were other factors to consider when evaluating ecc teaching in school, the teachers was at the centre. well trained teachers can engage with learners and have ability to be creative even in environments with few teaching and learning resources. the challenges identified create an opportunity for the institutions to reinvent the current position. a number of avenues to improve practice were proposed by the participants and are discussed here. teacher education in the country did not provide continuous professional development (cpd) for teachers of leaners with visual impairments, particularly in ecc. short courses or workshops in ecc can fill the gaps created during their preparation in the college by dedicating time to improve teaching specific topics in some subjects in the core curriculum. in-service teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 185 education helps teachers remain abreast with skills in assistive technology, making teaching and learning aids. according to ajuwon and craig (2008) in-service teacher education was one way of improving skills and increasing the number of teachers through intensive, face to face instruction. in-service teacher education helps teachers remain abreast with skills like braille, assistive technology, making teaching and learning aids and the teaching of specific topics in the core subjects. some areas short programmes could focus on include braille literacy and its application in providing assistive services. other areas of focus could be assistive technology for learners with multiple disabilities; prescribing assistive technology devices; strategies for teaching specific aspects of assistive technology to learners who are visually impaired (zhou, et al., 2011). curriculum review to embrace both content and duration of teacher education would be another strategy to improve training. the rationale is that it is possible to increase duration of training at college level by reverting to the 3-year programme. as for the university, a study programme on visual impairments would give enough content and time to address all areas of blind education. it may be argued that having new programmes without staff and training resources would be incongruent. but with a new programme all the requirements would be spelt out and the institutions would plan for them. in order for the new programme to succeed the institutions need to collaborate. collaboration by stakeholders was proposed as a strategy to enhance preparation in ecc. indeed, rather than blame one part of the system, the teacher educator called for collaboration at all levels. lewis and mckenzie (2009: 490) indicated that teachers of the visually impaired must take a leading role in explaining the importance of the skills and concepts of the ecc to administrators, parents, and other educators who may not understand the need for time and resources to be spent on the ecc. the university and the college are public institutions. to this effect, the major financier of activities was the government through the ministry of education. government involvement was critical before other organisations could come in to collaborate as suggested by the principle of partnership in education provision (moe, 1996: 5). collaborating with other stakeholders can assist in addressing challenges such as lack of exposure to practical situations. with collaboration, teachers and other professionals have an opportunity to create an atmosphere where teaching ecc skills and achieving goals in the teacher education become feasible (lohmeier, 2009:2). collaboration helps appreciate that ecc cannot be taught in isolation but as a part of programme that visually magdalene simalalo, velisiwe g. gasa, & kenneth k. muzata ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 186 impaired learners receive, with each partner taking up their rightful role. sensitization was important to help the community handle persons with disabilities in a positive manner. those who have knowledge of the special needs of learners with visual impairments should take a leading role in advocating for service provision beginning with teacher education. conclusion the current state of teacher preparation in zambia’s ecc is inadequate. graduate teachers were not well skilled or confident enough to teach. teacher preparation had gaps in terms curriculum, duration of preparation, resources and methodologies coupled with limited staffing level. this study avails the institutions the opportunity to make improvement by firstly evaluating their preparation to identify their inadequacies and secondly, through engaging other stakeholders and collaborators such the ministries of education. acknowledgement the authors declare that they had no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. author contribution: • magdalene simalalo formulated the research idea, did data collection, analysis and the writing of the research. • velisiwe gasa was responsible for writing the research report and for reviewing the entire document for completeness. • kenneth muzata was responsible for writing the research report, reviewing the article for coherence, and for editing. teacher preparation in zambia’s expanded core curriculum: challenges and opportunities ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 166-189 187 references ajuwon, p. and craig, c.j. 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(2011). assistive technology for students with visual impairments: challenges and needs in teacher preparation programs and practice, journal of visual impairment & blindness (4): 197-210. improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project thelma mort university of south africa abstract south africa is a linguistically diverse and educationally complex country. most student teachers in bachelor of education programmes who are preparing to teach in primary schools do not speak english as a mother tongue. the medium of instruction for b.ed programmes is english. foundation phase teachers will be expected to teach learners english (as a) first additional language (efal). intermediate phase teachers will be expected to use english across the curriculum as english is the language of learning and teaching (lolt) from grade 4 upwards. as such, it is important that newly qualified teachers entering primary schools can engage with english texts, have a competent understanding of english and communicate fluently in english. as one way of making a positive intervention in future teacher competency, this paper argues for the use of language and literacies assessment in initial teacher education (ite)at universities. the primary teacher education project (primted) has developed a set of language and literacy standards for teachers, as well as assessments for primary school student teachers’ knowledge of english. these assessments are designed to occur at two points: entry level (first year) and exit level (fourth year) of the bachelor of education (b.ed) degree. methodologically this paper considers the complex background conditions in language education which led to the primted project’s work and then sets out how the primted project’s assessment strategy may offer a hopeful intervention in these circumstances. keywords: english first additional language, initial teacher education, south african language context, english language testing, primted project. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 161-178 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 162 introduction south africa lags behind other countries in terms of language performance at school, as well as having poor school results overall, and some of the many reasons for this, including lack of parental involvement, big class sizes, lack of resources and teacher competency, are outlined in fesi and mncube’s 2021 paper. the issue of teacher competency is what this paper the work of the primted project focuses on. taylor in the initial teacher education research project (iterp) study noted as: “low levels of english proficiency among both teachers and learners. this places a fundamental limit on academic progress, since english is the medium of teaching and learning in around 90% of schools” (taylor 2014:6). school results clearly indicate a “lack of adequate reading pedagogies, resulting in large numbers of learners reaching grade 5 essentially illiterate” (taylor 2014:6). the problem of poor results in english language education is caused by many factors, but the primted project focuses on addressing this where teachers are trained in initial teacher education (ite). this paper seeks to detail the difficulties faced in schools and teacher education, and then examines how the primted project, with its accent on assessment, offers potentially pragmatic solutions to the issues of language education standards in ite. this paper is a contribution to an ongoing discussion which aims to create positive change in teacher education by giving more attention to reading, as several studies such as the national schools effectiveness study (taylor, 2011) needu (2012), the early grade reading studies (taylor et al., 2016) and the early work of this very project, the primary teacher education project (primted, 2016) has done. primted (2016) and wildsmith-cromarty & balfour (2019) attested that more attention be given “to creating teacher education courses, both for initial and inservice teacher education and training, that focus on teaching reading specifically at primary level. this needs to be coupled with a principled basis for determining professional competence in additional language teaching...” (wildsmith-cromarty & balfour, 2019: 316). taylor noted that “without very significantly improving teacher disciplinary knowledge and pedagogic proficiency, all other efforts aimed at improving the quality of south african schooling are likely to come up against low ceiling effects” (2019: 279). there have therefore been a number of voices in ite research calling for the strengthening of the language courses’ offerings, with the view that if english language standards on ite are raised, then student teachers with stronger english language and literacies skills will be going into primary schools. it is a commonly held belief improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 163 that an education system cannot surpass the strength of its teachers and following this logic, strengthening teacher education is one way of improving educational standards on the ground. considering the need for light to be shone on the teaching of reading and language in ite, the research questions which this paper addresses are: what are the background conditions in language education which necessitate the primted project’s work? and how can the primted project and its assessment strategy offer a hopeful solution to these conditions? the paper sets out the context in broader south african society, policy and initial teacher education, and then looks at specific research findings which have a bearing on the above concerns in efal teaching – both as it starts in foundation phase and continues in intermediate phase. after that, the calls for attention to be given to language teacher preparation will be discussed, and then, how the primted project, with its deliberate use of assessment, proposes raising standards in ite language education in south africa. the are several reasons for the current state of language education which will be described from the outset in the context section below, which serves as a scenesetting backdrop. context there are various historic and contextual factors which impact on south africa’s teaching and learning of languages. these will now be examined in turn, beginning with the country’s apartheid background, and then proceeding to discussions of south africa’s post-apartheid language policy, issues of school management, initial teacher education’s language standards and particularly the unevenness of these standards, and ending with a discussion of the response to policy. apartheid background the complexity of the sheer number of languages spoken in south africa, as well as an uneven and impoverished education system, with vastly different standards was the inheritance of the new democratic government of south africa in 1994 (heugh, 2013:217). despite the optimism of change and the possibility of building a new free and inclusive nation, apartheid effects can still be felt and “race, class and gender remain strongly articulated and complicated by location, language, and generation” (kerfoot & bello-nonjengele, 2016: 451). policy south africa’s language policies are arguably borne of an extraordinarily complex linguistic situation with 11 official languages comprising nine indigenous african languages as well as thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 164 english and afrikaans. there also are many other languages spoken by migrants, notably in the cities, and trans-languaging is common (makoe & mckinney 2014). the department of education strongly recommends that the language of instruction be the home language in grades 1-3, but the language of learning and teaching (lolt) usually changes to english1 in grade 4. as english becomes a language of instruction (loi) from grade 4, the problem of lack of acquisition becomes even more of an educational burden; heugh writes of this as a compounded educational problem: what makes it worse for children who have received poor reading and writing instruction and inadequate provision of reading materials in their home language [is that they] are expected to switch over, and to read, write, and navigate their way, from the fourth grade on, through a curriculum in english that they barely understand (2013:228229). this is what dampier (2012) describes as the “(f)utility of added bilingualism in south african education” – which has become a prevalent sentiment in the field. this is the additive bilingualism approach, championed by neville alexander in the 1990’s, who thought that access to english was a right (dampier, 2012: 70), but that the learning thereof should not preclude children from also learning in their mother tongues. as pretorius and mampura note (2007:56): “despite explicit and official attention given to the development of home language literacy in principle, national policy does not yet translate well into action in the classroom” and however noble alexander’s intentions, english is also often more difficult for students to acquire due to the fact that “the indigenous languages of south africa are sufficiently different from english as to render the effort of adding it to a pre-existent linguistic system futile” (dampier, 2012: 70). as plüddemann puts it: “two decades into the new south africa, the language in education policy does not have a good story to tell” (2015:196). or as dampier 2012 writes, “additive bilingualism (is) a theoretical basis for instituting a language acquisition programme that is both unrealistic and self-defeating” (2012:69). poor results in english do not remain in the language classroom but follow the pupils into other areas, as spaull has noted, a child needs “to learn english but also needs english to learn (other subjects)” (2014). therefore, the failings of language teaching and learning are exacerbated and pronounced by the necessity to know english in order to cope in every subject. there is a growing concern that english ‘for improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 165 academic purposes’ is another neglected area of the curriculum, and that nonspecialist teachers using english in the ‘language across the curriculum’ capacity are not being trained sufficiently in being able to use, and enable pupils to use, core academic language skills. moreover, worryingly, the sacmeq 2017 report notes that english reading is still lagging behind mathematics (which is on an upward trend) (2017:27). what should be noted is that there is a drive internationally to standardize education (chung 2020:37), and although this is variously received internationally, in the light of the lack of commonly agreed standards in ite in south african higher education the consideration and adoption of standards could be a very positive intervention, especially as they would produce greater alignment of academics’ work and make them more accountable. school management one of the issues further affecting school teaching of english is school management’s frequent disregard for university subject specialisms, and their assumption “that all qualified educators are capable of teaching all subjects. thus, at some stage of their careers, most primary school teachers will be required to teach maths and english. across all phases, there are too many teachers teaching subjects in which they did not specialise.” (dbe/dhet 2011: 34-36, 40-42, in taylor, 2014:6); deacon puts it, “moreover, their specific subjectand phase-related knowledge and skills would all too frequently be disregarded” (2016:19). this is doubtless a contributing factor to the large weaknesses found in schools. the next focus will be on factors relating to teacher training. initial teacher education issues michael barber and mona mourshed in the 2007 mckinsey report, stated that “the quality of education system cannot exceed the quality of the teachers” and this is the premise for primted’s work at improving primary teacher graduate quality. it would follow that a key area for strengthening english language skills would therefore be by focusing on improving language teacher training at universities. this is what led taylor to write “the cause of poor performance, by and large, lies not with teachers but with the teacher education system that produced them” (taylor, 2014:6). taylor, in the iterp study, found that “teacher educators' low expectations of the academic quality of students (including weak subject content knowledge, lack of proficiency in english, and generally poor reading and writing skills) are not always counterbalanced by any concerted or structured attempt to transform these poor quality entrants into good quality thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 166 'reflective practitioners'“(taylor, 2014:10). this is, as mentioned earlier something which is concerning, and which is beyond the primted project’s power to address currently. it could be assumed that participating in the primted testing, and analysing the results and hearing how other academics nationally are using the results to address language learning needs and changing curricula, would be a positive step in creating a climate of making those structured attempts to improve ite. teachers in south africa are either trained on a bachelor of education programme or a post graduate education certificate course. typically, education courses have lower entrance requirements than other courses, and worryingly this is acutely the case with regard to south africa’s two areas of greatest educational failure, those being literacy and numeracy as iterp found: “applicants to ite programmes are admitted largely without reference to their levels of literacy and numeracy” (deacon, 2016:11). when it comes to ite programme design, the initial teacher education research project (iterp)’s study of five university courses found that “the ite programmes at most of these institutions evinced little structural or conceptual coherence”(deacon, 2016:7). however, especially disturbing was the finding that “one out of every seven final year student-teachers was speaking, hearing or reading very little if any english (deacon, 2015), yet will be required by most schools to teach using this language” (deacon, 2016:8). uneven standards at universities due to the legacy of apartheid and longstanding differences in the state’s financial provision and status of universities, standards at universities vary widely (reed 2014). apart from the unevenness of admission criteria and internal standards, deacon (2016:19) noted that “there is no common or core national ite curriculum”. when it comes to curriculum design, what has been reported is that “most programmes seem to lack a strong underlying logic and coherence. at one institution, curricula change more in response to changing government policies than in response to research-informed opinions or professional judgements. at others, a similar degree of bureaucratic compliance is coupled with an overemphasis on practice (how) at the expense of theory (why), exacerbated by a lack of staff collaboration and module integration” (taylor 2014:11). when it comes to improving ite, key learning areas need to be assessed. currently assessment is mostly utilised “for reporting, promotion and certification”(moloi, kanjee improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 167 roberts 2019:1). beyond this there has been little ite lecturer engagement with assessment results. assessment could be profitably used to strengthen course curricula. language issues in ite taylor in the iterp study found that “teacher educators' low expectations of the academic quality of students (including weak subject content knowledge, lack of proficiency in english, and generally poor reading and writing skills) are not always counterbalanced by any concerted or structured attempt to transform these poor-quality entrants into good quality 'reflective practitioners' (taylor 2014:10). furthermore, the structure of ite university courses does not help to improve the poor language skills that many student teachers graduate with. the 2015 minimum requirements for teacher education qualifications (mrteq) state that “all teachers... should be proficient in the use of at least one official south african language of learning and teaching” but what these standards of proficiency actually are has not yet been set out (dhet 2015:15). when student teachers graduate, their certificates are to “be endorsed to indicate the holder's level of competence in specific languages by using appropriate labels, for example: lolt (english) and loc (isizulu) (dhet 2015:15). however, what these standards actually mean, in terms of whether someone is able to teach in lolt or not, remains unquantified as there are no commonly held or agreed standards between universities or nationally. while those ‘specialising’ in being primary school language teachers do receive more language education (but sometimes as little as 12 credits only out 480), those not specialising receive very little: “with respect to those intermediate phase teachers who have elected not to specialise in english, the question must again be asked whether their formal exposure to english subject and pedagogic knowledge (between 5% and 7.5%) is adequate”(taylor 2014:16). the language wars to compound the problems outlined above from improving ite to school management to policy, is the disagreement about approaches, which have been described as “polemic debates” (mthombeni & ogunnub, 2020:186). heugh more mildly, recognised: “the plethora of stakeholders whose interests are intimately associated with (language policy documents)” (heugh, 2013:2310). thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 168 there are different approaches to teaching reading from constructivist, immersion, whole language, phonics. approaches to policy differ too, with many sociolinguists pointing to its obvious shortcomings and calling for change. there are those who favour interlanguaging and codeswitching, those calling for bilingual and or multilingual classrooms, and those who argue for purity of language use. these are arguments which occur in research departments at universities. but on the ground another kind of battle is waged as teachers struggle with large classes, with their own lack of training in how to teach reading, in under-resourced classrooms with little printed materials and scant access to them (pretorius & mampura, 2007), and with unclear guidelines from the curriculum assessment policy statements (caps curriculum) introduced in schools in 2012 (govender & hugo, 2018; khoza, 2017) which favours not one approach, such as the synthetic phonetics which has been so successfully advocated by the rose report (2006) (and subsequently successfully employed in english schools). this is compounded by the other variables described by (pretorius & mampuru, 2007:40) “such as poorly resourced schools, inappropriate instructional methods, printpoor environments, overcrowded classrooms, reduced time-on-task and poorly trained teachers (which) are consistently identified as impacting negatively on literacy accomplishment” (repeated in fesi and mncube’s study of 2021, showing little improvement in a 14-year time period). considering south african school results, varying teacher education standards and iterp’s findings (taylor, 2016; deacon 2016; reed, 2014), there is a national need to know firstly what standards there are in ite language education, and what language levels are being used or are regarded as acceptable at entrance and exit levels, in order to establish knowledge of ite language education’s standards with a view to improving them. this paper attempts to address the need for more illumination about ite language, both in its standards and what is being done to counterbalance the systemic weaknesses above, in order to help improve language teaching at school level. this paper continues with the iterp premise that contrary to the ‘language wars’ “ite cannot be improved by policy fiat, but only by teacher educators examining their own practice” (deacon, 2016:25) and the best way to do this is by examination and through a number of professionals finding a common voice in discussion and the establishing of standards. “as a response [to the poor standards as well as needu and iterp findings], in 2016 the department of higher education and training (dhet), with funding from the european union, launched a 5-year teaching and learning development capacity improvement programme. one of its five projects is the primary teacher education (primted) improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 169 project which aims to strengthen foundation and intermediate phase mathematics and literacy courses in initial teacher education programmes” (reed, dixon, biesman-simons & pretorius: 2020). it is to be noted that the primted assessment of english language and literacies is one of many interventions. theoretical framing bearing in mind all the contextual difficulties in language education, the theoretical framing for this paper is built around building teacher capacity, and developing an ite framework which included assessment in order to improve its capacity to train teachers effectively. pretorius and currin ask the question at the outset of their research: “but what happens to biliteracy when the educational context is framed by disadvantage and the first language does not have an extensive written resource base?” (2010:68)i this pertinent question highlights the fact that while there have been many studies of how to achieve bilingualism or biliteracy, the south african situation, for a number of social and historical factors outlined above, has few precedents. below are some accounts of what has been observed in schools, which further highlight the need for change. efal at school in the primary school, virtually nothing is done in english fal until grade 3. gunning (2005:534) notes the importance of starting early with efal learning to develop proficiency. lenyai’s study found that when the teachers did start, usually only in grade 3, and not giving much time to efal, what was done did not provide opportunity for children to engage in english and thus did not promote communicative skills. furthermore, it was found that nearly all of the teachers in lenyai’s study, experienced difficulty teaching key aspects of language learning such as letters of the alphabet, teaching comprehension, teaching reading and writing (lenyai, 2011). in fact, lenyai’s findings were born out by pretorius and currin: “these consistently low literacy levels (as shown on international pirls and the national anas) suggest that learners are starting off poorly in reading and staying on a poor reading trajectory” (2010:67). academic language standards what is of further concern is that those struggling with communicating in english in foundation phase will be taught in it as the lolt from grade 4, and their poor language skills will affect their achievements across the board in all their subjects. pretorius & currin’s (2010) findings thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 170 make a strong case for the importance of reading proficiently in english as a way of accessing and enabling academic knowledge in all parts of the curriculum, noting that the outstanding students were all strong readers, but especially so in english. this is surely powerful evidence of the importance of reading in academic performance. if learners have difficulty reading, they will have difficulty accessing information in the textbooks and other print resources from which they need to ‘read to learn’. (2010: 71). the value of primted the primary teacher education (primted) project was in part a response to the findings of the iterp study. this study showed that there was substantial diversity in what was being taught and how it a was being taught across the sample of universities, for mathematics and english for bachelor of education programmes for primary teachers. role players from universities, civil society and the department of higher education started conversations about what could be done. there was an obvious tension between the academic freedom of the university academics to choose what and how they taught to the student teachers in their particular context, and the national need for some minimum standards and common approaches to ensure that primary teachers entering the profession were at least to some degree comparable. dr nick taylor explored the ways in which different international contexts had approached this tension. the south african role players felt that a top-down approach would not be helpful. dr taylor motivated that it is incumbent on an academic community to set and improve on its own standards. he cited such examples in law, or engineering or accounting. students graduate from different institutions but are required to set a professional examination (a board exam) before entering the profession. it was therefore felt that primary teachers’ education ought to cohere as a professional community, and set its own standards and its own assessments. the threat was that not doing so may result in an assessment being developed outside of the academic community, either by government officials and or the south african council of educators. it was felt to be far better to form a community of practice within the initial teacher education community where a process of developing commonly agreed standards and related ways of assessing these standards could be possible. such a process could be funded to develop capacity across the various institutions and allow for sharing, reflection and improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 171 congoing improvement of the primary mathematics and languages and literacy communities (roberts, 2021: private communication). thus, primted began in 2016 with the university of johannesburg as a host. the primted project focuses on reading for comprehension and language, and its assessment answers some of the research precedents below: 1. lenyai’s recommendation was that “teacher development for teaching a first additional language must be made a priority so they can implement the caps successfully” (2011:78). 2. the sacmeq 2017 report calls for them “strengthening of in-service and preservice training of teachers with respect to pedagogical and subject content knowledge on the teaching of higher cognitive demand questions” this was particularly in regard to language and mathematics. (sacmeq 2017:3) 3. call for disaggregated knowledge about reading results, which is one of the aspects of primted testing and mapping which is most necessary: “space does not permit a detailed examination of performance on all the different components of the reading tests” wrote pretorius and currin (2010: 71). 4. the necessity of developing an explicit discourse about reading and second language instruction, both in schools (pretorius & currin, 2010: 73) and initial teacher education. the primted approach and the importance of assessment the primted project realised the importance of using assessment differently to how it had been used before on university courses. it aimed to change the dominant culture from one in which assessment data is only utilised for reporting, promotion and certification to one in which assessment data is regarded as a rich source of information for use in improving teaching and learning. instead of there being, as there had been, no shared or reported testing standards, meaningful reporting and utility of assessment data is a central requirement for programme coordinators of bachelor of education programmes who are collaborating in the assessment workstream of the primary teacher education (primted) project. the aim of the primted project’s assessment workstream is to: advocate for higher education institutions’ participation in common assessment approaches. thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 172 encourage collaboration on teacher assessment approaches towards developing teacher competence in relation to improving the teaching and learning of mathematics. develop a teacher competency assessment framework (related to mathematics), for foundation and intermediate phase, for student teachers graduating from initial teacher education (ite) programmes. (moloi, kanjee & roberts, 2019:1) the value of these assessments is that they can be “used to establish and report the levels at which students are functioning in order to: (1) identify specific learning needs of students for developing appropriate interventions to address these needs and (2) determine the knowledge and skills with which students graduate upon completion of their ite programmes”. the primted project is concerned with developing an assessment strategy which would see “how a standards-based framework can be used to establish and report the levels at which students are functioning in order to: (1) identify specific learning needs of students for developing appropriate interventions to address these needs and (2) determine the knowledge and skills with which students graduate upon completion of their ite programmes.” (moloi, kanjee & roberts, 2019:1). data is gathered from two tests – one done early on in first year which provides a picture of the skills with which the student teachers arrive on campus, and the second one in fourth year which measures what the student teachers leave with, as well as what they have learned by on the course, through dint of their improvements. the analysis of the tests is presented in the form of some basic statistics (and lecturers engaging in the primted project will also receive training in analysing, reporting on and using these results). after the test has been written, the mean and standard deviation for each year group are calculated and the phase specialisations (ip and fp) at first year and fourth year level are compared. this is done to establish whether the observed difference in means is significant or not, conducting a t-test for unpaired data. where significance is found this difference is quantified by calculating the effect size using cohen’s d. reports are generated using fivepoint summaries, to offer another indicator of the distribution of the results for each group and reflect on their similarities and differences. this analysis contributes to a fuller picture of the results. to obtain more detailed information at item level, the facility scores for each item pertaining to each group are also reported, and areas of strength and weakness within the test are noted. having understood the key features of the assessment data, attention turns to the improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 173 current course design. firstly, courses in the b.ed programmes which focus on english and may therefore be expected to be develop the skills assessed in the authentic texts assessment have been noted. these courses have been examined by their credit weighting, to show the proportion of credits dedicated to english. the next step will be to look at each course-offering drawing on two sets of documents: (1) the submission made to dhet to register the programme, extracting the english course descriptions and (2) the english course outlines which detail learning outcomes to students. the analysis of these documents focuses on extracting learning outcomes which clearly amp to the constructs assessed in the authentic texts assessment. finally, the mapping process of the english course learning outcomes of the constructs in the authentic texts assessment is undertaken, to revisit and further enhance the analysis of the assessment data. this is done with a view to recommending ways in which the english courses may be improved in the future. by examining the test results over time, a process of improvement can be established, including examining how specific standards of engagement with authentic texts in english can be assessed, and shows how such rigorous work can potentially improve standards in english language education. it is also hoped that this provides standard setting processes such as the minimum requirements for teacher education qualifications (mrteq) as promulgated by the department of higher education, as well as universities processes of defining and designing their english language courses the impetus to attend to language issues in more depth in initial teacher education. the primted language test: intentions and design the primted language test draws on two important sources. one of these is a comprehension test known as the tea test4 developed by academics from the university of cape town (uct) and cape peninsula university of technology (cput), and the other is core academic language skills test. the former tests reading and comprehension. the latter is based on the work promulgated by catherine snow and her team at the harvard education school and is described thus: “cals-i is a groupadministered instrument designed to assess core academic language skills (cals) in grades 4 to 8. each cals-i form consists of a 50-minute paper and-pencil test that includes eight tasks: connecting ideas, tracking themes, organizing texts, breaking words, comprehending sentences, identifying definitions, interpreting epistemic stance markers, and understanding metalinguistic vocabulary” (uccelli et al. 2016: thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 174 1). this is known as the persuasive language’ part of the test and tests the students’ muscular use of language. the primted team also established teacher standards. these are standards which language teachers ought to meet, in order to teach effectively. the tests hope to measure the primted language teacher standards. there are a number of very valuable features on these tests, which will now be described in turn. firstly, the test has dual components; measuring both comprehension and the persuasive use of language. another key feature is that because of the test using the cals ii framework, it is testing language which would impact learning in other subjects, or language being used across the curriculum, or core academic language skills. using cals ii as a framework, the primted language test also takes lessons and learning from an internationally well-regarded language research centre (snow & uccelli at harvard) and adapts this to a south african context. furthermore, each test item has specific levels and descriptors which make it useful to identify the language usage levels of those being tested. while test analysis is not the scope of this paper, test results (available since 2017) have been used to assess students’ skills in english language and offer university lecturers an idea of where they need to concentrate their efforts to improve the language levels of student teachers. conclusion and recommendations the fundamental reading challenge findings described by pretorius and currin in 2010 show that reading across the board needs attention. this was also found by sacmeq (2017) and iterp (2014-15) and led to the start of the primted project. the fundamental reading challenge’s results indicated “that learners who were poor readers in one language were also poor readers in the other language; similarly, good readers tended to be good readers in both languages” (pretorius and currin 2010: 71). this shows that reading in all languages need attention, and comprehension-based tests such as the tea test offer a way of assessing this in ite as well as establishing benchmarks. furthermore, if reading is necessary, and reading in english is necessary for across the curriculum academic gains, then comprehension is the most pragmatic way of assessing this. by having two tests at university, one in the first and the other in the last year of university, primted enables a way of measuring growth in that time. the first test also offers an opportunity to design quick, efficient, and appropriate remediation programmes which ensure importantly that the gap between those who can and those who struggle does not increase so far as to make bridging it more difficult (rose report, 2006). improving south african student teachers’ english language skills: an argument for the assessment strategies of the primted language teaching project ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 175 another important aspect of primted’s assessment is the long-term nature of the project and the annual occurrence of testing which implies that targets for improvement can be modest and pragmatic, for as pretorius & cummins advise, “reading skills improve slowly and reading gaps between weak and more able readers can persist in such contexts. long-term interventions of at least four to five years are needed to bring about effective changes. stakeholders involved in … interventions need to be aware of this and avoid the allure of shortterm or ‘quick fix’ interventions” (pretorius & currin, 2010: 75). therefore, the scale of the project and work is realistic. it is recommended that universities make use of the primted project for its value in assessing language and literacies skills as well as for the reasons mentioned above – opportunities for swift remediation and the possibility of making efficient changes to course design. yet another benefit: inter-university collegial dialogue, support and professional growth opportunities as academics learn how to use measurement tools and report on them to strengthen their own practice and programmes. references barber, m. and mourshed, m., 2007. how the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. mckinsey & company. chung, j., 2020. exporting finnish teacher education: transnational pressures on national models. nordic journal of comparative international educational 1 (1) 36-52. cummins, j., 2000. language, power and pedagogy: bilingual children in the crossfire. multilingual matters. dampier, g., 2012. the (f)utility of additive bilingualism in south african education, education as change, 16:1, 69-81. deacon, r., 2015. report on the 2013 survey of final year initial teacher education students. johannesburg: joint education trust 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high‐poverty school. journal of research in reading, 30(1), pp.38-58. primted, 2016. towards competency standards for language and literacy teachers. https://www.jet.org.za/clearinghouse/projects/primted/standards/literacy-teacherstandards/towards-competency-standards-for-language-and-literacy-teachers.pdf reed, y., 2014. initial teacher education research project: report on english courses for intermediate phase student teachers at five universities. jet education services. reed, y., dixon, k., biesman-simons, c. and pretorius, e., 2020. pitfalls and possibilities in literacy research: a review of south african literacy studies, 2004–2018. reading & writing-journal of the reading association of south africa, 11(1), pp.1-9. roberts, n. (2021) private communication, by email (26.08.2021). rose, j., 2006. independent review of the teaching of early reading. sacmeq (southern and eastern african consortium for monitoring educational quality). 2017. the sacmeq iv project in south africa: a study of the conditions of schooling and the quality of education. short report. pretoria: dbe. makoe, p. and mckinney, c., 2014. linguistic ideologies in multilingual south african suburban schools. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 35(7), pp.658-673. moloi, q.m., kanjee, a. and roberts, n., 2019. using standard setting to promote meaningful use of mathematics assessment data within initial teacher education programmes. pythagoras, 40(1), pp.1-14. https://www.jet.org.za/clearinghouse/projects/primted/standards/literacy-teacher-standards/towards-competency-standards-for-language-and-literacy-teachers.pdf https://www.jet.org.za/clearinghouse/projects/primted/standards/literacy-teacher-standards/towards-competency-standards-for-language-and-literacy-teachers.pdf thelma mort ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 161-178 178 skade, t., 2017. meet the man who wrote rhode’s university’s first isixhosa phd thesis. rhodes university website. 24 april 2017. https://www.ru.ac.za/graduationgateway/graduationnews/articles2017/meetthemanwh owroterhodesuniversitysfirstisixhosaphdthesis.html. taylor, n., 2014. knowledge and teacher professionalism: the case of mathematics teaching. in knowledge, expertise and the professions (pp. 181-194). routledge. taylor, n., 2016. thinking, language and learning in initial teacher education. taylor, s., cilliers, j., prinsloo, c., fleisch, b. and reddy, v., 2017. the early grade reading study: impact evaluation after two years of interventions. pretoria: department of basic education. accessed august, 16, p.2022. taylor, n. teacher knowledge in south africa. in spaull, n. and jansen, j.d. (eds), 2019. south african schooling: the enigma of inequality. a study of. uccelli, p., phillips galloway, e., barr, c., meneses, a. and dobbs, c., 2015. beyond vocabulary: core academic language skills (cals) that support text comprehension. reading research quarterly, 50(3), pp.261-359. uccelli, p., barr, c.d., dobbs, c.l., galloway, e.p., meneses, a. and sanchez, e., 2015. core academic language skills: an expanded operational construct and a novel instrument to chart school-relevant language proficiency in preadolescent and adolescent learners. applied psycholinguistics, 36(5), pp.1077-1109. uccelli, p., barr, c.d. and galloway, e.p., 2016. core academic language skills instrument (cals-i). wildsmith-cromarty, r. and balfour, r.j., 2019. language learning and teaching in south african primary schools. language teaching, 52(3), pp.296-317. i this lack of resources and printed text in african (first/home) languages is being addressed by a greater effort to publish, with greater investment. universities training teachers are also pushing the first/home language standards by both employing more ite specialists with these language skills and seeing more phd students graduate with dissertations pertaining to african languages in education. the first noneducation phd dissertation in isixhosa was published at rhodes university (makhanda, south africa) in 2017 (skade, 2017). the primted project is currently fund-raising for african languages development, after learning in 2021 that african languages’ academics were using the primted standards in their work at universities. https://www.ru.ac.za/graduationgateway/graduationnews/articles2017/meetthemanwhowroterhodesuniversitysfirstisixhosaphdthesis.html https://www.ru.ac.za/graduationgateway/graduationnews/articles2017/meetthemanwhowroterhodesuniversitysfirstisixhosaphdthesis.html effectiveness of guided and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami1 dept. of science and technology education, obafemi awolowo university ile-ife, nigeria. abstract the study determined the effectiveness of guided and open inquiry instructional strategies on the science process skills of students taught biology in senior secondary schools in osun state, nigeria. it also compared the self-efficacy of students taught biology using guided inquiry with those taught biology using open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary school in osun state. the goal was to provide empirical information on the effectiveness of guided and open inquiry strategies on students’ learning outcome in biology. the study adopted the nonequivalent pretest posttest quasi-experimental research design. two research instruments were used to collect data for the study namely, (i) biology process skills observation checklist (bpsoc) and (ii) self-efficacy rating scale (sers). data collected were analyzed using appropriate inferential statistics of analysis of covariance. the results showed that there was no significant difference in the science process skills of biology students exposed to open inquiry and those exposed to guided inquiry strategy (f= 0.785, p>0.05). the results also showed that a significant difference existed in the self-efficacy of students taught using guided inquiry and open inquiry strategies (f = 11.64, p < 0.05) as those exposed to open inquiry had the better self-efficacy score than the other groups as shown in the mean difference between open and guided inquiry strategies. the study concluded that open inquiry strategy issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 56-74 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 57 was more effective in improving the self-efficacy of the respondents but was not effective in improving the science process skills of respondents in the study area. keywords: science education, biology, science process skills, self-efficacy, inquiry instructional strategies. 1. introduction science education is believed to help train students to think like scientists, and this will demand creative thinking, guided by the spirit of inquiry. maranan, (2017) believed that the development of science process skills can help to develop academic performance of students in biology and science subjects alike. the development of concepts, theories and laws is premised on curiosity which could also be said to be based on the spirit of inquiry in science students. science process skills are the foundations upon which appropriate science activities are built, and they must be taken into account in the new national science curricula and textbooks. students should be exposed to more activity-based settings and environments in order to acquire science process skills. as a result, we may argue that science process skills are at the heart of inquiry-based learning. mastering science process skill and scientific investigation, as well as its application is the core of science, and this is developed through inquiry teaching and learning (ngoh, 2009). omorogbe and ewansiha (2013) explained that over the last two decades, there have been repeated calls for innovation and reformative processes towards development of science education in nigeria. this is attributed to various challenges with the teaching and learning of science in nigeria. this challenge necessitates investigation into the teaching and learning procedures adopted for science in various educational institutions. science is an organized body of knowledge in form of concepts, laws, theories and generalizations. this body of knowledge is generated through questions, inquires and curiosity in students across various levels of education. these levels of curiosity are supposed to generate various ideas that will be beneficial for societal development. this shows that science is an important component that would catalyze the development of any society. according to urevbu (2001), science is the study of nature and natural events with the goal of discovering its principles and laws. content, process, and attitude are all intertwined in science. physical, life, and earth sciences content can be separated. the physical aspect at secondary school level is observed in teaching subject of physics and chemistry. the life and earth science is observed in biology. the teaching and learning of each of these aspects are adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 58 important so that students that learn concepts in these fields can contribute positively in the society. biology is important in intimating students about their health, environment and other factors relating to their living. biology which is generally defined as the study of life is expected to help students to live healthy, provide information relating to healthy living through concepts learnt about their body system, and their environment as well as those organisms living in such environments. the teaching and learning of biology at all levels is expected to promote knowledge and understanding of this concept hence having tremendous influence on health and environmental sector of the nigerian society. however, inadequate teaching methodology has been one of the key challenges facing science education in nigerian secondary schools, and other levels of education (omoifo, 2012). a common ground of agreement among researchers is that quality and adequate understanding of teaching methodology will lead to effectiveness in the teaching and learning of scientific concepts. teaching can be said to be effective when the aims, goals and objectives of education has been achieved and this is usually measured through various learning outcomes. it goes beyond repetition of scientific knowledge but an entrainment of aims, goals, objectives and attitude of the students in science (omoifo, 2012). the quality of teaching and learning will be important in improving understanding of basic concepts. quality teaching, according to okafor (2007), is defined by the teacher's ability to translate written knowledge into pedagogically powerful forms that are adaptable to the students' skills and backgrounds. this quality is measured through learning outcomes. such learning outcomes include academic performance, process skills, retention, self-efficacy as well as attitudes. another component of science learning outcome which is important is the development of science process skills. this is important in the building of the contents of science as the application and acquisition of process skills are important in achieving this. it is believed that the acquisition of the process skills will help to develop the acquisition of scientific knowledge and also help to improve the mastering of the skills. science process skills is believed to develop an environment that encourages thinking and finding out new things hence, emphasizing the importance of scientific inquiry in development of process skills (salami, 2012; kareem, 2019). a science process skill (sps) is a set of mental and physical talents that children require in order to understand science and technology, and to address personal and social problems (akinbobola & afolabi, 2010). these skills are used for improving ones skill, training students while studying and applying the skills to solving everyday challenges (ozturk, tezel, & acat, 2010). science process skill is a key in developing science literacy for tackling effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 59 complex science and technology problems in the 21st century (rahayu, 2016). unfortunately, research has revealed that many teachers struggle with the science process (kurniawan & fadloli, 2016). this is due to lack of planning and implementation skills when conducting experiments (sukarno, permanasari, hamidah, & widodo, 2013). furthermore, it is expected that students’ science skill can lead to improvement in their learning outcomes and develop positive perspective and attitude in science. this will help to build student’s self-efficacy which is another component of students learning outcomes. selfefficacy is the conviction that one can effectively carry out the actions required to achieve a desired result, and it is a key factor in determining whether or not a person engages in a particular behaviour. in this case, self-efficacy can be defined as student’s belief that they will perform well in biology. students who have good academic performance and have mastered skills in biology will be confident of their outputs in the subject. learners are thought to avoid behaviours that are beyond their capacities and instead conduct acts that they believe are within their capabilities” (cecil & pinkerton, 2000). as a result, self-efficacy levels can be utilized as a gauge of a person's confidence in his or her ability to engage in biological activities. it has also been described as person’s conviction/belief that he/she can successfully achieve/attain the desired levels, goals and stages in matters pertaining to life in general (feltz, short & singleton, 2008). warner and myers (2014) wrote that ̳while completing inquiry-based lessons, students develop important skills that will help them become successful, lifelong learners. this statement is in agreement with the views of hughes (2014) and franklin (2015). the inquirybased learning depends on four essential elements which are un-deceptive patterns and meanings of concepts to the beginners, structured useful knowledge, applying the structured knowledge, transferring and accessible in situations and lastly, the structured knowledge should be made available for new information in that field to strive (teach-nology.com, 2017). problem solving, critical thinking, reflective inquiry, and deductive thinking are all examples of inquiry teaching methods. it is a teaching style that entails probing, discovering, analysing, synthesising, discovering, assessing, questioning, and thinking (muhammad, 2011). in a related development, the inquiry method is characterized as a teaching approach that significantly relies on the learner's participation in the learning activity. the strategy is founded on the notion that the subject will actively learn by completely engaging in the learning task. it adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 60 is an approach that leads to successful learning results that are relevant to the learner (muhammad in muhammad, 2011). according to muhammad (2011), kyle and gadsden (1996) defined inquiry teaching as a mode of instruction in which students study concepts, existing issues, probe and question them freely, and practice on their own or with little teacher assistance. students seek information to answer or solve their difficulties, according to the author. as a result, inquiry teaching is both educational and exploratory, as well as a lot of fun and delight for students who learn via completing tasks. the inquiry process places a premium on the student's ability to think like a scientist. the most difficult aspect of inquiry-based learning is open inquiry, which allows students to choose from a variety of inquiry topics and methods to the study once the teacher describes the phases in which the knowledge will be imparted. as a result, the open inquiry approach allows students to make judgments at each stage of the study, beginning with determining the most fascinating topic to investigate. questioning, building an experimental array, critical and logical thinking, and reflection are all examples of open inquiry that assist students reflect on the type of research and experimental work that should be done. students who participated in such a process demonstrated ownership and took responsibility for deciding the objective of the inquiry and proposed concerns to be investigated like a scientist would, according to reid and yang (2002). the teacher's efforts to promote the student's scientific literacy, initiative, responsibility, and motivation are intimately related to the student's functioning. open inquiry fosters a learning atmosphere for teachers and students, which helps the inquiry process succeed (zion & slezak, 2005). irinoye, bamidele, adetunji and awodele, (2015) stressed the importance of guided inquiry by explaining how it aids students’ academic performance in science. guided enquiry helps students to discover different abilities on their own and helps to promote understanding and individual learning. uzezi and zainab (2017) also believed that guided inquiry encourages students to engage in scientific researches and also pick up a career that would involve hands on activities. it is important to teach science using guided discovery method as it promotes and encourages investigation as rightly stated by adetunji (2007) that investigation is an important component in teaching so that students can learn to discover themselves. it is assumed that guided inquiry strategy will assist learners to form their own concepts and consequently enhance performance, skills and self-efficacy in biology. in guided inquiry, students investigate questions and procedures presented by the teachers while the students work together effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 61 to decide the processes and the expected solution to be derived although the results of the study are not known to the teachers and the pupils at this stage. unlike the open inquiry where the students decide the inquiry questions, in this guided inquiry, the teacher helps to reduce the degree of uncertainty by providing the student with inquiry questions and procedures. zion and mendelovici (2015) said that students make decisions from the data collection stage which might lead the students to formulate a preplanned result or conclusion. in this strategy, the teachers rendered to some assistance and guidance to the students to help them investigate into a problem and construction of knowledge. open inquiry strategy will demand that students become more involved in gaining scientific knowledge. it is also believed that when students learn effectively through appropriate use of methods and strategies, they would have better learning outcomes which has been a source of concern for science (biology) students. it is also believed that effective teaching could amidst students engage in adequate teaching and learning which could improve their process skills and self-efficacy in biology. strategy like inquiry (open and guided) strategies have been found to improve learning outcomes and it has been encouraged to be used to promote thinking in the 21st century. more so, as the national policy of education has one of its cardinal points in improving scientific understanding and development of the spirit of inquiry in students. this spirit of inquiry can be developed through inquiry-based teaching. research has proven the importance of the inquiry strategies but not much attention has been paid to how the inquiry can be used. the variant of the inquiry strategy include the open and guided inquiry strategy. it is important to explore which of these types of inquiry strategies will better promote science process skills and self-efficacy in biology; hence, this study. objective of the study the specific objectives of the study are to: • examine the science process skills of students taught biology using guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary schools in osun state; and • assess the self-efficacy of students when taught biology using guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary school in osun state. research hypotheses adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 62 based on the objectives of this study, the following research hypotheses were raised: ▪ there is no significant difference in the science process skills of students taught biology using guided and open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary schools in osun state; and ▪ there is no significant difference in the self-efficacy of students taught biology using guided and open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary school in osun state. 2. methodology the study adopted non-equivalent pre-test, post-test quasi-experimental-design. three groups were created for the study. the first group (experimental group-i))was treated with guided inquiry, the second group (experimental group-ii))was treated with open inquiry strategy while third-group which served as the control group was treated using the conventional teaching strategy. the pre-tests for performance, process skills and self-efficacy were administered before treatment. also, the post-tests for performance, self-efficacy and process skills were administered after the treatment. the design for the study is presented schematically below: experimental group i o1 x1 o4 experimental group ii. o2 x2 o5 control group o3 o6 where o1 o2 o3 == pre-test for exp. group i, exp. group ii & control group respectively o4 o5 o6 == post-test for exp. group i, exp. group ii & control group respectively x1 == treatment using guided inquiry strategy x2 == treatment using open inquiry strategy independent variables include treatments used for the study which are guided and open inquiry strategies. the dependent variables are students’ performance, process skills and selfefficacy. the research design used validated the effectiveness of the variables and helped in the evaluation of independent variables’ effectiveness on academic performance, process skills and self-efficacy in studying biology. effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 63 target study population comprised senior secondary school biology students in osun state, while accessible population comprised senior secondary school one (sss i) biology students in ile-ife. multistage sampling procedure was used to select the sample for the study. from the three senatorial district of osun state, ones senatorial district was selected using simple random sampling technique. one-local government area (lga) was then sampled from the selected senatorial district using simple random sampling technique. furthermore, three schools were selected using simple random sampling technique from the selected local government area. one intact ss1 science class which was the science arm of the class was purposively selected in each of the schools. the purpose is because only science classes are compelled to take biology in secondary schools in nigeria. the three intact classes were assigned to three groups using simple random sampling technique. students in experimental group a were-exposed to guided inquiry while those in experimental group b were-exposed to open inquiry instructional strategy and those in experimental group c were taught-using conventional method. the topic taught was basic ecological concepts. the subtopics under this topic include environment, biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, habitat, population, and components of an ecosystem. table 1: schools selected and their assignment to-treatment group name-of school treatment type no of students a oduduwa college, ile-ife guided inquiry 39 b st. david grammar school, ile-ife open inquiry 44 c seventh day grammar school, ileife expository (control group) 35 total 118 biology process skills observation checklist (bpsoc) and biology self-efficacy rating scale (bsers) were used to collect data for the study. biology process skills observation checklist (bpsoc), developed by njoku (2002), provided information on students’ process skills in biology; and biology self-efficacy rating scale (bsers) was used to examine the student’s efficacy skills in biology. this was developed by gaumer erickson and noonan (2018) and schwarzer and jerusalem (1995). copies of the instruments were administered on ss1-students of atakumosa grammar school, osu who were not part of the study, to validate the research instruments. responses adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 64 from the administered bpsoc and bsers were subjected to factorial analysis for the construct validity of the instrument to be verified before reliability test was carried out for each of the sections of the instrument. the results for each of the section were presented as follows. validation of bsers this section contained 20 items on students’ self-efficacy in biology. the responses were scored strongly agree, agree, disagree-and-strongly disagree. the kmo value revealed a value of 0.550 which was closer to 1 with p = 0.000 which is appropriate according to kaiser (1974) and this shows the questions in the listed sections were adequate. this agrees with the minimum standard which should be passed. according to kaiser (1974) values within 0.6 to 0.8 are adequate enough and could be used to measure was it was purported to measure. also revealing a four component rotated matrix, the items could be judged adequate. seven (7) poorly performing items (items b2, b5, b11, b16, b17, b18 and b20) deleted from the original scale, resulting in the proposed 13 items measure. to ascertain the reliability of the instrument, cronbach alpha reliability, test-re-test method and spearman-brown coefficient were carried out on the remaining 13 items. reliability of bsers the reliability of the-instruments in this section using cronbach alpha coefficient revealed a factor of 0.758 which is very acceptable; split-halves value revealed 0.487 and 0.660 for first and second halves; and 0.826 for spearman-brown coefficient. from these results, it can be concluded that the remaining 13 items in the section were judged acceptable for information the researcher seeks to elicit. validation of bpsoc this section contained 12 items on students’ process skills in biology. the responses were scored excellent, very good, good, fair and poor. the kmo value revealed a value of 0.502 which was closer to 1 with p = 0.000 which is appropriate according to kaiser (1974) and this shows the questions in the listed sections were adequate. this agrees with the minimum standard which should be passed. according to kaiser (1974) values within 0.5 to 0.6 are good enough and could be used to measure was it was purported to measure. also revealing a five component rotated matrix, the items could be judged adequate. items ps4, ps5, ps6, ps3 and ps2 fell under the components 1; items ps7, ps9 and ps10 fell under component 2; items ps2, ps1 and ps11 fell under component 3; while items ps8 and ps10 fell under component 4, only item ps12 fell under component 5. none of the items were removed. effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 65 to ascertain the reliability of the-instrument, cronbach alpha reliability, test-re-test method and spearman-brown coefficient were carried out on the 12 items. reliability of bpsoc the reliability of the-instruments in this section using cronbach alpha coefficient revealed a factor of 0.627 which is very acceptable; split-halves value revealed 0.817 and 0.576 for first and second halves. from these results, it can be concluded that the 12 items in the section were judged acceptable for information the researchers seek to elicit. the instructional package consists of topics on guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategy. these treatment instructional packages included were; (a) guided inquiry strategy (gis); (b) open inquiry strategy (ois); the topic taught was basic ecological concepts using guided and open instructional strategy. however, with the use of guided inquiry, the students are allow to-investigate questions and procedures that teachers present to them, but the students themselves, through collaborative work decides the processes to be followed to achieved the targeted solution. on the other hand, in open inquiry class, the teacher introduces the knowledge framework in which the inquiry will be conducted, butt allows the students to select a wide variety of inquiry questions and approaches. thus students-are-engaged in continuous decision-making throughout each stageof the-open inquiry process, starting from the stage of finding the-interesting phenomenon to be inquired. the researcher sought for permission from the schools’ principals who then instructed the biology teachers on how they should assist in carrying out the study. after the permissions from each school, the researcher conducted the pre-test in each school. this served as a baseline for the performance of each student before the treatment was be administered. the research procedure consisted of three stages, the pre-treatment, treatment and posttest for achievements, process skills and self-efficacy stages respectively. the bpsoc and bserc were administered to the students to determine their process skills and self-efficacy in biology before the treatment was administered. the treatment stages started one week after the pre-test had been administered. the treatment lasted for four weeks based on the schools’ ‘timetable. during the experiment, one group received treatment using gis, the second group received treatment using ois and the third group was exposed to conventional method. the adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 66 experiment was conducted during regular class hours, which consisted of three periods per week (40 minutes each) making a total of 120 minutes weekly for four weeks. the post-treatment stage started after the treatment stage was over. the post-test bsers was administered to the three groups, the scripts and questionnaires were collected for marking and coding respectively, before analysis were then carried out on them. the post-test measured the achievement of the respondents in each school. bpsoc determined the students’ process skills in biology after the treatments have been used in teaching them. the biology process skills were-administered during the practical class of the students. the self-efficacy questionnaire was also administered after the treatments. data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (ancova). the hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance (ancova). post-hoc analysis was also carried out where necessary. all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. 3. results: 3.1. research hypothesis one: there is no significant difference in the science process skills of students taught biology using guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary schools in osun state. in testing this hypothesis, the science process skills of the respondents was determined by adding the responses of each respondent together before and after the intervention. analysis of covariance was then used to determine the difference between the science process skills of the respondents after the use of both strategies for the respondents. the result was presented in table 2 below. table 2: analysis of covariance on the effectiveness of gi and oi on the science process skills of students in the study area. tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: process skills post test source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 166.892a 3 55.631 5.773 0.001 0.121 intercept 17413.511 1 17413.511 1807.012 0.000 0.935 process skills pre test 107.881 1 107.881 11.195 0.001 0.082 group 15.126 2 7.563 0.785 0.458 0.012 error 1214.216 126 9.637 total 321996.000 130 effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 67 corrected total 1381.108 129 a. r squared = 0.121 (adjusted r squared = 0.100) table 2. above revealed that f= 0.785, p>0.05 shows that there is no significant difference in the science process skills of biology students exposed to open inquiry and those exposed to guided inquiry strategy. hence, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant difference in the science process skills of students taught biology using guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary schools in osun state was not rejected. a partial eta squared value of 0.012 showed that the strategy used accounted for 1.2% variation in the science process skills of respondents in the study area showing that the difference accounted for by the strategy used is minimal. 3.2 research hypothesis two: there is no significant difference in the self-efficacy of students taught biology using guided inquiry with those taught biology using open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary school in osun state. in testing this hypothesis, the self-efficacy of the respondents was determined by adding the responses of each respondent together before and after the intervention. analysis of covariance was then used to determine the difference between the self-efficacy of the respondents after the use of both strategies for the respondents. the result was presented in table 3. table 3: analysis of covariance on the effectiveness of gi and oi on the self-efficacy of students in the study area. tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: self-efficacy post test source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 987.338a 3 329.113 7.782 0.000 0.156 intercept 3403.360 1 3403.360 80.475 0.000 0.390 self-efficacy pre test 35.252 1 35.252 0.834 0.363 0.007 group 984.247 2 492.124 11.637 0.000 0.156 error 5328.631 126 42.291 total 233290.000 130 corrected total 6315.969 129 a. r squared = 0.156 (adjusted r squared = 0.136) adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 68 from table 3 the result showed that f = 11.64, p < 0.05. this implies that a significant difference existed in the self-efficacy of students taught using gi and oi strategies. therefore, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant difference in the self-efficacy of students taught biology using guided inquiry with those taught biology using open inquiry instructional strategies in senior secondary school in osun state is hereby rejected. a partial eta squared value of 0.156 showed that the strategies used accounted for 15.6% variation in the self-efficacy of the students. a pairwise comparison post-hoc analysis was then carried out on the two groups to determine the position of the significance difference between the two groups. table 4: post hoc analysis of the effectiveness of gi and oi strategies on students’ selfefficacy multiple comparisons dependent variable: self-efficacy post test scheffe (i) group (j) group mean difference (ij) std. error sig. 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound oi gi 2.4516 1.42956 0.234 -1.0893 5.9925 conventional 6.4098* 1.35008 0.000 3.0658 9.7538 gi oi -2.4516 1.42956 0.234 -5.9925 1.0893 conventional 3.9582* 1.58238 0.047 0.0388 7.8775 conventional oi -6.4098* 1.35008 0.000 -9.7538 -3.0658 gi -3.9582* 1.58238 0.047 -7.8775 -0.0388 based on observed means. the error term is mean square(error) = 42.235. *. the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. oiopen inquiry giguided inquiry the pairwise posthoc comparison revealed there was a significant difference in the performance of those exposed to open inquiry instructional strategy and those exposed to conventional strategy (p<0.05), while those exposed to open inquiry strategy had better selfefficacy than those exposed to conventional strategies. there was also a significant difference in the effectiveness of the strategies on the self-efficacy of those exposed to guided inquiry and conventional strategies (p<0.05) as those exposed to guided enquiry had better self-efficacy. effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 69 4.0 discussion of findings the study sought to examine the comparative effectiveness of open and guided inquiry strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state. in order to achieve this, objectives were raised and tested. result from research hypothesis one found that no significant difference in the process skills of biology students taught with guided inquiry and those taught using open inquiry. this result is in contrast with certain findings which found that the use of open inquiry strategy promotes science process skills of students. for instance, franklin et al. (2015) discovered among students in the united states that open inquiry strategy promotes a deeper understanding of complex scientific issues, while schmid and bogner (2015) found that open inquiry strategy seems to offer enhanced opportunities for cognitive development and scientific reasoning of science students in germany. however, the findings of şimşek and kabapınar (2010) among students in istanbul showed that inquiry-based learning strategies positively affects students process skills, thus agreeing with this finding. result from research hypothesis two found that a significant difference exists in the self-efficacy of students taught using guided inquiry and those taught using open inquiry, with those taught using open inquiry strategy showing a better self-efficacy than those taught using guided inquiry. this result is consistent with that of conradty and bogner (2016) who conducted their study among grade 8 students in germany. they found that open inquiry strategy promotes the self-efficacy of students when compared to guided inquiry strategy. plausible reason for this was cited as guided learning only provides short-term effects on knowledge and interest unlike open inquiry strategy which sustain long-term knowledge acquisition, thus increasing students’ self-efficacy (conradty & bogner, 2016). 5.0 summary the study examined the comparative effectiveness of open and guided inquiry strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state. from the result of the study, there was no significant difference in the science process skills of biology students exposed to open inquiry and those exposed to guided inquiry strategies. a significant difference existed in the self-efficacy of students taught using gi and oi strategies. as those exposed to open inquiry had better self-efficacy score than the other groups. adeyinka o. owolade, popoola o. oladipupo, adeyinka o. kareem, & marie o. salami ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 70 6.0 conclusion based on the outcomes of this study, it was concluded that open inquiry strategy was more effective in improving the self-efficacy of the respondents but was not effective in improving the science process skills of respondents in the study area. 7.0 recommendations inquiry instructional strategy (especially open inquiry) should be encouraged in teaching science so that learners can learn by themselves and for themselves. also, learning environment should be conducive for learners to learn innovatively using various inquiry teaching strategies. author contribution • adeyinka olayemi owolade was responsible for data collection. • popoola oluwasegun oladipupo wrote the literature review for this study and participated in pattern making and editing. he wrote the draft background section of the paper. • adeyinka oluwaseun kareem was responsible for the analysis and interpretation of the data. he was as well responsible for the validation of the research instruments. • marie onovroghene salami oversaw the collection of data and was also involved in the validation of research instruments. effectiveness of guided inquiry and open inquiry instructional strategies on science process skills and self-efficacy of biology students in osun state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 56-74 71 8.0 references adetunji, a. 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(2015). moving from structured to open inquiry: challenges and limits. science education international vol.23, no.4, december 2012, 383-399. zion, m. & slezak, m. (2005). it takes two to tango: in dynamic inquiry, the self-directed student acts in association with the facilitating teacher. teaching and teacher education, 21, 875-894. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/wc076 plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi university of the witwatersrand abstract this study describes student perspectives on the teaching and learning of a newly introduced university language acquisition course. it identifies three basic components of teaching and learning, namely teaching approaches, teaching and learning resources, and assessment of learning. the study focuses on how students perceive these basic components of teaching and learning by investigating how 1st-year students at a university in south africa perceive the teaching and learning of the sesotho first additional language (fal) course (a newly introduced course in the university). hence the objectives of this study are to establish the views of 1st-year sesotho fal students regarding the teaching approaches used by the lecturers presenting the course; the teaching and learning resources used in the course; and the quality of assessments applied in the course. guided by complex dynamic systems theory, the study employs a survey methodology. a questionnaire comprising both close-ended belief statements as well as open-ended statements for students to respond to was administered to 51 study participants purposefully selected. quantitative data were analysed using ibm spss, while qualitative data were analysed by the researchers. results emerging from the study reveal that 1st-year students generally find their lecturers’ teaching approaches and assessment methods satisfactory; however, they perceive the teaching and learning resources used by their lecturers in teaching sesotho as inadequate. this findings point to the need for further dialogue broadly on the quality of teaching and learning, quality of assessment criteria and the availability of teaching and learning resources provided for presenting newly introduced courses in higher education institutions (heis); and specifically on the level of preparation of lecturers in these courses tasked with the teaching and learning. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 20-47 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 21 keywords: plurilingualism, teaching approaches, teaching and learning resources, assessment in higher education introduction the language policy for south african higher education (department of education, 2002) stipulates that each university should formulate a language policy that strives towards promoting the development of languages other than english and afrikaans for academic purposes (mkhize & balfour, 2016). in adherence to this policy, south african institutions of higher education need appropriate strategies to promote and develop the country’s eleven official languages as academic languages. the university under review, like most south african universities in the country, heeded this call in developing its language policy, which states that isizulu and sesotho are to be developed as academic languages. the policy reasons to develop both isizulu and sesotho are because these languages represent two major language clusters (nguni and sotho) to which seven indigenous african languages belong (mbolo, 2018). in 2019 the faculty of humanities and the department of african languages introduced sesotho and isizulu language-acquisition courses in addition to south african sign language (sasl) as a way of promoting the development of african languages at the university. to promote these languages, the faculty of humanities made it compulsory for all students enrolled for the ba general degree to take a full year of one of the african languages at 1st-year level as one of the requirements for the degree (university rules and syllabuses for degree and diplomas offered in the faculty of humanities, 2021). a number of postgraduate students in the linguistics and african languages departments were recruited to teach 1st-year sesotho and isizulu first additional language (fal) courses. a significant number of engineering students also take the african languages courses as part of their degree requirements. since research and scholarly investigations to identify useful and effective teaching and learning methods are among the most important functions of educational systems, the current study explores the perceptions of 1st-year students on the teaching and learning of sesotho fal. the sections below discuss complex dynamic system theory before examining perspectives on the notion of plurilingualism in higher education institutions (heis), approaches to language pedagogy, availability of teaching and learning resources, and lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 22 assessments in higher education. after outlining the methodology of the study, the findings are presented before making recommendations and offering some conclusions. theoretical framework: complex dynamic system theory language, its use, its evolution, its development, and its learning are processes in complex systems. the key characteristic of complex dynamic system theory (cdst) is transdisciplinary, which makes it a suitable theory for studying these complex systems, including plurilingualism. although cdst emerged from the natural sciences, it has also been used in the social sciences since the 1970s. cdst has also been used in investigations of english as a lingua franca, world englishes, second-language development, language teacher education, and the psychology of language learning (larsen-freeman, 2017). cdst is a systems theory, and as such it encompasses systematic thinking in terms of patterns, relationships, or contexts (capra & luisi, 2014). a system is a collective whole, made up of interdependent constituents which can include components such as humans or technological objects, conceptual elements such as affective or cognitive variables, or a semiotic dimension such as words or texts (hilpert & marchand, 2018). patterns in language emerge from the multiple interactions of its learners/users as they make meaning and position themselves as they wish. as users of language interact, they assemble their language resources, adapting them to a specific context for a specific purpose; thus, each language learner’s/user’s developmental trajectory is different, influenced by their prior experience and their own unique circumstances, including other languages that they know, the social codes and languages to which they are exposed, their particular interlocutors, their intentions and the application of domain general mechanisms (piccardo, germain-rutherford & lawrence, 2021). student perceptions in higher education institutions a perception involves the way one sees the world (mcdonald, 2011). the notion of student perception in higher education settings is important to lecturers, students as well as the learning environment: lecturers attempt to manage course pass rates by encouraging positive actions among students. to improve the quality of a course, it is critical to appreciate the uniqueness of student perceptions. according to jandug-montera (2020), university student perceptions of their learning experiences and their engagement with peers, lecturers and content beneficially impact the learning environment. an acknowledgement of student perceptions is therefore critical in the process of refining newly introduced courses. plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 23 plurilingualism in higher education institutions current research in multilingual settings seems to be advocating for multilingualism with an increasing focus on plurilingual pedagogy in education (kubota, 2016; may, 2014; piccardo & capron, 2015). plurilingualism is not a new concept in european language education policies. from a political perspective, plurilingualism was promoted and framed as a key policy orientation in europe; and recommendations were made for the promotion of linguistic diversity, intercultural dialogue and social cohesion in the 1990s (vallejo & dooly, 2020: 3). on the other hand, khan (2013) points out that in the global south, a pluralistic policy was considered unacceptable by pakistani politicians, because it was contrary to the ideal pakistani image they wanted to create. a plurilingual approach does not only view language as a set of standard norms, but views the use of language as symbiotically interacting to generate new meanings (canagarajah, 2018). this notion, however; is not unique to a plurilingual approach, the notion applies to any language at any given time. although plurilingualism is evidently crucial in generating new meanings; galante, okubo, cole, elkader, carozza, wilkinson, wotton and vasic (2019) state that pedagogical practices in higher education are still monolingual and they often do not capitalise on the opportunity to turn students’ spontaneous plurilingual practices into pedagogical strategies. recognizing and valuing students’ plurilingual competence is fundamental for improved academic performance in higher education. marshall and moore (2013) examined how 1st-year students used their plurilingual competence in a canadian university and the results show the students have agency over their plurilingualism in both social and educational contexts; and make use of their linguistic repertoire as a resource to communicate, even if the language of instruction is only english. while students spontaneously use languages other than english in their academic studies, the lack of teaching and learning resources to implement pedagogy that can harness students’ plurilingual practices is a cause of serious concern (galante, et al., 2019). ellis (2013) investigated english second-language teachers’ views on language teaching and learning and found that plurilingual teachers have an increased awareness of their own plurilingual strategies but still need institutional support to harness this knowledge for meaningful pedagogical practice. similarly, a study examining the extent to which university lecturers accommodated increasingly linguistically and culturally diverse australian and british students (pauwels, 2014), indicated that while the lecturers themselves lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 24 were plurilingual, most of them had limited awareness or interest in their students’ linguistic profiles and viewed students’ plurilingual practices as an annoyance. abiria, early and kendrick (2013) investigated northern ugandan teachers’ use of local linguistic and multimodal cultural resources as plurilingual pedagogical tools to enhance students' learning in english classrooms. three themes emerged from the study, namely the teachers' exploratory plurilingual practices, students as plurilingual peer tutors, and integrated multimodal and plurilingual instruction. these studies clearly indicate that a shift towards plurilingual pedagogy in heis requires a systematic approach where lecturers are provided with the necessary and sustained pedagogical support. in south africa, while the discourse is still widely focusing on translanguaging and multilingualism, a group of plurilingual postgraduate students, namely sabela, masuku and qwabe, (2020), investigated academisation and its effect on curriculum transformation in south africa’s higher education. the investigation by madiba (2013) into multilingual education in south african universities revealed that while multilingual education is not yet fully realized at a particular south african university, the existing multilingual language policy in that university has created opportunities for implementing multilingual education. current debates on multilingualism posit that the use of multilingualism in higher education contributes to the learner’s conceptual and pedagogical development as well as to their communicative competence (hlatshwayo & siziba, 2013). while emerging research is seemingly excited about the increasing number of studies on plurilingualism, kubota (2016, 17) critiques the term itself: while notions such as hybridity, fluidity and multiplicity are potentially liberating, they can obscure actual struggles and inequalities… using the multi/plural frame of reference with insufficient critical reflection makes us complicit with neoliberalism that exacerbates economic and educational gaps and with a neoliberal multiculturalism that evades racism and other injustices. kubota’s critique of plurilingualism echoes cenoz’s (2009) study which shows translanguaging can be considered simultaneously as a threat to the survival of minority languages or as an opportunity for their development (choi & ollerhead, 2018). plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 25 language context at the university the purpose of the university’s language policy approved in 2014 is to drive its transformation agenda through the recognition of diversity in the university, which involves the provision of a clear pathway for the intellectualisation of african languages. within the linguistics and african languages department, isizulu and sesotho are earmarked as languages of teaching and learning parallel to english. certain courses in the department are now taught in isizulu and sesotho, while others are still being taught in english. in 2019 the faculty of humanities language requirement rule was implemented, allowing the department of african languages to draw a large pool of students across the faculty of humanities for 1st-year enrolment in language-acquisition courses in isizulu and sesotho. these languages are used to practise studying, writing and speaking about a certain field of study, including both academic and scientific language. in order to assure parity of esteem, transformation of the university’s linguistic profile will unlock cross-cultural understanding and enhance access to sotho and nguni language groups at postgraduate level. for example, postgraduate students are allowed to do research either in sotho or nguni language group such as sesotho, sepedi, setswana, isixhosa and isizulu (university rules and syllabuses for degree and diplomas offered in the faculty of humanities, 2021). the university’s language policy stipulates that all staff must learn an african language for the sake of effective communication. this should be achieved through the department of african languages and the university’s centre for part time studies. although african languages are regarded as official languages of many south african universities, their status has not been elevated to languages of curricula and research (bangani, masilo, makate & moyo, 2018). the university reviewed has already used signage boards to make isizuluand sesotho-speaking students feel more at home, but other african languages are marginalised. approaches to teaching in higher education teaching and learning is a two-way process, involving among other things the teacher and the one being taught (in this case, the student). teachers constitute an important part of the learning context for the students, and the students in turn constitute an important part of the teaching environment for the lecturers. research on university teachers’ approaches to teaching consistently shows evidence of variation in the ways teachers approach their teaching. the approaches to teaching inventory (ati) developed by trigwell, prosser and waterhouse lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 26 (1999) highlighted five different approaches to teaching that are closely linked to the teachers’ underlying conceptions of teaching: • teaching as imparting information; • teaching as transmitting structured knowledge; • teaching as an interaction between the teacher and the student; • teaching as facilitating understanding on the part of the student; and • teaching as bringing about conceptual change and intellectual development in the student. adapted from richardson (2005). murphy, eduljee and croteau, (2021) distinguish between two teaching methods utilised at undergraduate level: teacher-centered methods and student-centered methods. the key difference is the focus. in a teacher-centered approach, the focus is on teachers who are viewed as information providers or evaluators to monitor students to get the right answers, while students are viewed as passively receiving information (emaliana, 2017). in a student-centred approach, the focus is on student activities (collaborating, communicating, interacting), which are viewed as important indicators in learning process and quality of learning product (zohrabi, et al., 2012). a comparison of these two approaches calls for a paradigm shift from the teachercentred approach that focuses on content dissemination, to the student-centred approach which focuses on learning experiences. colet, (2017) expands on these two approaches by challenging university courses to move towards competence-based programmes. outcomes based education is a student-centered approach that emphasizes on what learners should know, understand, demonstrate and how to adapt to life beyond formal education (tan, chong, subramaniam & wong, 2018). in this approach, the focus is on learner outcomes. the competence-based approach (an extension of the outcomes-based approach) focuses on students demonstrating that they have learned the knowledge and skills they are expected to learn as they progress through their education. the key focus of the approach is functionality: it emphasizes on life skills and evaluates mastery of skills necessary for an individual to function proficiently in society (mkonongwa, 2018). the two approaches cater for societal needs in education and training and emphasise on producing students who contribute positively to society. thus, heis are mandated to expand their course offerings in terms of the skills developed or the generic attributes acquired, and in terms of the potential contributions to social development. plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 27 the content-based approach integrates language content with the presentation of topics and tasks in learning second language acquisition (crandal & tucker, 2016). thus, the contentbased approach has a dual focus on language and content-learning. it is an approach that integrates the content of subjects with the use of language, making it applicable both to the context of language learning and foreign languages (aini, sari & rikarda, 2020). teaching and learning resources in higher education teaching and learning resources are various tools that provide the teachers with the opportunity to teach effectively in order to facilitate the learning process for students (savery, 2015). according to khoza and mpungose (2020), teaching and learning resources are objects or persons communicating the teaching and learning; and they are divided into three main categories: • hardware resources: machines or tools used in teaching such as computers, laptops, and mobile phones; • software resources: materials used with hardware: o application software, microsoft office, the internet, learning management system (lms), o file management software, o operational software; and • ideological-ware resources: the mind processes and systems motivating lecturers and students to use hardware and software resources. adapted from khoza and mpungose, (2020) while khoza and mpungose (2020)’s definition clearly classifies the non-paper-based objects mainly used in digital teaching and learning environments, the aspect of ideological-ware resources relates to perceptions made about the teaching and learning process; and therefore, places great emphasis on viewing the teaching and learning process as centred on ideologicalware resources. learning is the transformation of the subconscious thoughts, using the conscious mind (khoza & biyela, 2020). in addition to digital teaching and learning resources, paper-based learning resources such as textbooks, course packs, tutorial guides, scientific journals or library books that are provided in a university course of study are also important learning tools for facilitating student learning. firstly, these tools reflect an academic disciplinary community of practice. teaching lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 28 and learning resources are chosen by the academic experts who usually select resources developed within their community of practice, which sometimes may be shared across different higher education institution or belong to a specific institution (wenger 1999). secondly, the selected teaching and learning resources are a significant part of a community of practice that reflects the shared understandings of the specific academic discipline. lastly, the teaching and learning resources selected for a university course align with a disciplinary pedagogic discourse that reflects the history and development of the discipline in the respective universities. furthermore, the selected teaching and learning resources also reflect the pedagogic identity of the course designer as a representation of their professional expertise (horsley, knight & huntly, 2011). assessments in higher education assessment is a process of gathering and analysing data to establish whether the goals of a lesson were achieved (khoza & biyela, 2020). an assessment of understanding for feedback is formative (assessment for learning) and an assessment used to get an evaluation of the student's knowledge at a point in time is summative (assessment of learning) (dixson & worrell, 2016). summative assessment (an example of assessment of learning) is a process in which an outcome is derived through criteria and standards (bacquet, 2020). when lecturers administer summative assessments, they are able to establish whether students should pass or fail, based on prescribed objectives (khoza, 2021). this makes summative assessment very formal. ideally, a formal assessment task is compiled by the lecturer, bearing in mind the structure and progression of the subject discipline(s) involved, an appreciation of the sequencing of the intellectual and moral development of students, and a knowledge of the current level of intellectual development of the students. the students’ understanding of the assessment task is enhanced through the specification of assessment criteria. in other words, the lecturer should provide the assessment guidelines and also explain the criteria to the student. the student interprets and responds to the assessment task according to his or her knowledge of the subject and the level of his or her intellectual development, bearing the assessment criteria in mind. the student’s performance is assessed (interpreted) by the lecturer against the specified criteria, and feedback is given through grades and/or commentary/feedback. at this point, there is a potential for dialogue between the student and the lecturer, mainly to discuss the student performance and/or ways of improving their performance (yorke, 2003). plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 29 assessment for learning helps learners and lecturers to improve their performance, because they establish what needs to be revised before, during, and after lessons (khoza, 2021). formative assessment (an example of assessment for learning) is more informal than summative assessment. formative assessment highlights student knowledge through informal structures (bacquet, 2020). types of formative assessments include: group discussions, dialogue with lecturers, reflective questions, and monitoring the students through classroom activities. in formative assessment, feedback is provided informally (daşkın & hatipoğlu, 2019). peer assessment involves reviewing and feeding back on each other’s work; in the process, students are also learning from and with each other (wride, 2017). types of peer assessment include grading a peer’s research report, providing qualitative feedback on a classmate’s presentation or evaluating a fellow trainee’s professional task performance (van zundert, sluijsmans & van merriënboer, 2010). while research highlights the differences between formative and summative assessments, the two types of assessment should complement each other, as they serve related purposes. the student’s interpretation of the assessment, together with his or her ideological resources, are key influences on the teaching and learning process. methodology information about perceptions that are otherwise difficult to measure using observational techniques can easily be collected through the use of surveys. a survey methodology was selected for this particular study, mainly because it allows the retrieval of information on variables that can be studied from a population sample, which allows for generalizing (creswell, 2014). data collected from the survey were stored in a password-protected computer. research context this study investigates how 1st-year students at a university in south africa perceive the teaching and learning of sesotho fal courses. the research site was the faculty of humanities at a south african university that is strategically located in a historically advantaged community in one of south africa’s economic hubs in gauteng province. the university’s language policy recognizes english as its main language of learning and teaching, while isizulu, sesotho and south african sign language are the only three african indigenous languages taught at fal level. lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 30 sampling the investigation targeted 1st-year students in the faculty of humanities, department of african languages. the university’s model to introduce an african language as a compulsory requirement for all degree courses as recommended by the white paper on post-secondary education and training (dohet, 2013) targeted 1st-year students. this particular sample was chosen for two main reasons. firstly, they were the first cohort to take an african language as part of the requirements for the ba general degree. secondly, the 2019 cohort was used as a pilot study for informing the roll out of the model across all faculties, making these students’ perceptions of the pilot phase a critical component of the model. participant demographic data participants were made up of 57% (n=29) female and 43% (n=22) male students. 59% (n=30) of the students were taking the african language course as a free elective, 2% (n=1) were taking the language as a major, 29% (n=15) were taking the course as a requirement for other degree purposes and 10% (n=5) were uncertain of why they had to take the course. participants’ home languages spanned across 14 languages, including south african indigenous languages, some regional languages such as kalanga, arabic and amharic; and some international languages such as norwegian, as indicated in table 1. table 1: participants’ mother tongue frequency % valid 5 9.8 amharic 1 2.0 arabic 1 2.0 english 11 21.6 isizulu 8 15.7 kalanga 1 2.0 norwegian 1 2.0 portuguese 1 2.0 sesotho 2 3.9 plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 31 setswana 4 7.8 shona 8 15.7 swahili 1 2.0 tshivenda 3 5.9 xhosa 1 2.0 xitsonga 3 5.9 total 51 100.0 the most common home languages were english (22%, n=11), followed by a tie between shona and isizulu at 16% (n=8). the least common languages included swahili, portuguese and xhosa (2%, n=1). study participants where requested to indicate their frequency of using isizulu and sesotho outside the university african languages lessons; the results are shown in figure 1. figure 1: frequency of using isizulu / sesotho outside of university african languages lectures 21.6% (n=11) of students always use isizulu outside of lectures, compared to only 7.8% (n=4) who always use sesotho outside of lectures. about 30% (n=15) of the students do not use either of the two languages outside the university lectures, indicating that these students do not have 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 always never sometimes 21.6 31.4 37.3 7.8 33.3 43.1 frequency of speaking isizulu / sesotho outside lectures isizulu sesotho lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 32 exposure to the languages outside of the formal lectures. 37.3% (n=19) sometimes use isizulu, while 43.1% (n=22) sometimes use sesotho outside of the lectures. the relatively low use of the two african languages compared to the wide variety of languages spoken by the students as home languages may suggest that the african languages being taught at university are competing with a wide range of languages in society and this is evidence of a student group that is plurilingual. with specific reference to sesotho, it is to be expected that a very low percentage of students (7.8%, n=4) always use sesotho compared to a relatively higher percentage (33.3%, n=17) of those who never use the language outside of the lectures, as the specific course is meant for students who are interested in learning sesotho for the first time. the even higher percentage (43.1%, n=22) of students who sometimes use the language could be an indication that some students may be practising the newly acquired language outside the lectures. procedure: questionnaire schedule to respond to the study’s research question, a questionnaire was used to collect data in the second semester of 2019; the questionnaire included both close-ended and open-ended items to achieve coverage across the student population as well as achieve depth in the form of written responses. a total of 51 questionnaires were distributed to 1st-year sesotho fal students. there were three distinct sections of the questionnaire. the first section, which sought to elicit student perceptions on teaching approaches used by the lecturers while presenting the sesotho course contained eight close-ended likert-scale belief statements. the second section with four closeended likert-scale belief statements focused on student perceptions of the teaching and learning resources used in the sesotho lectures. the third section with three close-ended likertscale belief statements sought to elicit student perceptions on the quality of sesotho course assessment activities. all the three sections had an additional section for open-ended comments in addition to the closed likert-scale belief statements to which students had to respond to as strongly disagree (sd), disagree (d), neutral (n), agree (a) or strongly agree (sa). while the inclusion of the neutral category provided a midpoint indicating neutrality ‘neither agree nor disagree’ (tutz, 2021); results interpretation focused on the straightforward agreement and disagreement categories. according to babbie (2015), validity indicates whether the instrument measures what it is intended to measure. cronbach’s alpha coefficient analysis was used to investigate the internal consistency of the measures, since it is the most reliable test of interitem consistency reliability for likert-scaled or rating-scaled measures (creswell & plano, 2011). plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 33 data collection and analysis primary data were collected at the reviewed university (ethical clearance: h20/04/23) through the administration of the questionnaires to 1st-year sesotho fal students by researchers in three different classes. students were given 25 minutes to complete the questionnaires. instructions were clearly explained to students by the researchers. the closed likert-scale belief statements gathered quantitative data, while the open-ended comments gathered qualitative data to develop an in-depth understanding of the teaching approaches, the learning and teaching materials, and the assessments used in sesotho language courses at the university. quantitative data were analysed quantitatively using ibm spss software, while qualitative data from open-ended comments of the questionnaire were analysed qualitatively by the researchers using thematic analysis. quotations exemplifying the identified themes were extracted from the questionnaire responses. trends emerging from the qualitative and quantitative strands were merged. findings the key finding of this study is that 1st-year students generally find their lecturers’ teaching approaches and assessment methods satisfactory; however, they perceived the teaching and learning resources used by their lecturers in teaching sesotho as being inadequate. the first research question was addressed by analysing student responses regarding the teaching approaches used by lecturers presenting 1st-year sesotho fal courses. the eight variables analysed were ta1: stimulation of student interest in the language; ta2: pacing and management of class time; ta3: lecturer organization and preparedness for class; ta4: discussion and response to questions; ta5: lecturer subject knowledge; ta6: lecturer interest and enthusiasm in the language; ta7: use of a variety of instructional methods; and ta8: challenging students to perform even better (see figure 2): lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 34 figure 2: student perceptions of teaching approaches used by sesotho language lecturers 56.9% (n=29) of students indicated that the lecturer stimulated their interest in the language: s38: …the lecturer encourages students and believes in each and every one of us, always there when you don’t understand something 70.6% (n=36) of students indicated that the lecturer managed class time and pace well, while 80.4% (n=41) indicated that the lecturers were organized and prepared for every class: s15: it is very productive the way the lectures are conducted s51: the lecturer always came prepared to class … 89.8% (n=46) of the students indicated the lecturer encouraged discussion and responded to questions: s51: the lecturer… would answer every question asked and make sure everyone understands 86.3% (n=44) of the students indicated the lecturer demonstrated in-depth subject knowledge: s16: it was appropriate for beginners, basics and important cultural ideas were taught sd n sa 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 ta1 ta2 ta3 ta4 ta5 ta6 ta7 ta8 5.9 3.9 0.0 0 0 3.9 3.9 4 5.9 5.9 3.9 0 7.8 2 0 0 31.4 19.6 15.7 3.9 5.9 7.8 5.9 10 27.5 37.3 31.4 32.9 35.3 31.4 39.2 3629.4 33.3 49 56.9 51 54.9 51 50 student perceptions of teaching approches used in sesotho language course sd d n a sa plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 35 s23: … lecturer taught us well, made our lessons very interesting, we were allowed to participate and now my knowledge of sesotho language is better than it was at the beginning of the year … imparted deep knowledge on the course 86.3% (n=44) of the students indicated the lecturer appeared interested and enthusiastic, while 90.2% (n=46) believed the lecturer used a variety of instructional methods: s13: i found group discussions working very well s44: … uses great teaching style when explaining in class 86% (n=43) of the students indicated that their lecturers challenged them to do their best in the course. the student responses indicate that the lecturers’ teaching approaches are studentcentred and generally facilitated students’ knowledge construction processes, as alluded by trigwell (2012). while the majority of the students were satisfied with the teaching approaches used by their lecturers, a few but significant number of students registered their concerns: s2: more work was given over a short interval of time of learning the language s17: it is too hard for me, the lecturer expects us to know sotho as if it is our home language s24: the approach is not quite robust, we are just fed with vocabulary but our sentence construction is poor s25: it is not that good because we have not been taught from the root of the language. and the teaching method doesn’t flow. it is un-understandable, we can’t even understand the language s28: we went through work too fast, half the class is sotho speaking. we worked at their pace even though the class was meant for non-sotho-speaking students s37: the lecturer could be more inclusive in his teaching approach s41: questions posed were often difficult and when we struggled, it was discouraging. s43: … instead of giving us answers to questions we were told to do research… student dissatisfaction revolves around issues of inclusivity, having to master a lot of content within a short space of time and over-reliance on self-directed learning. furthermore, the fact that students come from diverse backgrounds, with some having some exposure to the sesotho language, while others do not (as indicated in the demographic section of this study), left the lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 36 learners believing they are under pressure to perform at the level of fellow students with a higher level of exposure to the language. the second research question was addressed by analysing student responses regarding the teaching and learning resources used in 1st-year sesotho fal courses. the four variables analysed were ra1: use of library resources to support coursework; ra2: use of chalkboard resources in the lecturer room; ra3: use of sakai resources; and ra4: lecturer guidance regarding where to find resources. figure 3: student perceptions of teaching and learning resources used by sesotho language lecturers as indicated in figure 3, the study participants were dissatisfied with teaching and learning resources provided for the course. only 22% (n=11) of the students were of the opinion that the course was supported by adequate library resources. responses indicating student dissatisfaction regarding availability of resources include: s2: we had limited resources to refer to besides the notes in class s16: there should be a lecture package available to all students so that they can refer to additional notes when studying and for better understanding s24: … there is a lack of resources … s27: expose students to more content, like books and text to refer to 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 ra1 ra2 ra3 ra4 16.0 3.9 31.4 7.8 18.0 2.0 15.7 9.8 44.0 15.7 33.3 15.716.0 49.0 11.8 47.1 6.0 29.4 7.8 19.6 student perceptions of teaching and learning resources used in sesotho language courses sd d n a sa plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 37 while 78.4% (n=40) of the students were of the opinion that the chalkboard resources were useful, only 19.6 % (n=10) of the students were of the opinion that sakai resources were useful. students who believed more could be done regarding the use of sakai stated: s27: use sakai more and give online assignments s41: … sakai was barely used efficiently s43: sakai was never used, yet it is a platform that everyone has access to … we don’t all have the resources. at times the course work is beyond elementary level s51: we did not get much resources via sakai, we had to rely merely on emails sent from our lecturer 66.7% (n=34) of the students were of the opinion that the lecturer guided them regarding where to get resources: s1: handouts were provided, mistakes were there but lecturer provided additional corrected material s23: lecturer sent us emails regularly, giving us notes s30: lecturer prepares notes for us s37: lecturer applied extensive referrals for research it is a cause of concern that the majority of participants in this study felt they did not have important learning tools for facilitating student learning. a few respondents indicated some notes and handouts were provided. it is a cause of even greater concern that the learning management system that is easily accessible to most university students was underutilised as stated by s43. the lack of teaching and learning resources may compromise the development of the discipline in the university, as stated by horsley, knight and huntly (2011). the third research question was addressed by analysing student responses regarding the quality of feedback and assessments used by lecturers while presenting the 1st-year sesotho fal course. the three variables analysed were fa1: clarity of information on assessments; fa2: provision of feedback within a reasonable timeframe; and fa3: provision of feedback showing ways of improving student performance, as indicated in figure 4. lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 38 figure 4: student perceptions of assessment provided by sesotho language lecturers 60.8% (n=31) of the study participants indicated that the information about assessment was communicated clearly, as reported by s23: s23: the lecturer explained this course assessment very well before i began with it 72.5% (n=37) of the study participants indicated that the feedback was provided within a reasonable timeframe. responses that registered dissatisfaction with the assessment timeframes ranged from those that were concerned about the limited time afforded to work on the assignments: (s43); and the feedback that was not provided at all: (s51). s43: our diversity work is often sent the night before, which makes it hard to dedicate time for it s51: we did not get back our diversity activities so that we can check our mistakes and where we needed to improve, they gave us the marks when they were all combined 80.4% (n=41) of the study participants indicated that the feedback showed them how to improve on their work. although participant responses on the quality of assessments were generally favourable, students were of the opinion that a lot more could have been done: s27: ... give online assignments s33: i feel that the department should equip all lecturers with a pre made lesson plan as i as a student, have noticed a trend where when we need to complete an assessment 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 fa1 fa2 fa3 2.0 2.0 5.9 5.9 5.9 3.9 11.8 19.6 29.4 51.0 43.1 23.5 29.4 29.4 37.3 student perceptions of assessments provided in sesotho language course sa a n d sd plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 39 such as a test, some classes may not have covered the same topics as others and in certain cases this gives some classes an advantage over others. recommendations each language user’s developmental trajectory is different and is influenced by their prior experience and their own uniqueness, including other languages that they know and the social languages and codes to which they are exposed (piccardo, germain-rutherford & lawrence, 2021). considering that the students taking sesotho fal come from diverse backgrounds, with some students having some exposure to the language while others do not, it is recommended that a thorough vetting system be used in selecting students for the course. having students with different knowledge levels of the language in one lecture requires the lecturer to use inclusive approaches that accommodate students at different levels of the language acquisition. shirani bidabadi, nasr isfahani, rouhollahi and khalili (2016) suggest lecturers should consider the following points for a meaningful teaching and learning process: • how to increase the students' motivation; • how to help students feel confident in solving problems; • how to teach students to plan their learning activities; • how to help them to carry out self-assessment at the end of each lesson; • how to encourage the students to motivate them for future work; and • how to give feedback to the students and inform them about their individual learning. teaching and learning resources are very important components of the teaching and learning process. the major purpose of learning and teaching resources is to provide a source of learning experience that is effective enough to invoke interaction among students and teachers in the learning or teaching process (savery, 2015). an effective learning resource has the ability to assist the students in the learning process and broaden the learning experience of the students along with meeting the learning needs of the students. a variety of resources are required not only at lower levels of education, but in heis as well, more so when a language-acquisition course is offered to a group of linguistically inexperienced students. the first point of departure is using the students’ home languages as resources in the language-acquisition course. furthermore, additional tools that students can access outside the classrooms provide an additional layer of engaging with the language; however, it is of paramount importance to guide students on where to get such resources, especially for a newly introduced course. language lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 40 teaching and learning resources are therefore very important for both the lecturer and student for a meaningful language-acquisition teaching and learning process. participants in this study highlight a point about quality assuring assessments. when different classes of the same course are presented, it is paramount to ensure that the quality of teaching, learning and assessments taking place in the different classes is equitable. one of the ways of countering wide variations of the same course being offered is to have one lecturer offering the same course to the different groups of learners, albeit human resources challenges may arise from this model. whether it is assessment of learning or assessment for learning, there are inherent components of assessment that need to be prioritized; these include providing developmental feedback and providing the feedback timeously. an equally important point is allowing students reasonable time to undertake the assignment and this brings the component of fairness to the assessment. the importance of feedback within assessments was referred to by only a few respondents. nicol (2021) posits that regular feedback within assessments makes students more critical of their own work and more attentive to other students’ work; it improves their learning and makes them develop more competencies. according to nicol and macfarlane-dick (2006), good feedback should: • help clarify what a good performance is; • facilitate the development of self-assessment in learning; • encourage teacher and peer dialogue around learning; • help deliver high-quality information to students about their learning; • encourage positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem; • provide opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performances; and • provide information to teachers that can be used to help shape teaching. adapted from orsmond & merry (2013). limitations and future research while the study paid careful attention to the study design, the study’s limitations suggest a point of departure for future research. the researchers acknowledge the ambivalence of the neutral category in the likert scale section, which often attracts more responses than it should. the open-ended comments collected from students in the questionnaire provided qualitative, explanatory data that was crucial for interpreting the students’ quantitative responses. however, interviews or focus group discussions might have yielded valuable in-depth data essential to understanding and explaining the teaching approaches, teaching and learning plurilingual practices in higher education: an analysis of student perceptions from a south african university ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 41 resources, and quality of assessments that were investigated in the current study. the ‘lecturers’ referred to by the respondents in the current study are postgraduate students who were recruited to present the language-acquisition courses. there is a need to conduct similar research where courses are presented by more experienced lecturers. conclusion a meaningful dialogue on plurilingualism in south african heis calls for fundamental changes in the way policy makers, curriculum designers and lecturers perceive language, multilingualism, and education, as well as entailing a critical understanding of the language learners themselves, that is the students who are on the receiving end of the newly introduced language policies. while it is the lecturer’s responsibility to present the lecture, choose appropriate teaching and learning approaches, resources and assessment tools, these choices need to be informed by the envisaged facilitation of the learning process. the study investigated how 1st-year students at a university in south africa perceive the teaching and learning of the sesotho fal course; the objectives of the study were specifically to ascertain the students’ views on the teaching approaches used by lecturers presenting the course; the teaching and learning resources used in the course; and the quality of assessments. the study was guided by complex dynamic systems theory and it used the survey methodology comprised of a questionnaire with both close-ended belief statements and open-ended statements. results emerging from the data revealed that 1st-year students generally found their lecturers’ teaching approaches and assessment methods to be satisfactory; however, they perceived the teaching and learning resources used by their lectures in teaching sesotho as being inadequate. this finding points to the need for further dialogue broadly on the quality of teaching and learning, the quality of assessment criteria, and the availability of teaching and learning resources provided for newly introduced courses in heis, and specifically on the level of preparation of lecturers tasked with the presentation of the newly introduced courses. without this critical dialogue, south african universities run the risk of rolling out and multiplying language-acquisition courses that merely adhere formally to higher education language policy stipulations without making a meaningful contribution to the student’s language acquisition. this study envisages opening up the debate that will engage a deeply nuanced understanding of plurilingualism in south african heis that interrogates the current lindiwe tshuma, kgomotso theledi ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 20-47 42 teaching approaches, the availability of teaching and learning resources, and the quality of assessment in the newly introduced language acquisition courses. acknowledgements this paper and the research behind it would not 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(2003). formative assessment in higher education: moves towards theory and the enhancement of pedagogic practice. higher education, 45, 477–501. the use of peers in assessment for learning: a case study of trainee teachers at bindura university of science education (buse), zimbabwe young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa department of curriculum and educational management studies faculty of science education, bindura university of science education, zimbabwe abstract the study was an exploration of trainee teachers’ understanding, perceptions of, and confidence in the use of peers in assessment for learning (afl) at bindura university of science education, zimbabwe. trainee teachers were enrolled in a programme that used a blended model of teaching and learning between february and june 2021. trainees participated in online seminars and peer assessment in a course on curriculum development and completed questionnaire eliciting their attitudes toward peer assessment. a mixed-methods approach using both quantitative and qualitative methodologies was adopted. quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, mean item scores and the summated scores for the three constructs of confidence, benefits of and threats to peer assessment. open-ended items were analysed qualitatively and emerging themes were reported. summated scores of 4, meant trainees had positive attitudes toward peer assessment and believed in numerous benefits of using peer assessment. a summated mean score of 3 for threats to peer assessment meant trainee teachers had neutral views to the construct. conflicting messages were evident. the same trainees who believed that peer assessment was useful still doubted sincerity of peers and preferred teacher assessment. further research, using a larger population and sample and interviews to probe doubts in peer assessment, is recommended.. keywords: attitude, confidence, peer assessment, trainee teacher introduction universities the world over use formative assessment and evaluation to improve teaching and learning. summative evaluation is used to assist decision-making about course improvement, individual learners and administrative regulations. feedback provided in formative assessment issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 75-99 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 76 is important in helping students to attain educational goals. lecturer and peer assessment are two forms of assessment among many, that can provide useful feedback to trainee teachers and the buse university system. it is widely recognised that feedback is a core component of the learning process the world over. research has, however, shown that trainee teachers are not satisfied with feedback from their lecturers. attempts to increase trainee teachers’ satisfaction through enhancing the quality of the feedback information provided by lecturers are problematic (nicol, thomson & breslin, 2014). the provision of detailed feedback increases the workload of lecturers, more so in contexts where resources are inadequate. besides, lecturers’ feedback to trainee teachers is often seen as one-way transmission process. there is need to continuously re-examine feedback and how it is conceptualised at institutions of higher learning, for example, bindura university of science education (buse) in zimbabwe. peer, together with self-assessment, are aimed at making trainee teachers take responsibility for their learning (harlen, 2007). they learn to identify their own learning needs and develop their own next steps. peer-assessment is an essential component of assessment for learning because it can help trainee teachers to direct their activities towards their learning goals. trainee teachers’ understanding of what ‘good work’ looks like relates to the need to develop appropriate success criteria. according to harrison and harlen (2006) the four aspects of self-assessment are self-monitoring and checking progress, diagnosis and recognition of learning needs, promoting good learning practices, and linking learning practices. before examining the concept of peer assessment in detail, it is essential to define afl. assessment for learning (afl) has been defined as the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there (assessment reform group, 2002). lecturers use afl to establish what trainee teachers know, don’t know and partly know (misconceptions). they can carry out afl through talk, questioning, feedback, selfand peerassessment. all these modes of afl are dependent on the classroom environment, and teaching and learning culture. afl can be defined from a socio-cultural perspective. for example, a second generation thinking defines afl as “part of everyday practice by students, teachers and peers that seeks, reflects upon and responds to information from dialogue, demonstration and observation in ways that enhance ongoing learning” (klenowski 2009, p.264). embedded in the second generation thinking, afl aims to produce self-regulated learners. from a socio-cultural trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 77 perspective learning is viewed as a socially situated practice seeking development of identity (lave & wenger, 1991). peer assessment peer assessment is an arrangement for learners to consider and specify the level, value or quality of a product or performance of other equal-status learners (topping, 2009; tillema, 2010). equal status implies trainee teacher assessing another trainee teacher, and peer constellation can vary in directionality (one way or reciprocal), group size (pairs or small groups), goals (cognition or time saving), and modes used (topping, 2009). participating in peer assessment introduces students to each other’s experiences as learning resources (william, 2011). some examples are negotiated marking rubrics coconstructed between lecturer and students, using the rubrics in discursive ways, and peer and group assessment practices (charteris, quinn, parkes, flecther, & reyes, 2016). afl is complex in that it requires engagement and symbiosis among many factors (e.g., lecturers, trainee teachers, and institution), and each of these factors may impede successful implementation (xu & harfitt, 2019). peer assessment builds on the notion of learning as a co-constructivist activity; whereby learning occurs as a result of social interaction (harrison & harlen, 2006; tillema, 2010), multiple acts of evaluative judgment about the work of peers, and through a reflective process of their own work. (nicol, thomson & breslin, 2014). peer assessment is a reciprocal process (nicol, thomson & breslin, 2014). the benefits of pa are both diverse and inclusive (falchikov, 2005). we, however, explore whether the benefits of learning as a co-constructivist activity, multiplicity of evaluative judgments, reflective process and reciprocity are evident to the trainee teachers? there are many different forms of selfand peer assessment. the methods listed by lindsay & clarke (2001) are peer-marking, paired-marking, plenary peer-evaluation, and selfassessment journals. through peer-marking trainee teachers can identify three areas where they believe their peers achieved the learning intention and one area they believe needed addressing. in paired marking, a partner is encouraged to mark the work and offer suggestions for closing the gap and help one another to make an improvement. paired marking offers trainee teachers’ opportunity to demonstrate their understanding through the assessment comments (lindsay & clarke, 2001). self-assessment journals demonstrate trainee teachers’ ability to reflect on their work and to suggest what they need to do next time in order to take account of what they have young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 78 learnt from a particular experience (lindsay & clarke, 2001). lecturers, on the other hand, learn more about their trainee teachers through selfand peer-assessment and are therefore able to help the trainee teachers more effectively. what are the commonly used forms of peer assessment? what is the preference of trainee teachers? stow (1997) suggested tools and techniques that can be used for peer assessment. these are concept mapping, colouring squares to indicate confidence in achieving a particular goal, jig sawing and traffic lighting, question setting, and comments-only marking. in peer assessment green can be used if presentation was better than they could have given themselves, amber if presentation was as good as they could have given themselves, and red if presentation was not well explained (stow, 1997). peer assessment both engages trainee teachers in being reflective about the task in hand and the way they learn, and therefore encourage a deep approach to learning (harrison & harlen, 2006). peer assessment has been found to develop skills e.g., metacognition, communication, self-evaluation, observation and selfcriticism through assessing own peers (harmer & mcdowell, 2007). the benefits reported in literature may not be so obvious to trainee teachers who for years have relied on lecturer assessment. towards a theory of afl and peer assessment wiliam (2007) attends to the why, the what, and how of using assessment to improve learning and proposes five strategies that encompass the terrain of afl. these five strategies should be seen as a range from which lecturers can pick what works for them (wiliam, 2007; wiliam & thompson, 2007). thus, lectures need to view teaching as a matter phronesis not episteme (william, 2007) – knowing the conditions under which a particular technique is likely to work. first, clarifying and understanding learning intentions and criteria for success. second, eliciting evidence of achievement e.g., through questioning. third, providing feedback on how to improve or move student forward. fourth, activating students as instructional resources for each other, that is, as people involved in helping each other learn. fifth, activating students as owners of their own learning. the five strategies embody pedagogy of engagement (active participation) and pedagogy of contingency (william, 2011). the idea being to use evidence of student learning to adapt teaching and learning to meet student needs. a complete theory informing assessment for learning must attend to four key issues. afl is based on making understanding knowledge visible (hattie, 2008). further, feedback has a positive effect on achievement. third, according to the attribution theory, people explain their trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 79 own successes or failures to themselves in different ways. lastly, afl is informed by metacognition (black, 2015) where all learners need to reflect on their own learning. a number of afl benefits have been reported in literature. these include improving student outcomes, self-efficacy, self-regulatory learning (harrison & harlen, 2006; harlen, 2007; nicol, thomson & breslin, 2014; pandero & brown, 2017; pandero, andrade & brookhart, 2018) and changing the culture of the classroom (klenowski, 2009; william, 2011). despite the obvious benefits there are numerous misconceptions. five of these are the belief that lecturers who use afl will lose control of their class, that peer chatting is a distraction, that only examinations matter in assessment, that assessment is one-way process where lecturer gives student feedback about their work, and that student work should always be given a grade or mark. the misconceptions listed in this paragraph are often coupled with challenges faced when using afl. misunderstandings among lecturers and students. second, need for training and time for lecturers and students to develop a good understanding of afl. third, fear for change threatens implementation of afl. besides getting it right can be a challenge. lastly, the classroom culture may be incompatible with afl. social constructivist perspective of peer assessment a social constructivist paradigm that views feedback as a dialogue (nicol et al, 2014) provides trainee teachers with opportunities to analyse, ask questions, discuss and connect new messages received with prior knowledge (nicol et al, 2014; nicol, 2010). as a component of assessment for learning (afl), peer assessment, has potential to actively engage trainee teachers with feedback processes. in fact, afl is widely recognised as a critical driver of student learning when implemented well (xu & harfitt, 2019). research is required to establish preparedness of trainee teachers and their attitudes toward peer assessment. trainee teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and attitudes towards pa are important determinants whether it is effectively used (panadero & brown, 2017). beliefs are a precursor (ajzen, 1991) or guide to attitudes, perceptions and behaviour (pajares, 1992). trainee teachers acquire most of their beliefs and attitudes about teaching, assessment and evaluation before they begin their professional study (gilbert, 1997), and these a priori beliefs and attitudes may need to be reshaped (gilbert, 1997) so that trainee teachers perceive peer assessment as an effective tool in learning to become teachers. young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 80 statement of the problem some studies have reported that trainee teachers finding their lecturers’ assessment and feedback unsatisfactory (e.g., nicol, thomson & breslin, 2014). likewise, other studies have found that overworked and under-resourced lecturers were ill-prepared to provide effective assessment and feedback (e.g., topping, 2009). peer assessment promises to be an effective alternative or complement to lecturer assessment. however, unless trainee teachers value peer assessment as a co-constructivist activity, they may not take feedback from peers who they consider to be ordinary equals with themselves seriously (topping, 2009). the uptake of afl in teacher education in zimbabwe being rather inadequately researched, this study seeks to explore the trainee teachers’ understanding, confidence in and perceptions of, and preparedness for the use of peers in assessment for learning within the context of higher education institutions in the country. research questions in order to guide the study, the following research questions were asked: 1. what are trainee teachers’ understanding of peer assessment? 2. how confident are trainee teachers in the use of peer assessment in their learning? 3. what are the benefits of peer assessment as perceived by trainee teachers? 4. what are the trainee teachers’ views of factors that threaten the use of peer assessment? methodology a mixed methods approach, using both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, was adopted in an exploratory case study. trainee teachers enrolled in a degree programme in mathematics and science education at bindura university of science education, were taught through a blended model of online and face-to-face teaching and learning. buse is a state university located in mashonaland central, zimbabwe whose mandate is to train secondary mathematics and science teachers. first, during the semester running from february to june 2021, trainees learning to become secondary teachers through a block release programme were asked to form small groups, prepare and make online seminar presentations on curriculum development topics. the groups exchanged their work and used online peer assessment to award a mark and give feedback to another group. the groups forwarded marks to the lecturer and these were compared with lecturer assessment marks, which had been awarded separately. the groups used assessment rubrics or criteria that had been provided by the lecturer. trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 81 second, as a follow up to peer assessment task, trainee teachers were asked to complete an online questionnaire divided into four sections: biodata, confidence in peer assessment, benefits of pa, and threats to pa. this part of the study was quantitative in nature. the questionnaire was made up of close-ended items, 5-point likert scale, and open-ended items. we adopted the items measuring the two constructs of confidence in pa and benefits of pa from three sources chan (2010); huisma, saab, va driel & van den broek (2020); and karaca (2009). data collected was analysed using frequency counts to determine the views of the majority. the 5-point likert scale was used to measure trainee teachers’ sentiments towards confidence in peer assessment, benefits and threats to peer assessment. the statements defining confidence in peer assessment, benefits of and threats to peer assessment were listed, and we recorded the percentage of respondents choosing each response option as suggested in warmbrod (2014). we determined mean item scores and the summated total score for confidence, benefits of and threats to peer assessment we calculated total number of responses for each item and multiplied the numerical value of each sentiment level by the amount of response. we added the totals and divided by the sample size (number of respondents) to get the mean item score. in order to get the sentiment score for each construct, we added the mean item scores and divided the total by number of items for the construct (warmbrod, 2014). third, responses to open-ended items of the questionnaire were analysed qualitatively and emerging themes are reported here in. findings the findings of the study are presented under four headings: biodata of trainee teachers, emerging issues from peer assessment task, confidence in peer assessment, advantages of peer assessment as perceived by trainee teachers, and threats to peer assessment. biodata of trainee teachers the gender distribution of trainee teachers who participated in the study was 44% male and 56% female. a proportionality large number of females were studying stem related disciplines at bindura university of science education, the university studied. in terms of age 3% of the trainee teachers were less than 21 years old, a majority of 61% were aged 21-30 years, and 36% were over 30 years old. the study sought distribution of trainee teachers by area of study. in terms of specialism 17% were doing biological sciences, 22% chemistry, 56% mathematics, and 5% physics. another area of specialism offered at the university studied was geography. however, in the young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 82 completed questionnaire none reported geography as area of specialism because at that time there were no takers of the subject. all the trainee teachers (100%) were enrolled as undergraduate trainee teachers in part 2:1. further, the trainee teachers were asked to report their work experience. all had work experience, and this ranged from less than 3 years (28%), between 3 and 5 years (36%) to more than 5 years’ work experience (36%). peer assessment task trainee teachers worked in four small groups in different formats: face-to-face, and on whatsapp group they had created. they presented discussions, marks and reasons why they had awarded the mark. group 1 awarded 65% to the presentation made by group 2. when one reads comments and looks at the reasons put forward for the mark awarded, a number conflicting issues emerge. one reason given was failure by group 2 to provide a powerpoint presentation. while this could have been helpful in making an aural or visual presentation, instruction given to trainee teachers did not spell out this to be a requirement. format of presentation was flexible. group 1 focussed on the peripherals. we have created a group on whatsapp … we awarded them 65 out of 100 … because it was an audio done, the group did not have a powerpoint (group1). further, group 1 acknowledges that the group 2 managed to correctly identify factors that enhance curriculum implementation. they were correct in stating that group 2 did not clearly explain how the same factors that enhance curriculum implementation, become factors that hinder curriculum implementation, that is, in the negative form, for example, lack of human and material resources impedes successful curriculum implementation. on examining the factors that hinder curriculum implementation… we highlighted some of the points that needed correction for example the group we assessed highlighted human, physical, material and financial as factors that hinder curriculum implementation but later on failed to highlight points they have explained as to which category it falls under (group 1). group 2 comments on what group 1’s work is clear and informative about what they found to be good in the presentation. they used expression like ‘informative’, using citations to define key terms, ‘well articulated’, and demonstration of understanding through use of ‘examples’ cited. trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 83 quite an informative presentation. the introduction managed to give highlights on what the presentation was to delve into. important / key terms were defined and several scholars were consulted. we had a lot to learn. the points were well articulated and easier to follow and they were also well expanded. we liked the examples for examples, the issue of better schools programme and computer curricula. (group 2). furthermore, group 2 are clear on two other factors that group 1 could have included to make their work even better, that is, including ‘leadership and culture’ as factors that hinder curriculum implementation. despite that criticism, group 2 still awarded 90%, a mark that looks too high. however, we wish to add that they could have also argued the point of "leadership and culture” which they placed on the factors that enhance curriculum implementation. that point we would also want to think can also hinder curriculum implementation, given that some leaders/ cultures view the implementation of a particular curricula as a threat to their culture. we suggest a 90% for the job well done (group 2). the excerpt below is group 3 commenting on presentation by group 4: this was a discussion on whatsapp and pseudonyms were used for confidentiality and anonymity of the trainee teachers. dmazue: i think if we award then 60% is not bad topaz: seconded. mkushwa: there was need to link the explanations with the needs of the question. generally, no introduction, conclusion and reference. psychological consideration not examined but copied and pasted under philosophical orientation. kerol: no examples given hence not directly referring to zimbabwe curriculum or any. the conversation above by group 3 members provides an insight into thought processes as the trainee teachers were going through presentation by group 4. their struggles are evident when they finally agree on a mark less than 60%. the struggle can be described as building the criteria for decision making (assessment decision). in all the peer assessments above it was evident that trainee teachers had a good understanding of the assessment criteria. they were looking for an introduction, clearly spelling out the focus of the presentation; definition of key terms used in work presented. they expected presenters to raise a point, explain, and use examples form their areas of specialism young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 84 to illustrate understanding. they looked for evidence of wide reading. lastly, they expected presenters to summarise their presentation. trainee teachers’ understanding of peer assessment trainee teachers were asked “what is peer assessment?” and answers to the question revealed four ways of conceptualising peer assessment. first a large number of trainee teachers (f = 25 or 69%) defined peer assessment as marking or grading trainee teachers’ work by trainee teachers. we label this ‘simple assessment’. second, trainee teachers who gave a more complex view of peer assessment made reference to assessment criteria. trainee teachers defined peer assessment as understanding grading criteria. such a definition implies that trainee teachers would like to be involved in the development of the assessment criteria, and that if they understand the assessment criteria then they will be able to carry out peer assessment with confidence. third, trainee teachers understood peer assessment as something directed at learning. they defined peer assessment as self-regulated learning, structured learning, and as a useful process for purposes of learning. peer assessment is directed towards learning, where trainee teachers take a leading role. altogether 18 responses (50%) mentioned learning. fourth, trainee teachers defined peer assessment as critique and feedback. this was considered to be the most complex answer. the description implies that peer assessment involves criticism of other trainee teachers’ work and sharing feedback. in the process both the assessor and examined trainee teacher stand to benefit. this response came from a minority of trainee teachers (f = 5 or 14%). confidence in peer assessment. trainee teachers were asked to express their sentiments on statements describing confidence in peer assessment. the distribution of respondents is displayed in table 1 below. trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 85 table 1: confidence in the quality of feedback given to and received from other trainee teachers (n = 36) confidence in the quality of feedback 5 f (%) 4 f (%) 3 f (%) 2 f (%) 1 f (%) 7. the peer feedback i provide to other trainee teachers is useful. 21 (58) 15 (42) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 8. the peer feedback i give to other trainee teachers helps them to improve their work. 18 (50) 14 (39) 4 (11) 0 (0) 0 (0) 9. the peer feedback i receive from other trainee teachers is of good quality. 14 (38) 18 (50) 3 (9) 0 (0) 1 (3) 10. the peer feedback i receive from other trainee teachers helps me to improve my work. 15 (42) 18 (50) 3 (8) 0 (0) 0 (0) 11. the ability to give constructive feedback is important 19 (53) 12 (33) 4 (11) 0 (0) 1 (3) 12. the ability to deal with critical feedback is important. 11 (31) 17 (47) 8 (22) 0 (0) 0 (0) 13. the ability to improve one’s work based on received feedback is important. 17 (47) 19 (53) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 14. the ability to improve one’s work based on received feedback is important. 16 (44) 15 (42) 4 (11) 1 (3) 0 (0) key: strongly agree (sa) = 5 agree (a) = 4 not sure (ns) = 3 dis-agree (da) = 2 strongly dis-agree (sda) = 1 the study sought trainee teachers’ confidence in the quality of feedback given to and received from peers. the general trend of the responses is that the trainee teachers have confidence in the quality of feedback. the level of agreement to statements describing confidence in the quality of feedback ranged from 78% for knowing the importance of ability to deal with critical feedback to a maximum of 100% for providing others with useful feedback, and importance of ability to improve one’s work based on feedback received. while the majority of trainee teachers agreed that ‘peer feedback given to others helps them to improve their work’, that young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 86 ‘ability to give constructive feedback is important’, that ‘ability to deal with critical feedback is important’ and that ‘ability to improve one’s work based on received feedback is important’, a sizeable number 11% to 22 % were not sure. this would seem to suggest that some trainee teachers doubted place of constructive and critical feedback in improving one’s work. we calculated mean item scores for ‘confidence in the quality of feedback’ construct, and determined summated total score using a composite of responses to the 8 items as shown in table 2 below. table 2: mean item scores for confidence in the quality of feedback (n = 36) confidence in the quality of feedback mean item score 7. the peer feedback i provide to other trainee teachers is useful. 5 8. the peer feedback i give to other trainee teachers helps them to improve their work. 4 9. the peer feedback i receive from other trainee teachers is of good quality. 4 10. the peer feedback i receive from other trainee teachers helps me to improve my work. 4 11. the ability to give constructive feedback is important 4 12. the ability to deal with critical feedback is important. 4 13. the ability to improve one’s work based on received feedback is important. 4 14. the ability to improve one’s work based on received feedback is important. 4 summated total score value 4 for the construct ‘confidence in the quality of feedback’, the summated score value of 4 suggests that trainee teachers agreed that they had confidence in the quality of peer assessment. perceived benefits of peer assessment trainee teachers were asked to express their sentiments on statements describing benefits of peer assessment. the distribution of respondents is displayed in table 3 below. trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 87 table 3: benefits of peer assessment (n = 36, f%) benefits of peer assessment 5 f (%) 4 f (%) 3 f (%) 2 f (%) 1 f (%) 15. peer assessment gives trainee teachers a sense of ownership of the assessment process. 20 (56) 13 (36) 3 (8) 0 (0) 0 (0) 16. peer assessment helps trainee teachers to be committed to the learning outcomes. 17 (47) 17 (47) 2 (6) 0 (0) 0 (0) 17. peer assessment encourages trainee teachers to take responsibility of their own learning. 16 (44) 19 (53) 1 (3) 0 (0) 0 (0) 18. peer assessment helps trainee teachers to become autonomous learners. 13 (36) 16 (44) 6 (17) 0 (0) 1 (3) 19. peer assessment encourages trainee teachers to critically analyse work done by other trainee teachers. 15 (42) 15 (42) 5 (14) 0 (0) 1 (2) 20. peer assessment helps trainee teachers to develop self-assessment abilities. 15 (42) 14 (39) 5 (14) 1 (2.5) 1 (2.5) 21. peer assessment encourages deep learning. 13 (36) 15 (42) 7 (19) 0 (0) 1 (3) 22. peer assessment helps to clarify assessment criteria. 17 (47) 11 (31) 8 (22) 0 (0) 0 (0) 23. peer assessment gives trainee teachers a wider range of feedback. 15 (42) 13 (36) 8 (22) 0 (0) 0 (0) 24. peer assessment develops a range of transferrable skills. 15 (42) 18 (50) 2 (6) 0 (0) 1 (2) 25. peer assessment promote trainee teachertrainee teacher interaction. 25 (69) 8 (22) 1 (3) 0 (0) 2 (6) 26. peer assessment enhances understand for both the trainee teacher being assessed and the assessor. 18 (50) 10 (28) 6 (17) 0 (0) 2 (5) young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 88 we calculated mean item scores for ‘benefits of peer assessment’ construct, and used the 12 mean scores to compute summated total score as shown in table 4 below. table 4: mean item scores and summated total score for ‘benefits of peer assessment’ construct (n = 26) benefits of peer assessment mean item score 7. peer assessment gives trainee teachers a sense of ownership of the assessment process. 4 8. peer assessment helps trainee teachers to be committed to the learning outcomes. 4 9. peer assessment encourages trainee teachers to take responsibility of their own learning. 4 10. peer assessment helps trainee teachers to become autonomous learners. 4 11. peer assessment encourages trainee teachers to critically analyse work done by other trainee teachers. 4 12. peer assessment helps trainee teachers to develop self-assessment abilities. 4 13. peer assessment encourages deep learning. 4 14. peer assessment helps to clarify assessment criteria. 4 15. peer assessment gives trainee teachers a wider range of feedback. 4 16. peer assessment develops a range of transferrable skills. 4 17. peer assessment promote trainee teacher-trainee teacher interaction. 4 18. peer assessment enhances understand for both the trainee teacher being assessed and the assessor. 4 summated total score value 4 for the construct ‘benefits of peer assessment’, the summated score value was determined and the value of 4 suggests that trainee teachers agreed that they believed that peer assessment, particularly assessment of learning, has benefits. trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 89 trainee teachers were asked to decide their preference between peer assessment and lecturer assessment and a majority preferred pa. the responses are shown in the table 5 below. table 5: preference between peer (pa) and lecturer assessment (la) (n = 36) preference between pa and la f f % peer assessment 21 58 lecturer assessment 15 42 total 36 100 further, trainee teachers were asked to say why they made such a preference. a number of reasons were suggested for preferring peer assessment. these are presented without preference to their value as expressed by trainee teachers. first, trainee teachers preferred peer to teacher assessment because they felt ownership and being in control of the process. they were motivated by active involvement and autonomy of peer assessment. peer assessment is learner centred. second, trainee teachers said that peer assessment provides wide range of opinions and ideas and feedback. third, they claimed that peer assessment created a conducive learning environment of sharing ideas without fear. the third benefit closely matches what was described as ‘feedback’ by toppling (2009). fourth, peer assessment helped trainee teachers to develop self and peer assessment skills that were transferable and useful in life. fifth, peer assessment offered trainee teachers the opportunity to develop a range of critical thinking skills and reflective practice. some trainee teachers, though fewer in number, preferred to be assessed by lecturers for a number of reasons. first, they believed that teacher assessment is professional, unbiased and authentic. it seems trainee teachers felt that only lecturers can provide standard and serious assessment. second, they believed that teacher assessment is best placed to shape learning and determines achievement. teacher assessment was seen as diagnostic and remedial, ultimately leading to structured learning. third, some trainee teachers believed that only lecture assessment provides structured critique and feedback, and deeper and thorough assessment. perceived threats to peer assessment trainee teachers were asked express their sentiments on statements describing confidence in peer assessment. the distribution of respondents is displayed in table 6 below. young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 90 table 6: threats to peer assessment (n = 36) threats to peer assessment 5 f (%) 4 f (%) 3 f (%) 2 f (%) 1 f (%) 28. peer assessment reduces the marking on the lecturer. 10 (28) 7 (19) 7 (19) 6 (17) 6 (17) 29. i do not believe that peers are able to assess my work fairly. 3 (8) 13 (37) 9 (25) 8 (22) 3 (8) 30. i do not believe that peers are able to assess my work accurately. 5 (14) 14 (39) 9 (25) 4 (11) 4 (11) 31. trainee teachers may lack the ability to assess each other. 6 (17) 13 (36) 7 (19) 5 (14) 5 (14) 32. trainee teachers may not take peer assessment seriously. 8 (22) 18 (50) 4 (11) 2 (6) 4 (11) 33. in peer assessment, trainee teachers’ marking is influenced by friendship. 9 (25) 15 (42) 4 (11) 3 (8) 5 (14) 34. in peer assessment, trainee teachers are afraid of being discriminated against. 9 (25) 19 (53) 3 (8) 1 (3) 4 (11) 35. feedback from peer assessment is as useful as feedback from a lecturer. 12 (33) 14 (39) 4 (11) 5 (14) 1 (3) trainee teachers’ response as shown in table 6 above would seem to suggest a majority believe that pa reduces the burden of marking on the lecturer. a sizeable 19% were neutral. now if pa assessment is viewed as a way to reduce lecturer marking it implies trainee teachers doubt its usefulness in their learning. they are likely to fail to realise the benefits inherent in it. fortyfive percent 45% do not believe that peers are able to assess their work fairly. the scenario is worsened by the fact that 25% neither commit themselves to agreeing nor disagreeing when answering the question; they were neutral. 53% did not believe that peers are able to assess their work accurately. 25% were neutral. peer assessment is threatened by beliefs that peers are not able to assess fairly, accurately, and do not take peer assessment seriously. further, trainee teachers believe that peer assessment is influenced by friendship and thus are afraid of being trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 91 discriminated against. contradictions are evident when the same trainee teachers believe that feedback from peer assessment is as useful as feedback from a lecturer. trainee teachers were asked to state what could be done to improve the effectiveness of peer assessment. they gave answers that can be grouped into 4 categories; training, trainee teacher involvement, university-wide use of pa, and adopting online peer assessment. first, six trainee teachers (17%) suggested training trainee teachers to use peer assessment. they felt that this way improvements can be realised. second, trainee teachers wanted to be involved in the development of assessment criteria (25%). such participation was likely to help them understand and be able to use the assessment criteria. third, 42% of the trainee teachers suggested making peer assessment university wide, that is, adopting peer assessment in all courses offered by the university. they used expression like ‘all lecturers must use it’, ‘mandatory’ and ‘compulsory’. fourth, 17% of trainee teachers suggested adopting online peer assessment, as well random selection of peers to assess one’s work. we calculated mean item scores for ‘threats to peer assessment’ construct and used the 8 scores to compute summated total score shown in table 7 below. table 7: mean item scores of trainee teachers’ sentiments to threats of peer assessment (n = 36) threats to peer assessment mean item score 7. peer assessment reduces the marking on the lecturer. 3 8. i do not believe that peers are able to assess my work fairly. 3 9. i do not believe that peers are able to assess my work accurately. 3 10. trainee teachers may lack the ability to assess each other. 3 11. trainee teachers may not take peer assessment seriously. 4 12. in peer assessment, trainee teachers’ marking is influenced by friendship. 4 13. in peer assessment, trainee teachers are afraid of being discriminated against. 4 14. feedback from peer assessment is as useful as feedback from a lecturer. 4 summated total score 3.5 young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 92 for the construct ‘threats to peer assessment’, the summated value of 3.5, rounded down to 3, suggests that trainee teachers were neutral to the construct. discussion trainee teachers’ understanding of peer assessment trainee teachers at bindura university of science education understood peer assessment to be simply marking or grading their own work. we considered this to be a simple definition. the definition implies that trainee teachers were more interested in the mark or grade awarded. thus, in order to get a higher grade, here was an opportunity for ‘friendly peers’ to inflate the marks or ‘unfriendly peers’ to discriminate against the few others. in fact, when trainee teachers responded to items on the construct ‘threats to peer assessment’ the issues emerged because a majority believed that marking was influenced by friendship and fear of being discriminated against. in fact, it has been reported elsewhere that trainee teachers produce biased grades when they realise that their actions can penalise other trainee teachers (sridharan, tai & boud, 2019). a more complex definition, emerging from the data, was that trainee teachers viewed peer assessment to mean understanding grading criteria. trainee teachers were most likely to gain an understanding of the assessment criteria if they are actively involved in the development of the assessment criteria. this would mean that lecturers and trainee teachers needed to work together to produce the assessment criteria. the assumption is that when the trainee teachers are actively involved in the development of the assessment criteria, they become more conscious of what is expected of them and were more likely to produce high quality work. as such they will be able to carry out peer assessment with confidence. this finding is not new. harlen (2009) found out that reliability can be improved when there is detailed criteria and clarity of the assessment criteria. trainee teachers understood peer assessment as self-regulated learning, structured learning, and as a useful process for purposes of learning. at this level trainee teachers started to appreciate the autonomy inherent in peer assessment. they were aware that peer assessment helped them to take control of their learning. in fact, our findings confirm that “the ideal qualities of peer assessment are validity in relation to purpose, reliability required for its purpose, a positive impact on learning, and practicability in terms of use” (harlen, 2009, p.253). trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 93 the most complex understanding of peer assessment was as critique and feedback. the description implies that peer assessment involves criticism of other trainee teachers’ work and sharing feedback. in the process both the assessor and examined trainee teacher stand to benefit. this understanding implies directionality (topping, 2009). first, flipping roles by replacing lecturer with peer (stubbe, mccance, twissi, & ibrahim, 2017). second peer assessment is a two-way process of interaction, a dialogue (topping, 2009). trainee teachers had opportunity to critique their peers’ work, dialogue with their peers, and provide defensible feedback. in return they received similar criticism and feedback. our study revealed the constructivist nature of peer assessment manifested in whatsapp chats as trainee teachers were struggling with ‘a building criteria’ process for decision making. this confirms that knowledge is actively constructed by trainee teachers (jonassen, 1991), that knowledge is the outcome of collaboration with others through sharing information, negotiation and discussion (stubbe et al, 2017) trainee teachers’ confidence to use peer assessment in their learning the general trend of the responses is that the trainee teachers at buse have confidence in the quality of feedback. the level of agreement to statements describing confidence in the quality of feedback was high in the order (least to most) of knowing the importance of ability to deal with critical feedback, to providing others with useful feedback, and importance of ability to improve one’s work based on feedback received. however, despite a majority of trainee teachers agreeing that ‘peer feedback given to others helps them to improve their work’, that ‘ability to give constructive feedback is important’, that ‘ability to deal with critical feedback is important’ and that ‘ability to improve one’s work based on received feedback is important’, the few who were not sure would seem to suggest that some trainee teachers doubted place of constructive and critical feedback in improving one’s work. thus, as reported by yang & tsui (2010) trainee teachers had opportunity for self-reflection and self-correction stimulated by the uncertainty on the accuracy of the peer feedback. argument and discussion inherent led to better understanding (gielen, 2007; adediwaru, 2015). benefits of peer assessment as perceived by trainee teachers trainee teachers preferred peer to teacher assessment because they felt ownership and being in control of the process, they were motivated by active involvement and autonomy of peer assessment. second, they believed that peer assessment provides wide range of opinions and young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 94 ideas and feedback. third, they claimed that peer assessment created a conducive learning environment of sharing ideas without fear. the third benefit closely matches what was described as ‘feedback’ by toppling (2009). peer assessment helped trainee teachers to develop peer assessment skills that were transferable and useful in life. finally, peer assessment offered trainee teachers the opportunity to develop a range of critical thinking skills and reflective practice. trainee teachers who preferred to be assessed by lecturers believed that teacher assessment is professional, unbiased and authentic. second, they believed that teacher assessment is best placed to shape learning and determines achievement. third, some trainee teachers believed that only lecturer assessment provides structured critique and feedback, and deeper and thorough assessment. nearly three-fifths of trainee teachers preferred peer assessment to lecturer assessment. however, despite acknowledging the benefits of peer assessment, a large number of trainee teachers still preferred lecturer assessment. why the anomaly? the reasons given were that lecturer assessment was professional, authentic and diagnostic. this would seem to contradict the perception that if trainee teachers understand the assessment criteria, they are equally competent to provide high quality assessment. the perception implies power issues, where the lecturer is perceived as the more knowledgeable other, with all the answers and whose decision matters. lecturer assessment, thus ‘holds all other education initiatives hostage’ (muskin, 2015), such that trainee teachers will typically learn what they expect their lecturers to test. trainee teachers at buse believe that lecturers’ assessment determines their opportunity to progress and, therefore, to attain the social economic and personal rewards that come with good grades. trainee teachers’ views of factors that threaten the use of peer assessment the threats to peer assessment included belief that pa reduces marking burden on the lecturer, that peers are not able to assess fairly, accurately, seriously believing that peer assessment is influenced by friendship, and thus trainee teachers are afraid of being discriminated against. our findings resemble social desirability which implies that trainee teacher would seek to gain a favourable view of their peers or of others (topping, 2009). when we consider that peer assessment is aimed at enabling learners to be in control of their own learning, to be reflective, identify strengths and weaknesses, and develop a range of skills and competencies, social desirability threatens adoption. the implications of inflated marks on learning and on the trainee teachers and the use of peers in assessment for learning: a buse (bindura university of science education, zimbabwe) case study ajote vol.11 no.2 (2021), 75-99 95 qualities of an educational system’s graduates must be seen as enormous (muskin, 2015). it appears trainee teachers did not feel confident to grade. this is a known barrier to peer assessment (hanrahan & isaacs, 2001; peterson & irving, 2008; to & pandero, 2021). as a way forward, the study found that trainee teachers suggested making peer assessment compulsory at buse, a finding reported earlier by patchan, schunn & clark (2018). alternatively, making peer assessment voluntary, was likely to make trainee teachers feel more autonomous and motivated to engage in the learning process (li, xiong, & zang, 2020). however, when used for summative assessment purposes, trainee teachers were likely to resist peer assessment (zhou, zhang & tai, 2020). conclusion first, the study concluded that trainee teachers’ understanding of peer assessment ranged from a naïve view that it was simply marking, through a somehow complex view of understanding assessment criteria and self-regulated learning to a complex understanding of perception as critique and feedback in a dialogue. second, we concluded that trainee teachers at buse had confidence to use peer assessment effectively. third, while trainee teachers at buse were aware of the benefits of peer assessment as reported in literature, there was sizeable number of trainee teachers ‘held hostage’ (muskin, 2015) by lecturer assessment as a better guide for learning. fourth, we concluded that adoption of peer assessment at buse was threaten by social desirability (topping, 2009) and tendency to inflate marks (muskin, 2015). on the whole trainee teachers at buse demonstrated preparedness to accept peer assessment as part of their learning and we recommend higher education institutions to make it compulsory in their curricula. young mudavanhu & c. mutseekwa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 75-99 96 references adediwaru, a.a. 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(2020). grudges and gratitude: the social-affective impacts of peer assessment. in assessment & evaluation in higher education, 45(3), 345-358. doi:10.1080/02602938.2019.1643449 values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa c. f. jones1 & c. j. roux2 1university of pretoria, south africa 2university of johannesburg, south africa abstract this qualitative research presents pe (physical education) teacher training workshops (ttw) which were developed and evaluated through the teachers’ feedback and reflections. its goal was to create a pe programme enriched with the values of olympism and ubuntuism based on the idea that values-based education offers an investment in individual and societal improvement by implementing a values framework. participatory action research was used to determine how data was collected, analysed, and presented on an ongoing, cyclical basis. the theoretical perspectives of the experiential learning theory and the cooperative learning theory were applied to teaching pe during the in-service physical education ttw. ten pe teachers from five schools in the tshwane district of south africa participated as they best informed the research question and enhanced their understanding of the phenomenon under study. the ttw assisted in building and supporting pe pedagogical knowledge as teachers critically reflected on the diversity and inclusivity of their pe class context. an examination of the wide variety of teaching strategies, specifically used during teachable moments, that were employed throughout this study could be linked to the clarification of the values of olympism and ubuntuism. this research developed material for pe, which underpins the set of values of olympism and ubuntuism as core values that were modeled by teachers and guided their work. the ttw in a values-based pe programme builds and supports the teachers’ pedagogical knowledge to plan, deliver and access quality pe. participatory action research and its reflective practice positively influenced the teachers' pe practice as it assisted the researchers and the participating teachers in a collective, self-reflective, inquiry. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 218-245 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 219 keywords: intermediate phase, olympism, physical education, teacher education, ubuntuism, values-based education introduction and background in their integrated strategic planning framework for teacher education and development in south africa, 2011-2025: technical report, the department of education (2002) alluded to a global degeneration in morals manifest in such vices as teenage pregnancy, violence, family disintegration, and drug abuse. other scholars have also noted a severe decline in values in many societies and among the young (dev, 2017; veugelers, 2011). international research conducted by united nations children’ fund (unicef) has described the ‘changing ecology of childhood1,’ whereby the lives of young people in developed countries are shaped by forces that do not necessarily assist them in learning and applying values that optimize their personal lives and the prosocial behaviors critical in navigating the complexity of the contemporary global world (fraillon, 2004). values-based education is offered when people are educated about aspects determining their behavior (thomas, 2016). it is a way of conceptualizing education that places the search for meaning and purpose at the heart of the educational process and is central to creating a values-based learning community that fosters positive relationships and quality education (alive, 2007). hawkes (2011) states that values-based education is far more than a process of instilling values in learners. it is concerned with the very meaning and purpose of education; it is a statement about the quality of education that can be achieved and the impact that this can have on society and the world. physical education (pe) can be used as the platform to teach values as it offers a balanced methodology to educate the child holistically, which is consistent with the educational mission of schools globally (ennis, 2010). holistic development refers to the approach to child development that simultaneously addresses the physical, emotional, relational, intellectual, and spiritual aspects of a child's life. the holistic development approach is essential because children learn different skills at different stages, e.g., walking, talking, and fine motor skills (lindon & brodie, 2016). a quality pe curriculum provides learning opportunities for physical activity, appropriate instruction, challenging and meaningful content, learner and curriculum assessment, as well as the employment of qualified pe teachers. the united nations 1 child ecology is a branch of human ecology that deals with the interaction of children with their environment in life, including human relationships, particularly in terms of their growth and development (kobayashi, 1993). c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 220 educational, scientific and cultural organisation’s (unesco) commitment to pe has been affirmed in recent years with the identification of quality pe policy development and guidelines as one of three core priorities for the intergovernmental committee for pe and sport (cigeps) and through the endorsement of the international position statement on pe of the international council of sport science and pe (icsspe). the policymakers' guidelines set benchmarks for meeting minimum standards for offering pe, providing quality pe, and ensuring quality pe teacher education (unesco, 2015). the focus of this study was values-based pe in the intermediate phase (generally learners aged 10-12 years) in the tshwane district of south africa. pe in this phase is offered as a study area within the subject of life skills and has 3 interrelated study areas, namely, personal and social well-being, pe, and creative arts (curriculum assessment policy statement, 2011). the subject’s aims are that a learner should be able to nurture positive attitudes and values while participating in pe, gather experiences, and develop holistically regardless of his/her conditions (curriculum assessment policy statement, 2011). this view is shared by the european commission (2013) research report: pe in school is not about teaching and learning different physical activities and sports skills. pe, physical activities, and sports should function more as a means to develop other personal traits; for example, the ability and desire to move, the importance of values, and the development of a sense of community through rhythm and movement (toriola, amusa, patriksson & kougioumtzis, 2010). svendsen (2020) argues that pe modules be mandatory for all pre-service teacher education programmes. these programmes should allow teachers to understand the critical role and contribution of motivated and enthusiastic teachers of pe. all in-service and pre-service classroom teachers should engage further in pe-related content by engaging with the school curriculum. one significant factor potentially impeding learning in south africa is the school curriculum (macdonald, 2014; burnett, 2020). throughout the curriculum reform in south africa post-1994, a critical aspect neglected was the in-service training of south african teachers (motshekga, 2009). additionally, the curriculum assessment policy statement identified factors that could impede learning, including the content, language, classroom organization, pedagogy, the pace of teaching, and time available to complete curriculum, teaching, learning, and assessment (department of education, 2001). pedagogy entails values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 221 teaching styles, teaching theory, feedback, and assessment. based upon this description of pedagogy and the different aspects of the curriculum assessment policy statement, the research question the researchers were interested in was how teacher training workshops (ttw) in a values-based pe programme builds and supports pe pedagogical knowledge. career-long engagement in quality pe professional development should recognize that pe knowledge is complex as it involves multi-dimensional content and the challenge of teaching this content to a diverse classroom (svendsen, 2020). in responding to the diversity of learner needs in the south african classroom, it is imperative to ensure differentiation in curriculum delivery to enable access to learning for all learners. engagement in career-long professional learning is, therefore, a professional responsibility. for teachers to develop or improve their pe pedagogy, systematic and sustained selfeducating activities are needed to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values. this approach has been referred to as adult education (merriam & brockett, 2011). knowles (1970, 1980) defined adult education as a process of self-directed inquiry. several components are essential to instruction rooted in adult education: experiential learning, self-directed learning, learner engagement, and transformative learning. the theoretical framework of this study consists of kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory and the cooperative learning theory (slavin, 1983). the experiential learning theory was implemented during the ttw, where learning that involves acquiring abstract concepts can be flexibly applied in various situations. during the ttw, participating teachers were encouraged to imitate the experiential learning theory when implementing what they had learned. the experiential learning theory could be used by participating teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to learners and to develop additional appropriate learning opportunities. olympism is a philosophy of life exalting and combining the qualities of body, will, and mind in a balanced whole, blending sport with culture and education. olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of a good example, social responsibility, and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles (olympic charter, 2019). the values of olympism (table 1) underpin the olympic and paralympic games. ubuntuism, as a philosophical view, means "the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity” (official ubuntu documentation, 2013). while addressing lesson content that is infused with the values of olympism and ubuntuism in a context-specific learning situation based on kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, learners should be invited throughout the lesson to reflect, analyze, and discuss concerns with their peers (spacey, c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 222 2017; bunting, 2006; kolb, 1984). olympism and ubuntuism, both ideologies, can be understood as a complementary values framework since both views are concerned with humankind’s development and humanity’s oneness. the values, as seen in table 1, can unite physical activity, sport, and humanism, and together can result in a values-based framework fit for a pe programme in south africa. table 1: values framework olympic values paralympic values ubuntu values excellence respect friendship determination inspiration courage equality survival solidarity sharing dignity compassion communalism respect love the theoretical framework of this study also consists of the cooperative learning theory (slavin, 1983). cooperative learning is an inclusive name for various teaching strategies and theories that share key attributes relating to teaching (metzler, 2017). a point of primary importance is that team members (as in sports) work together to achieve a common goal. the learners and the teacher form part of a team within a classroom setting. cooperative learning can accommodate teacher and learner differences in the classroom, learner achievement gains, and equity in teaching instruction. cooperative learning is significant in the south african learning environment as learning is no longer subject matter-based but encompasses learning about diverse cultures, competencies, languages, religious beliefs, and various perspectives gained through collaborative work teams and social groups. despite a history of conflict based on forms of diversity, within the south african context, diversity should be understood as equal rights for all; every individual is unique and individual differences should be recognized. these different forms of diversity may include race, language, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies (westwood, 2018). what each teacher brings to the pe experience in value, qualifications, and perceptions of pe is also different. diversity in the classroom, teams and social groups promotes social learning outcomes within cooperative learning. schools can become the center of the community and cultural life, playing a crucial role in promoting personal values that, in turn, filter through, establishing the regeneration of the ethical fiber of society. by incorporating a values framework of olympism and ubuntuism in values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 223 pe, learners can participate peacefully in physical activities, respecting and celebrating diversity within their classroom. the ttw for pe teachers can give rise to a values framework of olympism and ubuntuism, which can apply to the learners both on the field of play and in everyday life. implementing the ttw in south african schools can create more active and fulfilled young people resulting in a positive societal change. in south africa, where learners’ physical activity and fitness levels are declining (stroebel et al., 2019), the effective implementation of pe by trained pe teachers can positively influence learners. as pointed out by various scholars, the need for in-service pe teacher development is one possibility to counter the detrimental effect of a lack of trained pe teachers on the effective implementation of pe (du toit, 2019; stroebel et al., 2019; van deventer, 2012). the findings from this values-based study and teacher education are significant, as there is a limited number of investigations that have examined how pe teachers can facilitate the development of values in learners participating in pe (camiré, trudel & forneris, 2011; mouratidou, goutza & chatzopoulos, 2007; vidoni & ward, 2009). particularly in a south african context, specialized in-service teacher training about values-based pe could contribute to practice by meeting the aim of the subject life skills, which is contributing to equipping learners with the knowledge, skills, and values that assist them in achieving their complete physical, intellectual, personal, emotional, and social potential (department of education, 2011). methodology using a qualitative approach based on a constructivist paradigm, one’s understanding of cultures, beliefs, values, and human experiences can be investigated. it also enables one to develop and reflect on the knowledge that describes these experiences (holloway & galvin, 2016; munhall, 2012; wuest, 2012; creswell & clark, 2017). ten pe teachers, with differences in gender, age, language, and ethnicity, from five different schools in the tshwane district, south africa, located in various socio-economic areas, voluntarily participated and responded to questions that enhanced their understanding of the phenomenon under study. the participants were all employees of south african public primary schools employees, teaching pe to the intermediate phase at their respective schools. purposeful sampling documented unique and diverse variations that have emerged in adapting to different conditions and identified important common patterns that cut across variations (palinkas, horwitz, green, wisdom, duan & hoagwood, 2015). as patton (2014) identified, typical case sampling sought information-rich cases from specifically chosen intermediate phase teachers currently teaching c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 224 pe at their school were studied in depth. the purpose was to describe and illustrate what is typical to those unfamiliar with the setting, not to make generalized statements about the experiences of all participants (patton, 2014). sampling different individuals and schools were meant to maximize the similarities and differences in information. participatory action research aspects, which included the spiral model identified by kemmis, mctaggart, and nixon (2013), were integrated into this study. early cycles in the spiral model were used to determine how to conduct later cycles. in the later cycles, interpretations developed in early cycles were tested, challenged, and refined (mirra, garcia & morrell, 2017). the cyclic process is composed of planning for the ttw, taking action to present and implement the ttw, and fact-finding, observation, and reflection on the findings of the action. the process alternated between action and critical reflection. the spiral model allowed for constant testing of the theoretical framework against the essential responses of the participating teachers to see if the theories could withstand criticism. data collection occurred over ten weeks. various methods were used: pre-ttw questionnaires, focus group interviews, observations, and reflections. the multiple methods used were to ensure the validity of the findings. three ttw were conducted before, during, and at the end of the first school term. while presenting the ttw, the researchers applied the theoretical perspectives of kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory to teaching pe. the ttw in values-based pe was evaluated and developed through teacher feedback and reflections. before the start of the ttw, teachers completed the pre–ttw questionnaire. demographic information of the participants and their respective schools was gleaned. the questionnaire assisted with the first planning cycle of the ttw as it informed us about the teachers’ existing pe pedagogical knowledge before attending the ttw. during the ttw, researchers and participating teachers experimented and co-learned through participating in micro-lessons. we completed lesson plans and video recorded the lessons, which teachers could refer back to during the school term. teachers were invited throughout lesson planning and implementation to reflect, analyze and discuss situations with one another. peterson and kolb (2017) emphasized that reflecting on, analyzing, and discussing cases form crucial parts of the learning process. teachers were therefore encouraged to imitate the application of the experiential learning theory. the researchers once observed a values-based pe lesson for each teacher at their respective schools. an observation recording sheet helped with observations so that responses were consistent in using the observation criteria. the criteria focused on the values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 225 teachers’ and learners’ non-verbal behavior, location, environment, and general overview of the participating teachers’ pedagogical performance and techniques. observation as a data collection method was a reliable and valid way to collect information. the researchers identified a set of specific criteria, through literature and the research question, that focused on the observations and interpretations in this particular set of criteria to be examined and used as a guideline as it provided more relevant information. after the lesson planning and implementation, the knowledge intervention allowed participating teachers to give feedback and reflect on the ttw in terms of the values of olympism and ubuntuism, the teachable moments during the delivery of values-based pe, and how to plan, deliver and assess values-based pe. data analysis took place throughout the data collection process through inductive analysis and constant comparison. this provided ongoing intervention. the textual, graphical, and audio data were transcribed and analyzed using atlas software. ti (version 8, 2020). five interrelated themes were identified across the data set. only two themes relating to the pe ttw and the ttw building and supporting pe pedagogical knowledge will be presented and discussed in the section to follow. discussion using the action research spiral model (kemmis, mctaggart & nixon, 2014), the pre-ttw questionnaires assisted with the first planning cycle of the ttw as this elicited information about the teachers’ existing pe pedagogical knowledge. some significant findings indicated that generalist classroom teachers conduct pe without receiving pe teacher training (hardman et al., 2013) and that very few pe professional development opportunities are available. sloan (2010) supports the need for the progressive development of pe-specific knowledge. he states that this progression has the potential to build confidence and increase personal enjoyment of teaching pe. clear and measurable links between the nature of teachers’ professional development and its specific impact on learning outcomes are obvious (mcrae, ainsworth, groves, rowland & zbar, 2001; guskey & sparks, 2004). the consideration of the approach to formal pe teacher education for this study was essential to build and support values-based pe pedagogical knowledge for the diverse group of participating teachers. the pre-ttw questionnaires provided relevant information and contextual knowledge relating to the ttw and teachers’ ability to apply this to their practice. c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 226 teachers’ pe pedagogy is shaped by their own pe experiences and watching other teachers teach (lamb, lane & aldous, 2013). challenges arise when young teachers are qualified in a field of study other than pe and are inexperienced in their pe teaching. the importance of in-service teacher education, specifically for values-based pe, is highlighted in the findings of this study and corresponds to cleophas’s (2014) statement that teachers teaching pe do not receive appropriate teacher education to become qualified specialists in pe. a selftaught pe teacher lacks a systematic approach to teacher education. formal learning occurs within a structured system like the ttw (ennis, 2016). according to the spiral model, the next cycle of action and observation was guided by engaging with the experiences and history of the participating pe teachers. the discussion of the findings that appear next is from the data collected and analyzed from the focus group interviews, observations, and reflections. the ttw addressed delivering a values-based pe programme aligned with the first-term intermediate phase pe curriculum as required by the south african curriculum assessment policy statement (2011). the goals of the ttw conducted for this study were mainly to build and support pe pedagogical knowledge for delivering pe. the objectives of the ttw are outlined below: • convey the purpose of values-based education. • explain olympism and ubuntuism. • teach pe in real-life environments while modeling quality pe pedagogy. • understand how to plan, deliver, and assess pe. • equip learners, regardless of their socio-economic background, race, gender, or physical or intellectual abilities, with knowledge, skills, and values necessary for selffulfillment and meaningful participation in society as free country citizens (south african national curriculum statement purpose). pe teachers needed to be acquainted with frameworks of action that enabled them to inquire and actualize pedagogical knowledge that directly affected purposes, thoughts, and practices (stolz & pill, 2016). the ttw built and supported pe pedagogy as teachers consciously attempted to use various teaching strategies and theories when implementing the values-based pe programme. the variety of teaching strategies is undoubtedly a critical factor in developing values. one of the participating teachers recognized a change in her teaching style to co-learning with her learners. learners, in turn, took responsibility for experimenting values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 227 with values during pe. the teacher further explained that she has benefited from the ttw as she re-evaluated her pe pedagogical knowledge and changed to a more learner-centered approach; she said: how i approached warm-up in my pe lessons changed slightly. the warm-up included all the learners and created the atmosphere for the whole lesson; i realized that it should be more playful and fun for the learners. my approach changed to a less structured, less performance-driven, and less demanding one. incorporating the learners in the lesson, taking responsibility for their learning, and guiding themselves benefited my practice as it was not just a teacher says, learner do atmosphere. using mosston’s spectrum of teaching strategies (mosston, 1966) meant teachers relied on a favorite style of teaching based on their values and experiences, individual differences, and the uniqueness of learners, even though learners learn in different ways. learners from different cultural backgrounds enter pe with varying experiences of movement and motivation levels. effective teachers will use a variety of strategies throughout a lesson. pe teachers should familiarize themselves with various teaching strategies and models to teach pe, develop their epistemology of practice, and be able to give a principled account of what they are doing and provide a rationale for using a specific teaching strategy or model (usher, edwards & de meyrick, 2015). examining the wide variety of teaching strategies employed throughout this study could be linked to the clarification of values-based pe. some teaching strategies were better suited to some lesson themes than others. the most fundamental design component for all teaching models is the learning theory or theoretical framework on which it is based. teachers imitated the experiential learning theory (kolb, 1984) when implementing what they had learned at the ttw. the experiential learning theory (kolb, 1984) assists with an educational strategy to respond to social issues in the pe classroom. with an innovative experiential learning theory (koh, ong & camiré, 2016; camiré, trudel & bernard, 2013), a qualified pe teacher could deliver a quality pe programme infused with values (unesco, 2015) by addressing diversity and inclusivity in the classroom and by providing an opportunity for each learner to be successfully introduced to values-based education and the purpose thereof (çetin, 2016). one teacher explained: values-based pe is a new approach for me. one’s framework of pe teaching is within the school in which one is employed. it is more challenging because there are limited in-service professional development opportunities for pe teacher education. what you c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 228 did during your schooling years also contributes to this framework. during the ttw and support during the quarter, it was very nice to experiment and learn from different colleagues regarding values-based education. we learned from each other, especially challenges of teaching values and diversity. the cooperative learning theory can accommodate individual differences in the classroom, learner achievement gains, and equity in instruction. furthermore, social and personal development contribute to the popularity of cooperative learning (dyson & casey, 2016). the framework of the experiential learning theory and the cooperative learning theory complemented this study, as it contributed to the diverse group of teachers critically evaluating their diverse pe practices. one teacher mentioned: i like the fact that it feels like we somehow are going back to the basics of teaching pe, just engaging and experimenting spontaneously in physical activity without any expectations that the child might feel pressured to achieve (performance-driven). the social interaction between learners and teachers creates learning potential. the values had different meanings for different learners, and appreciation for each value differed for each learner. the best part is that diversity was celebrated. the high level of engagement between teachers during the focus group interviews made the ttw meaningful; the observations and the reflections of the researchers indicated that the teachers were gaining new knowledge on how to equip learners with knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values necessary for self-fulfilment and meaningful participation in society. during the pe lesson observations, teachers extensively engaged, through teaching strategies, in identifying teachable moments. the role of the teacher is to observe the learners during physical activity and identify examples and teachable moments of both negative and positive behavior (stidder & hayes, 2016). the potential in identifying the teachable moments within the values-based pe lesson is to teach and discuss values explicitly. a teacher reflected on his experience of a teachable moment: after the learners understand olympism and ubuntuism, it makes it easier to point out the values within the philosophies. during a physical activity in a lesson, when a learner is not putting in any effort in the activity, the teacher can mention, remember to excel, which is an olympic value; you need to put in the work. the ttw supported pe pedagogy as teachers consciously attempted to use various teaching styles and theories when deliberately teaching values. the participating teachers did values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 229 not force the values of olympism and ubuntuism upon the learners. still, learners found meaning in experiencing values, as the teachers pointed out, questioning, probing, assessing, and reflecting during teachable moments. the planning of the pe lessons involved choosing physical activities that would facilitate teachable moments. during the learner-centered lessons, the teacher needed to highlight the moments when values were noticeable. at the same time, the learners explored those situations where behaviors were linked to the values of olympism and ubuntuism. a teacher shared her experience: teachable moments were assisted by incorporating a weekly value. the learners knew what was expected of them, and it seemed as if the learners were more relaxed they were less anxious because it was not a formal setting (like assessment or performancedriven activities) where they had to behave a certain way; everybody felt included while they were playing a game and the physical activities were fun. the learners seemed more susceptible to the values framework during a teachable moment. the learners were more themselves in pe; it seemed like you can approach them more especially with such a personal construct as their values or their perception of values. teachable moments provided prime learning opportunities for teaching values by reflecting on significant situations in each pe lesson. an excellent learning opportunity was during a lesson observed by the researchers; the learners were choosing teams and expressing equality, compassion, and respect. observations and evaluations have shown that teachable moments happen when responsibility has been delegated to the learners, with minimal teacher intervention (stidder & hayes, 2011). participatory action research and its reflective practice positively influenced the teachers' pe practice as it assisted the researchers and the participating teachers in a collective, self-reflective inquiry. good examples of cooperative learning were portrayed amongst the teachers as they all worked to achieve a common goal. the teachers stated: we need to reflect with people of our sort. we get to share different ideas about pe and how to go about challenges and create opportunities. most teachers had a relatively good understanding of pe pedagogical knowledge underpinning the curriculum but required support in improving their reflective practice. one teacher reflected: it is important to be more reflective in my practice; this way, i would know for sure what needs to be adjusted in my pe teaching. c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 230 this participatory action research was concerned with social change that embodied the belief that by pooling knowledge to define a problem, the problem can be resolved (kemmis & mctaggart, 2005). the participants worked collaboratively to solve the problems in their pe practices thereby developing their pe pedagogical knowledge so that they can be identified as professional pe teachers. one teacher reflected: there is a need for ttw like this to help us teach better and to try different ways to teach pe. to be on par with pe teaching in south africa and the world schools. to learn together as pe teachers.” the reflective process shed light on situations that helped the teachers re-conceptualize their overall practices. the collaboration of teachers in this participatory action research made teachers aware of their reflective practice, being responsive to the diverse learning needs of the learners and advancing their pe knowledge base. one teacher reflected during a focus-group interview: i often think about assessment. i see some of you are performance-driven within your school environment. suppose one can deviate away from a rubric because a very rigid rubric can limit the teacher. sometimes it feels like one is excluding learners because they have never played the game before or that they are very weak (skill related), and they are assessed on norms as standards thought out by someone/the average of the previous grade, as there are no norms and standards for pe in south africa. as a group, we reflected on how to overcome the limitations set by the assessmentfocused curriculum; teachers should provide a wide variety of physical activities while remaining focused on skill development, enjoyment, and values such as excellence, respect, friendship, determination, inspiration, courage, equality, communalism, compassion, dignity, love, solidarity, survival, and sharing. there was also an impact on the learners’ pe learning environment, which was the key to successfully carrying out the ttw. a teacher explained what happened in his pe lesson: my environment changed as the focus was on what is important in today’s society, the values we would like each learner to live by, and how to communicate/teach them to the learners. each learner interpreted the pe lesson and what i said during the lesson in their way (differentiation). i needed to be specific in my language use and instruction so that it facilitated clear learning of a specific value so that it meets the outcomes of the lesson. values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 231 the cyclical action research process has allowed for learning, developing, acting, and critically reflecting on concrete experiences to provide increased understanding and new knowledge about pe teaching. campbell, mcnamara, and gilroy (2003) believe both participatory action research and reflective methods are vital to the professional development of teachers, as reflective practice and participatory action research will improve teaching practices in significant ways. this investigation focused on the involvement of pe teachers with the problems in their classrooms. this research’s primary goal was the in-service training and development of pe teachers rather than the acquisition of general knowledge in the field of education (mcateer, 2013). social media and online platforms supported the implementation phase of the ttw. the collaboration between the participating teachers increased to a much higher level than expected. the participants shared photos and ideas; they communicated what was challenging and how they felt. it was a platform entirely driven by the participants. the 21st-century technology provided efficacy for teachers in charge of their professional development. another online platform (dropbox) was created for all participants to access content supporting their pe pedagogical knowledge. this was a means for continued support to teachers to avoid their feelings of isolation when teaching at their respective schools. the handing over of just a manual is not practical, as supported by mcevilly et al. (2013), who cautioned against the “training trap” where continuous professional development programmes are often a once-off occasion accompanied by a manual. the dropbox folder included pe resources, lesson plans, lesson video examples, and the ttw training manual. armour (2017) argues that effective continuous professional development should consider the dynamic nature of contemporary pe, and hence, teachers' digital technologies should be prominent. laureano, konukman, gümüşdağ, erdoğan, yu, and çekin (2014) concur that using technology such as websites could also keep parents informed about pe developments and parental support. furthermore, the participating pe teachers felt that the availability and ease of accessibility of lesson plans and examples were of great value and should be available to all teachers in south africa. one teacher explained how the lesson plan benefited him: the availability of the values-based pe lesson plans was of great help. teachers (outside and within your school) have different names for games. to summarise the lesson and how to incorporate values, a demonstration or drawing helped greatly in the lesson plan. everyone has their game name and variation – this helped to bring c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 232 variation into the old school games i have been teaching for many years. maintaining your identity within your classes is nice – it is okay to call a game with a different name and rules/variations. one just needs to communicate with the learners, and it needs to be clear what is expected from them (the learners). one idea led to the creation of a facebook page called pe south africa, designed as a resource tool with values-based pe content and ideas about activities that are easily accessible. the social media platform is open to the pe community, nationally and internationally, to post their thoughts, links to information, or find valuable pe information. connecting with colleagues in the pe field worldwide gives instant access to a tremendous amount of helpful information (catapano, 2016). teachers can learn first-hand from experts in pe and get up-tothe-minute information on the latest trends in education, specifically pe. the last cycle of the cyclic process occurred at the end of the ttw. the teachers reflected that they felt they had changed pedagogically and developed as practitioners, not only in terms of experimenting with different teaching strategies but mainly in terms of becoming more learner-centered by being more sensitized to their learners’ interests and diversity. one teacher said: the language you use for different age groups is important – younger learners might not understand a value like compassion or equity; you will first have to explain it to them, maybe in length; this can take up the time of your pe lesson. one has to take time to plan for the different audiences (different religions and cultures) and incorporate the values within the activities so that not much time is wasted in explaining but more in being physically active / physically learning. being responsive to the needs of different learners was an important outcome, considering teachers’ deep involvement with the individual subjectivities of their context, and is a prerequisite for enacting effective teaching practices (o’sullivan, 2013). knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experiences. teachers perceived their involvement in the participatory action research process as beneficial for their professional development and self-directed learning. as reflected in the following finding, teachers often mentioned the need for content evaluation and re-planning based on their observations of the learners’ behaviors and skills. we covered a lot in the ttw within a short time. i think there are a lot of other aspects that one can address, and more ttw is for sure needed. i feel motivated to keep values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 233 incorporating the aspects of the ttw in my practice. i feel that values are very personal, so it is complex. one will only really know the severity of the complexity once you start teaching, and over time, these aspects can be addressed in continuous support sessions for teachers. this way, we will truly develop as professionals in values-based pe. researchers (casey, dyson, & campbell, 2009) have shown that traditional formalized teacher education often makes a limited contribution to learning and does not necessarily meet the needs of the teachers. however, in a strategically structured ttw, the collaboration of the participating teachers at the ttw assisted in informal learning from one another. one teacher stated: i liked that we were explained in theory and then implemented practically. the department obligates us to attend workshops. i am happy that i was able to apply my knowledge and then share it with others; we helped each other and engaged with each other. truesdale (2003) reveals valuable information about collaboration and the implementation process of new ideas learned through professional development. the collaborative nature of the ttw formed an integral part of belonging to a diverse professional community of pe teachers and the notion that being a learner is intimately tied to the whole business of being a pe teacher (robinson, 2014). the need for belonging and learning from other pe teachers echoes ubuntuism, as described by a xhosa proverb: “umuntu ngumuntu ngabanye abanutu” (i am because we are) (mbigi, 1997). the participating pe teachers believed there was a need to change and update their practice. although this was difficult initially, it was ultimately worthwhile to build and strengthen their professional identity as pe teachers. this need for belonging and identity was evident at the end of the ttw when teachers presented a logo they designed for the ttw. a professional identity for pe teachers can enable them to become increasingly effective advocates for their learners and the field of pe and to excel as professional physical educators. excellence in the profession reflects olympism, as the recently changed motto reads, “citius, altius, fortiuscommunis” (faster, higher, stronger-together) (international olympic committee, 2021) and invites teachers to excel following the olympic spirit. each teacher has the potential to make an impact on hundreds of thousands of learners. in other words, every pe teacher matters, and how teachers learn and excel through their careers should be of significant concern. c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 234 the ttw was a classroom-situated, context-based, learner-focused, improvementoriented, and teacher-owned professional development opportunity. the objectives of the ttw were met. the participating teachers were actively involved in the learning process and could share ideas, knowledge, and experiences throughout the school term. these features match the elements or principles of professional development requirements (villegas-reimers, 2003). research also supports professional development opportunities that continue over an extended period (guskey, 2014; zepeda, 2012; cooper, 2011; wei et al., 2009; petrie, 2009; armour & duncombe, 2004; villegas-reimers, 2003; richardson, 2003). at the time of writing the application for the proposal for accreditation and approval of the ttw, continuous professional development for pe teachers is still being processed because of the workforce disruption in south africa as an effect of the covid-19 pandemic. a continuous professional development structure proposed by armour and mokoupoulo (2012) includes sustained and supplementary learning support that can be adapted to meet the local teachers’ needs and desires. armour (2017) contends that for continuous professional development to be effective, it should be relevant to contemporary challenges and addressed by attempting to bridge the gap between theory, research, and practice. to bridge the gap between theory, research and practice, the researchers supported the participating teachers throughout the implementation phase, monitored the implementation by observing each teacher teach a values-based pe lesson, and reflected on the effectiveness of pe teaching and learning. assisting the development of essential pe subject knowledge and related pedagogical skills by the teachers was the incorporation of theory, research, and practice, and the provision to the participating teachers of opportunities including of support, collaboration, and access to online platforms (timperley, 2008; edginton et al., 2010). moreover, thorburn et al. (2011) maintain that linking theory, research, and practice encourages a sense of improved competence. there are contradictions, however, as the support provided to teachers to adjust and develop new approaches to their contexts is often insufficient (camburn & han, 2015). this implies an opportunity for teachers to construct knowledge of their own by deconstruction, interpretation, and reconstruction when engaged in activities and social discourse within a particular context. in other words, knowledge is situated and is socially and culturally constructed (rogoff, 1998; bruner, 1996; bruer, 1994; lave & wenger, 1991; brown, collins & duguid, 1989). the importance of in-service teacher education, which involves active learning and reflection, is well established (desimone, 2011; clarke & hollingsworth, 2002), yet the initial values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 235 introduction of new ideas and practices is still presented to teachers using traditional approaches such as the transmission of information and observation of expert teachers with experienced classes. however, this does not consider the personal nature of professional development. additionally, there is often an assumption that having engaged in professional development activities, teachers can simply replicate the practices they have been exposed to (datnow, hubbard, & mehan, 2002). the expectation is that change in the teacher’s approach will be rapid and universal. at the same time, there is substantial evidence to show that inservice teacher education is an ongoing process in which teachers adapt what they know to their specific context. in comparison with the relatively brief period during the school term of presenting the ttw, teachers’ career-long learning has received little attention in the pe profession in south africa. when continuous professional development is done well, professional development can enhance teachers’ career satisfaction and teaching confidence and improve teacher retention and the quality of pe teaching and learning. continuous professional development is, fundamentally, about inspiring and sustaining teachers’ professional curiosity and retaining enthusiasm for learning. the knowledge gap is not so much about knowing what good professional development looks like; it is about knowing how to get it rooted in the institutional structure of schools (macneil, 2004). conclusion and recommendations in the institutional structure of south african schools, pe needs to be a stand-alone subject and not a study area within the subject of life skills. this can result in specific pe teacher education opportunities that can contribute to practice by building and supporting pe teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. the ttw conveyed the purpose of values-based education within pe. olympism and ubuntuism were explained, and both philosophies' values were taught in reallife situations. teachers were responsive to their learners to equip them as best they could with knowledge, skills, and values. the ttw in a values-based pe programme builds and supports the teachers’ pedagogical knowledge to plan, deliver and access quality pe. this research supports the call by the world health organization (who) (hardman, 2011) for investment in teacher education (training and education occurring pre-service and inservice) for well-qualified educators and support for research to improve the effectiveness and quality of pe. the researchers are confident that this study can be replicated with pe teachers across south africa and in other similar south african contexts and that the study will help c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 236 schools meet the educational goals set out in the national curriculum statement of south africa related to teaching values to all school children. the guidelines for policymakers set out by unesco (2015), in partnership with others, unicef, the who, and the international olympic committee, call for action to ensure that quality pe is a core part of school curricula. policy and practice implications highlight the importance of in-service teacher education, specifically for pe. ttw in pe is recommended to be aligned and compared with the requirements of stakeholders responsible for awarding certification. a standardized skill development programme can ensure a continuous contribution to practice by improving, supporting, and promoting effective pe pedagogy for teachers, as there is an urgent need to develop capacity in the teaching force (van der berg, taylor, gustafsson, spaull, & armstrong, 2011). furthermore, considering the unesco quality pe policy desk review revealed that the stipulated requirements for pe are not consistently implemented in all schools owing to a lack of appropriately qualified pe teachers (mclennan & thompson, 2015), a standardized skill development programme will also contribute to closing the gap between policy and practice in the delivery of quality pe in south africa the accessibility of an online pe platform for all south african pe teachers would have benefited teaching pe during the covid-19 pandemic. pe teachers faced a considerable challenge in teaching pe online, as school life has never returned to pre-pandemic norms. support for pe pedagogical knowledge through an online platform can benefit teachers and learners. participatory action research and its reflective practice positively influenced the teachers' pe pedagogy as it assisted the researchers and the participating teachers in a collective, self-reflective inquiry. the experiential learning theory (kolb, 1983) and the cooperative learning theory (slavin, 1983) involved the acquisition of abstract concepts and were applied flexibly in various situations. the values of olympism and ubuntuism united physical activity, sport, and humanism within this study and resulted in a values-based framework fit for a pe programme in south africa. this study presented that schools can become the center of the community and cultural life in which they play a crucial role in promoting personal values that, in turn, filter through, establishing the regeneration of the ethical fiber of society. by incorporating a values framework of olympism and ubuntuism in pe, learners can participate peacefully in physical activities, respecting and celebrating diversity within their classroom. the values-based pe values-based physical education and teacher education in south africa ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 237 ttw gave rise to a values framework of olympism and ubuntuism. implementing teacher education on values-based pe in south african schools can create a positive change in society with more active and fulfilled young people. acknowledgement the researchers acknowledge the contribution of the late dr. h. dunbar-krige (university of johannesburg) who supervised the methodology section of this study. c. f. jones & c. j. roux ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 218-245 238 references alive. 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(2011). professional development: what works. eye on education. florence: routledge. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789460915772/bp000003.xml a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia gabriel walubita university of zambia abstract executive functions development has received a considerable amount of attention in the literature and is known to predict a range of social, cognitive and emotional outcomes in both children and adults; however, little is known about factors that contribute to its development in the zambian context due to the fragmented literature available in zambia. a literature review was conducted using five electronic databases (university of zambia institutional repository, google scholar, pubmed, biomed central and ebsco host) to identify factors that affected executive functions in preschool and primary school children in zambia. this review established that early childhood education, socio-economic status, physical health, and culture as factors that fall under three categories namely research, environmental and biological affect the development of executive functions among children in zambia. this review suggests that teachers, caregivers and early childhood stakeholders in zambia need to pay attention to both environmental and biological factors when designing executive function interventions for preschool children. a focus on improving early childhood education, nutrition, access to good quality health care, intensifying appropriate cognitive stimulating parenting and teaching practices that boost ef in public preschool and primary schools is required keywords: executive function, zambian children, function development, physical stature, socio-economic status culture introduction early childhood research in the last three decades has focused on activities and skills that prepare young children for school (dockett and perry 2007; margetts 2007), though most of these studies have targeted children in western countries. not much is known about the factors that impact executive functions (ef) of children in lowand middle-income countries (willoughby, piper, kwayumba & mccune, 2019). issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 2 2022 pages 101-121 gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 102 executive functions, described as key higher-order mental processes, are important for cognitive development, literacy acquisition and school readiness (subbotsky, 2016). zambia has made strides towards the attainment of one of the components of the un sustainable development goals, #4, which is aimed at achieving equal access to early child development, care and pre-primary school (wulff, 2017). some of zambia’s success stories include research efforts targeting early childhood education (hsiao et al, 2017; mccoy et al., 2017; zuilkowski, fink, moucheraud & matafwali, 2012), the establishment of a directorate for early childhood education in the ministry of general education, employment of early childhood education teachers (moge, 2019), integration of early childhood centres in existing public primary schools (policy monitoring and research centre, 2017) and the increased enrolment of grade one learners, especially in rural areas (moge, 2019). despite all these efforts, there are limited or no efforts to identify factors that influence the development of executive functions in preschool children, making it difficult to develop specific executive function interventions childhood executive functioning has long been popular in the literature goldman-rakic (1987) investigated how object permanence is related to the development of the prefrontal cortex, a specific area of the brain responsible for executive functions sub components such as working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility (li, subrahmanyam, bai, xie, & liu, 2018; goldman-rakic,1987). diamond (1991) confirmed the development of inhibitory control and working memory in infants. while the concept of executive functioning (ef) has dominated the literature, a consensus on its definition has remined difficult to achieve given the complexity of these cognitive processes (mulder et al.,2009). what is clear from most of the ef definitions is that these processes are not a single skill, but a set of skills that are both environmentally and biologically determined (zelazo & muller, 2002). it has also been observed to undergo age-related decline in older adults (diamond, 2013; mayr, spieler, & kliegl, 2001; mcdowd & shaw, 2000). ef are described as a family of cognitive skills that are responsible for intentional coordination of goal-directed thought and action that tap on functional attention, inhibition, planning (miyake & friedman, 2012), shifting and working memory (zelazo, craik, & booth, 2004; gray-burrows et al., 2019). executive functions skills help in coordination and goal-directed behaviour (parong, 2019; zillmer et al., 2008). given this sophistication, executive functions demand a comprehensive assessment process that is valid and reliable if firm conclusions are to be made about its nature. unfortunately, the recent developments in early childhood education reforms in zambia correspond only minimally to efforts in the promotion of executive functions among a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 103 preschool children in zambia (dickinson, & morse, 2019; fuster, 2013; yang, chen, wang, & zhu, 2017; zillmer, spiers, & culbertson, 2008).m most of the executive functions studies in zambia are limited to investigating only the cognitive components of executive functions even when the consensus among researchers is that executive functions involves emotional and social behavioural processes (zillmer, spiers, & culbertson, 2008). this paper will provide a brief overview of the importance of executive functions, its development, and the factors that influence executive functions in children. finally, a critical analysis of the six zambian studies will be provided. a great deal of prior research (cardoso, 2017; gray-barrows, et al., 2019; wilmer, et al., 2017; pereira, 2018; schmitt, et al., 2019) has investigated different aspects of executive functions including executive functions relations to mobile technology (wilmer, et al., 2017) and health behaviour (gray-barrows, et al., 2019), cerebral palsy (pereira, 2018), culture (schmitt, et al., 2019) and socio-economic status (john, kibbe & tarullo, 2019). however, limited studies have focused on the zambian preschool population (mccoy, 2017) and there are also quite a few studies on cost-effective ef interventions. existing research on executive functions is mainly based on older western populations. the other drawback relates to the cross-sectional nature many executive function studies. such research designs do not allow for long-term examination of executive functions (schmitt, et al., 2019). promotion of executive functions skills in young children is important in the zambian context because executive functions predict income and ability to sustain a job. the high graduate unemployability situation in zambia can easily be addressed by executive function training. because executive functions contribute to job success, the risk of executive dysfunction negatively affects the household income consequently hindering the family’s ability to meet the basic needs of children, resulting in undernutrition which adversely affects physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development of children. these negative outcomes of poverty hinder early school enrolment (mccoy et al, 2017), negatively impacting the child’s acquisition of skills that are relevant for their survival and progression in school. if not addressed, the affected children end up performing poorly in school and getting frustrated as a result. this is likely to put children at risk of dropping out of school and engaging in criminal activities, thus creating a burden on the country's rehabilitation, correctional and legal system (fitzpatrick, 2014). the following account for the reasons for this review. first, there is a dearth of literature on early childhood executive functions in zambia which coincides with the ministry of general gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 104 education’s recent integration of early childhood education in the public education system (policy monitoring and research centre, 2017). this review was aimed at uncovering literature that is available on this topic to inform early childhood education practice in the public education sector. second, the current review is aimed at demonstrating how childhood executive functions research has evolved in zambia. third, to alleviate the poor reading levels in zambia, the zambian ministry of general education introduced the use of zambian native languages as a medium of instruction to enable these languages to facilitate effective understanding of reading, maths and writing tasks. because of this, the present review presents evidence that supports the use of executive functions as a platform for the acquisition of reading and maths skills in early childhood. this study is particularly important because it might improve our understanding of some of the underlying mechanisms behind the decreased academic skills often reported in zambia preschool children (hsiao, et al., 2017; van heerden, et al., 2017). fourth, this review is required in zambia to respond to the high number of children with hiv infection (adams, et al., 2019). what is perhaps distressing are the recent findings that some zambian children with hiv also have neurocognitive disorders (buda, et al., 2019; adams, et al., 2019) which necessitates further investigations on the impact of hiv on executive functions (li, subrahmanyam, bai, xie & liu, 2018). lastly, this review is an attempt to bring together the only large-scale studies conducted in zambia that provide interventions for effective stimulation of childhood executive functions which has been found to not only bring about academic success but also psychological adjustment across the lifespan (eslinger, biddle, & grattan, 1997). this review also provides an opportunity to improve our understanding of how executive dysfunction can be addressed (meaney et al., 1991; bredy, et al., 2003). if there is one set of skills that needs to be mastered by children, these are executive functions, given their influence on learning, development and future adulthood activities. executive functions skills do not only help children attain shortand long term academic success (schmitt, et al., 2019) but they also facilitate pro-social traits that promote healthy behaviour (gray-burrows et al., 2019) and good quality of life (brown & landgraf, 2010; davis, marra, najafzadeh & liu-ambrose, 2010). many studies have demonstrated a significant association between executive functions and key academic skills such as mathematical and reading ability (bull & lee, 2014; purpura, schmitt & ganley, 2017). executive functions (ef) skills are essential for not only academic achievement but also across the lifespan (blair & razza, 2007; diamond, 2012; moffitt et al., 2011). it is a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 105 important to note that while many studies have been done for the western world, few prior systematic literature reviews have been conducted in zambia. cardoso and colleagues (2016) systematically examined 19 studies that evaluated the effectiveness of executive functions interventions among typical preschool and primary school children and reported that, while the transfer of intervention gains remain inconclusive, most of the executive functions interventions used computerized school curriculum approaches and only targeted working memory relative to other executive functions components. an apparent limitation of the review by cardoso and colleagues, for our purpose, is their exclusive focus on the western world. another western-based review conducted on 45 studies was by wilmer and colleagues (2017) which found that the impact of mobile technology habits on executive functions, demonstrated that mobile technology use has adverse effects on attention, memory and delayed gratification. another literature review aimed at investigating assessment measures of executive functions in children with cerebral palsy by pereira and others (2018) found that, despite the diverse number of instruments available on the market to assess executive functions among children, a non-verbal assessment standardized tool, d-kefs was commonly used by the majority of ef studies. gray-burrows et al. (2019) in another detailed systematic review on the relationship between executive function and healthy behaviour concluded that there is a small but significant relationship between ef and health-promoting behaviour. this one also is based on studies conducted in the western context. what is currently known from the literature is that while executive functions is influenced both by environmental and biological factors, the role of environmental factors has dominated the literature (huber, yeates, meyer, fleckhammer, & kaufman, 2018; mayer, parong, & bainbridge, 2019; parong, mayer, fiorella, macnamara, homer, & plass, 2017). for instance, a study of 216 preschool children from the united states of american and china aged approximately 4 years old found that concerning general ef, chinese children outperformed their us counterparts during the preschool period. however, there were no socioeconomic status or cross-cultural differences in the observed groups (schmitt, korucu, purpura, whiteman, zhang, & yang, 2019). on the biological bases of executive functions, li, subrahmanyam, bai, xie, & liu (2018) argued that the use of modern neuroimaging technology (functional near‐infrared spectroscopy), in the study of how executive functions are influenced by physical development should be prioritized because ef is influenced by brain development (cuevas et al., 2012; kochanska, coy, & murray, 2001; loeher & roebers, 2013). the above studies are limited to western & non-african samples, making it difficult to gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 106 generalize their findings to the zambian setting. the current study reviewed the literature on the relationship between executive functions and physical posture. study objectives the overall goal of this review is to examine factors that influence executive functions in young children in zambia. given the few executive functions studies in zambia, the current review is important to identify the gaps that exist in prior research in this field. this review addressed three objectives. first, it examines factors that influence the development of executive functions in zambian preschool children. second, it critically examines the methods used in these studies. finally, it assesses the theoretical framework utilized in the studies that were reviewed. methods this section examines the characteristics of the methods used in the studies selected for this review and describes the eligibility criteria and search strategies that were employed to obtain the relevant literature will be provided. the eligibility criteria will be explained. the following prisma guidelines (moher, liberati, tetzlaff & altman, 2009) were used to search and select studies for inclusion in this review. all studies were categorized in terms of whether they adopted an experimental, descriptive, or mixed methods research design. the number of research participants and instruments used for data collection were also examined. eligibility criteria only studies that were published between july 2001 to september 2019 on zambian preschool and primary school children aged between 5 and 11 years, both male and female participants were selected for inclusion in this review. only publications that were available in english qualified for inclusion in this review.five electronic databases including the university of zambia institutional repository, google scholar, pubmed, biomed central and ebsco host were searched for publications between the period from 2001 to 2019. search strategy the computerized boolean logic was used to search the relevant articles in each database. the search was confined to studies that focused on different factors that influence executive functions in zambian preschool and primary children. the following key terms were used to search for the relevant articles: (“biological factors” or “environmental factors” or “psychosocial factors” or “ executive function predictors”) and (“executive functions” or a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 107 “executive functions” or “working memory” or “cognitive flexibility” or “inhibitory control” or “self-regulation” or “ behavioral regulation” or “effortful control” or “update” or “planning” or “shifting” or “attention” or “ processing speed” or “frontal lobe functions” or “ preschool executive functions” or “ childhood executive functions” ) and (“children” or “child” or “childhood” or “preschool” or “elementary” or “primary”). the not option was used as an exclusive operation to search for zambian publications only. thus the search string read “executive functions and preschool and primary school and zambia not foreign countries (united states of america, united kingdom, canada, russia, china, japan, and india). results six studies (n = 6) were included in this review. age, gender, and educational level were analysed as follows. the participant's age ranged between 2 months and 17 years and included both males and females with not less than 5 years of education. sample sizes ranged from 45 to 2,711 participants. as shown in table 1, the six studies (n=6) that met the inclusion criteria generally investigated childhood executive functions in preschool and primary school-aged children living in zambia. specifically, the studies under review were aimed at identifying factors that affect executive functions in pre and primary school children, in terms of the nature of executive functions tests used, most of them were standardized (n =4). inhibitory control was the most widely assessed component of executive functions (n =4). most of the studies (n =5) utilized cross-sectional research designs, while one used a longitudinal design and another one employed a cross-cultural design. all the studies utilized different statistical analyses which include t-test, manova, bivariate analysis, regression, and structural equation modelling and mixed model multi-level analysis. all these statistical tests were in line with the research questions that were addressed in the specific studies. in terms of the factors that influence executive functions in pre and primary school children in zambia, the studies that were reviewed identified the following seven factors: physical stature (mc coy, et al., 2015), hiv status (mwanza-kabaghe, et al., (in press), cognitive stimulation (mccoy, zuilkowski & fink, 2015), participation in early childhood education programmes (mc coy, zuilkowski, yoshikawa & fink, 2017), age (van heerden, hsiao, matafwali, louw & richter, 2017), gender (chalwe, 2015) and culture (mulenga, ahonen & aro, 2001). gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 108 the current review critically analyzed six studies according to their objectives and outcomes as follows: study #7 (mwanza-kabaghe et al., in press) examined the effect of hiv infection on executive functions and found that executive functions was adversely affected by hiv infection. study #6 (mulenga, ahonen and aro, 2001) investigated the influence of education, culture and language on neuropsychological test performance and found that all the neuropsychological tests were neither sensitive to the participants’ culture, education level nor the participant's spoken language. study #5 (kabaghe-mwanza, 2015) examined whether executive functions predicted literacy and numeracy skills and the study found that literacy and numeracy were associated with better working memory and inhibitory control. study #4 (mc coy et al., 2015) explored the effect of physical posture on executive functions skills and school enrolment and found that physical posture predicts not only executive functions but also early or on-time school enrolment. study #3 (van heerden, hsiao, matafwali, louw, & richter, 2017) assessed problem solving and fine motor skills of 5-year-old children and found that children from south africa outperformed their zambian peers on the cognitive tasks that were assessed. study #2 (chalwe, 2017) investigated the relationship between teacher-reported executive functions and children’s numeracy, gender, and age. this study established that whereas numeracy was not related to executive functions, age and gender showed small positive associations. finally, study #1 (mccoy et al., 2017) explored the effect of early childhood education (ece) programmes on executive functions. this study found that these programmes significantly improved executive functions skills among preschool-aged learners. the assessment tools used in the reviewed studies utilized neuropsychological tests for the assessment of executive functions. there was a limited range of tools used. for instance, for the measurement of attention and executive functions, the following eight tests drawn from the developmental neuropsychological assessment battery (korkman, kirk, & kemp, 1998) were administered: the tower, auditory attention, auditory response set, visual attention and design fluency tests (study #6), locally adapted pencil tapping test (originally peg tapping test) (study #1,4 and 5), the behaviour rating inventory of executive function (brief) preschool version (study 2 and 5), stroop-like task (study 5) and the ages and stages questionnaire version 3 (study #3). study #7 also used the flanker test to assess executive functions. discussion the present review is one of the first attempts to bring together studies on executive functions in early childhood years in zambia aimed at gaining a better understanding of how to improve key cognitive functions. the six studies that were examined in this review demonstrate the a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 109 following factors that influence executive functions in childhood: early childhood education, socio-economic status, physical stature , and culture. although the reviewed studies inform us of the activities that stimulate executive functions during childhood in a low resource setting, some limitations have been noted in the theoretical framework, study design, assessment tools and study setting. the following section first discusses the methodological limitations that haunt the reviewed studies and then each of the factors that influences executive functioning. methodological limitations theories while study #2 and #5 have utilized baddeley's working memory model (baddeley & hitch 1994), they have not adequately tested cognitive flexibility, an important subcomponent of executive functions. in study #5, the researcher admits leaving out cognitive flexibility “ in the current study, no hands-on cognitive flexibility tasks were used" (mwanza-kabaghe, 2015:73). the failure to include other key components of executive functions raises questions on whether executive functions were adequately assessed. inclusion of cognitive flexibility in the latest version of baddeley’s model is a clear indication that cognitive flexibility is a critical component of executive functions (garon et al., 2008) relative to inhibitory control and working memory (diamond, 2013). the exclusion of cognitive flexibility from executive functions is a departure from the supported view of executive functions as a multidimensional concept that includes all the three cognitive skills: inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility (miyake & friedman, 2012) apart from this failure to include cognitive flexibility, the other studies (study 1,3,4 and 6) in the current review have not provided information on the theoretical perspectives used, rendering the studies theoretically weak because peer-reviewed studies need to provide information about the theoretical contribution of the research undertaking. the provision of information on the theoretical framework in a study also helps to show the theoretical contribution of the study and the parameters of their applicability to other contexts. ef assessment tools regarding the executive functions (ef) assessment instruments used in the reviewed studies, most of the studies [which?????] mostly used standardised ef assessment tools. for instance, the pencil tapping test, nepsy attention and executive function subtest, stroop test and the behavior rating inventory of executive function (preschool version). the exclusive use of standardised tools for measuring ef ignores the complexity of ef (mulder, pitchford, hagger gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 110 & marlow, 2009; klenberg, 2015). future studies need to address the highlighted shortcomings so that ef measures used are as diverse as possible to respond to the multidimensional nature of ef (klenberg, 2015). future studies need to utilize reliable and valid ef measures that not only examine ef in typical but also atypical children (pereira et al., 2018). other recommended widely used ef measure for children that could be considered includes the dimensional change card sort task which is a widely used measure among preschool children (doebel & zelazo, 2015). other methodological issues arising from the review include the following. first, most of the studies in the present review used either of performance-based or reported measures but none used both. this approach to ef assessment is unlikely to provide a clear picture of childhood executive functions because what is assessed and missed in a performance-based measure may be captured by a reported measure. klenberg (2015) recommends that for a full assessment of ef, both performance-based and reported measures should be administered. future studies need to include both self-report and performance-based measures. second, the tendency by most western scholars to use western-developed ef assessments in non-western contexts raises questions on the validity of the test (matafwali & serpell, 2014). astatke and serpell (2000) recommend for the development and validation of culturally appropriate ef measures. consideration of culturally appropriate and sensitive assessment tools that address the specific socio-cultural conditions is critical for less-biased evaluation of children's cognitive skills (serpell & nsamenang, 2014). lastly, the use of a single ef test to measure several ef indices can be challenging given the multidimensional nature of ef (wieber et al., 2011; willoughby, blair, wirth, & greenberg, 2012). thus, future studies need to employ multiple assessment methods that are not only culturally sensitive but also measure all the aspects of executive functions covered in baddeley’s executive functions model including working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control. research design most of the studies reviewed used cross-sectional study designs rather than randomized controlled trials or longitudinal or cross-cultural designs making it difficult to arrive at firm conclusions regarding the developmental changes and socio-cultural factors that improve executive functions in zambian children. ef typically follows a developmental trajectory; ef mature with brain development (gray-burrows et al., 2019: 256). this means that research a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 111 designs that investigate ef should be longitudinal to allow for an in-depth examination of the ef developmental changes that occur during early childhood years, a stage in one’s life when ef matures rapidly (zelazo & müller, 2010). cross-cultural designs help to have a better understanding of how socio-cultural mechanisms arising for culture informed child rearing practices affect childhood executive functions (schmitt et al., 2019). while rigorous research designs are suggested, there is a need for researchers to avoid the temptation of generalizing western-based findings to non-western settings (westman & costello, 2011) without paying attention to the local knowledge, attitudes, values and beliefs (serpell & nsamenang, 2014). study population the studies selected for this review have limited sample populations that have mostly been drawn from urban areas, constraining our understanding of the linguistic, geographical setting and cultural diversity of the participants being assessed. in line with this limitation, future studies should include socio-culturally diverse participants. this will allow for easy and adequate validation of standardized western-developed assessment tools for use in non-western contexts. having noted that the study designs used in the reviewed studies were varied, this review suggests that standardization of research designs in ef research in zambia is needed to obtain comparable results (kelly, 2014). serpell and nsamenang (2014) also emphasize the need to closely pay attention to rural areas due to the variations in child socialization practices compared to urban areas. environment-based factors this review was aimed at evaluating executive functions (ef) research in zambia to better understand factors that influence early childhood executive functions among zambian children. early childhood education, socio-economic status, physical stature , hiv status and sociocultural issues have been identified to influence the development of executive functions in zambia. the majority of the zambian studies identified in this review have pointed to the need to target affordable ef interventions knowing very well that zambia is a low-resource setting. the next section discusses each of the environment-based factors that influences executive functions among children in zambia: early childhood education, socio-economic status, physical stature, hiv status and socio-cultural factors that include cultural orientation and language. early childhood education gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 112 as confirmed by previous studies, both study #1 and study #5 consistently found that participation in either a free private or public early childhood care and education programme for 3 to 5 hours daily significantly improved executive functions among other cognitive skills in zambian preschool children., they show specifically that working memory and inhibitory control predicted better performance on numeracy and literacy tasks in zambian preschoolaged children. one of the plausible explanations for the beneficial effect of early childhood education is provided by mckinnon & blair (2019) who states that early education provides children with foundational skills such as language, reading and maths that familiarize them to preliminary cognitive skills that include counting, letter identification, colour identification, counting, number recognition, recognizing the letters in one's name (hsiao, et al., 2017). thus, there is a need to provide equitable access to good public quality early childhood education in zambia (zuilkowski, fink, moucheraud, & matafwali, 2012). this would be one way of compensating for the challenges experienced by public preschoolers (sameroff & chandler, 1975). socio-economic status socio-economic factors such as caregiver income and education have been established to have strong relations with children's performance on executive functions (ef) tasks. this means that children who come from a higher socio-economic home background tend to enrol in preschools earlier than their counterparts who come from poor backgrounds. this was revealed by studies #3 and #4 in this review. these studies reports are consistent with other studies (john, kibbe, & tarullo, 2019) that show that working memory and inhibitory control are negatively affected by poverty. this relationship is attributed to the following reasons. first, poor children display limited ef skills as they enter school because of the toxic stress associated with poverty (raver, blair, willoughby, & family life project investigators, 2013). second, poverty adversely affects optimal brain function such that neural systems that support ef development are disrupted by poverty-related risks including under-nutrition, disease and limited cognitive stimulation (blair & raver, 2015). these findings have potential implications for public social policy in zambia. first, the zambian government needs to address challenges experienced in the social cash transfer programme and community literacy programmes. the ministry of education needs to ensure that all children have access to early childhood education because this provides the foundation for future school success and employment. physical stature and hiv status a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 113 as indicated by study #4 and #7, health wellbeing as indicated by physical stature, good nutrition and access to quality health care are strong predictors of executive functions. this is consistent with other studies (gray-burrows, taylor, o’connor, sutherland, stoet, & conner, 2019; mccoy, zuilkowski, & fink, 2015) because executive functions are enhanced by adequate food, physical fitness and mindfulness (diamond & lee, 2011). the relationship between executive functions and physical development confirms the theory that majority of children's developmental domains are interdependent (grantham-mcgregor et al., 2007). this review provides empirical evidence to promote universal health care coverage, child and maternal health programmes in zambia. hiv infection among children needs to be addressed by the proivision of mother to child prevention programmes and pharmocological interventions. culture culture, defined as the child's behaviour norms, beliefs, values and practices within its collectivistic community arrangement influences executive functions (schmitt, et al., 2019). cross-cultural differences in ef development have been noted between chinese and american preschool children, with chinese children performing better than their american counterparts (schmitt, et al., 2019). previous studies support the observation of cultural influence on executive function development (ng et al., 2015). the advantage in executive functions among the chinese children is attributed to their strength in early maths skills (huntsinger et al., 1997; siegler & mu, 2008; international association of evaluation, 2011) and genetic factors (sabbaghe, et al., 2006). the socialisation experiences of chinese children also play a huge role in subsequent ef development. for instance, chinese parents effectively provide early toilet training (as early as 6 months) to their children (camras et al., 1998; chen et al., 1998; chen, et al., 2003; sabbaghe, et al., 2006). given effective executive function training that is achieved through socialisation, chinese???? children tend to demonstrate inhibitory control earlier than other children (ng, et al., 2015). if collectivistic culture has a positive effect on the development of executive functions, then zambian children whose culture is largely collectivist should have an advantage in terms of adequate executive functions skills. however, this is not the case as revealed by some studies in this review (mwanza-kabaghe, 2015 and mulenga, aro & ahonen, 2001). this could be due the assessment tools used on zambian children which are not culturally appropriate. the cultural invasion of western values on zambian society could also explain this discrepancy (akani, 2012). the need for development of culturally appropriate assessment and intervention strategies is crucial. gabriel walubita ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 101-121 114 one of the suggested measures to address the low ef skills in the zambian population is to provide awareness to caregivers and teachers on the potentially positive influences of the local collectivist culture on childhood executive functions. second, caregivers and teachers need to be more sensitive and responsive to the emotional, physical and cognitive needs of children (zeytinoglu, calkins, swingler & leerkes, 2017; hamond, muller, carpendale, bibok & liebermann-finestone,2012; hughes & enson,2009). third, since zambia and china share similar collectivist culture, zambian children need to be trained to exercise self-control in the same manner that chinese children are trained (tardif, wang & olson, 2009). lastly, teachers and caregivers need to provide opportunities for cognitive stimulation and??? have interactions with children (lan et al., 2009; schmitt et al., 2019). intensifying better parenting practices and provision of effective teaching and learning resources has the potential to provide a strong foundation for the development of executive functions in preschool and primary children in zambia. conclusion this literature review study was aimed at identifying methodology, environment and biological-based factors that affect executive functions development among zambian children. overall, the results demonstrate that four factors contribute to the development of executive functions. these include early childhood education, socio-economic status, physical stature, and culture. these findings highlight the environmental and biological determinants of cognitive development. despite the limited research base on childhood executive functions in zambia, it is apparent that different factors that contribute to executive functions have been identified. several implications of these findings discussed focus on improving early childhood education, nutrition, access to good quality health care, intensifying cognitive stimulation; parenting and teaching practices and provision of learning materials that boost ef in public preschool and primary schools. it is important for future research in zambia to explore the effect of parenting practices and teaching practices on the development of executive functions in private schools as this review exclusively examined public school studies. in addition, potential reasons for the influence of culture on executive functions need to be explored because of the pervasive influence of western cultural values on zambian society. as one of the first investigations to examine factors that affect the development of executive functions, this review has aimed to inform the design of interventions that support the development of executive functions among preschool and primary school learners in zambia. a review of the literature on childhood executive functions in zambia ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 101-121 115 references adams, h. r., mwanza-kabaghe, s., mbewe, e. g., kabundula, p. p., potchen, m. j., maggirwar, s., ... & bearden, d. r. 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(2012). early childhood education, child development and school readiness: evidence from zambia. south african journal of childhood education, 2(2), 20. barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners nazia abdoula-dhuny open university of mauritius abstract advocated as an educational philosophy to tackle exclusion, inclusive education (ie) is now a worldwide trend. despite the well-acknowledged benefits of inclusion, educational practitioners have several difficulties which act as significant setbacks in operationalising inclusion in practice. given its novelty in mauritius, ie implementation is not fully understood. the purpose of the study was to explore the perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners on certain aspects of inclusive education, namely the academic profile of students with special education needs encountered by secondary school educators and rectors, the difficulties faced when dealing with them, and the barriers and enablers to inclusive education. it involved a quantitative descriptive research design. data were collected from 588 secondary educators and 42 rectors using a specifically designed questionnaire. following the analysis of data, respondents confirmed the presence of children with special education needs in their classrooms. while respondents indicated that the majority of students with special education needs had an academic profile of the same level of age-matched peers, they reported difficulties encountered with these learners in terms of deficits in attention, participation and behavioural problems. the main barriers identified were the lack of training in special education and the lack of proper infrastructure. findings revealed training and knowledge in special education, the availability of proper infrastructure, support in terms of teaching aids, specialised equipment and teaching assistants as the main enabling factors. training is therefore recommended to build competency of educators and rectors in inclusive practices. appropriate infrastructure and support in terms of educational materials and support personnel should also be provided. keywords: inclusive education; special educational needs; behavioural challenges; barriers; enablers. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 10. no. 2 2021 pages 97-120 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 98 introduction fundamentally, inclusive education (ie) means educating learners with special education needs in regular education settings (mitchell, 2015). the inclusion of children with disabilities is now a worldwide trend that has been growing in popularity during the last three decades (sharma et al., 2012, p.12). despite the growing popularity and benefits at the international level, there still are many barriers to the implementation of ie. literature review special education needs refer to learners with learning, physical, and developmental disabilities; behavioural, emotional, and communication disorders; and learning deficiencies (kryszewska, 2017, p. 525). while traditionally, children with special education needs have been educated in segregated settings, an inclusive orientation in education is called for in the worldwide effort towards ‘education for all’, including children with special education needs. as established by the united nations in 2015, the sustainable development goal 4 aims for the provision of inclusive and equitable quality education as a way to combat discrimination in education and achieve sustainable development. an inclusive orientation in education is based “on the belief that differences in learners is an essential aspect of reality and that education is about supporting and extending this diversity through a transformation of pedagogy” (heung and grossman 2007, pp.160). ie is thus, a school-wide approach to providing support and education to students with disabilities in general education settings together with those without disabilities (sailor 2014). therefore, to attain inclusion, the need for a reorganisation of regular schools is crucial to accommodate and cater for the educational demands of all learners regardless of their disabilities. behavioural difficulties of students with special education needs. as reported by many previous studies, teachers repeatedly identify students’ behavioural difficulties as hindering inclusion (forlin et al., 2008; idol 2006). an australian study conducted by forlin et al. (2008) on teachers’ concerns on coping with inclusion revealed classroom issues as one major concern. specifically, respondents identified the child’s behaviour as mostly concerning but also put forward difficulties like “short attention span, inappropriate social skills, poor communication skills and limited speech” (forlin et al., 2008, p. 256). another study by yildiz (2015) in turkey on teacher and student behaviours in inclusive classrooms in primary settings indicated that the rate of academic engagement of students with mild intellectual disabilities during the lesson was 58.58%; off-task behaviour barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 99 was 34.11%, and problem behaviour was 7.31%. this indicates that “these students engaged in academic tasks little more than half of the lesson time and showed off-task behaviour and problem behaviour in the remaining time” (yildiz, 2015, p.182). barriers to ie while inclusion depicts an impeccable and ideal education system in terms of ideology and outcomes, its translation from policy to practice is often met by many barriers (barton & armstrong, 2007). studies in different samples and contexts reveal several barriers to ie (kawser et al., 2016; zwane & malale, 2018; geleta 2019). in their investigation of barriers in the implementation of ie at high schools in swaziland, zwane and malale (2018) have identified them as a non-inclusive curriculum, high numbers of learners, lack of resources and teachers’ lack of competence. similarly, in a bangladeshi study among professionals directly involved with programmes and research regarding ie, kawser et al. (2016) reported negative social attitudes, lack of teachers training, limited resources, accessibility issue, lack of awareness among people, faulty policy making and problems in administration, institutional power distance and lack of teamwork. likewise, geleta’s (2019) study revealed inappropriate classroom setting, large class size, unsuitable school physical structures, lack of knowledge on ie, lack of skills on implementation of ie, lack of appropriate materials, lack of continuous training on ie, and inappropriate curriculum towards disabled students as barriers affecting teachers’ motivations towards implementation of ie in ethiopia. tiwari et al. (2015) found that indian teachers had “a deficit view of students with disabilities, which was reinforced by institutional barriers like large class size and lack of training and support” (p.134). another indian study by das and shah (2014) on teachers in private schools in delhi revealed some of the barriers to ie to include a lack of trained teachers, parental pressure, negative attitudes of teachers, and a fear of reducing the overall academic performance of the class. gaad and khan’s (2007) study in dubai reported that “the teacher's rejection of inclusion in many cases stemmed from their perceived lack of support and resources” (p.105). they reported that teachers identified heavy teaching load, lack of instructional time and shared time for collaboration, lack of adequate training, and class size as areas to be addressed when including students with special needs in regular school environments. a kenyan study on the attitudes and concerns of teachers towards inclusion revealed four main concerns; lack of time to meet the needs of students with disabilities, lack of training to cope with diversity, concern about academic assessment and concern to maintain discipline in an inclusive nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 100 classroom (odongo & davidson, 2016). another study conducted in namibia by mӧwes (2012) on the views of educators regarding ie revealed the need for support services in the form of social workers, psychologists and therapists and noted concerns about large class sizes. the implementation of ie is also accompanied by concerns from principals. past research literature indicates that principals are very prudent with respect to inclusive programmes (billingsley & mcleskey, 2014; salisbury, 2006). it has also been reported that school leaders usually highlight the lack of relevant knowledge and skills to effectively deliver inclusive education programmes (ball & green, 2014; williams, 2015). according to lashley (2007), principals may not view educating students with disabilities as their responsibility. impediments to principals’ willingness as noted by billingsley (2012) relate to the lack of preparation about and experience with students with disabilities, uncertainty about the goals of inclusion and how to lead an inclusive school. they viewed inclusion as others’ responsibility and had apprehensions about time and resources. enablers of ie the fundamental factors for the success of ie would depend on addressing the concerns of the direct implementers of ie. kuper et al. (2018, p.15) argue that the solutions to improving the inclusion of children with disabilities in education should address the barriers operating at different levels, including the system (e.g. policy and legislation), schools (e.g. better teacher training) and families (e.g. providing financial support to aid). studies on determinants for successful ie reveal important factors for its success. a nigerian study by adeniyi et al. (2015) among 227 teachers and head teachers/principals reported that material, mind-set, manpower, experience and qualification jointly determined the success of inclusive education. it was also found that the “availability of materials was identified to possess the highest potential to [sic] success and failure of inclusive practices in nigeria” (adeniyi et al., 2015, p.30). another study revealed other factors like the availability of resources in form of instructional materials, professional and para-professional staff and funding as important for successful ie (sharma, 2001). ie in mauritius in mauritius, the education of children with special education needs has been encouraged through a dual system of education, involving regular schools for students without special education need and special schools. anecdotal evidence suggests that the preferred educational setting of parents of children with special education needs is a special school. barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 101 within the predominant approach of segregated education for children with special education needs, estimates however, indicate that “102 children with various types of disabilities (visual, hearing, speech, health, physical and intellectual impairments) have been admitted in some 81 pre-primary schools, both public and private in 2012 (moehr, 2014, p.7). moreover, in laying the ground for ie, 22 integrated units (statistics mauritius, 2018) were set up in regular primary schools to address special educational needs such as autism, specific learning difficulties, intellectual impairments, hearing and visual impairments. another step towards ie is reflected in the accommodation of slow learners and low performing students via the extended stream programme in secondary schools. the extended programme has as rationale, “inclusiveness, equity and quality in all teaching and learning processes” (moehrtesr 2017a, p.3) and from an ie standpoint, this programme provides equal educational opportunities to children with learning difficulties and supports the rationale of the educational reform. another measure geared towards ie relate to the retrofitting of secondary schools to increase accessibility of students with physical disabilities as indicated in the budget (2019) whereby provisions were made to equip “20 state secondary schools with ramps, handrails and adapted toilets for disabled students” (mofed 2019, pp. 42). following the major and comprehensive educational reform with the nine year continuous basic education (nycbe) reform in 2017, equity and equal access in education have again been emphasised. one objective of this reform is to provide an early support programme at primary level for timely intervention and remediation of learning gaps for children with learning difficulties (moehrtesr 2017b). to achieve this, support teachers are recruited to assist the class teacher in grades 1 and 2 in either in-class support or pull-out classes for students with learning difficulties in literacy and numeracy and other foundational learning skills (gungapersand 2019). while the above are indicative of laudable efforts of the government to achieve ie, a fully inclusive system is yet to be established. the specificities and peculiarities of the mauritian education system may account for the delayed establishment of a fully inclusive education system. for instance, the high stakes evaluation system (bunwaree, et al., 2005) along with an overloaded curriculum, the language of instruction, and an institutionalised system of fee-paying private tutoring (bunwaree, et al., 2005, busgopaul, 2006 ) have been designated as major causes of inequalities in the mauritian education system. nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 102 mauritius has clearly indicated its intention to implement inclusion through various laws, policy papers and its support of influential international conventions. the republic of mauritius ratified the united nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (crpd) in january 2010 with some reservations, notably article 24.2(b), which specifically pertains to ie. underlying this reservation is that “mauritius considers that there will be a need for a few special schools to continue for some more time to cater for those disabled students with very special needs” (republic of mauritius, 2010, p.6). mauritius, however iterated its efforts to remove that reservation in the future (crpd, 2014). aims of the study this research is part of a larger study. most studies have investigated barriers and enablers in primary school settings. this calls for an exploration of perception of barriers and enablers to ie at the secondary level. considering the paucity of research on this area in mauritius, an identification of barriers and enablers to ie is justified. given that educational practitioners (referring to rectors and educators in this study) are the implementers of ie, their perceptions of these factors need to be taken into account and addressed to develop strategies to achieve successful ie implementation. educational practitioners’ views of barriers and enablers to ie potentially differ across different contexts and related research is lacking in mauritius. this study is therefore an attempt to fill this research gap and contribute groundwork information on these aspects from the perspectives of secondary school educational practitioners (ssep). the objectives of the study were to identify: (1) the perceived academic characteristics and behavioural challenges of students with special education needs in secondary schools in mauritius; (2) the main barriers to the successful implementation of inclusion in regular schools of mauritius perceived by secondary school educational practitioners. (3) the enabling factors that could make ie a practical reality from secondary school educational practitioners’ perspectives. method participants the respondents comprised of a nation-wide sample of secondary school educational practitioners (ssep) namely educators and rectors/deputy rectors. the total number of educators as at march 2016 was 9359 (statistics mauritius 2016) and the total number of schools providing secondary education (state and private) was 166 in four educational zones; barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 103 zone 1: 54, zone 2: 42, zone 3 : 38 and zone 4: 32 (statistics mauritius, 2016). the sampling procedure involved stratified random sampling based on the number of secondary schools (state and private) in each of the 4 educational zones in mauritius. 21 schools were sampled out as follows; zone 1: 7, zone 2: 5, zone 3: 5 and zone 4: 4. questionnaires were distributed to 42 rectors/deputy rectors (given that there is 1 rector and 1 deputy/rector in a given school) and 588 were randomly distributed to educators. research design a quantitative, descriptive survey research design was adopted. the chosen approach would enable baseline information on barriers and enablers towards ie to be collected considering the very limited research knowledge available on these factors in mauritius. research instrument as mentioned before, this study forms part of a larger study on factors affecting attitudes towards ie in mauritius. it used a questionnaire to collect data on various variables under study and comprised of adapted existing scales and self-developed questions. it was pilot tested among 15 colleague educators prior to administration. the survey instrument also had high reliability given that it was adapted and based on three existing scales which had high internal consistency. the questionnaire was self-administered to respondents and consisted of: • a one-page informational text describing four children (with fictitious names) with four different special needs. • parts a-g which assessed different variables under study. the questions of relevance to this study related to academic characteristics, behavioural challenges, barriers and enablers. they were essentially self-developed and were multiple response questions. open-ended questions were also included to get more insights on the views of respondents on problems encountered with students with special needs, barriers to and enablers of ie. the questions addressed in this study were contained in parts a and c of the questionnaire and these identified the: 1. participants’ exposure to students with special needs. 2. difficulties they faced when dealing with students with special needs. 3. perceived barriers to ie. 4. perceived enablers of ie. nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 104 data collection prior to data collection, permission was sought from the concerned authorities. the quantitative study was carried out over a four months period (april 2016 to july 2016). prior to administering the questionnaires, the rectors of each sampled school were personally contacted and explained the objectives of the study. it was also stressed that participation in the survey was voluntary. the distribution and collection of questionnaires was done solely by the researcher. a total of 400 completed questionnaires were collected with a response rate approximating 63%. data analysis quantitative data analysis was done using spss. descriptive statistics, frequency counts and percentages were calculated. qualitative data from open-ended responses were analysed by content analysis. frequencies and percentages were generated on the occurrence of identified categories using microsoft excel. findings descriptive characteristics of the participating secondary school educational practitioners as presented in table 1, it can be seen that out of the secondary school educational practitioners (ssep) who completed the survey, 95.25% were educators (full-time/part-time) and 2.75% were rectors/deputy rectors (11 out of the 42 expected). the respondents were predominantly female (65.5%). most were in the 31-40 year age range and more than 20% had between 10-14 years of experience in their current occupation. more than 60% of respondents had postgraduate qualifications but the large majority (89.25%) reported having no training in ie. nearly two-thirds of the respondents had no relatives or friends having a child with special needs. as for the school profile, 61.75% were from state secondary schools and 34.25% were private (grant-aided and fee-paying) secondary schools. 79.0% of respondents acknowledged having students with special education needs in their school or classroom. with respect to their familiarity with ie, a majority of 40% acknowledged being somewhat familiar with this principle as opposed to 26.75% who knew very little and 9.75% who had no knowledge of ie. 16.5% of respondents were much familiar with the concept and only 6.0% were very well aware of this principle. table 1. demographic profile of respondents (n = 400)* variables attributes frequency percentage barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 105 relative/friend having a child with special needs yes no no response 129 255 16 32.25 63.75 4.00 gender male female no response 128 262 10 32.00 65.50 2.50 age group (years) 20 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 above 50 no response 89 159 76 65 11 22.25 39.75 19.0 16.25 2.75 present occupation rector deputy rector full-time educator part-time educator no response 8 3 351 30 8 2.0 0.75 87.75 7.5 2.0 highest level of education b ed/bsc pgce m ed/msc d ed/phd other no response 115 116 114 12 36 7 28.75 29.0 28.5 3.0 9.0 1.75 training received in inclusive education yes no no response 35 357 8 8.75 89.25 2.0 number of years of experience in present occupation less than 5 5 – 9 10 – 14 15 – 19 20 – 24 25 or more no response 60 59 92 51 50 58 30 15.0 14.75 23.0 12.75 12.5 14.5 7.5 nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 106 zone** 1 2 3 4 no response 132 55 111 74 28 33.0 13.75 27.75 18.5 7.0 type of school public private aided private unaided no response 247 110 27 16 61.75 27.5 6.75 4.0 presence of children with special education needs in classroom yes no 316 84 79.0 21.0 familiarity with ie not at all very little somewhat much a great deal no response 39 107 160 66 24 4 9.75 26.75 40.0 16.5 6.0 1.0 * missing values are indicated as ‘no response’ ** based on the number of respondents selected from schools typical academic characteristics and behavioural challenges of students with special education needs in the participating secondary schools as perceived by secondary school educational practitioners barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 107 table 2. frequency distribution of the academic characteristics of students with special education needs as perceived by survey respondents (n=309)§1 n percent of cases same level as age-matched peers 139 45.0% one grade level lower than age-matched peers 111 35.9% two grade levels lower than age-matched-peers 95 30.7% one grade level above that of age-matched peers 41 13.3% two grade levels above that of age-matched peers 34 11.0% § multiple response question 45.0% of ssep perceived students with special needs as being of the same academic level as age-matched peers. however, 35.9% and 30.7% of respondents perceived the academic profile of students with special education needs as being one grade level and two grade levels lower than age-matched peers respectively. in fairly fewer cases, students with special education needs were one grade level (13.3%) or two grade levels (11.0%) above that of agematched peers. table 3 frequency distribution of the types of problems encountered by respondents when dealing with children with special needs (n=316)* n percent of cases does not follow and participate in class 208 65.8% constantly disturbs ongoing activities 195 61.7% answers back 175 55.4% has low self-esteem and confidence 129 40.8% is aggressive with peers 127 40.2% is aggressive with teachers 117 37.0% withdraws himself/herself from others 108 34.2% is sad and lonely 76 24.1% 1 § this was a multiple response question to which only 309 respondents answered. the overall % exceeds 100% as participants were asked to choose more than one option (checklist). the respondents selected all options that were true for them. for each statement, percent of cases was calculated as the % of how many times each option was selected out of the total number of cases (respondents) for the question. e.g. for statement 1 in table 2 this statement was selected by 139 respondents out of the 309 who responded to that question on academic characteristics. all the figures in the tables were generated by spss (multiple response frequencies) nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 108 is depressive 57 18.0% § multiple response question as reported by the ssep, children with special education needs do not follow and participate in class (65.8%), they constantly disturb ongoing activities (61.7%) and answer back (55.4%). respondents also perceived that some children had low self-esteem and confidence (40.8%). additionally, aggressive behaviour with either peers (40.2%) or teachers (37.0%) was put forward. to a comparatively lesser extent, withdrawal from others (34.2%), sadness and loneliness (24.1%) and depression (18.0%) were perceived. open-ended responses (n=14) on other types of problems encountered were gathered into three main categories. examples of comments given are shown in table 4. table 4. examples of comments given on difficulties faced with students with special education needs. category examples of comments lag behind “students cannot keep up with other students of the class” “is absent-minded and lost” rebellious attitude “they are rebellious against the school system” “disrupts ongoing activities” “does not complete work given” do not succeed academically “most of them do not do well” “low performing students” perceived barriers in ie implementation in mauritius. table 5. barriers to making ie a reality. * barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 109 rector** educator^ ssep n percent of cases n percent of cases n percent of cases no or inadequate training in special education 10 90.9% 301 79.4% 311 79.7% no proper infrastructure to accommodate children with special needs 7 63.6% 271 71.5% 278 71.3% no proper guidelines to guide the process 6 54.5% 266 70.2% 272 69.7% no teaching aids to help in the teaching of children with special needs 9 81.8% 261 68.9% 270 69.2% current curriculum is not adapted 8 72.7% 244 64.4% 252 64.6% lack of time 7 63.6% 196 51.7% 203 52.1% lack of leadership from administration 6 54.5% 176 46.4% 182 46.7% too much responsibility for school leaders and educators 4 36.4% 172 45.4% 176 45.1% lack of support from parents 7 63.6% 169 44.6% 176 45.1% children with special needs would not be accepted by their non-disabled peers in the school/classroom 4 36.4% 115 30.3% 119 30.5% § multiple response question; number of rectors =11; number of educators: 379; total (ssep): 390 **rector refers to rectors and deputy rectors ^educator refers to full-time and part-time educators. the results in table 5 indicate that for rectors/deputy rectors, the chief barrier related to the absence or inadequate training in special education (90.9%), followed by the absence of teaching aids (81.8%) and an unsuitable curriculum (72.7%). educators also perceived the lack of adequate training in special education as the main obstacle in ie implementation (79.4%). the lack of proper infrastructure (71.5%) and the absence of proper guidelines on how to implement ie (70.2%) were also reported as important barriers. as can be seen from table 5, the chief implementation barrier to ie in mauritius according to the ssep is the lack of adequate training in special education (79.7%), followed by the lack of proper infrastructure to accommodate children with special needs (71.3%). other reported barriers included the lack of proper guidelines for implementing ie (69.7%), and the lack of teaching aids to help in the teaching of children with special needs (69.2%). the school curriculum not being adapted to children with special needs (64.6%), and nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 110 the lack of time to devote to these children (52.1%) also constituted noteworthy barriers in making ie a reality in mauritius. to a lesser extent, lack of leadership from administration (46.7%), excessive workload (45.1%) and lack of support from parents (45.1%) were reported. lastly, the non-acceptance of children with special needs by their non-disabled peers in the school/classroom (30.5%) represented a minor but non-negligible barrier. following content analysis, open-ended responses (n=11) were grouped into four main categories. examples of comments are given in table 6. table 6. examples of comments expressed by respondents on barriers to ie. category examples of comments mindset towards children with special education needs “the mindset of people not accepting of differences” “other normal students may be insensitive and harsh towards children with special needs” no specialised support “schools do not have specialists to help children with learning difficulties” “no support given for them to develop their abilities”, “should be provided with an environment where they will feel more comfortable with trained teachers large class size “class size must be reviewed” “ a class of 30 or 40 students is too much for handling special education needs students” “difficult to cope with disruptive pupils in a class of 38” “in a class of 30 or 40 students, a teacher’s time and attention is already taken by the task at hand” academically oriented schools “most schools are academically oriented and there never seems to be enough time to devote to slow learners or children with special needs” “stress to keep a balance between syllabus and students’ personal needs” perceived enablers to ie implementation in mauritius. barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 111 figure 1. perceived feasibility of ie in mauritius. given the positively skewed distribution in figure 1, most respondents were quite pessimistic about ie becoming a reality in mauritius. the widely held stand was that 40.6% believed to some extent that it might happen, with 25.7% saying that there is very little chance of achieving inclusion. however, 18.1% of respondents thought that there is good likelihood of ie to be implemented and only 15.6% were greatly convinced that ie will become a reality in mauritius. table 7 factors that could make ie a reality.* rector** educator^ ssep n percent of cases n percent of cases n percent of cases adequate training and knowledge in special education 7 63.6% 299 79.5% 306 79.1% availability of a proper infrastructure, teaching aids and specialised equipment to teach children with special needs in school/classroom 6 54.5% 299 79.5% 305 78.8% provision of teaching assistants (trained in special needs education) to help educators plan lessons adapted for children with special needs 9 81.8% 294 78.2% 303 78.3% support from parents of children with special needs at school 8 72.7% 262 69.7% 270 69.8% a very supportive administration in school 7 63.6% 260 69.1% 267 69.0% very clear guidelines from the ministry of education 7 63.6% 256 68.1% 263 68.0% 0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0% 25.0% 30.0% 35.0% 40.0% 45.0% very little somewhat much a great deal 25.7% 40.6% 18.1% 15.6% nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 112 support from parents of non-disabled peers at school 8 72.7% 205 54.5% 213 55.0% a special allowance in line with additional workload and responsibility 5 45.5% 190 50.5% 195 50.4% feeling of accomplishment in contributing to social justice 8 72.7% 165 43.9% 173 44.7% § multiple response question; number of rectors =11; number of educators: 376; total (ssep): 387 **rector refers to rectors and deputy rectors ^educator refers to full-time and part-time educators. as can be seen in table 7, educators perceive adequate training and knowledge in special education and the availability of proper infrastructure and teaching aids/equipment (79.5%) as the most enabling factor of ie while for rectors/deputy rectors, the provision of support staff in an inclusive environment (81.8%) was the most important one. 72.7% of rectors/deputy rectors also perceived support from parents of students with special education needs and those of non-disabled peers as important enablers. the feeling of accomplishment in contributing to social justice through ie was also agreed upon by 72.7% of rectors/deputy rectors. in contrast, the other factor perceived as important by educators related to the provision of support staff in an inclusive environment (78.2%). with reference to table 7, overall, the three factors identified by respondents as enabling inclusion in the mauritian context are, adequate training and knowledge in special education (79.1%), availability of proper infrastructure, teaching aids and specialised equipment to teach children with special needs in school/classroom (78.8%) and the provision of teaching assistants (trained in special needs education) to help educators plan lessons adapted for children with special needs (78.3%). the importance of support as a factor to achieve ie was also perceived as being critical, namely from parents of children with special needs at school (69.8%), from school administration (69.0%) and from government via the elaboration of clear ie implementation guidelines in schools (68.0%). the support from parents of non-disabled peers at school (55.0%) was also stressed. the provision of a special allowance in line with additional workload and responsibility (50.4%) was perceived as a motivating incentive for those working with students with special education needs. to a lesser degree, the feeling of accomplishment in barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 113 contributing to social justice by having children with special needs in school/classroom was perceived as an enabling factor by 44.7% of respondents. analysis of open-ended responses (n=25) indicated four categories as shown in table 8. table 8. categories and examples of comments expressed by respondents on enablers to ie. category example of comments sensitisation to create awareness “sensitisation of issues concerning special needs education as far as the public is concerned especially children who will be studying with peers requiring special attention” “sensitisation among other students and parents” “sensitising non-disabled learners to treat special needs learners as equal adapted curriculum “decrease the syllabus content or increase the number of years to complete the syllabus” “more emphasis on formative assessment in the curriculum. use of portfolio” support from specialists “having teaching assistants not only to plan lessons, but to help with teaching, to respect student’s pace of learning and to tackle any behavioural problem” “need adequate support in our system” “should work with teachers trained in special needs education” teacher attitudes “a change in teachers’ attitude – need values of compassion, tolerance, understanding, justice and equality” “mindset of teacher should change to be more accepting of these children as sometimes such children are tagged as being ‘difficult’” “students with disabilities should be welcomed by teachers” discussion the study found that among the topmost behavioural challenge experienced by respondents was the lack of academic engagement of students, i.e., following and participating in class. this result is in line with yildiz’s (2015) finding in a turkish study showing that sustained academic engagement constituted the main difficulty for students with mild intellectual disabilities in inclusive classrooms. respondents also perceived the constant disruption of ongoing activities as another major difficulty experienced when dealing with students with nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 114 special education needs in class. while such difficulties have also been identified in previous studies, hierarchical differences have been reported in terms of the type of disability (forlin et al., 2008; idol 2006; yildiz, 2015). with respect to the barriers which could hinder the implementation of inclusive practices, respondents acknowledged the lack of training in special education and the lack of proper infrastructure as the most important. other substantial barriers included the lack of proper guidelines for implementing ie, the lack of teaching aids to support the teaching of children with special needs, inappropriate curriculum and lack of time to cater for individual needs of children with special education needs. the study’s findings corroborate with the range of barriers identified in different samples and different contexts (e.g. zwane and malale, 2018; kawser, ahmed & ahmed, 2016; geleta, 2019). in mauritius, ie is still at its nascent stage. many uncertainties still prevail given the lack of training and familiarity of educational professionals on the concept. it is legitimate that practitioners question their competency in this regard given their lack of training in special education and inclusion. this may explain why respondents considered this barrier as the most important one in ie implementation. lack of proper infrastructure as the second topmost barrier to ie is explained by the fact that most secondary schools are not compatible with various forms of special needs in terms of infrastructure. many schools are not even equipped with mobility ramps to accommodate children with physical disabilities. the lack of supportive infrastructure is thus considered a major barrier to the placement of children with special education needs in regular secondary schools. it is believed that addressing the barriers indicated by respondents will lead to a better acceptance of ie and secure better chances for its successful implementation. barriers in the form of lack of guidelines to support ie implementation, curriculum not adapted to needs of students with special education needs, and lack of time to devote to them may be related to the deep-rooted tradition of an elite and competitive education system with a strong emphasis on academic performance in mauritius. the highly competitive evaluation system in mauritius (bunwaree et al., 2005) clearly depict the absence of a diversified evaluation system that fits all learners with special education needs in the current education system. therefore, pressure to fit in this meritocratic system and ensure the completion of the syllabus constitute the realms of competitive mauritian classrooms. barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 115 moreover, anecdotal evidence suggests that students with special education needs are labelled as “difficult” and “uneducable”. altogether, this may explain why educational practitioners perceive ie to be concerning in terms of adapting the curriculum and cater for the different learning styles of children with special education needs and typically developing peers within the same time frame. with timetables already bulky and the absence of training in ie, teachers are confronted with difficult situations which render the accommodation and presence of children with special education needs in regular classrooms challenging. moreover, some respondents pointed out that they teach in classes of 30 to 40 students and therefore in already overcrowded classes. to realistically attend to children with special education needs in these conditions is all the more challenging and overwhelming especially without the required training and support to deal with them. the perceptions gathered in this study signal an urgent need to address barriers at the classroom, school environment and staff levels. the factors recognised as being important for successful ie implementation by respondents are training and knowledge in special education, the availability of a proper infrastructure, teaching aids and specialised equipment to teach children with special needs in school/classroom as well as the provision of teaching assistants (trained in special needs education) to help educators plan lessons adapted for children with special needs. support from the key stakeholders in the ie process namely parents of children with special needs, school administration and government have also been reported as essential for success. past research display similar factors. for instance, ahmed, sharma and deppeler (2012) found that the most significant factor affecting ie is the perceived school support while adeniyi et al. (2015) identified the availability of materials, human resources, mind-set, experience and qualification of teachers as enablers of successful ie in nigeria. the research’s findings are also consistent with that of sharma (2001) in new delhi who found that success of ie is rested on the length of teaching experience, contact with students with special needs, availability of resources in form of instructional materials, professional and para-professional staff and funding. gaad and khan (2007) also noted that sufficient teaching and learning materials and accessibility would promote enrolment of children with special education needs and contribute to viable inclusion. the enablers to ie implementation as perceived by respondents of this study seem to stem from their reservations with respect to ie. if properly set in place, these factors could help minimise barriers to ie. nazia abdoula-dhuny ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 116 limitations the researcher relied on the self-reported responses of participants. despite the fact that anonymity was assured, responses could have however been affected by social desirability concerns. the questionnaire included an informational text which comprised a description of children with special education needs namely learning difficulties, physical disability and emotional or behavioural problems. this was meant to induce respondents to a specific and common orientation on the meaning of special needs and eliminate any subjectivity, given the novelty of this concept. however, it did not cover all types of special needs. therefore, caution should be exercised when generalising the results of this investigation to all types of special needs as respondents could have reacted to the questions based on the described cases only. conclusion and recommendation the study provided baseline information on the academic profile and behavioural challenges educational practitioners face in inclusive classrooms. it also helped uncover the various factors that could jeopardise and enhance successful inclusion in the mauritian context. identifying those variables is crucial to help educational authorities understand and address these factors to give an inclusive turn to the mauritian educational system. it was found that educational practitioners were slightly pessimistic about ie becoming a practical reality in mauritius. educational practitioners identified the difficulties they encountered when dealing with students with special education needs in the form of behavioural challenges students with special education needs exhibited. these are significant barriers to inclusion given that if such behaviours are not effectively managed, they can act as hurdles to successful inclusion. the lack of training in special education and inclusion was viewed as the most important barrier to ie and proper training in ie was perceived as a prominent enabling factor for ie. it is thus suggested that providing training (pre-service and in-service level) to educators and rectors would help address the concern over inadequate professional preparation with respect to ie and increase capacity building. this would also foster accepting and positive attitudes towards ie. creating more awareness on local ie policies is also crucial in fostering knowledge about ie and reduce concerns over its implementation. appropriate measures like the provision of supportive infrastructure, support staff, a reduction in class size and a flexible curriculum would also help in coping with inclusivity. barriers and enablers to inclusive education in mauritius: perceptions of secondary school educational practitioners ajote vol.10 no.2 (2021), 97-120 117 to get more insights on the barriers and enablers of ie, this study can be complemented with face-to-face interviews of educational practitioners. studies based on class observations would help explore the various barriers in a more realistic and accurate manner. the wide range of different barriers reported in the mauritian sample calls for more structured investigation to assess and better understand their relationship with other variables like demographics, level of training, teaching experience and class size. references adeniyi, s.o., owolabi, j.o., & olojede, k. 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(2018). investigating barriers teachers face in the implementation of inclusive education in high schools in gege branch, swaziland, african journal of disability 7, 391. doi: org/10.4102/ajod.v7i0.391 http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=a/res/70/1&lang=e teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education opiyo rose atieno department of educational psychology masinde muliro university of science and technology, kenya abstract the impact of globalization has brought changes to education which requires teachers to demonstrate practical pedagogical wisdom in critical features of teaching, namely: the subject matter being taught, the classroom context, and the physical and psychological characteristics of the students, that is, pedagogical content knowledge (pck). high level of pedagogical content knowledge (pck) leads to delivery of high-quality instruction in today’s highly contextualized classroom settings and has the potential of producing learners who are prepared for a competitive society. however, teachers’ lack of pck has been identified as a pervasive problem all over the world. in kenya, it has been highly linked to the recurrence of poor performance in local and internal competitive examinations, poor attitudes in some subjects, and lack of motivation for continuous learning among school-age children along the education continuum. even so, the voice of student teachers and that of the school practice advisors, at the center and apex of this mentorship process in the universities, has been largely ignored in transformative teacher education discourse. guided by literature on transformative teacher education, student teacher mentorship, and reflective pedagogy, this paper presents the perspectives of 50 student teachers (sts) and 10 school practice advisors. sts confidence in special teaching methods courses, pedagogical content competence in teaching both independently and collaboratively, key areas of concern for pck improvement, and practical strategies for pck mentorship were the focus. based on a qualitative and an interpretive research paradigm, the sentiments of 50 sts who participated in the may-august, 2017 school practice as well as the views of 10 school practice advisors (spas) from the school education (sedu) of masinde muliro university of science and technology were sought. based on four domains of pedagogical content knowledge (pck) which include subject matter knowledge issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 27-55 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 28 (smk), knowledge of curriculum (koc) and knowledge of learners (kol), and knowledge of pedagogies (kop), the paper provides insights for teacher educators and university management on areas that need further improvement and strategies for developing beginning teachers’ pck practices. keywords: student teachers, mentorship, pedagogical content knowledge, school of education. introduction teachers play important roles as transmitters, inspirers and promoters of man’s eternal quest for knowledge. the professional preparation of teachers has been recognized as crucial for the qualitative improvement of education since 1960s (kothari commission, 1964-66). stated by national council for teacher education (1998) in quality concerns in secondary teacher education‘the teacher is the most important element in any educational program’. it is the teacher who is mainly responsible for implementation of the educational process at any stage. skilful teaching requires the appropriate use and integration of specific moves and activities in particular cases and contexts, based on understanding and application of professional judgment. teaching is a profession and teacher education, which is the process of professional preparation of teachers, (koster brekelmans, korthagen & wubbels, 2005) is undergoing transformation across the globe. current changes in the global educational landscape has placed unprecedented demands on teacher education programs (oecd, 2000) the quality of teacher work is now seen by an increasing number of key actors, such as, educational researchers, consumers of teacher training and policy makers as by far the most important factor determining the quality of student learning and future productive workforce (darling-hammond & richardson, 2009; borko, 2004). to this end, there has been growing interest in the scholarship of teaching (shulman, 2002). the debate has been: what knowledge should a teacher possess and how can this knowledge be constructed and developed in a teacher education program or through experience in the field (wilson, cooney, & stinson, 2005). an immediate answer: “what knowledge?” is thought to be subject-matter knowledge? surprisingly, this is not the hallmark of this scholarship (cochran-smith, 2000). according to shulman (2002), a teacher should have in-depth knowledge of what he or she is supposed to teach and a strong conceptual teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 29 understanding of a topic and its relationships with other topics. such scholarship is displayed through a teacher’s grasp of, and response to, the relationships between knowledge of content, teaching and learning in ways that attest to practice as being complex and interwoven. the push for conceptualization of teaching scholarship is believed to emanate from a hot debate on the relationship between teacher education and teacher effectiveness (darlinghammond & baratz-snowden, 2005), and has culminated into a growing consensus on the need for transformative improvements to the teaching profession. it is partly occasioned by influx of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, students with disabilities, technology in education, rigorous college and career-ready standards, and tougher educator evaluation systems (borko, 2004: furlong, 2000). these trends have continued to demand that novice (beginning) teachers enter into classrooms with newer and higher levels of expertise and instruction. one aspect of teachers’ professional knowledge that has received considerable attention over time has been associated with the purposeful linking of subject matter knowledge and teaching knowledge (betts & frost, 2000). this amalgam of subject matter knowledge and teaching knowledge highlight skills and expertise of subject specialist teachers is coined as pedagogical content knowledge (pck). pck is an emerging major field of study, an acceptable academic construct and a useful framework for teachers for development and sharing content-specific wisdom of practice in meaningful ways that further enhance the development of professional knowledge and practice (betts & frost, 2000) the most recent call to action on teaching scholarship ratified by ncate in 2008, puts this into perspective. the ncate standards specifically address teacher quality and urge commitments in preparation of teachers who: (a) acquire the necessary content, pedagogical, and professional knowledge and skills to teach both independently and collaboratively; (b) are prepared to teach a diverse community of students; (c) can integrate technology into instruction to enhance student learning and to teach to student standards set by specialized professional associations and states; (d) can explain instructional choices based on research-derived knowledge and best practice; (e) can apply effective methods of teaching students who are at different developmental stages, have difference learning styles, and come from diverse backgrounds; (f) can pursue in-depth study of the subject they plan to teach; (g) possess a opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 30 foundation of professional and pedagogical knowledge upon which to base instructive decisions; and (h) can complete diverse, well-planned, and sequenced workplace experiences in schools. essentially, ncate blows out these standards as a commitment to social justice demands and a strategy of assuring high quality education for all children. the national council for accreditation of teacher education (ncate) standards identify a whole range of elements constituting professional knowledge of teaching (mewborn, 2000). however, shulman identifies pck as a distinct body of knowledge even though knowledge of content and knowledge of pedagogy contribute to it. he notes that pck includes knowledge of learners, knowledge of educational context, and knowledge of instructional materials. broadly, shulman (1987) recognizes seven domains of teacher knowledge, one of which is pck. he explains why he identified pedagogical content knowledge as a knowledge domain for teachers as follows: among those categories, pedagogical content knowledge is of special interest because it identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching. it represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction. pck is the category most likely to distinguish the understanding of the content specialist from that of the pedagogue. (p. 8) shulman’s (1986, 1987) classic articles, describes categories of what a teacher needs to know. a teacher needs to know what is to be taught, that is, subject matter or content knowledge, and to teach this, the teacher needs what shulman named pedagogical content knowledge (pck). by this, he was referring to a specific kind of content knowledge which involves “the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (shulman 1986). since then, pck has been studied especially in the field of science education. abell (2008) attempted to present some features of pck that researchers have consistently agreed on, that is, pck is a specific content knowledge, exists on a continuum, can be strengthened, is a discrete category of knowledge, are transformation of other types of knowledge, is dynamic rather than static and is necessary for students’ success. according to shulman (1987), a teacher also needs general pedagogical knowledge (knowledge about e.g., classroom teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 31 management), curricular knowledge, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational contexts, ends, purposes and values. using a different lens, van driel, beijaard & verloop (2001) explained how a teacher’s practical knowledge is formed in a process where a mixture of formal knowledge, learned through formal courses and programs, and experiential knowledge, gained through practice, is interpreted in practice through one’s beliefs and values. tamir (1988) comes out with a sharper distinction between general pedagogical knowledge and subject-matter-specific pedagogical knowledge. he claimed that each type of knowledge is composed of four categories-namely, student, curriculum, instruction, and evaluationbut they have different meanings in each domain. he provided examples for each category to reveal the distinction between general pedagogical knowledge and subject-matter specific pedagogical knowledge. for instance, for the student category, knowing about piaget’s developmental levels is related to general pedagogical knowledge, whereas knowing about specific common conceptions and misconceptions in a given topic is related to subject-matter specific pedagogical knowledge. furthermore, he identified teachers’ skills in diagnosing students’ conceptual difficulties in a given topic and their knowledge about effective use of instructional tools as subject-matter-specific pedagogical knowledge. similarly, ball & bass (2000) identified teachers’ knowledge of students’ difficulties and appropriate teaching strategies to eliminate those difficulties as part of teachers’ pck. they defined pck as follows: pedagogical content knowledge is a special form of knowledge that bundles mathematical knowledge with knowledge of learners, learning, and pedagogy. these bundles offer a crucial resource for teaching mathematics, for they can help the teacher anticipate what students might have trouble learning and have ready alternative models or explanations to mediate those difficulties. (p. 88) as it is, differences occur with respect to elements scholars include or integrate in pck, and to specific labels or descriptions of these elements. however, a common view of pck is that it is bound up and recognizable in a teacher’s approach to teaching particular content. a teacher should act as facilitator of children’s learning in a manner that the child is helped to construct his/her own knowledge. therefore, teacher education system through its initial, in-service and opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 32 continuing professional development programs is expected to ensure adequate supply of professionally competent teachers to run the nation’s schools (ncfte, 2009) and this happens when teacher education program that is sensitive to this idea. significant too, is an emerging agreement that pck of trainees or beginning teachers improve or change after taking well crafted special methods course in which trainees are intensively prepared on critical issues on this scholarship (abell, 2008). according to grossman (1990) content-specific methods courses as well as associated field experience supports the development of pck and enable sts to learn about the overarching purposes for teaching specific subject-matter, strategies and techniques to teach that subject. pedagogical content knowledge development in the context of field and microteaching experiences through field experiences, sts are accorded opportunities to make connections between what they have learned so far and what a real classroom environment looks like (askell-williams, 2004). they get chance to improve their repertoire of teaching strategies and students’ misconceptions during field experiences. therefore, methods course and field experiences are important in helping sts to develop pck. in this view, tamir (1988) suggests that the instructor of any special methods course should endeavor to help the development of pck of sts by providing opportunities for microteaching. during microteaching activities, trainees prepare a lesson plan in which they describe what they will teach and how they will teach it (shulman, & shulman, 2004). in attempting to find appropriate answers for those questions, sts will use their knowledge of content, knowledge of learners, knowledge of curriculum, knowledge of pedagogy and pck. after the implementation of the lesson, sts evaluate their teaching practices and learn from their experiences. since sts tend to rely on their own experiences while they are teaching (e.g., ball, 1988) lots of opportunities for microteaching and critical reflections before and after these experiences can contribute to the development of pck domains. as warned by shulman and shulman, (2004), poorly designed programs or rushed delivered special teaching methods courses may not ground sts in pck. trainees are bound to face a lot of challenges during their initial teaching practice experiences. teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 33 a lot has been published on the relationships between pck and other knowledge domains (e.g., kinach, 2002) in the developed world but little is documented about this unique aspect of teaching scholarship in sub-saharan africa. more studies are needed in order to understand the nature of pck in training programs and how it is developed through teacher education programs or field experiences. in view of the foregoing, the area of emphasis for this study is pedagogical knowledge, skills, and dispositions acquired by sts at training points prior to school experience. this assumes that subject-matter knowledge alone is not enough for being a good teacher (saxena, 2015) and that teachers should definitely possess knowledge of subject-matter, students, pedagogy, and curricular issues and also be able to interweave them effectively when planning for instruction as well as when teaching in the classroom. understanding pedagogical content knowledge pedagogical content knowledge (pck) was originally introduced by shulman (1987) to enclose a category of teachers’ professional knowledge determined to each individual teacher. it is a generic knowledge about understanding, designing, managing and implementing student learning. it includes not only what teachers know about learning, but also what they do to, make learning happen for a diverse range of students within their classrooms. shulman points out that pck is a form of practical pedagogical wisdom of able teachers to guide teachers’ actions in highly contextualized classroom settings and enable them come out with most useful way of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others. for a decade, there has been a blurring of lines when trying to separate content and pedagogy because pedagogy is also the content. for instance, in describing pck, cochran, et al. (1993), renames pck as pedagogical content knowing (pckg) to acknowledge the dynamic nature of knowledge development and defined pedagogical content knowing as teacher’s integrated understanding of four components pedagogy, subject matter content, student characteristics, and the environmental context of learning. on the other hand, magnusson, et al. (1999) consider pck as a separate domain of knowledge that is iteratively fueled by knowledge of its component parts: subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and knowledge of context. gess newsome and lederman (1999) puts forth a transformative model of pck which is considered as the transformation of subject matter, pedagogical and contextual knowledge into a unique form of knowledge that impacts teaching practice. opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 34 over and above, the concept of pck is integral to teaching as a profession and is often considered to be an important aspect of a teacher’s lived experience. it is equated to transformation of teacher knowledge from a variety of domains of knowledge, which includes subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and knowledge about content and including also knowledge of how particular subject matter topics, problems and issues can be organized, represented and adapted to the diverse interest and abilities of learners and then presented for instruction. as put by shulman (1987:8) pck is “the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learning, and presented for instruction.” for this reason, shulman outlines seven knowledge domains for teachers: namely, subject-matter knowledge; general pedagogical knowledge; pedagogical content knowledge; knowledge of learners and learning; curriculum knowledge; knowledge of educational contexts; and knowledge of educational philosophies, goals, and objectives. additionally, pck could also refer to “.... knowledge of the transformation of several types of knowledge for teaching (including subject matter knowledge), and that as such it represents a unique domain of teacher knowledge”. the first component of pck is knowledge of subject-matter which refers to knowledge of mathematical facts, concepts and the relationships among them. smk is important as it influences teachers’ instruction and students’ learning (ball & bass, 2000). it equally includes being able to relate a particular concept with others and explain or justify the reasons behind the procedures explicitly to promote students’ understanding. knowledge of pedagogy covers knowledge of planning and organization of a lesson and teaching strategies. teachers who have strong pedagogical knowledge have rich repertoires of teaching activities and are able to choose tasks, examples, representations, and teaching strategies that are appropriate for their students. in addition, they know how to facilitate classroom discourse and manage time for classroom activities effectively. knowledge of background understanding or and knowledge, consisting of students’ learning style preconceptions, common difficulties, errors and misconceptions. teachers who possess a strong knowledge base in this domain know what concepts are difficult for students to grasp, which concepts students typically have misconceptions about, possible sources of students’ errors, and how to eliminate those difficulties and misconceptions. finally, teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 35 knowledge of curriculum includes knowledge of learning goals for different grade levels and knowledge of instructional materials. teachers with strong knowledge in this area plan their teaching activities accordingly. they choose appropriate materials (e.g., textbooks, technology, and manipulatives) to meet the goals of the curriculum and use them effectively. pck is therefore a unique knowledge processed only by individuals within the profession of teaching, and a powerful academic construct that is based on the view that teaching requires much more than the simple delivery of subject content knowledge to students and, that quality student learning is not the simple recall of facts and figures. shulman opine that teacher need strong pck to be the best possible teachers because pck demands of teachers a rich conceptual understanding of the particular subject content that they teach. this rich conceptual understanding, combined with expertise in developing, using and adapting teaching procedures, strategies and approaches, for use in particular classes, is purposefully linked to create the amalgam of knowledge of content and pedagogy (loughran et al., 2006, p. 9). it is useful in helping teachers’ understandings what teachers know, what teachers ought to know, and how they might develop it (park, 2005). pck is a corner stone of a teacher’s professional expertise. a teacher should know the content, pedagogy, curriculum, and the interaction between them. it enables the teacher to know how to orchestrate the learning environment to facilitate students’ understanding of a particular concept and to contribute to their intellectual development. shulman further identifies pck as “the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (p. 9). he adds that pck includes teachers’ knowledge about specific topics that might be easy or difficult for students and possible conceptions or misconceptions that student might have related to the topic. shulman (1986) described pck as including, “the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations– in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make in comprehensible for others” (p.9). importantly, pck is knowledge that teachers develop over time, and through experience, about how to teach particular content in particular ways in order to lead to enhanced student understanding. in the initial training stages, student teacher trainees are expected to be grounded in pck before going to test their level of understanding in different aspects of opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 36 professional knowledge in their model schools. pck is a key aspect in teacher professional development that should not be neglected during initial training and should be accessed by sts for meaningful teaching practice. statement of the problem in most countries of the world universities have become the most important source of new knowledge, generated by research, which constitutes the basis of teachers’ professional knowledge used to solve problems in everyday teaching practice. nearly all universities in kenya are granted the mandate of preparing teachers who are able to meet the needs of learners from diverse backgrounds. whereas a number of them have held the largest responsibility for the education of teachers for quite some time, a few have got accreditation to do the same recently. they are the providers of most initial teacher education programs, and they also play a key role in providing professional development programs for practicing teachers. one main expectation after going through university teacher training is that one should be able to demonstrate that they possess general knowledge of subject matter, of pedagogy, of learning and learners, and of curriculum. equally, teachers should have context specific knowledge, which includes knowing how to teach a particular concept to particular students, how to represent specific ideas, how to respond to students’ questions, and what tasks to use to engage students in a new topic (shulman, & shulman, 2004). furthermore, they are required to demonstrate some level of confidence in their subject areas since this affects the choice of tasks and the kinds of learning environments they create (koster et al., 2005). it means that university training programs should provide several content, general pedagogy, and contentspecific methods courses to support the development of professional knowledge for teaching. even so, the nature of this professional knowledge and the way it is acquired by practicing professionals from various institutions in kenya, has been put to serious scrutiny by international organizations involved in educational development. besides, the immediate glaring indicator the inability of learners handled by the trained teachers to effectively achieve basic learning goals and concern over the recurrence of poor performance of basic school pupils in local and internal competitive examinations, there is a growing concern that many new teachers rarely begin their careers with the deep knowledge and robust skills necessary to respond to the wide diversity of learners in their classrooms. moreover, consumers of teacher teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 37 education, aspiring teachers and educational stakeholders do not know which institutions are doing a great job and which are not. the binary and quite opaque approach of accrediting bodies, in which an institution earns a thumbs-up or -down, does not provide information that consumers can easily access or use. what is not clear is whether a flurry of new programs at leading universities -in many cases overflowing with graduate students, adequately equip sts with theoretical understanding and professional skills to effectively engage in classroom practice. while this study considers pck as an integral aspect in the teaching profession and perhaps the most important aspect of a teacher’s lived experience and a transformation of teacher knowledge from a variety of domains of knowledge, it acknowledges that if students are to develop better attitudes and values towards all school subjects and excel academically, they have to be handled by teachers who exhibit high levels of pck (shulman, & shulman, 2004). although pck development is continual as a result of experience in many classroom settings it is expected that initial teacher training programs should be able to imbue student teachers with pck. this study interrogates student teacher trainees’ pck level for effective classroom practices. purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to investigate whether the special teaching methods courses taught at masinde muliro university of science and technology (mmust) and their associated field experiences support development of pck of sts. by extension the study examined sts’ conceptual understanding of pck and its influences in school practice. research question a. to what extent did the special teaching methods course prepare you in pck before your teaching practice experience? b. how did you perceive your pedagogical content knowledge level during school practice? methods case study methodology was used given the exploratory nature of the research. as noted by merriam (1998), the “interest is in the process, rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation” (p. 19). this case study research was opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 38 conducted over a seven -week period, with a cohort of sts taking education courses at mmust. 50 student teachers (sts) participated in the study as well as 10 school practice advisors (spas) who assumed an expert role. sts were picked from fourth year students who have gone through special teaching methods courses as well as a one semester school practice experience in the month of may-august, 2017. of the student teachers, 27 were female and 23 were male. data sources the study investigated the extent to which special teaching methods courses taught at masinde muliro university of science and technology (mmust) and their associated field experiences supported development of pck of sts. the main source of data was questionnaire for sts. this addressed three main concerns (a)the extent to which the special teaching methods course prepare sts in pck before teaching practice experience? (b)the perceptions of sts with regards to pedagogical content knowledge competence during school practice? and (c) sts level of competence in knowledge of subject-matter, knowledge of pedagogy, knowledge of learners and knowledge of curriculum? data obtained from interviews with spas were compared to the findings obtained from questionnaire and used for triangulation purposes. interview questions sought the views of the spas with regards to the organization, delivery, appropriateness, and effectiveness of special teaching methods courses in enhancing pck of student teachers. procedure a list of the current fourth year education students comprising specialization from arts/humanities, early childhood education and technology students was obtained from the coordinator of curriculum instructions technology. then, a random sampling procedure performed to select study participants. ten students were picked from each cohort; thereafter questionnaires were delivered to 50 sts along with a letter which briefly explained the purpose of the research and requested their participation. all the questionnaires were complete and returned. interviews sessions were conducted a week after questionnaire administration. this helped clarify issues that were emanating from questionnaire items. teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 39 instrument the main research tool, the questionnaire, was divided into three parts. part i sought data on demographic characteristics of sts. part ii investigated their views on how well they felt prepared in specific aspects on pck classified under four main themes: knowledge of curriculum knowledge of learners, knowledge of subject matter and knowledge of pedagogies prior to school practice. the question, “to what extent do you feel prepared by your teaching methods course before school experience and practice?” was rated on a scale of 1-strongly agree, 2-agree, 3-undecided, 4-disagree and 5-strongly disagree. this comprised of twenty -seven questions (27). lastly, part three examined their overall feeling of competence in the four main areas of pck important in teaching scholarship. lastly the question: how do you perceive your knowledge level in each knowledge base identified above? this was rated along a four-point likert-type scale ranging from 1-not competent at all, 2-somehow competent, 3competent and 4-very competent. prior to distribution, the questionnaire was piloted on a small group of sts (agricultural extension students) from the school of sugar and agriculture and veterinary sciences (savet). they completed the questionnaire, made comments and provided feedback. most changes suggested were incorporated. findings and discussion demographic characteristics table 1.1: gender of the students frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid male 23 46.0 46.0 46.0 female 27 54.0 54.0 100.0 total 50 100.0 100.0 there were 23 (46.0%) male students and 27 (54.0%) female students opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 40 table 1.2: age of the students frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 20-25 years 49 98.0 98.0 98.0 25-30 years 1 2.0 2.0 100.0 total 50 100.0 100.0 most of the students were of age bracket of 20-25 years. they were 49 (98.0%) and the rest who was 1 (2.0%) was within an age range of 25-30 years of age. table 1.3: area of specialization frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid bachelor education arts 43 86.0 86.0 86.0 bachelor education sciences 7 14.0 14.0 100.0 total 50 100.0 100.0 table 1.4 revealed that 43 (86.0%) of the students were training to become art teachers while 7 (14.0%) of them were training to be science teachers. teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 41 table 1.4: knowledge of curriculum and subject matter statements on pck sa % a % u % d sd i had taken enough content courses to be an effective teacher 40 80 3 6 7 14 0 0 0 i had the understanding of how to teach many concepts in all the grades where my subject is taught 35 70 10 20 4 8 0 0 0 i knew what content/concepts were to be addressed in each year in all the grades in my subject area 30 60 7 14 7 14 0 0 0 i knew learning goals for different grade levels in my two subject areas 13 26 27 54 10 20 0 0 0 i understood how the concepts i was to teach in different grades were applicable in real world situation 31 62 16 32 3 6 0 0 0 i knew the rationale/ objectives and learning goals of each content / concepts in the grades 27 54 23 46 0 0 0 0 0 i knew quite a number of concepts, facts and procedures in my subject areas and how to explain them 19 38 25 50 3 6 0 0 0 i knew how concepts are related within topics in my two subjects 22 44 28 56 0 0 0 0 0 i knew how to use different instructional materials (e.g., textbook, technology, manipulative) for different topics 26 52 24 48 0 0 0 0 0 i knew learning activities appropriate for different grades in my subject areas 31 62 7 14 7 14 5 10 0 i knew how to plan teaching and learning activities for student understanding 36 72 11 22 3 6 0 0 0 according to table 1.4, a majority of the student teachers strongly agreed that they had taken enough content courses to be an effective teacher, these were 40 (80%) out of 50 student teachers. three sts agreed that they had taken enough content while 7 (14%) were still opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 42 doubting whether they had enough content. 35 (70%) of the sts strongly agreed that they had understood how to teach many concepts in all the grades where their subject is taught, 10 (20%) agreed that they had done so but 4 (8%) of them were undecided. by then 30 (60%) of the students strongly knew what content/concepts to be addressed in each year in all the grades in their subject area, 7 (14%) knew it and a similar number were undecided. in ability to know learning goals for different grade levels in their two subject areas was strongly familiar with 13 (26%) of the student teachers. 27 (54%) of them agreed to have understood learning goals for different grade levels in their two subject areas. thirty-one, (62%), strongly understood how concepts they were to teach in different grades were applicable in real world situation, 16 (32%) understood and 3 (6%) were undecided. capability to know the rationale/ objectives and learning goals of each content / concepts in the grades was strongly common with 27 (54%), just familiar with 23 (46%). 19 (38%) knew quite a number of concepts, facts and procedures in their subject areas and how to explain them, 25 (50%) knew it while 3 (6%) were undecided. 22 (44%) had the strong required ability to know how concepts are related within topics in their two subjects and those who had moderate ability were 28 (56%). knowing how to use different instructional materials (e.g., textbook, technology, manipulative) for different topics was strongly known by 26 (52%) and generally known by 24 (48%). the confidence of knowing learning activities appropriate for different grades in subject areas was strongly identified among 31 (62%) of the student teachers, generally common among another set of 7 (14%) of them and was not familiar with 5(10%) students. lastly, 36 (72%) students had strongly known how to plan teaching and learning activities according to student understanding. 11 (22%) of sts knew how to do so, 3 (6%) were undecided. table 1.5: students’ knowledge of pedagogy statements on pck sa % a % u % d sd i had a sufficient repertoire of strategies and methods for teaching my two subjects 17 34 33 66 0 0 0 0 teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 43 i knew how to plan a lesson and use different teaching strategies in teaching my subjects 31 62 15 30 4 8 0 0 i knew how to coordinate and organize lessons in my areas 33 66 17 34 0 0 0 0 i knew how to integrate technology in teaching my two subjects 4 8 27 54 7 14 0 0 i was already able to choose tasks, give examples and representations in teaching many concepts in my subjects 39 78 11 22 0 0 0 0 i had mastered teaching strategies appropriate for students in different grades in my two subjects 36 72 10 20 4 8 0 0 i could facilitate classroom discourse 24 48 26 52 0 0 0 0 i could manage time for classroom activities effectively 31 62 15 30 4 8 0 0 table 1.5 shows the students knowledge on pedagogy, 17 (34%) had strongly attained sufficient repertoire of strategies and methods for teaching their two subjects while 33 (66%) of them had averagely done so. capability of knowing how to plan a lesson and use different teaching strategies in teaching the teaching subjects was strong and average among 31 (63%) and 15 (30%) students respectively, 4 (8%) students had not decided. 33 (66%) of the students had strongly known how to coordinate and organize lessons in their areas. another set of 17 (34%) students had moderate knowledge on the same. integrating technology in teaching was not strongly common with majority of the teachers; 4 (8%) students could strongly do so, 27 (54%) students could averagely do so while 7 (14%) of the students were silent about the same issue. there were 39 (78%) students who were already able to strongly choose tasks, give examples and representations in teaching many concepts in their subjects while 11 (22%) of the students could do so. for mastering teaching strategies appropriate for students in different grades in the two teaching subjects, 36 (72%) and 10 (20%) of the students could strongly and moderately do so respectively. 24 (48%) and 26 (52%) of the students could strongly and averagely facilitate opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 44 classroom discourse in that order. effective time management for classroom activities could strongly be done by 31 (62%) students and moderately by 15 (30%) of the students, 4 (8%) of the students were undecided. table 1.6: statements on knowledge of learners statements on pck sa % a % u % d sd i know how to diagnose and eliminate students’ difficulties, errors, and misconceptions in my two subject areas 20 40 23 46 7 14 0 0 i know possible difficulties or misconceptions that students might have in my subjects’ areas 16 32 34 68 0 0 0 0 i knew difficulties that students have in specific concepts in each grade level 17 34 29 58 4 8 0 0 i knew possible sources of students’ errors and difficulties 25 50 25 50 0 0 0 0 i knew which concepts in my subjects’ students typically had misconceptions about 22 44 28 56 0 0 0 0 i knew students’ common difficulties, errors, and misconceptions 29 58 21 42 0 0 0 0 i possessed a strong knowledge base on concepts which are difficult for students to grasp and how to lead them to understand 32 64 18 36 0 0 0 0 according to table 1.6, 20 (40%) students had strongly known how to diagnose and eliminate students’ difficulties, errors, and misconceptions in their two subjects’ areas, 23 (46%) of the students had averagely known how to so while 7 (14%) were undecided. 16 (32%) students could strongly know possible difficulties or misconceptions that students might have in their subjects’ areas and 34 (68%) could moderately do it. the ability to know difficulties that students have in specific concepts in each grade level was strongly familiar with 17 (34%) student, 29 (58%) could fairly do so. 25 (50%) students and a similar number strongly and fairly knew possible sources of students’ errors and difficulties respectively. knowing which concepts in subjects that students typically had misconceptions about, could strongly and averagely be done by 22(44%) and 28 (56%) students respectively. 29 (58%) and 21 (42%) of teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 45 the student teachers strongly and moderately knew students’ common difficulties, errors, and misconceptions. lastly 32 (64%) of the student teachers could strongly possess a strong knowledge base on concepts which are difficult for students to grasp and how to lead them to understand while 18 (36%) could do so. table 1.7: student teachers level of competence in pck statements on pck not at all % some how % competent % very competent % knowledge of subject-matter 0 0 8 16 20 40 22 44 knowledge of pedagogy 7 14 4 8 30 60 9 18 knowledge of learners 0 0 4 8 25 50 21 42 knowledge of curriculum 0 0 14 28 21 42 15 30 table 1.7 shows level of competence of the student teachers in pck. according to the table there were 8 (16%) students who were somehow competent, 20 (40%) of them were fairly competent while 22 (44%) were very competent. this was on knowledge of subject matter. on knowledge of pedagogy, 7 (14%) of the students were not competent at all, 4 (8%) students were somehow competent, 30 (60%) of the students were averagely competent while 9 (18%) of them were very competent. based on learner’s knowledge 4 (8%) of the student teachers were somehow competent, 25 (50%) were moderately competent and 21 (42%) were very competent. on knowledge of curriculum, 15 (30%) student teachers were very competent, 12 (42%) of them were fairly competent while 14 (28%) of them were somehow competent. broadly, sts views with regards to their level of competence in knowledge of pedagogy, learners and curriculum was fair. this led the researcher to seek the views on the school practice advisors. spas were asked to comment on the organization and delivery of the special teaching methods courses taught at the sedu mmust prepared sts for school experience and practice in schools opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 46 this was what school practice advisor iv had to say other than special teaching methods courses for specific subjects, we offer other teacher professional courses such as cit 210instructional methods and strategies methods/pedagogies and cit 360media practicals. these are housed in curriculum instructional technology (cit) department. these are taught by specialists in general curriculum and instructions. the two courses expose sts to a range of media and technological resources applied in teaching and learning, techniques of development, identifying them for classroom instructions. aspects of how they are acquired, utilized, displayed, managed and stored are also covered. quite a number of these courses are[. . . ] all education students must all register for and take the two and special teaching methods courses for their two teaching subjects before proceeding for school attachment and practice. each special teaching methods course aims at exposing students to a sufficient repertoire of strategies and activities that they would engage students in the classroom for concept understanding. most of these courses are taught at year two because our teaching practice is scheduled for year iii (interview summaries-school practice advisor iv.) a follow up discussion sought spas views on why sts feel fairly competent in most of the pck domains. with regards to the question|: do you feel that the special teaching methods courses taught in the sedu is efficient enough to ground students in pck for use in school/classroom practice? school practice advisor viii commented: i believe the stmc design is up to standards. however, i feel that delivery is what we are not getting right. one major problem has been class sizes which limits instructor student interactions. . . . often, all education students, that is, arts/ humanities, early childhood education, french, technology and agricultural extension are instructed together. in such a scenario no chance is left for the instructor to delve deep or cover specific teaching methods. eventually, those taking subjects such as computer, agriculture usually get a raw deal. although, we recognize that subjects differ in the kind of methods best for addressing them, there is never enough room for in-depth analysis. superficial teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 47 treatment of the course has been the norm. the course mostly dwells on teaching documents design. a few courses are also overloaded with irrelevant content (e.g., historical and philosophical orientations of the subjects, branches, or contents areas) these do not directly address the special methods but have been included in the courses after the call for restructuring of university programs. amidst all the above, there is inadequate reference resources for students to do more independent research out of class. with regards to the question ‘what practical programs does the program allow to augment the special teaching methods courses?” the school practice advisor ii reported: the course requires every bachelor of education teacher trainee to undertake a mandatory three month-school practice experience at 3rd year. besides avenues for microteaching are provided that allow student trainees to practice the learnt aspects. however, these are not always possible due to student n opportunities for student centered learning and interactive classroom sessions is limited as it would never be possible to have practical. he clarified further on the course expectations: teaching methods course should be student centered but such crowded classrooms cannot allow.in this case new interesting methods such as problem-based methods are very difficult to introduce or expose to learners who may require opportunities for demonstration and practice. as such most often the special methods course is basically for learning designing of teaching and learning documents like schemes of work, lessons plan, records of work covered and discussion of a few teaching methods that cut across all disciplines with little opportunities to introduce content or subject specific methods. conversely school practice advisor ii was of the opinion that special teaching methods courses offered by mmust do not offer students appropriate grounding in pck: in most instances we lack subject specialists for instance in the area of environmental education or physics education while at some time the faculty staff are never trained opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 48 on pedagogies and this raises questions on how well they could be grounded in these special methods for the subjects they teach to student teachers she identified other difficulties: the other major challenge is lack of resource and media. take a professional teacher course, curriculum instructional technology 360, aimed at preparing students to design, acquire and manage resources in the classroom as well as integrating technology in teaching and learning. ideally, the course is to be handled by specific specialists and delivered by use of specific technology and media. however, more often, this course is taught to all education students theoretically and this obviously leave a good number of sts having their expectations for the course not met. there is inadequate resource centers, theaters, technological tools, electronic resources and media such as videos, computers for sts to practice the skills learnt.again, this means practical media sessions where students are to develop and use specific resources in teaching a content of their choice, has remained too theoretical where most students are put in groups and asked to design a media for use but are not necessary required to use it for instruction in a microteaching classroom conclusion this paper has discussed the level of competence in pck of sts after undergoing special teaching methods course at mmmust with regards to knowledge of learner’s pedagogy and subject matter. it also adds the voice of the spas on why the special teaching methods courses may not be achieving this pck support as intended by school of education. pedagogical content knowledge strongly supports a perspective of teaching as a profe ssion and teachers as professionals. pck is a unique knowledge domain and a cornerstone of a teacher’s professional expertise pck develops over time, and through experience, about how to teach particular content in particular ways in order to lead to enhanced student understanding but it’s an important professional knowledge that should not be neglected during initial training and should be accessed by sts for meaningful teaching practice. this can be actualized through wellcrafted and delivered special teaching methods course which empowers sts on four main elements in pck that is knowledge of subject matter, curriculum, |learners and pedagogies. practical delivery of stmcs is the way to go. teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 49 constraints the large class sizes, poorly designed special teaching methods courses, unstandardized course content, intolerable workload among course lecturers, in adequate facilities, equipment and teaching and learning resources, inadequate skilled manpower were the challenges to effective instructional management of special teaching methods course. possibilities and recommendations for school of education, mmust • there is need to redesign the teacher education program at mmust so that in its initial, in-service and continuing professional development, there is guarantee that it will lead to adequate supply of professionally competent packages. special teaching methods courses need to recognize that pck is an important component of teacher professional knowledge relevant to the teaching scholarship. the program should aim at according to opportunities for not only theoretical but more of practical experiences that guide sts toward the abilities, strategies, and ways of thinking for teaching today and tomorrow • special teachings methods course taught at sedu mmust should be redefined to give more attention to practical based research, teaching practical and microteaching sessions rather than exam based which simply requires students to reproduce knowledge. supervision and feedback for the practical experience should be enhanced at department levels. from the very beginning of the special teaching methods’ school-based assignments designed by teaching faculties should be administered compelling sts to spend more time in schools during off campus sessions. • to improve pck mentoring during university training sessions, there is need for real partnerships. a mentor training program can be development between sedu, its departments and model schools where an agreement is made about what parts of the curriculum would be implemented in school and university. school mentors (cooperating teachers) could then be involved in observing sts and providing feedback to the university before the final assessment by school practice advisors (spas)this is likely to improve the quality of the teaching practicum and create a more ‘realistic’ and meaningful environment for varied forms of learning to take place. opiyo rose atieno ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 27-55 50 • consumers of teacher education need to be more aggressive by asking for what they need from teacher graduates from mmust. with this knowledge they could provide feedback to sedu on aspects that are useful in maintaining quality of teacher education programs in mmust. this could also lead to greater synergy in partnership for teacher preparation. teacher education students’ pedagogical content knowledge: retooling the professional development process in kenya’s schools of education ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 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(2005). what constitutes good mathematics teaching and how it develops: nine high school teachers’ perspectives. journal of mathematics implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies liang wei a , foster gondwe b , saran sok c a guangling road primary school, china b university of malawi, malawi c phnom penh teacher education college, cambodia abstract this paper reports findings of a qualitative study that compared the implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers in china, cambodia and malawi. the study used semistructured interviews and document analysis. data sources included policy documents, interviews and literature. the systems theory was employed to make explicit the implementation of teaching practicum, including processes and challenges. findings show different approaches of teaching practicum in the three countries determined by different environmental expectations, all emphasizing providing student teachers with diverse learning experiences. the study also sheds light on some of the challenges of teaching practicum. these findings underpin the importance of local school authorities in ensuring effective teaching practicum. keywords: teaching practicum; comparative study; systems theory; primary school teacher introduction for decades, reform efforts to cultivate high-quality teachers have been featuring in international discourses on teacher education. according to kosnik, beck and goodwin (2016), one of the major challenges confronting teacher education around the world concerns how to integrate theory and practice. the theory-practice gap has particularly led to a ‘practicum turn’ in order to strengthen the practice components of teacher education programs (mattsson, eilertsen, & rorrison, 2011). although studies confirm that the teaching practicum is an influential component of initial teacher education (allen & wright, 2014), there are still debates regarding the organization of teaching practicum to maximize student teachers’ learning. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 190-217 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 191 debates concerning organization of teaching practicum have, among others, prompted questions as to whether teacher education should be more school-based (white & forgasz, 2016). in oecd countries specifically there has been a remarkable shift from university-based to school-based teacher education. the blue-ribbon panel (2010) in the usa published the american national council for teacher education report recommending a transformation from coursework-focused teacher education to school-based teacher education, adopting the restructuring of clinical practice as the national strategy. similarly, in the carter review of initial teacher training (2015), the uk emphasized the effectiveness of school-based experiences and recommended partnerships between university-based initial teacher education programmes and schools. cheng and lee (2016), however, suggested that both universitybased and school-based teacher education have merits and demerits, and an effective way to ensure better teacher education is to improve the linkage between school-based teaching practicum and university-based coursework. generally, there has been considerable progress internationally in research on teaching practicum. the literature shows research trends on issues such as student teachers’ beliefs and views (uibu et al., 2017; maddamsetti, 2018); teacher trainee mentoring by school-based or university-based teacher educators (e.g. yuan, 2016; pennanen et al., 2016); and teacher trainees’ perceptions of teaching practicum (e.g. reynolds, ding, & li, 2022). despite research studies being undertaken in different educational settings, some studies have reported methodological limitations of the literature on teaching practicum. for instance, lawson et al. (2015) review of the literature observed that most studies were mainly single cases, making it difficult to discern patterns in different cultural and educational contexts. as such, lawson et al. (2015) recommended more comparative studies across international settings in order to provide greater insight into teaching practicum. this paper reports findings of a qualitative study that compared the implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers in china, cambodia and malawi. our interest started from brown’s (2017) call for “explicit attention to teacher education issues in other regions of the world (e.g., china, india, muslim-majority countries, africa, and south america) where teaching and teacher education function in quite different contexts and possibly have different characteristics” (p.123). we purposefully selected the three cases to provide useful insights into similar issues globally (steiner-khamsi, 2013), and specifically to provide insights into the implementation of teaching practicum in asia and africa. the selected liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 192 cases exemplify very different approaches to teaching practicum for primary school teachers. teaching practicum for primary school teachers in china takes place at the end of a four-year university-based teacher education, while in cambodia it is conducted in two sessions over the two-year teacher training program. in malawi, the initial primary teacher education (ipte) is offered for a period of two academic years within a structure called 2 in-2 out-2 in in which the student teachers spend the first two terms in college, the next two terms teaching in practice schools, and the last terms of training in college. from the differences and similarities in the implementation of teaching practicum, we hope to contribute to an understanding of teaching practicum from a systemic comparison perspective amidst recent calls to begin conceptualizing teacher education as a ‘system’ (european commission, 2013). in particular, knowledge gained from comparing the selected country cases can contribute to our understanding of specific ways in which global reform efforts in teacher education manifest themselves in non-western contexts (brown, 2017). our comparative study has theoretical significance considering the relatively few studies exploring cross-national educational issues of teaching practicum (lawson et al., 2015). in practice, the study insights are useful for policymakers in improving teaching practicum at the system level. the findings may also be useful for teachers, researchers and teacher educators interested in advancing teacher education and development with a comparative and international character. in this article, we define teaching practicum as the field experiences where student teachers implement their theoretical learning about teaching in a practical way at schools (lawson et al., 2015). we begin the article by presenting the rationale for international comparison of teaching practicum, followed by an overview of ‘system’ as a unit of analysis in comparative education research. we then demonstrate and compare the implementation of teaching practicum in china, cambodia and malawi. drawing on the discussion on the different approaches to teaching practicum, we conclude by stating that a stronger role of local authorities is required to enhance the effectiveness of teaching practicum. international comparisons of teaching practicum the focus on addressing educational challenges from an international perspective is evident in policy and practice. in our view, research from an international and comparative perspective can contribute to a better understanding of how to achieve united nation’s sustainable development goal (sdg) 4, especially, 4c, to “substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 193 countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing states” (unesco, 2012). to illustrate, the international literature shows that the need to link theory to practice has become a global reform effort in teacher education with the view to making it more practical (kosnik, beck, & goodwin, 2016). this comes against a background that teacher education around the world emphasizes theory, which supposedly weakens the impact of preservice education on the development of teachers. there has been a considerable progress in research on teaching practicum as an essential component in preparing future teachers (lawson et al., 2015; white & forgasz, 2016). however, the systematic review of practicum studies by lawson et al. (2015) reported that most research on teaching practicum has been in the form of small-scale cases. they argued that to generate useful insights for practice, researchers in the field should broaden their focus in terms of methodology and topics. specifically, the authors concluded that, it is difficult to discern strong patterns in the outcomes of the studies, as the cultural and educational contexts in which practicum are undertaken may have had a major impact on participants’perceptions of them, and therefore comparative studies might make an interesting contribution to the literature (p. 402). a cross-cultural comparison of teaching practicum is necessary“given the increasing mobility of students and teachers between countries, and the growing connections being forged between teacher educators worldwide who are developing a shared interest in improving teacher education practices…” (murray-harvey, silins, & saebel, 1999, p. 44). to advance this research call, we pay attention to a comparative study of teaching practicum across three country contexts: china, malawi and cambodia. approaches to teaching practicum mattsson, etal (2011) present nine models of teaching practicum: (1) the master-apprentice model, in which student teachers learn the profession from experienced teachers; (2) the laboratory model, where a university teacher training school is established to accommodate students on teaching practicum; (3) the partnership model, in which university and local schools build partnerships focusing on teaching practicum; (4)the community development model, in which student teachers go to rural schools as full-time teachers while experienced school teachers go to universities for training；(5) the integrated model, where student teachers practice teaching in different school types；(6) the case based model through which liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 194 student teachers experience sufficient authentic cases to learn teaching; (7)the platform model, in which teaching practicum builds student teachers' individual needs and interests；(8) the community of practice model, where participants learn from each other in teaching practicum; and (9) the research and development model, in which teaching practicum aims at improving relevant research and school development. related to these models, white and forgasz (2016) reviewed the literature and summarized three dominant approaches of teaching practicum: (1) the extended single placement; (2) multiple, shorter block placements distributed throughout the programme; and, (3) part-time placements or a distributed practicum of 1–3 days per week extending over a semester or a year (p. 243). in order to explore the implementation of teaching practicum, including differences and similarities in terms of core elements and challenges, it is necessary to compare different contexts with respect to their approaches. the above diverse approaches to teaching practicum also reflect the diversity in organization structures of teacher education which also vary considerably depending on context. this study considered china, cambodia and malawi as instrumental cases due to their diverse approaches to teaching practicum. for instance, the 2 in-2 out-2 in structure of teacher education in malawi fits with what white and forgasz (2016) call the distributed approach to practicum, while the cambodian case aligns with the multiple shorter block placements. ‘system’ as a unit of analysis for understanding the implementation of teaching practicum bray and jiang (2014) elucidated some methodological issues relating to the use of ‘system’ as a unit of analysis in comparative research. in summary, bray and jiang highlight the challenge of defining a ‘national education’ system, arguing that the concept wrongly assumes that nations have homogenous education ‘systems’. they adopt one of the chinese definitions of system as jiaoyu xitong, meaning the “arrangement in which various component parts are linked together” (p.125). they confirm that this definition can work for both subnational and cross-national system comparisons. since some countries have multiple teaching practicum systems, we utilize this insight to characterize ‘teaching practicum’ as a system. to identify the parameters of comparing three ‘teaching practicum systems’ in the three countries, we adopted banathy’s (1992) systems theory as a conceptual framework. the systems theory constitutes three interrelated conceptual lenses: the environment lens, the implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 195 structure lens, and the process lens. the environment lens identifies what the system of interest is. in our case, the system of interest was teaching practicum for primary school teachers. banathy (1992) recognized three major types of environmental inputs, namely definition, resources and noise. the definition type comprises environmental expectations, demands, policies, and requirements. in this study, we looked at what each country and the profession expect from teaching practicum. for example, to understand the environmental expectations of teaching practicum, we searched for policy documents, such as the teacher education curriculum standards. in addition, the system of interests can be identified by exploring the expectations of interest groups. accordingly, we interviewed stakeholders such as teacher educators and school teachers in universities and schools. the resources lens can reflect institutional incentives, people, materials, and facilities for teaching practicum. noise refers to all those undefined inputs, like cultural norms, terminology, and other unintended factors. we interrogated this aspect by focusing on the concerns of stakeholders in the process of implementing teaching practicum. the structure lens defines the system. using the environment lens as a basis, this second lens further refines the system of interest by identifying its purpose, functional model, and components (walton, 2004). through this lens, we analysed documents such as teaching practicum guidelines to understand the purposes of teaching practicum. we also used this lens to highlight student teachers’ professional development as a way of understanding what occurs during teaching practicum. the process lens looks at how the system transforms inputs to outputs. there are four core processes to transform inputs to outputs: (a) input processing, (b) output processing, (c) transformation, and (d) system guidance (walton, 2004). for teaching practicum, we used this lens to look at the routes from entry to completion, including ways of transmitting knowledge. we also looked for what the student teachers learn and how cooperating teachers support student teachers’ learning during practicum. table 1: parameters of comparison based on the systems theory (banathy, 1992) the environment lens the structure lens the process lens environmental expectations of teaching practicum resources for teaching practicum purpose of teaching practicum student teachers’ professional development duration and timing of practicum selection of placement sites liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 196 supervision and support assessment research purpose and questions given the increasing interest in considering different contexts on teaching practicum systems, this study presents the implementation of teaching practicum in china, cambodia and malawi by using the lens of systems theory to answer the following research questions: (1) how is teaching practicum for primary school teachers implemented in the three countries? (2) what are the challenges, if any, of the implementation of teaching practicum in the three countries? research context in china, the ministry of education (moe) issued teacher education curriculum standards to set minimum standards for teachers in 2011 so that each higher education institute could be autonomous in designing their teacher education programs. most primary school teachers graduate from 4-year degree colleges or universities with bachelor’s degree. the literature presents insight into student teachers’ experiences of teaching practicum in china. yi, cheng, and li (2021) report that teaching practicum has been found to support student teachers’ understanding of the profession and gaining of teacher knowledge. it is also acknowledged that student teachers experienced mentoring that positively met their expectations (chaaban, wang, du, 2021). on the other hand, yan and he (2010) found that cooperating teachers and student teachers had different views about the aims and content of teaching practicum, and practicum schools were perceived as unwelcoming to the student teachers. yi, cheng, and li’s (2021) study also underscored the need to balance theoretical and practical curricula when designing teacher education curriculum. in cambodia, primary school teachers graduate from 18 provincial teacher training centres. in 2015, the ministry of education, youth and sport (moeys) established teacher policy action plan 2015-2020 which reformed the pre-service training for primary school from formula 12+2 (12 years of public schooling plus 2 years training) to 12+4 (high school diploma plus 4 years training) as of 2020. two education colleges are currently piloting the 12+4 teacher education program. additionally, the moeys revised teaching practicum guidelines in 2016, including standards for evaluating teaching practicum and increasing the teaching practicum implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 197 duration from 10 to 14 weeks. there is a dearth of research on teacher education in cambodia but few studies provide a picture of the issues encountered. focusing on secondary education, lee (2021) reviewed the implementation of pre-service teacher education and recommended a shift in teacher education curriculum from technical, competence and knowledge-based to the inner and moral aspect of teachers’ professional identity. king (2018) explored the influence of teachers’ education on their ability to implement pedagogical initiatives as recommended by the cambodian ministry of education. the author reported inadequate pre-service preparation as one of the factors that inhibited teachers’ implementation of the expected pedagogy, suggesting the importance of revisiting teacher education curriculum to address and improve teachers’ pedagogical skills. williams, kitamura, ogisu, and zimmermann (2016) present systemic factors that affect preparation of quality teachers as well as trainees’ motivation to join the teaching profession. they observe that the development of well-trained teachers is compounded by factors such as limited budgets and relatively low priority given to the teaching profession by high school graduates. in malawi, the ministry of education, science and technology (moest) trains its primary school teachers through a program called ‘initial primary teacher education’ (ipte). ipte is a two-year course delivered through the teacher training colleges (ttcs) and teaching practice schools (tpss). during the college-based phase, trainee teachers are taught pedagogical skills for teaching all subjects offered at the primary school level. throughout the school-based terms, trainee teachers are supported by mentors to practice the skills they learned during the college-based phase (moest, 2008). meanwhile, the national standards for teacher education emphasizes strong partnership between ttcs and tpss as they work together towards the goal of producing competent primary school teachers (moest, 2014; moest, 2016). upon successful completion of the two-year program, candidates are awarded with a certificate in primary teaching. existing research provides insights into teacher trainees experiences during teaching practicum in malawi. mwanza, moyo, and maphosa (2016) investigated monitoring processes of mentoring in the initial primary teacher education. the study revealed inconsistences in monitoring, and that monitoring of mentoring was not supported by clear structures, policies, and standards. related studies focused on competences of mentors (mwanza, moyo, & maphosa, 2015) and factors that enabled or hindered mentoring (mwanza, moyo & maphosa, 2014). among others, student teachers reported that school mentors were competent in most of the aspects included in the study (mwanza, moyo, & liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 198 maphosa, 2015). however, headteachers and mentors reported the mentoring environment was more constraining than enabling, citing factors such as ineffective mentor training, heavy workload, and little or no incentives for mentors (mwanza, moyo & maphosa, 2014). methodology this qualitative study mainly involved document analysis and semi-structured interviews. we looked at the processes of teaching practicum in official documents such as national standards or guidelines and teaching practicum handbooks of different universities or colleges. teaching practicum stakeholders such as university supervisors, cooperating teachers, and student teachers were interviewed. the main interview questions focused on descriptions of implementation of teaching practicum, challenges faced during teaching practicum, and how stakeholders coped with these challenges. in china, considering the diversity of teacher education for primary school teachers, the researchers selected two undergraduate programs at a normal university and a normal college, and one master program at one comprehensive university. the first author (a chinese by nationality) collected the data from october to november 2018. the participants included one dean of the college of teacher education, one staff of the educational practice guidance centre, three university supervisors, two school principals, eight cooperating teachers, and 11 student teachers. the interviews were conducted in the chinese language and later translated into english. in cambodia, the third author (a cambodian by nationality) collected the data at one of the two teacher education colleges in june 2018. two student teachers who had finished their teaching practicum in different primary schools, one practicum coordinator, one college supervisor from teacher education college, and one mentor teacher participated in interviews. the interviews were in khmer and later translated into english. in malawi, the second author (a malawian) analysed the literature and teacher education standards to identify the structure, curriculum and challenges of teaching practicum. the researcher utilized opportunistic data in the form of feedback from a question posted on edpolicy & teacherdev mw, a whatsapp-based forum where teachers, teacher educators and education authorities discuss teacher education policy in malawi. two teacher educators, one teacher and a director in the ministry of education offered insights into the question regarding implementation and challenges of teaching practicum for primary teachers. implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 199 table 2: sources of data in the three cases. country data collection technique china documents: the opinion of the moe on the strengthening the educational practice of student teachers (moe, 2016); teaching practicum handbooks of three universities interviews: dean of the college of teacher education (1), educational practice guidance center staff (1), university supervisors (1), school principals (2), cooperating teachers (8), student teachers (11) cambodia documents: guideline and implementation of teaching practice at ttc (2016) interviews: practicum coordinator (1), college supervisor (1), cooperating teacher (1), student teachers (2) malawi documents: national standards for teacher education in malawi (2016), the initial primary teacher education program handbook (2014), published journal articles whatsapp-based conversation: teacher educator (2), director in the ministry of education (1), teacher (1) we used two complementary approaches in the comparative analysis of propositions: (1) comparing the implementation of teaching practicum in the three cases by employing the systems theory; (2) searching for common systemic challenges faced during teaching practicum. findings the following sections describe the implementation and challenges of teaching practicum for each country. the comparison of the three cases is firstly presented from the lenses of systems theory, followed by an explanation of issues in tables, and lastly, a description of the challenges of each case. implementation of teaching practicum in china, cambodia and malawi environment lens in china, the environmental expectations are that initial teacher education is the period for theoretical knowledge learning, while the practical knowledge of teaching can be learnt during induction of beginning teachers. as the vice dean pointed out, “the underlying assumption is only when student teachers learn adequate theoretical knowledge, they can better prepare for liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 200 teaching practicum. and they can learn teaching practice after working” (vice dean). although each university oversees its own teaching practicum, the local educational administrative departments provide institutional incentives to involve schoolteachers in teaching practicum. among other incentives, being a cooperating teacher is an important element for the awards and promotion of schoolteachers. in recent years in cambodia, inadequate teacher knowledge and teaching capacity have become problems characterized by low quality basic education. in order to strengthen the quality and efficiency of the education system, moeys issued the teacher policy action plan 2015-2020, which planned to convert the two-year teacher training to four-year teacher education for primary school teachers as of 2020. the four-year course was initially introduced in phnom penh and battambang teacher education colleges in 2018. there is, however, no budget for stakeholders involved in the teaching practicum. in malawi, during the two years of the ipte program, students are assessed on their academic subject knowledge, teaching skills and professional qualities as a potential teacher (moest, 2014). the teaching practice is implemented in phases spread over the entire twoyear period. in college, student teachers undergo internal teaching practice at a demonstration school (primary schools based at or close to the ttcs). based on the above-highlighted context of teaching practicum, table 3 presents a comparison of teaching practicum implementation in the three countries through the environmental lens. table 3: implementation of teaching practicum in china, cambodia and malawi through environment lens china cambodia malawi environmental expectations  theoretical knowledge has priority over practical knowledge  induction of beginning teachers  strengthen the quality and the efficiency of the education system  increasing the number of qualified teachers to reduce the qualified teacherpupil ratio  practical skills of the theory learnt in college implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 201 resources  becoming cooperating teachers as an indicator of school teachers’ promotion  no budget for stakeholders involved in the teaching practicum  schools and ttcs contribute teaching resources for student teachers structure lens in china, the opinion of the moe on the strengthening the educational practice of student teachers states that practicum aims to “promote the student teachers to gradually form a good moral quality and professional identity, understand the professional knowledge of education and teaching, master the ability of teaching design and implementation as well as class management and student guidance” (moe, 2016). to achieve this, student teachers must complete three basic tasks, which include classroom teaching, master teacher’s (banzhuren) work, and educational research. in cambodia, teaching practicum guidelines stipulate that student teachers are required to practice two subjects (one main subject and one minor subject). apart from observing lessons, student teachers are required to write lesson plans for each subject and submit them to mentor teachers and college supervisors before teaching (moeys, 2016). furthermore, pedagogical research is arranged as a professional development opportunity for student teachers. in malawi, guidelines (moest, 2014) stipulate that student teachers be assigned to a class as a teaching pair, each with a responsibility for 50% of the teaching timetable. student teachers receive supervision, which involves lesson observation, evaluation and feedback on the teaching skills from cooperating teachers, head teachers, and college lecturers. college lecturers collaborate with the school principals and cooperating teachers to assess student teachers’ progress. the guidelines recommend at least two supervision visits of college lecturers for assessment. student teachers are expected to develop schemes of work, examine whole-school issues, plan lessons, make and use learning resources, attend meetings, complete their school experience journals, and keep records of their school experience (moest, 2014). table 4 presents a comparison of teaching practicum implementation in the three countries through the functions/structure lens. liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 202 table 4: implementation of practicum in china, cambodia and malawi through structure lens china cambodia malawi purpose of teaching practicum  forming good moral quality and professional identity, professional knowledge, teaching skills  helping student teachers have a clear understanding of the contexts for schooling and learn more about their teaching professional  developing understanding of teaching skills and whole-school issues student teachers’ professional development  classroom teaching (lesson planning, actual teaching)  master teacher’s work (class management, pupil guidance)  educational research  observing lessons, assisting cooperating teachers, planning lessons, preparing resources, managing pupils and observing curricular activities  pedagogical research  engaging in planning, reflection and selfand peerevaluation, and receiving mentor feedback and support process lens in china, teaching practicum in university-based teacher education programmes is during one structured block in schools prior to graduation. some local education administrative departments play the role of ‘broker’ (lunenberg, dengerink, & korthagen, 2014), that is, contacting universities and schools for building teaching practicum partnerships. during teaching practicum, each student teacher has one to two cooperating teachers (one cooperating teacher responsible for subject teaching, while another one responsible for master’s work). if the subject teacher is also a master teacher, the student teacher is allocated to only one schoolteacher. for assessment, each university has its own teaching practicum portfolio system including the teaching practicum plan, lesson plan, attendance records, practicum summary, and assessment. at the end of teaching practicum, cooperating teachers provide a summative assessment and give written feedback to the student teachers. implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 203 in cambodia, teaching practicum is organized in two separate sessions spread over the entire two years of the program. in the first year, student teachers have a six-week practicum session, two weeks of which they observe classes. in the second-year, student teachers have eight weeks to observe classes and start mini-practice of teaching (moeys, 2016). in the fouryear teacher education program, there are 22 weeks for teaching practicum, divided into four sessions per year: (1) two weeks for school experience, (2) five weeks for teaching assistantship, (3) five weeks for teaching practice i, and (4) ten weeks for teaching practice ii. during the school experience, student teachers observe lessons in primary and secondary classes for one week respectively. the provincial office of education (poe) selects practice schools based on the request from the teaching practice committee at national or sub-national level (moeys, 2016). specifically, poe confirms the practicum schools chosen by the teacher education colleges according to criteria that satisfy moeys guidelines. prior to teaching practicum, there are two formal meetings involving student teachers, instructors, cooperating teachers, and school directors (moeys, 2016). the first meeting is with team leaders (college supervisors, cooperating teachers and the school principal) who coach the student teachers, while the second meeting informs student teachers about the code of ethics and requirements. a team of college supervisors and mentor teachers ought to assess student teachers’ practicum experience (moeys, 2016). in malawi, assessment of practicum is guided by principles of fairness and accountability and includes various kinds of tasks and examinations. to track their professional development as prospective teachers, student teachers are required to keep a teaching practice file and school experience journal. the ttc assessment committee is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the development of the ttc-based assessments, while the malawi national examinations board sets the final exams at the end of year one, moderates the grading of teaching practice, and advises colleges on the conduct and standards required for the continuous assessment component (moest, 2014). at the end of the course, students who successfully pass the required assessment tasks both in college and during teaching practice are awarded with a certificate in primary teaching. liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 204 table 5: implementation of in china, cambodia and malawi through process lens china cambodia malawi duration and location  2-3 months at the end of 4year teacher education program  14 weeks (6 weeks of first year and 8 weeks of second year)  22 weeks (2 weeks for school experience of first year, 5 weeks for teaching assistantship of second year, 5 weeks for teaching practice i of third year, and 10 weeks for teaching practice ii of fourth year)  two terms (3 months per term) schoolbased selection of placement sites  through local education administrative departments  selected by the teacher education college  done by the ‘teaching practice coordinator’ based at the college supervision and support  each student teacher assigned 1-2 cooperating teacher  mentor teachers and college supervisors fill in at least three different forms: the observation form, the evaluation form for the semi-practice stage, and the final evaluation report form of student teachers' practice  professional and reflective skills; lecturerstudent contact (including at least 2 supervision visits per student) assessment  each university has its own teaching practicum portfolio system, including the  all stakeholders receive orientation by teacher education college and moeys about teaching practicum  tp assessment is based on observation  mentors and supervisors check contents of implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 205 teaching practicum plan, lesson plan, attendance record, practicum summary and assessment the teaching practice file challenges of teaching practicum in the three countries china teaching practicum takes place in the fourth year of initial teacher education, which clashes with student teachers’ job hunting and various exam preparations. student teacher 3 observed, “the time of teaching practicum coincidence with writing thesis and preparing for teacher entrance examination. i am struggling to manage the time.” student teachers are required to pay attention to several things during the teaching practicum, affecting their concentration on teaching practicum. moreover, interviewed student teachers seemed to have a limited view of the expected tasks and goals of teaching practicum because of the clash of teaching practicum schedule with the teacher recruitment examination. interview data also showed that to pass the teacher recruitment examination, student teachers mainly focus on teaching skills and practical knowledge of subject teaching and ignore the learning of other important aspects of the teaching profession, such as educational values and school activity organization. beside the theory-oriented curriculum system of the teaching practicum, the ‘administrativization’1 of university is another challenge. the university seems to have administrative power and academic power. the conjugate state between the administrative power and academic power shows the balance of the order and autonomy of university. interview results showed that the ‘administrativization’ of university leads to the separation 1this term is used to express the phenomenon of administrative power over academic power in the chinese university context (guo, 2013). liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 206 between decision-making and implementation of teaching practicum. the following interview extract illustrates the case in point: researcher: considering the time clash, is it possible to move teaching practicum to the third year of the teacher education program? vice dean: the educational administration department is in charge of the teaching practicum, but the actual teaching practicum is located to each school, in this structural system, who has enough motivation to make change? in addition, participants frequently mentioned the challenge of insufficient communication between university and school. some participants observed that the teaching practicum handbook did not include any information on requirements of cooperating teachers; consequently, cooperating teachers’ mentoring was aimless, random and unsystematic. moreover, participants attributed the insufficient communication between university and school to the sporadic and inadequate visits of university supervisors to schools. further inquiry from university supervisors revealed some reasons for this. one practicum supervisor noted the low status of the work of practicum supervisors in universities: “the evaluation system of universities focuses on research, which has weakened the teaching. the salary for supervising teaching practicum is not too much, so that university teachers are not willing to be the university supervisors for teaching practicum” (university supervisor 3). finally, the study found the disparity in leadership of school principals among teaching practicum bases to be a challenge. some school principals were highly enthusiastic and ensured effective organization of teaching practicum. for example, participants reported that school principal 2 explained the school culture to student teachers and held meetings with cooperating teachers at the beginning of teaching practicum. conversely, some school principals were cold and inactive, which did not provide an environment supportive of teaching practicum. apart from assigning student teachers to cooperating teachers, they seldom monitored the mentoring of cooperating teachers. cambodia inadequate financial support for stakeholders is a significant challenge mentioned for this country. college supervisors are expected to supervise students at practicum sites, but tec does not refund the cost of transportation because it is not budgeted for. tec has around 5000 riel (1.25 usd) for each supervisor to buy refreshments for the meeting before the teaching implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 207 practicum starts. a practicum coordinator claimed that, “we have a limited budget around 5000 riels for each supervisor to buy refreshments for each meeting, and we give the money directly to supervisors” (practicum coordinator). the interviewed cooperating teachers also expressed their dissatisfaction with the costs they incur during teaching practicum: “we spend a lot of time with student teachers during teaching practicum, but we did not receive any reimbursement for our work” (cooperating teacher). moreover, training of cooperating teachers is insufficient; hence, the mentors are unclear of their roles. prior to commencing teaching practicum, tec provides orientation about the practicum regulation, protocols and other operational concerns to different stakeholders, in particular student teachers, mentor teachers, and college supervisors. however, these stakeholders do not receive documents outlining their roles. for student teachers, the workload of preparing lesson plans was reported as an enormous challenge. during teaching practicum, student teachers had to spend a significant amount of time on their lesson plan because they had to teach different subjects (khmer language, science, social studies, and mathematics) during the week following classroom observation. for instance, one of the student teachers stated that, “i taught grade one and four, thus i had to prepare the lesson plan according to my class schedule of five subjects as well as teaching material” (student teacher 1). interview data also showed that there was little communication between tec and practicum schools. college supervisors mostly communicate with cooperating teachers when scoring student teacher performance (pin tork in khmer) as well as when student teachers have difficulty during their teaching. one cooperating teacher indicated that the partnership was weak: “there was no cooperation because most college supervisors did not go to observe student teachers at practicum school” (cooperating teacher). additionally, some supervisors did not provide feedback to student teachers during teaching practicum because they were attending in-service training. malawi key challenges for malawi reported by the voluntary respondents through the whatsapp conversations were mainly about logistics, mentoring, teaching practice school conditions, and capacity of other stakeholders in contributing to teaching practice. on challenges related to mentoring, one teacher educator wrote: liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 208 the current situation is that qualified teachers are paired with student teachers, but the qualified teachers are not helping them much. to them, it is as if they are now on holiday. so, the student teachers most of the times are handling the classes alone (teacher educator 1). another ttc lecturer corroborated these views, citing prevalent challenges such as cooperating teachers and head teachers of teaching practicum who themselves were untrained in addition to qualified teachers who were reluctant to support student teachers. notably, the above challenges are consistent with what has been reported in the literature and in the country’s teacher education policy. recognizing that well-coordinated training for cooperating partner teachers is lacking, malawi’s ministry of education in response to the challenge developed standards to apply for planning professional development for teachers and teacher educators. thus, the national standards recommend that staff in partner schools receive effective training in monitoring, mentoring and supporting student teachers (moest, 2016). the continuing professional development framework for teachers and student teachers operationalizes these policy aspirations (moest, 2018). furthermore, while acknowledging the logistical challenges faced during teaching practicum, the national standards for teacher education expect efficient use of resources for supervision visits so that students receive support when they need it (moest, 2016). delayed payment of allowances for student teachers and supervisors was one logistical challenge cited by a teacher. related to this, funds for effective supervision, teaching resources, and allowances for students and supervisors were also reported to be insufficient. the large classes that lead to ineffective teaching practice further worsen the teaching practice schools which are already constrained with inadequate teaching and learning resources. for instance, in the school year 2017/18, 25% of all public primary schools had a pupil-qualified teacher ratio (pqtr) of 87:1 or higher and 10% of all schools had a pqtr of 107:1 or higher. despite detailing the policy guidelines on managing school and ttc partnerships during teaching practice, mwanza, moyo, and maphosa (2016) found a lack of policies, code of practice (norms) and standards for monitoring mentoring practices. as already highlighted in this paper, mentors and headteachers also reported that the mentoring environment was more constraining than enabling (mwanza, moyo & maphosa, 2014). discussion this study aimed at understanding the implementation of teaching practicum in china, cambodia and malawi. generally, viewed in line with a snapshot of research on student implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 209 teachers’ experiences of teaching practicum (e.g. yi, cheng, & li’s, 2021 in china; mtika, 2011 in malawi; lee, 2021 in cambodia), it is clear that the three countries consider teaching practicum as an essential component of teacher education. we also note that teaching practicum challenges in the three countries underscore the need to improve structures, teacher education curriculum design, and resources that can support professional development of student teachers as prospective teachers (mwanza, moyo, & maphosa, 2014, 2015, 2016; lee, 2021; king, 2018). in the following sections, we utilize the system theoretical lens to discuss the differences and similarities of the three teaching practicum systems. we also discuss challenges of the implementation of teaching practicum in the three countries. the environment lens: different environmental expectations the three compared countries show different approaches to teaching practicum. in china, there is a variation of teaching practicum among universities that take 8-12 weeks at the end of the initial teacher education program. cambodia and malawi use national guidelines for teaching practicum in all teacher training programs. in cambodia, the teaching practicum is integrated into the whole teacher training and teacher education programs, which allocates 14 weeks in two-year teacher training and 22 weeks in four-year teacher education. in malawi, under the 2 in-2 out-2 in teacher education model, there are two terms of teaching practicum. following the systems theory, such approaches of teaching practicum are determined by environmental expectations of teacher education in each country. teacher education in china emphasizes the theoretical knowledge in pre-service teacher education and puts the responsibility of actual practice of teaching to the in-service teacher education, especially the induction. as han (2012) pointed out, professional development opportunities are widely arranged for in-service teachers as a recent reform in teacher education in china. in this context, teaching practicum is an extended single placement occurring in the fourth year of the university-based teacher education program. in cambodia, qualified teachers ought to contribute to students’ learning so they can improve the quality of education. specifically, upgrading primary teachers to bachelor’s degree has become one of the most urgent tasks for pre-service and in-service provision (moeys, 2014). the better-qualified graduates from four-year teacher education can replace the retiring and contract teaching staff to improve education service provision. in malawi, the environmental expectations for teacher education is to increase the number of qualified teachers to reduce the teacher-pupil ratio. for instance, malawi introduced free primary liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 210 education in 1994 to increase pupil enrolment which in turn led to a great demand for primary school teachers. the one year of teaching practicum serves to increase teacher supply by letting student teachers perform the role of full-time teachers. moreover, through one-year practices, student teachers can master the tasks of teachers and easily enter the teaching profession. the theory-oriented curriculum system of teaching practicum seems to be the main challenge of teaching practicum in china. previous research also found that the timing and duration of teaching practicum in china was inappropriate and insufficient (manzar-abbas & lu, 2013). researchers pointed out that the time allocated to teaching practicum in china was too short to gain mastery of teaching skills and an understanding of the real context of the field (yan & he, 2010). this suggests that ensuring adequate time for teaching practicum is important to effective teaching practicum. however, it is worth noting that spending more time in schools does not ensure better outcomes of teaching practicum. in malawi, the two-term teaching practicum reflects the nature of an ‘apprentice’ model (white & forgasz, 2016), which focuses on a short-term basis to meet immediate needs of teacher supply. the one-year teaching practicum places responsibility on schools and schoolteachers. the untrained cooperating teachers and reluctant qualified teachers supporting student teachers was reported as a big challenge of teaching practicum in malawi. in cambodia, through updating the teacher training formula from 12+2 to 12+4, the duration of teaching practicum is increased and the types of teaching practices are enriched. since the reform has just been initiated, the quality of teaching practicum is still unknown. the structure lens: diverse learning experiences from the function lens, while the three countries differ in their teaching practicum approaches, they all place value on providing diverse learning experiences for student teachers. for instance, the two cooperating teachers of subject teaching and masterwork are allocated to student teachers in china. in cambodia, student teachers go to different schools to experience varied contexts and observe cooperating teachers’ classes in different subjects and grades. in addition, pedagogical research is highlighted as a valuable part of teaching practicum. in malawi, teachers teach all primary level subjects and sometimes handle multi-grade classes. thus, practicum schools act as a site to get student teachers involved in a variety of school level activities. implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 211 providing diverse learning experiences can enhance the effectiveness of teaching practicum (beck kosnik, 2002). however, diverse learning experiences require effective mentoring by cooperating teachers, who are often reported to lack qualified mentoring capacities. one of the challenges of the implementation of teaching practicum in the three cases is little support and training for the cooperating teachers, many of whom are unclear about their roles and responsibilities. this observation confirms what is reported in the literature and underscores the need to address structures of student teachers’ professional development, including improving the quality of mentorship (yan & he, 2010; mwanza, moyo & maphosa, 2014, 2015, 2016).) the process lens: support from local authorities when looking through the process lens, a key finding is that the local authorities play a big role in teaching practicum. firstly, the local authorities negotiate different interests by standardizing the management of educational practice, especially in china and cambodia. for example, although each university in china has the autonomy to design and implement teaching practicum, the local authorities support the teaching practicum by encouraging schoolteachers to perform the role of cooperating teachers and using it as an indicator of schoolteacher promotion. in cambodia, local authorities are involved in the process of the practicum through the teaching practicum committee at the provincial level. local authorities, representing the ministry of education through the provincial office of education (poe), are partially involved in the teaching practicum planning. in addition, before teaching practicum, the tec cooperates with the moeys to hold orientation for all stakeholders. secondly, local authorities are involved in the implementation of the teaching practicum through selecting teaching practice bases. in china, universities identify the potential teaching practicum bases and then build teaching practicum partnerships with primary schools through local education administrative departments. in cambodia, poe select the teaching practicum schools based on requests from the local teaching practice committees. in malawi, school allocation is done by the college-based ‘teaching practice coordinator’. it should be highlighted that the findings also show that most of the challenges of the implementation of teaching practicum in the three cases relate to the inadequate support from local authorities, especially at the school level. in china, the lack of local administration’s involvement in the supervision of teaching practicum contributes to the disparity in leadership liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 212 of school principals for teaching practicum in primary schools. in cambodia and malawi, insufficient budgets for stakeholders feature as a major challenge. collaborative relationships between university and school as our findings show, the common challenge of teaching practicum in the three countries is inadequate communication between university and schools. teaching practicum has a marginal status in initial teacher education programs in china. under the research-orientation context of higher education, the salary for university supervisors is so low that teachers lack motivation to take on this role. worse still, as university supervisors, some teachers rarely visit teaching practice schools. this is an indication of the low status of university supervisors within the group of teacher educators. furthermore, the insufficient communication between university and school has resulted in universities paying inadequate attention to teaching practicum and to “power imbalances” among university supervisors (cooper & grundnof, 2017) as the knowledge gained through the university is perceived more important than the practice. the differences in cultures of work tempo and the nature of professional time between universities and schools make for few interactions between schoolteachers, student teachers, and teacher educators during teaching practicum partnerships (gu, 2016). due to timetable constraints, cambodian cooperating teachers are often unavailable to discuss the pedagogical needs of the student teachers with the college supervisors after the lesson presentations. the college supervisors cannot meet mentor teachers because they are busy with other academic obligations. similarly, the lack of regular and ongoing feedback on student teachers’ teaching practices is evident in teaching practicum in malawi. the constrained interactions between university and school often lead to the disconnection of supervision between university mentors and school cooperating teachers (ochanji, et al., 2015). furthermore, guidelines on how to structure the relationship between university and schools have not been transformed into policy. the criteria for selecting cooperating teachers vary based on institutional contexts. in particular, the inadequate support and virtual lack of mentoring for most student teachers in malawi are partly due to the ‘incompetence’ of mentors (mwanza, moyo, & maphosa, 2016). further structures will need to be put into place to stimulate the interests of universities and schools to establish collaborative and sustainable teaching practicum relationships. previous studies have shown that teaching practicum partnerships which rely upon the temporary provision of external resources are very likely to fail in the long term (gu, 2016). implementation of teaching practicum for primary school teachers: china, cambodia and malawi case studies ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 213 our study underpins the important role of local education authorities in ensuring effective teaching practicum. for example, in china, local educational administrative departments consider the experience of being a cooperating partner teacher as an important element for the promotion of schoolteachers and for granting of awards to them. this promotion criterion seems to motivate schoolteachers to mentor student teachers during teaching practicum. conclusion this study compared the implementation of teaching practicum in china, cambodia and malawi through the lens of systems theory. by paying attention to teaching practicum, this study provides insights into reforms that will make teacher education more practical. among others, the article presents differences in teaching practicum in the three countries, with findings suggesting that teaching practicum has similar purposes yet is implemented differently producing different outcomes. despite different approaches to teaching practicum, providing student teachers with diverse learning experiences and the role of local authorities emerge as similarities among the three cases. in this way, the paper adds support to the international literature suggesting that teacher education around the world has similar aims but differs in strategies. the study also sheds light on challenges facing teaching practicum in different contexts. one of the major challenges facing schools and universities in establishing partnerships is managing the difference in cultures. the three countries face the common challenge of limited communication between teacher education institutes and schools during teaching practicum. our findings suggest that local authorities might mediate building collaborative relationships between teacher education institutions and schools. the question we can now ask concerns how this critical role of the local authorities can be stimulated. we suggest this as an area requiring further research. liang wei, foster gondwe, saran sok ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 190-217 214 references allen, j. m., & wright, s. e. 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(2021). becoming a teacher: a case study on student teacher professional identity construction during the education practicum in a normal university in china (doctoral dissertation, university of missouri-saint louis). issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 2 2022 pages 53-79 perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania isaack augustine choma & boniface raymond school of education, department of educational management and lifelong learning, university of dar es salaam, united republic of tanzania. abstract effective dialogic feedback demands active zonal quality assurance officers and tutors. the use of oral and written modalities to provide quality assurance feedback on learning environment in teachers’ colleges could make tutors more active in teaching. this article appraises modalities used to give feedback to tutors; and analyses the modalities regarded by tutors and quality assurance officers as effective in tanzania. the article adopts a qualitative multiple-case study involving thirty-four respondents from three teachers’ training colleges in tanzania. data were collected using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and documentary reviews with tutors. it is revealed that oral and written modalities were mainly used to give quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges. moreover, these feedback modalities do not have a bearing on the effectiveness of learning in the studied institutions. the paper also identifies significant differences between the quality of oral and written feedback. tutors tend to prefer oral to written quality assurance feedback modality. specifically, tutors perceived oral quality assurance feedback modality as the most effective way as it allows for more interaction, collaboration and dialogue between tutors and zonal school quality assurance officers. on the other hand, zonal quality assurance officers prefer written to oral quality assurance feedback modality as most effective for permanent record keeping in the majority of cases. moreover, written feedback is the only means by which quality assurance stakeholders get to know about the state of quality of education provision in teachers’ colleges. it was also found that the new framework for giving quality assurance feedback was adopted and implemented before tutors were adequately oriented to the framework. it is, therefore, recommended that before quality assurance framework and its modalities of giving quality assurance feedback are changing feedback modalities, the https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 54 government should first consider adequate training of zonal quality assurance officers for them to perceive feedback as a dialogic process. keywords: oral feedback, written feedback, dialogic feedback, teacher education introduction in acknowledging the power of feedback to produce varied effects on learning, researchers have proposed principles that encapsulate conditions for effective feedback (boud & molloy, 2012; brooks, carroll, gillies & hattie, 2019; fisher & frey, 2013; gamlem & smith, 2013; hattie &timperley, 2007; hattie, 2009, 2012; kluger & denisi, 1996; sadler, 2010; tomlinson, 2014). first, there is a need to clarify expectations and standards for learners (boud& molloy, 2012; hattie & timperley, 2007; hounsell, mccune, hounsell, & litjens, 2008; nicol & macfarlane‐dick, 2006). this means learners should be oriented towards purposeful actions designed to satisfy or exceed the learning intent or goals (hattie & timperley, 2007). furthermore, feedback should lay the platform for learners to monitor their own learning, a key facet of self-regulated learning (hattie &timperley, 2007). second, feedback should encourage formative learning, that is, it should be on-going, targeted and specifically received within current learning (boud& molloy, 2012; hattie &timperley, 2007; hounsell et al., 2008; nicol & macfarlane‐dick, 2006). formative, rather than summative, assessment is a key process for creating opportunities for improvement-based feedback (wiliam, 2013). experts as source of information for feedback must strive to provide regular, purposeful and constructive feedback that is matched to the criteria for assessment (nicole & macfarlane‐dick, 2006). this also provides teachers with evidencebased understanding of learners’ progress towards the learning intent. by comparing the learning intent and criteria for success with learners’ current learning state as evidenced by their formative assessment samples, teachers should direct their attention to the gap between learners’ current state in the learning cycle and the learning intent. third, it should be for self-regulation (boud& molloy, 2012; brooks, carroll, gillies, & hattie, 2019; hattie &timperley, 2007; nicol & macfarlane‐dick, 2006). that means it is a key process within an effective model of feedback. it should make learners distinguish and apply standards and criteria to their work and learning. learners should form judgments about the level to which they are satisfied with such standards or criteria (bound &molloy, 2013). effective feedback informs part of self-regulation where learners can direct and monitor their actions to achieve perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 55 learning goals (brooks, carroll, gillies& hattie, 2019; boud& molloy, 2012; boud, 2013; hattie &timperley, 2007; mcnamara& o’hara, 2008; mcnamara, o’hara, lissi & davidsdottir, 2011; nicol & macfarlane‐dick, 2006; plowright, 2007). this ensures that learners are proficient in self-assessment and self-regulation; and have become willing and active seekers of feedback. fourth, effective feedback needs opportunities to close the feedback loop (boud& molloy, 2012; hattie &timperley, 2007; hounsell et al., 2008; nicol & macfarlane‐dick, 2006). that means that learners would be required to use deep learning principles such as relational thinking and self-monitoring to compare and adjust their work in relation to the required standards, criteria or intent. this helps to close the gap between where learners are and where they aim to be, a demonstration of the power of feedback (sadler, 1989; shah, cheng, & fitzgerald, 2016). despite its valued process, written quality assurance feedback is often missing from learning episodes due to delays in learners receiving feedback or misinterpreting feedback content (hounsell et al., 2008). from a socio-constructivist point of view, feedback is a dialogue with a formative function (carless, salter, yang& lam, 2011; espasa, mayordomo, guasch and martinezmelo, 2019; nicol, 2010). from this perspective, dialogue can be promoted by external quality assurance officers or by peers, who are internal quality assurance officers, but it can also take the form of a self-dialogue or an inner dialogue (carless, 2015). nicol (2010) notes, “such inner dialogue would involve students in actively decoding feedback information, internalizing it, comparing it against their own work, using it to make judgments about its quality and ultimately to make improvements in future work” (p. 504). in general, feedback can be understood as a socially embedded process in which learners’ prior experience affects the use they may make of it (price, handley & millar, 2011). dialogic feedback is essential in synchronous face to face learning environments, where zonal school quality assurance officers and tutors share the same space and time. in this context, feedback is crucial in promoting regulation of learning and its monitoring. feedback may be given as written, oral or demonstration modality. in recent years, studies on the technological means and/or channels through which feedback is offered (written, audio or video) have become more prominent (borup, west, & graham, 2012). feedback as evolving and complicated construct the meaning of feedback has changed in recent decades, making it difficult to achieve a consistent understanding of what constitutes feedback. in general, three paradigms have isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 56 contributed to our definition and understanding of feedback. they include teacher-centred transmission-oriented paradigm, student-centred process-oriented paradigm, and ecological or socio-material paradigm (chan & luo, 2021; chong, 2021). conventionally, feedback is understood as an ‘end product’, in the sense of ‘knowledge of results’ or ‘correction of errors (gibbs & simpson, 2004). as the traditional focus was on the information delivered to learners, there has been much discussion on how teachers deal with feedback (hattie & timperley, 2007). teachers’ provision of feedback is often found entangled with a range of issues, including increased workload, limitations in time, difficulties in catering for individual learners in large classes, and a lack of motivation and expertise (gibbs & simpson 2004; henderson, ryan, & phillips, 2019). in the past decade, this conventional way of perceiving feedback as unidirectional transmission to learners has evolved along a more student-centred and sustainable model (carless et al., 2011). in this sustainable model, feedback involves a dialogic process in which learners take increased responsibility in seeking and acting on feedback (sadler, 2010; chan & luo, 2021). the effectiveness of feedback depends on learners’ feedback literacy as well, that is, their ability to appreciate feedback, to make judgements, to manage emotions and to take action (carless & boud, 2018). theoretical framework this study was guided by the social constructivism theory proposed by lev vygotsky (vygotsky & cole 1978). the theory emphasizes that effective learning can be understood in the context of sharing the constructed knowledge and experiences of both learners and experienced teachers. learning is further influenced by learners’ need to collaboratively work, acquire, share knowledge and structure the knowledge among their teachers with the teacher acting as a guide, collaborator and coach (wells, 2000; van huizein, van oers& wubbels, 2005). by adopting social constructivism theory, it was considered that effective modalities of giving quality assurance feedback is constructed by both tutors and zonal school quality assurance officers using their experiences, beliefs, thinking strategies and other required information. statement of the problem review of both theoretical and empirical studies drawn from around the world, in general, and tanzania, in particular, have shown that modalities of giving quality assurance feedback have both information transmission effectiveness (boud& molloy, 2013; dobbelaer, prins & perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 57 van dongen, 2013; henderson, dawson, mahoney, phillips, ryan, boud & molloy, 2019; nash & winstone, 2017; wilson, 2019; winstone & boud, 2019; winstone& carless, 2019) and dialogical effectiveness (bergh, rose & beijaard, 2013; brookhart, 2012; gan, 2011; hattie, 2012; hawe and parr, 2014; nicol, 2019; nicol & macfarlane-dick, 2006; sadler, 2010; ibarra-sáiz, rodríguez-gómez &boud, 2020). empirical studies and reports on modalities of giving quality assurance feedback in tanzania are scanty. the few studies which have investigated some elements of modalities for giving quality assurance feedback in tanzania are mostly based on primary and/or secondary school contexts (cag, 2016; choma, 2011; kosia, 2018; matete, 2009; ngatoluwa, 2010). consequently, they may not translate effectively into the teacher education context because they did not capture the dialogical practices that emerge as central element in practice. moreover, the studies leave much to be desired as they give a general picture on the use of input measures such as timing, frequency, quantity or externally judged product of quality as a way of evaluating the effectiveness of quality assurance feedback. for example, the studies view feedback as mere information exchange/transmission and barely engaged with the dialogic process in the collaborative construction of shared understandings of quality assurance feedback. thus, the studies do not adequately depict how dialogic feedback through oral and written modalities have been used to give feedback to tutors in tanzanian teachers’ colleges. this study, therefore, seeks to fill this gab by investigating stakeholders’ perceptions of oral versus written modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges. methodology the study employed a qualitative research approach informed by multiple case design. multiple case study was selected because the problem is embedded in multiple cases which are believed to have similar characteristics. multiple case study design allowed for cross-case analysis as well as comparison, and an in-depth investigation of quality assurance stakeholders in diverse settings. the design also helped to capture unique features related to modalities of quality assurance feedback to tutors in tanzania, which could be overlooked in large scale designs. the study employed interviews, focus group discussions (fgds) and documentary reviews in collecting relevant data. interviews were conducted with administrative officer at the directorate of the school quality assurance (dsqa), zonal school quality assurance officers (zsqaos), college principals, internal college quality isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 58 assurance officers (icqaos), college academic deans, ward education officers (weos), as well as college board chairpersons. on the other hand, fgds were held with five content tutors in each involved college to gather information regarding tutors’ views and involvement in quality assurance feedback. fgds were thought to be beneficial because tutors were free to discuss and share views on the effectiveness of the modalities of quality assurance feedback. each fdg session lasted for between 45 minutes and one hour. data from interviews and fgds were tape recorded and transcribed for subsequent thematic analysis. a top-down thematic analysis was used to identify, describe and illustrate voices of participants (braun & clarke, 2006). also, documents reviewed included annual reports of zonal school quality assurance, minutes of college quality assurance meetings, college quality assurance feedback, college quality assurance reports, tutors’ self-evaluation reports, lesson observation forms and tutor development plans. other documents included strategic plans, schemes of work, lesson plans and lesson log books. document review enabled the researcher to understand how quality assurance officers give feedback to tutors as well as stakeholders’ perceptions on the modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges. this study involved three diploma teachers’ colleges, namely al-haramain (dar es salaam zone), morogoro (eastern zone) and kleruu (southern highlands zone). the zones and teachers’ colleges were purposively selected due to the fact that they allowed for an indepth cross-case exploration as well as comparison of modalities used in giving quality assurance feedback and their effectiveness. the study used a total of thirty-four participants to capture their perceptions on the modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges. purposive sampling technique was employed to obtain one administrative officer at the directorate of quality assurance from the ministry of education, science and technology, three zonal quality assurance officers, three teachers’ college principals and three internal college quality assurance officers. the technique also applied to three college academic deans, three ward education officers, as well as three chairpersons of college boards. the participants were selected with respect to their role in managing and coordinating matters related to quality assurance. likewise, fifteen tutors were selected purposively due to their involvement in receiving quality assurance feedback from zonal quality assurance officers. perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 59 findings and discussion to understand stakeholders’ perceptions on the modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors, it was considered pertinent to familiarize with modalities of giving quality assurance feedback on tutors’ pedagogical performance in teacher education from 2014 to 2020. the selection of this timeframe was based on the emphasis of collaborative and community engagement that required application of learner-centred approach as spearheaded in the education and training policy (etp) of 2014 (moevt, 2014). additionally, the preferred period was considered to have enjoyed thorough monitoring of educational practices, including evaluation practices by education managers. quality assurance was the main emphasis as well as the establishment of national school quality assurance framework (nsqaf). quality assurance depicted the change from compliance to quality model of educational improvement to establishment of quality assurance framework, which emphasizes collaboration of tutors during data generation, sharing of experiences and knowledge among tutors. it considers zonal school quality assurance officers as supporters and guides for improvement of tutors. quality assurance also emphasizes internal college quality assurance officers to work collaboratively with zonal school quality assurance officers and share the constructed feedback with tutors (adem, 2020; adem, 2021a; adem, 2021b; moest, 2017a; 2017b; 2017c). this period was found to have witnessed a sharp change in the maintenance of the quality of teacher education from traditional system of inspection where quality assurance officers were seen as knowledgeable and tutors as passive recipients of feedback without interaction between them. in the traditional system that operated before 2014, feedback was also seen as an end product or ‘knowledge of results’ or correction of errors since emphasis was placed on unidirectional information transmission to tutors. the period from 2014 also experienced changes in the way of seeing feedback as unidirectional transmission of information to tutors. development was towards a more student-centred and sustainable model (adem, 2020; adem, 2021a; moest, 2017b). in this model, quality assurance feedback involves a dialogic process in which tutors are considered important stakeholders in seeking and acting on feedback through collaboration and knowledge sharing. this study, therefore, found this period of seven years appropriate to consider because it would provide adequate information on the modalities of giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 60 teachers’ colleges. findings through the consulted primary sources of information revealed the findings presented in table 1. table 1. regularity of modalities of giving quality assurance feedback to tutors sn year dar es salaam zone eastern zone southern highlands zone private teachers’ college government teachers’ college government teachers’ college al-haramain tc morogoro tc kleruu tc wri tten oral demon stration wri tten oral demon stration wri tten oral demon stration 1 2014 √ √ × × × × × × × 2 2015 √ √ × √ √ × × × × 3 2016 × × × × × × × × × 4 2017 √ √ × × × × √ √ × 5 2018 × × × × × × √ √ × 6 2019 √ √ × √ √ × × × × 7 2020a √ √ √ √ √ × √ √ × 2020b √ √ √ × × × × × × total 7 6 6 2 3 3 0 3 3 0 source: field data february – april 2021 table 1 shows that in written, oral and demonstration modes, quality assurance feedback modalities, al-haramain tc received the highest frequency (6 times), followed by morogoro and kleruu (3 times). however, in the year 2020, al-haramain received written, oral and demonstration quality assurance feedback modalities 2 times, whereas morogoro and kleruu received written and oral quality assurance feedback modalities only once. this can be attributed to the fact that al-haramain as a private college might have low level of involvement of quality assurance stakeholders, including tutors, during its 2019 college evaluation processes. however, in the year 2016, there were no written, oral or demonstration quality assurance feedback given to the selected colleges. this could be attributed to challenges faced by the directorate of school quality assurance in engaging stakeholders in collaborative learning. the challenges included credibility barriers relating to zonal school quality assurance officers’ ability to make and convey judgments of tutors’ instructional performance; and contextual constraints (choma, 2011; jaffer, 2010; ngatolua 2010; nkinyangi, 2006). it could also be attributed to the changes from necta to nacte, where perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 61 college evaluations were not conducted. it has been noted by other scholars that without college evaluation visits, quality assurance officers cannot generate evaluative data and, therefore, cannot analyse and give quality assurance feedback (grauwe, 2007, 2008; sanyal, 2013). findings from tutors revealed that oral and written modalities were dominant in giving quality assurance feedback. the findings are in line with the study by kosia (2018), which revealed that oral and written quality assurance feedback modalities were used to give feedback to secondary school teachers. however, the findings are in contrast with espasa, mayordomo, guasch and martinez-melo (2019); who found written, audio and video modalities were used to give quality assurance feedback to learners. the findings are also in contrast with ice, swan, diaz, kupczynski & swan-dagen (2010), who found that learners felt stand-alone written feedback was more effective than stand-alone audio feedback, and that the combination of written and audio feedback was the most effective of all. the findings are also in line with the findings by nelson and schunn (2009), which classified feedback modalities into cognitive and affective categories. on the one hand, cognitive feedback focuses on written text which summarizes and explains the accomplished work or task. affective feedback, on the other hand, reflects the quality of the work. the reviewer employs praise or criticism or non-verbal language to convey points to the writer. the findings are contrasted with the study by ellis (2009), who categorized feedback modalities into cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives. the former seeks to identify the corrective feedback strategies that are most effective in promoting the internal processes responsible for acquisition. the latter views corrective feedback strategies as a form of social mediation that assists learners in performing teaching activities that they are incapable of performing independently. the findings are in line with the study by chan & luo (2021), which found that feedback is divided into three categories, namely transmission of information from the teacher to the student, dialogic process where learners take responsibilities in seeking and acting on feedback, and feedback as an ecological and socio-material concept acknowledging the messy and situated nature of feedback such as contextual factors, (e.g. culture, feedback modes and teacher-student relations) and individual factors (e.g. student learning goals, and feedback beliefs). oral quality assurance feedback modality isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 62 oral quality assurance feedback modality involves a dialogical conversation between zonal school quality assurance officers and tutors; which is instant and speaks directly to tutors’ weaknesses and strengths on pedagogical performances (ehren, altricher, mcnamann & o’hara, 2013; zhu & carless, 2018). tutors perceived oral feedback as the most effective for greater interaction and dialogue between tutors and zonal quality assurance officers, and that also creates the greatest sense of collaboration (eddy-spicer, ehren, bangpan, khatwa, & perrone, 2016; kosia, 2018; grauwe, 2001; nash, &winstone, 2017; nicol& macfarlanedick, 2006; nelson and schunn, 2009). the study found that oral quality assurance feedback modality offers an opportunity for greater interaction and dialogue between zonal quality assurance officers and tutors. it also helps them reach conclusion collaboratively. it further supports tutors to take appropriate action immediately after weaknesses have been identified. in addition, it saves time in data generation process, and provides feedback for individuals and group of tutors. the findings are similar to the study by eurydice (2004), which found that directorates of education in netherlands, england, belgium, denmark, sweden, iceland and norway do not generally provide feedback to individual teachers even though teachers often ask for individual feedback from inspectors who observe their classrooms. however, school inspectors feel that they should not give feedback to individual teachers, but rather; to the whole school as feedback to individual teachers is considered to be the task of heads of schools and principals. school inspectors sometimes interpret requests of individual teachers for inspection feedback as an indication of lack of feedback culture in schools. directorates of education in the netherlands, england and ireland publish inspection reports in which the functioning of individual schools according to the inspection standards is described and areas of improvement are identified. inspectorates of education aim to make written feedback reports easily accessible to stakeholders particularly parents by using plain language and by making the format of the reports as similar as possible in order to aid comparison. on the other hand, the study also found that oral quality assurance feedback modality is hindered by credibility barriers of zonal school quality assurance officers who upgraded from primary and secondary levels of education into quality assuring teachers’ colleges, among other contextual factors (baxter, 2013; dobbelaer et al., 2012). the findings further indicated that much of oral quality assurance feedback modality is dominated by views and opinions of zonal school quality assurance officers (ahmad, said, khan, yassin, tahir, bukhari, & ali, 2013; brown, mcnamara, o’hara, & o’brien, 2016; dobbelaer et al., 2013; grauwe, 2008; van bruggen, 2010; wanzare, 2002). findings on oral quality assurance perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 63 feedback modality unfolded that tutors are forced into other modalities of receiving quality assurance feedback involving written quality assurance feedback for their pedagogical improvement. written quality assurance feedback modality written quality assurance feedback modality is a printed text report prepared by zonal quality assurance officers after they have conducted a college visit evaluation. written feedback modality is usually delayed as it takes time to prepare. the findings are related to the study conducted by hattie & timperley (2007), which revealed that instant feedback can be more effective than delayed feedback. specifically, feedback given to correct response is better than the one given to incorrect ones (hattie & timperley, 2007). additionally, written feedback covers both general weaknesses and strengths of tutors’ pedagogical performances. the findings are in line with the study by hattie & timperley (2007), which found that feedback given to correct responses is better than one given to incorrect responses. the study found that zonal school quality assurance officers found written feedback more effective than oral quality assurance feedback. this is because written quality assurance feedback report is a permanent record and, in most cases, is the only means by which quality assurance stakeholders such as the ministry of education, college owners, and teachers’ colleges get to know about the state of the quality of education (alkutich & abukari, 2018; grauwe, 2007). it also helps to provide feedback in general terms. this finding is dissimilar to the study by ferris (1997), which found that feedback which is specific can work better than broad or general. in other words, comments given timely on each individual performance is more effective than those given to a group with different nature (brookhart, 2012). it also provides feedback collectively, covering and showing what tutors do best, what they need to do and what they need to do for future improvements. this means that written quality assurance feedback is lengthy in character. this is in contrast with the study by tseng & tsai (2007), bitchener, young, & cameron (2005), which found that short and to-the-point feedback explanations are more effective than lengthy and didactic ones. the effectiveness of written quality assurance feedback also seems to relate more to the need for administration to control managers of teacher education (grauwe, & carron, 2004b; grauwe, 2007; wanzare, 2011). zonal quality assurance officers spend a lot of time preparing written quality assurance feedback (grauwe, 2001; grauwe, & carron, 2004a; grauwe, 2007; grauwe, 2008). isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 64 the study further found that written quality assurance feedback modalities were found to be directed much to the task that tutors had completed or performed by identifying correct against incorrect pedagogical tasks, surface information and giving extended information (hattie & timperley, 2007). this finding echoes the study by kosia (2018), which found that written quality assurance feedback had positive contribution in teaching and learning for secondary teachers. it is shown that in secondary schools, quality assurance officers are at the same level as secondary school teachers; and so their conversations and dialogues are similar. this scenario is different in teachers’ colleges as upgraded quality assurance officers from secondary schools may not be competent enough for quality assurance activities in teachers’ colleges. the study found that oral, written and demonstration quality assurance feedback modalities did not increase collaborative learning between tutors and zonal school quality assurance officers. the findings are similar to choma (2011), who revealed irregularities of school inspection feedback to teachers’ colleges. the study found that there was no collaboration between internal administration systems and other external quality assurance systems that disallow close contact on the daily realities of the college. this is consistent with a study by the controller and audit general (cag) (2016), which found that mechanisms for reporting quality assurance feedback in education systems from heads of schools at secondary level to presidents office – regional and local government (po-ralg) at ministry level were not functioning properly enough to improve teachers’ pedagogical practices. the study found that written quality assurance feedback report does not much emphasise face to face socialization, collaboration and sharing of constructed knowledge between tutors and zonal quality assurance officers. the findings are in contrast with the study by ice et al. (2010), which criticized the partial understanding of physical account (face to face) as necessary for construction of knowledge. the study revealed that narrow interpretation of vygotsky theory discounts the ability of learners to conceptualize “being” as something other than a physical construct. online learning environment (asynchronous learning) is also rich enough to support learners through socially mediated practices (borup, west, graham, 2012; gallien, & oomen-early, 2008; ice, curtis, phillips, & wells, 2007; oomen-early, bold, wiginton, gallien, & anderson, 2008). scholars viewed this creation of online courses as the ability to project oneself into a virtual environment. learners come to view their interactions as being fluid and integrated process rather than a series of tasks. the sense of “being there” could be established in the online environment through providing and perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 65 interpreting emoticons as a replacement for nuance and nonverbal cues (bullen, 1998; flahery, & pearce, 1998; gunawardena & zittle, 1997; short, williams & christie, 1976). the findings from the current study are in line with a study by choma (2011), which found that there were irregularities in school inspection feedbacks in teachers’ colleges. in most cases information gathered from inspection did not portray the reality of normal learning environment; and inspection was seen as remedial rather than developmental. in that case, the study left much to be desired as it generally provided a picture on the use of input measures such as frequencies as a way of evaluating feedback effectiveness, and little on the dialogic process in the collaborative construction of shared understandings of feedback. moreover, the study by ehren, leuve and schereens (2005) revealed that there was much emphasis on socialization and sharing of written quality feedback knowledge to the whole public through the use of social media, websites, audio (radio) and video (tv talk shows) modalities. the findings are also opposing to other studies by henderson, & phillips, (2015) in australia; ice et al., (2010) in eastern and central us, laffey, et al (2006) in us, south carolina and chung cheng thailand; gunawardena & zittle, (1997) in us, california, texas, new mexico, wisconsin, and wyoming and rovai, (2002) in us, virginia. the studies found out that online learning environment (asynchronous learning) is also rich enough to support learners through socially mediated practices. they criticised the partial understanding of physical account (face to face) as necessary for construction of knowledge. this is because the modality of giving feedback through social presence (as opposed to physical) can fully support interpersonal communication and construction of knowledge collaboratively. the findings from this study reported lack of socialization during knowledge sharing through written quality assurance feedback modality between tutors and zonal school quality assurance officers. as described by tutors, written quality assurance feedback report does have utility towards tutors’ pedagogical improvements. the findings are in contrast with choma’s (2011) study, which found that feedback was a mere information exchange. viewing feedback as information exchange did not allow research approaches focusing on the function of dialogue in collaborative construction of shared understandings. on the other hand, the findings echo grauwe’s (2008) study, which found that written quality assurance feedback was superficial and artificial; thus, could not improve pedagogical skills among teachers. at the same time, the findings contrast with the study by grauwe (2007), who found that simple control without support would not easily lead to quality improvement. this is isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 66 why, from the very beginning, these two dimensions of supervision have been intimately linked. in most instances, support takes the form of advice given to tutors and principals during supervision visits, which cover both administrative and pedagogical issues. in addition, the work of quality assurance officers has always been characterized by a number of tensions that are difficult to overcome such as tension between administrative duties and pedagogical responsibilities. in many countries, these tensions have increased because of the gradual deterioration of functioning of learning institutions. when the system starts deteriorating, the need for pedagogical support becomes stronger, but at the same time, quality assurance officers must invest more and more effort in administrative control and disciplinary issues. this is a real vicious circle that makes the work of quality assurance officers increasingly difficult; and which exposes them to further criticism. indeed, when a choice has to be made between quality assurance officers and administrative and pedagogic duties, the latter suffer. but arguably, some supervisors may prefer to focus on administration rather than pedagogy as they have the power to take administrative decisions but, in the eyes of some teachers, lack the authority and/or competence to give pedagogic advice. the findings are related to the us study by nelson and schunn (2009), which found that written feedback that identify problems and provide solutions are especially effective. the findings of this study are also in line with the study in uganda by altinyeken (2010b) and tabulawa (1997), which found that learner-centred approach stems from the theory of social constructivism. the theory views knowledge as socially constructed, education as a social process, and teaching and learning as social interaction while the learner is viewed as an active participant, not a passive recipient of knowledge (altinyeken, 2010a; tabulawa, 2003). whereas piaget’s theories of human development focused on the child, vygotsky focused more on the teacher and the teacher’s role in the social interaction of learning. vygotsky saw activities done by the learners as central to education; and the teacher as an interventionist who supports the learner through the zone of proximal development, which lies just beyond the domain in which the child has achieved competence; and this challenges the learner toward his or her full potential (davydov & kerry, 1995; glassman, 2001; sutherland, 1992). the teacher thus scaffolds the child toward competence in any skill. demonstration quality assurance feedback demonstration quality assurance feedback modality is a straightforward instructional support given by zonal school quality assurance officers during tutors teaching process before the perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 67 lesson ends. it usually occurs when zonal school quality assurance officers have mastered both content and pedagogy of the lesson as well as quality assurance process. the findings are related to the study by morrison, ross, kalman, & kemp, (2011), which revealed that dialogue is best learned through practice. the major role that this theoretical perspective ascribes to the teacher is that of an inductor or `guide'. as a facilitator, the teacher's role crucially involves creation of opportunities for pupils to actively engage in tasks that enable them to inquire or investigate the principles being learned. the teacher’s role also includes providing a supportive learning environment and offering appropriate learning challenges. the latter requires the use of activities that are open and less structured; and involves the use of pupils' own procedures or methods. such activities are often presented in problem situations and they enable pupils to encounter learning through intellectual strategies like relationship or pattern searching and experimentation, formulation and testing conjectures about relationships, and formulation of explanations for observed rules (dunscombe, & armour, 2004; brownstein, 2011; molloy, boud, & henderson, 2020). social constructivism also envisages that effective education can only be applicable when the school links up with the home. there is a meeting of the teacher’s mind and that of the child; and the informal education that takes place in the community he/she becomes the starting point for formal education in school (davydov & kerry, 1995; glassman, 2001; sutherland, 1992). social constructivism calls for teaching methods which appear to diminish the direct teaching role and authority of the teacher. in other words, constructivism calls for teachers to move away from traditional teaching methods. this approach has come to be referred to as learner-centred education. the study found that written quality assurance feedback modality was not made available to other important quality assurance stakeholders such as tie (tanzania institute of education) and necta (national examination council of tanzania). to the contrary, this finding contrasted with the study by ehren, leuve & schereens (2005), who examined how inspection leads to primary school improvement in netherlands. the study revealed that quality assurance feedbacks were published for public use. in addition, the study found that quality assurance officers gave quality assurance feedback through different ict modalities/channels such as tv, websites, conferences, radio and social media. conclusion and recommendations isaack choma& boniface raymond ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 68 the field of feedback research has already had rich contributions. however, a large body of feedback literature has focused on how to apply modalities of giving feedback in quality assurance practices or processes. effective feedback has unfortunately received limited consideration. even more, few studies have attempted to answer this question from primary, secondary and university teachers’ and learners’ perspective on giving and receiving classroom feedback. the current study has addressed this research gap by investigating stakeholders’ perceptions of whether the modalities of giving quality assurance should be considered as effective. the findings show that modality through which quality assurance feedback is provided does not have a bearing on effectiveness. the study concludes that the new framework for giving quality assurance feedback in tanzanian teachers’ colleges was adopted and implemented before tutors were adequately oriented to the framework. the study recommends that when quality assurance framework and its modalities of giving quality assurance feedback are to be changed, the government should consider adequately training zonal school quality assurance officers for them to perceive quality assurance feedback as a dialogic process. it also recommends that tutors take charge in seeking and acting on feedback through collaboration and sharing of constructed knowledge before the new quality assurance feedback modality is implemented. perceptions of stakeholders on modalities for giving quality assurance feedback to tutors in teachers’ colleges in tanzania ajote vol.11 no.2 (2022), 53-79 69 references adem. 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(2018). dialogue within peer feedback processes: clarification and negotiation of meaning. higher education research & development, 37(4): 883–897. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1741143211427977 https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=euan%20wilson quality%20assurance%20in%20education quality%20assurance%20in%20education https://doi.org/10.1108/qae-11-2017-0072 socio-economic and household characteristics associated with workfamily conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu university of nigeria, nsukka abstract this study focused on the socio-economic and household characteristics associated with workfamily conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria. cross-sectional and correlational study design were used to collect data from 2428 female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria. two instruments were used to collect data; a structured questionnaire which was used to obtain data on socio-economic and household characteristics, and a standardized work and family conflict scale which was used to assess work-family conflict in the dimensions of work to family, family to work and overall work and family interference. analyses were performed using ibm-spss version 23 software. descriptive data were presented as frequencies and percentages. two hypotheses proposing significant association between socio-economic characteristics and work-family conflict, and between household characteristics and work-family conflict, were analysed with chi square at p < 0.05. results showed that 23% of the respondents experienced work-family conflict with higher rate (29.9%) of work to family conflict than 25.1% of family to work conflict. higher salary, urban location, living in ≥ 2-bedroom apartment and using communal toilet and bathroom at home were socio-economic factors significantly (p < 0.05) associated with increase in all the dimensions of work-family conflict. on the other hand, household characteristics associated with higher work-family conflict include having dependent children, age of oldest child > 12 years old, caring for chronically ill family members, and uneasy accessibility of household water supply. caring for the elderly and having house helps were associated with increased work to family conflict while household size was not found a factor in any dimension of workfamily conflict. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 11. no. 1 2022 pages 143-165 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 144 keywords: conflict; work-family conflict; work; family; socio-economic characteristics; household, female teachers introduction work and family are two interrelated aspects of adult life especially among women. factors inherent in work or family can influence a woman’s ability to effectively function in the other area. in a typical african society, family responsibilities of a woman occupy a very central position from which all other social roles take a bearing. even when women are educated, have professional careers, and provide for the family, they still shoulder most of the family responsibilities, often with little or no participation from the men folk . working in paid employment and taking care of the house chores simultaneously is strenuous and often comes with the challenge of imbalance between work and family roles. work-family conflict is an interference that occurs when work and family roles have to be undertaken concurrently (kara, güneş, & tüysüzer, 2021). it is the inability to effectively handle excessive workload and stressful behavioural, time and energy demands of work and family responsibilities (akoensi & annor, 2021). work-family conflict is conceptualized as a balance scale, on which are work roles on one end, and family roles on the other. as individuals spend more time and energy satisfying the demands of one role, the scale tilts against the other end. the result is a two-directional imbalance which places work demands above and beyond the needs of family, or alternatively place family demands above those of work (annink, den dulk, & steijn, 2016). haslam, filus, morawska, sanders, and fletcher (2014) described these two directions of conflict as work to family conflict (wfc) and family to work conflict (fwc). work to family conflict arises when work roles are satisfied to the detriment of family roles, thus sloping the balance against family. family to work conflict on the other hand, occurs when the reverse is the case. hence, individuals’ self-report of work-family conflict is usually based on their perception of which end is being weighed down by the other. work–family conflict could be experienced mildly or severely, depending on how much pressure an individual experiences from the two domains (haslam et al., 2014). household characteristics associated with work-family conflict experienced by women are often revolve around caregiving roles such as having children, and subsequent childcare responsibilities, and living with dependent elderly persons. in fact, cory and stirling (2015) referred to modern women as the “sandwich generation” caught in between caring for the older socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 145 and the younger generations. this has increased the overall workload of women much more than in times past. other household characteristics associated with work-family conflict include marriage responsibilities, overwhelming house chores and living with chronically ill or physically challenged family member (nart & batur, 2014). lower family socio-economic status indicated by poor income has also been found to increase conflict between work and family roles. according to hiciano (2020), women with higher income could afford more household labour saving devices and paid assistance in some household responsibilities such as child care, laundry and shopping in order to reduce workload and have more time for their families and work. women with lower income often have to personally carry out most of their responsibilities at home and work harder at paid employment to make ends meet. work-family conflict in any form of it, is associated with exhaustion, anxiety, high blood pressure, marital, work and life dissatisfaction, poor quality childcare, low organizational commitment, burnout, psychological distress, work dissatisfaction, poor commitment to work, absenteeism and intention to leave the employment (adalikwu, 2014; ajala, 2017). nart and batur (2014) are of the opinion that the type of work a woman engages in is a significant factor in the experience of work-family conflict. teaching profession in nigeria is currently being dominated by women especially at the primary level. women who work as teachers experience very high work demands (sultana, zahir & yaacob, 2014). handling young and dependent children from diverse demographic and family backgrounds could be overwhelming. furthermore, most nigerian primary schools have one class teacher, teaching all the subjects irrespective of area of specialization and qualification. in addition, poor and inconsistent remuneration, stressful work environment and the demand on teachers to meet the unique needs of every learner, have made the teaching profession more challenging. the increasing assumption of family and career responsibilities by women teachers, poses a great challenge in establishing an equilibrium between fulfilling their family obligations and commitments, and meeting the work demands (nanda, 2015). various studies on work-family conflict in nigeria have focused workers in other professions (adalikwu, 2014; ajala, 2017; ajayi, amoo, & ogunniyi, 2014). a few studies carried out among teachers concentrated on teachers in higher institutions of learning (ademuyiwa, dahunsi, adetunji, & adeniran, 2020). much is not known about work-family conflict among primary school teachers in nigeria. the female teachers in primary schools play critical roles in shaping the life of the nation’s future generation. therefore, their wellbeing cannot be overlooked, hence this study is aimed at filling this gap. uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 146 theoretical framework the current study explores the interaction of socio-economic and family characteristics with work-family conflict using the spillover theory. spill over theory explains how experiences in one domain of life (work or family) could positively or negatively influence life in the other domain. according to weale, oakman and clays (2021) positive spill over is experienced when pleasant experiences of an individual at work place spills over to produce pleasant emotions and behaviours at home and vice versa. on the other hand, negative or unpleasant experiences in one sphere could also negatively affect one’s experiences on the other (weale et al., 2021). the current study however focuses on the negative spill over in which the problems and stressors in the socio-economic and household environment, preoccupy an individual, such that the individual finds it difficult to function effectively in the work or family domain. exploring theoretical nuances of work-family conflict among primary school teachers in nigeria is still thematic in teacher development research, hence the rationale for this study. objectives of the study were to 1. identify socio-economic and household characteristics of the female primary school teachers. 2. assess the level of work to family, family to work and overall work-family conflict experienced by the respondents. 3. determine the socio-economic factors associated with work-family conflict and 4. determine the household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among the respondents. hypotheses based on the spill over theory which posits that experiences in work or family aspects of an individual’s life could affect effectiveness in the other areas of life, this study hypothesizes that socio-economic and household variables play a role in the role spill over across work and family domains. specifically, the following hypotheses were tested in this study. h1: socio-economic characteristics (monthly salary, residence type, toilet/bathroom used at home, dwelling location and household size) of the respondents are significantly associated with work-family conflict. socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 147 h2: significant association exists between work-family conflict and household characteristics (dependent children, age of oldest child, caring for elderly persons, caring for chronically ill family members and accessibility of household water supply) of the respondents. methodology research design a cross-sectional and correlational survey study designs were used in this study. crosssectional survey was used to determine socio-economic, and household characteristics as well as the level of work-family conflict in the dimensions of work to family and family to work conflict. this design is considered appropriate because it is a type of observational study used to obtain information about the characteristics or traits that exist in a population at a given time (alexander, lopes, ricchetti-masterson, & yeatts, 2014). the correlational survey design was used to determine the socio-economic and family characteristics associated with work-family conflict among the respondents. this design was used because it is suitable for determining statistical relationships between variables. participants for the study a multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 2428 out of 22,666 female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria. the first stage involved a random sampling of three (50%) out of the six educational zones in the state. the selected zones were nsukka, enugu and agbani zones. the three zones had a total of 14, 849 female teachers in 463 public and 1130 private schools. the second stage involved a purposive selection of two lgas from each of the selected zones; the ones with the highest number of schools and the ones with the lowest number of schools in each zone. this gives a total of six local government areas which are enugu south, nkanu east, enugu east, isi-uzo, nsukka and uzo-uwani local government areas with a total of 10,940 teachers in 435 public and 868 private schools. in stage three, the world health organization (2013) guideline for calculation of sample size in a survey was used to determine the sample size for schools and teachers in each local government area using this formula: uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 148 where, z = level of confidence (1.96); p = baseline prevalence level of the indicators (0.5 or 50%); e = margin of error (0.05 or 5%) and n = population size. the calculation gave a total sample size of 2500 (1273 public and 1227 private) female primary school teachers. the fourth stage involved purposive selection of schools with up to eight teachers in each lga. a total of 2428 female (1233 public and 1195 private) teachers adequately filled the questionnaire and became the actual sample for the study. table 1: descriptive characteristics of the sample parameter frequency percentage (%) *age < 20 years 20-40 years 41-60 years > 60 years total 203 1298 836 52 2389 8.5 54.3 35.0 2.2 100 type of school private public total 1195 1233 2428 49.2 50.8 100 *educational qualification ssc and less nce/diploma first degree post graduate certificate total 481 1095 718 117 2411 20.0 45.4 29.8 4.8 100 *teaching experience ≤5 years 6 -15 years ≥16 years 806 1277 291 33.9 53.8 12.3 total 2374 100 *religion christianity 2180 92.7 socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 149 islam tradition others 66 52 53 2.8 2.2 2.3 total 2351 100 *marital status single married divorced/separated widowed unmarried mothers 593 1471 82 246 29 24.5 60.8 3.4 10.1 1.2 total 2421 100 *, response frequency not equal to sample size of 2428 due to missing data. more than half (54.3%) of the teachers were between 20 – 40 years of age and a few (2.2%) were ≥ 60 years (table 1). about half (50.8%) taught in public schools while 49.2% taught in private schools. nigeria certificate in education (nce) was the most common (45.1%) educational qualification among the respondents, 20.0% had senior secondary school certificate and 4.8% had post graduate qualification. a greater proportion (53.8%) of the respondents had been teaching for 615 years; majority (92.7%) of the teachers were christians. many (60.8%) of them were married, 24.5% were single, 13.5% were divorced/widowed and 1.2% were unmarried mothers. a written; informed consent form was used to get the respondents’ consent to participate in the study. the form stated the purpose of the research, the procedure, the voluntary nature of participation and assurance of confidentiality of the information. the content of the form was duly explained to the respondents after which they signed the forms. data collection instruments data were collected from the respondents using a structured questionnaire and the work and family conflict scale (wafcs) developed by haslam et al. (2014). the structured questionnaire was face validated based on the objectives of the study by three lecturers in the departments of home science and management, and psychology, university of nigeria, nsukka. the corrections of the validators which included ambiguity of items and grammar, were effected before producing the final copies of the questionnaire. uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 150 two thousand, five hundred (2500) copies of the instrument were hand distributed by the researcher and 12 trained research assistants within a period of two weeks. a total of two thousand, four hundred and twenty-eight (97.1%) were found to be viable for analysis. the wafcs has two subscales; work to family conflict (wfc) and family to work conflict (fwc) subscales. the structured questionnaire had sections a, b and c. section a contained specific questions on the demographic characteristics, section b contained items of the socio-economic and section c was used to identify household characteristics of the respondents. the wafcs is a 10-item instrument that has two sub scales: work-to-family conflict (wfc) and family-towork conflict (fwc). it is rated on a 7-point likert scale starting from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree) but a 5-point likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used for the study to reduce response time. sample question for wfc is “my work prevents me from spending enough quality time with my family” (item 1). sample question for fwc is “family related issue/ responsibilities often distract me at work” (item 7). the scores obtainable for each sub-section (wfc and fwc), ranges from 5 to 25 while the total obtainable scores on the overall work-family was 10 – 50. the instruments were subjected to cronbach’s alpha test to determine the reliability, and the coefficient values obtained were 0.93, 0.86, 0.91 and 0.92 for the structured questionnaire, wfc, fwc and overall wafcs respectively. the values showed high internal consistency of the instrument among the respondents. data and statistical analysis data obtained were coded into the statistical product and service solutions (ibm-spss) version 23 for analysis. score range for wfc and fwc is 5 – 25, where higher scores indicate higher level of work-family conflict. the median score of 15 was used as cut off point for establishing conflict (haslam et al., 2014). respondents with wfc and fwc scores ≥15 were classified as undergoing conflict, while those who scored < 15 were regarded as the no conflict group in the two forms of work-family conflict. the scores on wfc and fwc were summed to obtain the total wafc scores. obtainable score fro wafc is 10 – 50, where higher scores indicate higher level of work-family conflict. the median score of 30 was used as cut off point for establishing conflict (haslam et al., 2014). total wafc scores ≥ 30 were grouped as experiencing work-family conflict while scores < 30 were categorised as no conflict. frequencies and percentages were used to describe the socio-economic and family characteristics data and the level of work-family conflict. chi square was used to determine socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 151 socio-economic and family factors associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict at p ≤ 0.05. results socio-economic characteristics of the respondents table 2 shows data on the socio-economic and household characteristics of the respondents. majority (71.0%) of the respondents earned below ₦40,000 per month; 17.9% lived in single room apartment; 78.2% lived in rented houses, 18.8% made use of communal toilet and bathroom and 61.5% lived in urban area. majority (82.6%) had household size of ≤ 6 people, 73.7% had dependent children, 73.5% had oldest children >12 years of age. about a third (34.8%) had dependent elderly people, 19.9% had chronically ill family members and 21% had house helps. table 2: socio-economic and household characteristics of the respondents socio-economic parameters frequency percentage n (%) salary per month ≤ ₦40,000 (> ±$120) 1708 71.0 >₦40,000 (< ±$120) 697 29 2405 (100) type of apartment single room apartment 432 17.9 ≥ two bedrooms 1979 82.1 2411 (100) residence type privately owned house 524 21.8 rented/communal house 1881 78.2 2405 (100) toilet and bathroom in use at home personal/family toilet and bathroom 1961 81.2 communal toilet and bathroom 453 18.8 2414 (100) dwelling location urban 1494 61.5 rural 934 38.5 2428 (100) household size ≤ 6 people 1981 82.9 >6 people 453 17.1 2391 (100) household characteristics uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 152 have dependent children no 630 26.3 yes 1765 73.7 2395 (100) age of oldest child ≤ 12 years old 328 26.5 >12 years old 910 73.5 1238 (100) have dependent elderly no 1561 65.2 yes 832 34.8 2393 (100) care for chronically ill family member no 1910 80.1 yes 475 19.9 2385 (100) have house help no 1899 79.4 yes 494 20.6 2393 (100) accessibility of household water supply easily accessible 1729 71.7 not easily accessible 683 28.3 2412 (100) level of work-family conflict among the respondents table 3 shows the proportion of the respondents who experienced work-family conflict. data presented showed that more than 30% of the respondents experienced work-family conflict in the direction of work to family conflict (wfc). about a quarter (25.1%) of them experienced family to work conflict (fwc) and 23.0% faced work-family conflict (wafc) in general. table 3: proportion of the respondents who experienced work-family conflict forms of conflict no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) total n (%) work to family conflict 1750 (72.1) 678 (29.9) 2428 (100) family to work conflict 1818 (74.9) 610 (25.1) 2428 (100) overall work and family conflict 1869 (77.0) 559 (23.0) 2428 (100) socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 153 socio-economic characteristics associated with work-family conflict table 4 presents data on the socio-economic characteristics associated with work-family conflict. from the data, salary, location, type of apartment and toilet/bathroom used at home were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. hypotheses 1 were thus upheld in these items. respondents who earned >₦40,000 had higher proportion (31.3%) of wfc, fwc (33.0%) and wafc (31.3%) than 19.4%, 21.5% and 19.4% respectively of those who earned ≤ ₦40,000. those who lived in urban areas experienced higher wfc (31.9%), fwc (25.1%) and overall wafc (27.5%) than respondents in the rural areas. respondents who lived in ≥ two-bedroom apartment had higher proportion experiencing wfc (29.2%), fwc (26.2%) and wafc (24.0%) than those who lived in single-room apartments. residence type was associated with fwc and overall wafc but not wfc. hypotheses 1 is partly rejected. those who lived in privately-owned house experienced less conflict than those who lived in rented/communal houses. household size was not found to be associated with any form of work-family conflict. hypothesis 1are therefore rejected in the item of household size. table 4: socio-economic characteristics associated with work-family conflict socio-economic parameter work to family conflict family to work conflict work-family conflict no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) salary per month ≤ ₦40,000 (≤ ±$80) 1376 (80.6) 332 (19.4) 1340 (78.5) 368 (21.5) 1376 (80.6) 332 (19.4) >₦40,000 (> ±$80) 479 (68.7) 218 (31.3) 467 (67.0) 230 (33.0) 479 (68.7) 218(31.3) total (n=2405) 1855 (72.1) 550 (27.9) 1807 (75.1) 598 (24.9) 1855 (77.1) 550 (22.9) χ2 = 49.51, p = 0.000* χ 2 =34.75, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 39.3, p = 0.000* dwelling location urban 1018 (68.1) 476 (31.9) 1051 (70.3) 443 (25.1) 1079 (72.2) 415 (27.8) rural 732 (78.4) 202 (21.6) 767 (82.1) 167 (17.9) 790 (84.6) 144 (15.4) total (n = 2428) 1750 (72.1) 678 (27.9) 1818 (74.9) 610 (25.1) 1869 (77.0) 559 (23.0) χ 2 = 29.90, p = 0.003* χ 2 = 42.34, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 49.54, p = 0.002* type of apartment single room apartment 333 (77.1) 99 (22.9) 347 (80.3) 85 (19.7) 351 (81.3) 81 (18.8) uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 154 ≥ two bedrooms 1401 (70.8) 578 (29.2%) 1460 (73.8) 519 (26.2) 1505 (76.0) 474 (24.0) total (n =2411) 1734 (71.9) 677 (28.1) 1807 (74.9) 604 (25.1) 1856 (77.0) 555 (23.0) χ 2 = 6.95, p = 0.016* χ 2 = 8.10, p = 0.027* χ 2 =5.41, p = 0.001* residence type privately owned house 366 (69.8) 158(30.2) 419 (80.0) 105 (20.0) 423 (80.7) 101 (19.3) rented/communal house 1363 (72.5) 518 (27.3) 1383 (73.5) 498 (26.5) 1428 (75.9) 453 (24.1) total (n = 2405) 1729 (71.9) 676 (28.1) 1802 (74.9) 603 (25.1) 1851 (77.0) 55.4(23.0) χ 2 =1.39, p = 0.230 χ 2 =9.04, p = 0.021* χ 2 = 5.30, p = 0.032* toilet and bathroom used at home private/family toilet and bathroom 1432 (73.0) 529 (27.0) 1494 (76.2) 467 (23.8) 1534 (78.2) 427 (21.8) communal toilet and bathroom 305 (67.3) 148 (32.7) 316 (69.8) 137 (30.2) 325 (71.7) 128 (28.3) total (n = 2414) 1737 (72.0) 677 (28.0) 1810 (75.0) 604 (25.0) 1859 (77.0) 555 (23.0) χ 2 =5.92, p = 0.001* χ 2 =8.11, p = 0.021* χ 2 =8.73; p = 0.000* household size ≤ 6 people 1428 (72.1) 553 (27.9) 1468 (74.1) 513 (25.9) 1513 (76.4) 468 (23.6) >6 people 291 (71.0) 119 (29.0) 323 (78.8) 87 (21.2) 326 (79.5) 84 (20.5) total (n =2391) 1719 (71.9) 672 28.1) 1791 (74.9) 600 (25.1) 1839 (76.9) 552 (23.1) χ 2 = 0.21, p = 0.063 χ 2 =3.95, p = 0.521 χ 2 =1.88, p = 0.057 *; values are significant at p < 0.05, χ 2; chi square values, n; number of responses on the variable, f; frequencies, %; percentages. household characteristics associated with work-family conflict table 5 shows the household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among the respondents. data revealed that having dependent children, age of oldest child, caring for chronically ill family member, and accessibility of household water supply were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. the hypotheses 2 were upheld in these items. respondents who had dependent children reported higher wfc (28.1%), fwc (28.4%) and overall wafc (23.0%) than 15.2%, 14.9% and 12.2%, respectively of those who had no dependent children. those whose oldest child were >12 years old and those who cared for chronically ill family member had statistically (p < 0.05) higher proportion in all the dimensions of work-family conflict than those whose oldest child were ≤ 12 years old and those socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 155 who had no ill family member, respectively. respondents who did not have easily accessible household water supply also reported higher wfc (36%), fwc (37.6%) and wafc (34.0%) than 24.9%, 20.1% and 18.7% of those who had easily accessible water supply. partly supporting hypothesis 2, caring for dependent elderly person and having house help were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with wfc. higher proportion (33.1%) of respondents who cared for elderly person and 33.2% of those who had house helps experienced wfc compared to 25.4% who had no dependent elderly and house help (26.6%). caring for elderly and having house help were not associated with fwc and overall wafc. hypotheses 2 are therefore rejected on the items. table 5: household characteristics associated with work-family conflict work to family conflict family to work conflict work-family conflict family/household parameter no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) no conflict group f (%) conflict group f (%) have dependent children no 534 (84.8) 96 (15.2) 536 (85.1) 94 (14.9) 553 (87.8) 77 12.2) yes 1188 (67.3) 577 (32.7) 1259 (71.3) 506 (28.7) 1290 (73.1) 475 (26.9) total (n =2395) 1722 (71.9) 673 (28.1) 1795 (71.6) 600 (28.4) 1843 (77.0) 552 (23.0) χ 2 = 70.0, p = 0.030* χ 2 = 46.74, p = 0.011* χ 2 = 56.49, p = 0.002* age of oldest child ≤ 12 years old 249 (75.9) 79 (24.1) 268 (81.7) 60 (18.3) 275 (83.8) 53 (16.2) >12 years old 613 (67.4) 297 (32.6) 618 (67.9) 292 (32.1) 644 (70.8) 266 (29.2) total (n = 1238) 862 (69.6) 376 (30.4) 886 (71.6) 352 (28.4) 919 (74.2) 319 (25.8) χ 2 = 8.34, p = 0.00* χ 2 = 22.55, p = 0.00* χ 2 =21.54, p = 0.000* have dependent elderly person no 1164 (74.6) 397 (25.4) 1171 (75.0) 390 (25.0) 1210 (77.5) 351 (22.5) yes 557 (66.9) 275 (33.1) 623 (74.9) 209 (25.1) 632 (76.0) 200 (24.0) total (n =2393) 1721 (71.9) 672 (29.1) 1794 (75.0) 599 (25.0) 1842 (77.0) 551 (23.0) χ 2 = 15.61, p = 0.022* χ 2 = 0.01, p = 0.065 χ 2 = 0.74, p = 0.078 care for chronically ill family member no 1437 (75.2) 473 (24.8) 1481 (77.5) 429 (22.5) 1523 (79.7) 387 (20.3) yes 276 (58.1) 199 (41.9) 306 (64.4) 169 (35.6) 311 (65.5) 164 (34.4) total (n = 2385) 1713 (71.8) 672 (28.2) 1787 (74.9) 598 (25.1) 1834 (76.9) 551 (23.1) uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 156 *; values are significant at p < 0.05, χ 2; chi square values, n; number of responses on the variable, f; frequencies, %; percentages. discussion the findings on the socio-economic and household characteristics of female primary school teachers showed that majority of them earned below forty thousand naira (approximately, 80 us dollars). they are thus classified as low income workers, falling below the global benchmark for average income level of $3.20 (±₦1,600) per person, per day, as defined by the world bank (2017). a good number of them lived in rented or communal houses mostly consisting of two or more bedrooms while a few lived in privately-owned houses. living in rented apartment could be a major source of family expenditure in terms of rent, compared to living in one’s own house. many of the female teachers used personal or family toilets and bathrooms while some of them shared with other occupants of the house. sharing bathrooms with others could make the hassles of preparing for work more stressful and time consuming, and could also breed conflict with other users as it concerns bathroom use etiquettes (grebey, 2014). many of the respondents had at least one dependent child with the oldest child more than 12 years of age. this implies that a good number of the teachers were mothers/caregivers of adolescents and perhaps adult children. in 2017, united nations department of economic and social affairs (undesa), reported that more than 80% of african families had at least one child and this influences how much of the family resources are allocated to child care needs such as education and health care. some of the teachers had one or more dependent elderly persons who were most likely to be their aged parents and parents-in-law. elderly persons are χ 2 = 55.16, p = 0.012* χ 2 = 34.85, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 43.57, p = 0.000* have house help no 1393 (73.4) 506 (26.6) 1423 (74.9) 476 (25.1) 1466 (77.2) 433 (22.8) yes 330 (66.8) 164 (33.2) 371 (75.1) 123 (24.9) 377 (76.3) 117 (23.7) total (n = 2393) 1723 (72.0) 670 (28.0) 1794 (75.0) 599 (25.0) 1843 (77.0) 550 (23.0) χ 2 = 8.35, p = 0.010* χ 2 =0.01, p = 0.529 χ 2 = 0.17, p = 0.341 accessibility of household water supply easily accessible 1299 (24.9) 430 (24.9) 1382 (79.9) 347 (20.1) 1406 (81.3) 323 (18.7) not easily accessible 437 (64.0) 246 (36.0) 426 (62.4) 257 (37.6) 451 (66.0) 232 (34.0) total (n = 2412) 1736 (72.0) 676 (28.0) 1808 (75.0) 604 (25.0) 1857 (77.0) 555 (23.0) χ 2 =30.16, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 80.40, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 64.58, p = 0.000* socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 157 at the stage of physiological and psychological depreciation, hence they need assistance for most of their care needs (echeta & ezeh, 2017). a few of the teachers also had chronically sick family members who depend on them for care. lim and zebrack (2004) noted that when family provide home-based care for chronically ill members, the cost of hospital-based treatment is reduced and could also provide emotional support needed by the invalid to go through the illness, however, this could also affect the physical, psychological, and social well-being of the caregivers leading to increased stress, anxiety and depression. a few of the teachers had house helps also known as domestic workers. many working couples, depending on their family life stage, had over the years sought the services of domestic helps to relieve working mothers of some house chores as a strategy to balance family and work life (tade & aderinto, 2012). however, having house helps tends to add to family financial burden. from the study, majority of the respondents lived in households of six or less persons. from the study, majority of the respondents lived in households of six or less persons and more than a quarter of them did not have easy access to household water. nnaji (2015) also observed the issue of household water scarcity as a major problem facing residents of enugu urban. the finding further established that about a quarter of the respondents experienced at least one form of work-family conflict. work to family interference was reported more frequently than family to work interference. this corroborates the findings of previous studies in which prevalence of work to family interference was higher than that of family to work interference among subjects (adalikwu, 2014; erdamar & demirel, 2014). this could be attributed to the fact that family roles are less rigid than schedule of work responsibilities with regards to time and commitment. individuals find it less detrimental to their general wellbeing to satisfy work demands at the expense of family demands and as observed by adalikwu (2014), work has a priority because individuals and families depend on the income from work for survival. thus, work responsibilities mostly tend to spill over into the time and energy resources needed for carrying out family roles. further findings showed that in partial support of hypothesis 1, socio-economic characteristics of the respondents such as salary, location, type of apartment as well as toilet and bathroom used at home, were associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. respondents who earned more than forty thousand naira per month, reported higher conflict than those who earned less. although this finding is unexpected as poor income has been found uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 158 to predict higher work-family conflict (hiciano, 2020). however, the finding could be attributed to the fact that higher pay is usually associated with greater responsibilities both at workplace and at home, which might increase the workload of the women and hence lead to higher work-family conflict. more respondents in urban areas experienced work-family conflict than those in rural areas. this finding is in line with the observation of gaikhorst, beishuizen, roosenboom and volman (2017), that teaching in urban schools is difficult and challenging with significant high work load, stress from parents and administrators, and dealing with children from heterogeneous backgrounds. however, it appears that rural versus urban factor in work-family conflict, is dependent on the peculiarities of various professions. in a study of work-family conflict among female doctors in india, sweety (2016) reported that urban doctors experienced less work family conflict than their rural counterparts and the finding was attributed to the difference in lifestyle and heavier work load of rural doctors compared to urban doctors. further finding showed that respondents who lived in two or more-bedroom apartments reported more conflict in all dimensions than those who lived in single room apartments. this suggests that bigger apartments could contribute to greater demands in time and efforts with regards to cleaning and maintenance. in explaining this finding, further analysis (not presented on table), showed that 60% of the respondents who lived in single-room apartment were single women who are likely to have fewer dependent children and less family responsibilities than the married or widowed women. residence type was associated with family to work, and overall work-family conflict but not work to family conflict. those who lived in privatelyowned house experienced less conflict than those who lived in rented or communal houses. it is likely that living in one’s own house offers more privacy and other conveniences needed to effectively carry out personal and family roles. this is buttressed by another finding of this study which showed that women who used communal toilet and bathroom at home (facility serving all the occupants of the residential unit) experienced higher work and family conflict than those who used private/family convenience. in line with the finding, shiras et al. (2018) also observed that living in rented apartments and sharing bathrooms and toilets with other occupants of the house, were also found to found to increase stress and conflict. use of private/family toilets and bathrooms is more obtainable among those living in their own houses than those who live in rented houses. during the morning rush hours, personal or family toilets and bathrooms offer much more timely and stress-free preparation for work, compared to use of communal facilities which usually require waiting for turns. this could lead to interference socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 159 in time required to resume at workplace. further finding of the study showed that household size was not found to be associated with any form of work-family conflict. the study further found that in line with hypotheses 2, household characteristics such as having dependent children, age of oldest child, caring for chronically ill family member, and accessibility of household water supply were significantly associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. respondents who had dependent children reported higher work-to family, family to work and overall work-family conflict than those who had no dependent children. children take up most of the family time, as they require constant care and attention. the finding confirms the report by omar, ahmad and ismail (2016) that work-family conflict is influenced by the arrival of children and subsequent child care roles. unexpectedly, mothers/caregivers of older children (>12 years) experienced all the dimensions of workfamily conflict more than mothers/caregivers of younger children. the finding suggests that parenting older (adolescents or adult) children places more demands of time and energy of working women compared to parenting younger children. this might be as result of huge financial demands associated with higher education of older children. even though older children or adolescents may not require as much active caregiving as younger children, their needs still demand much of parents’ time and energy (waldfogel & mclanahan, 2011). as further observed by america academy of child and adolescent psychiatry [aacap] (2015), the movement of children towards independence can cause stress for parents as some children do not make the transition easily. in line with the finding of omar et al. (2016), caring for dependent elderly person was significantly associated with higher work to family conflict. in nigeria, it is generally accepted that caring for the aged parents is the cultural obligation of family members especially women (tanyi et al., 2018). therefore, it is possible that work demands of women might be making it difficult for them to effectively carry out this role. as observed by waldfogel and mclanahan (2011), caring for a chronically ill family member was associated with all forms of work-family conflict in this study. caring for chronically ill family members usually increases time and energy expenditure of working women. they could also add to emotional strain and stress of the women, thereby making them less psychologically disposed to effectively handle other family and work responsibilities. respondents who had house help had higher proportion experiencing work to family conflict than those who had none. muasya (2016) and okonkwo, ekwochi and uwaezuoke (2019) found that the use of domestic help for childcare was one of the major strategies adopted by working mothers to cope with work-family conflict. however, uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 160 it appears in this study that house helps increase other areas of household responsibilities, even as they assist in house chores. furthermore, having easy access to household water supply was associated with less work-family conflict in all its dimensions. water is an indispensable resource in getting house chores done in good time. therefore, having easy access to it, is expected to facilitate much of domestic duties and help to alleviate stress and pressure of house chores among working women. conclusion work-family conflict is an established phenomenon among female school teachers; with work interfering with family much more than family interfered with work roles. in furtherance to the spill over theory, various socio-economic characteristics of primary school teachers were associated with experiencing all dimensions of work-family include higher salary (more than forty thousand naira), living in urban areas, living in bigger (two or more bedroom) apartments, and using communal toilet and bathroom at home. furthermore, having dependent, older children (above 12 years of age), caring for chronically ill family member, and accessibility of household water supply were household factors that account for higher work-family conflict. caring for the elderly and having house helps was associated with increase in work-to family conflict. the implications of work-family conflict among women teachers is far reaching; from individual level to the family and society at large, with its greatest effect on the family circle. it affects childcare, marital relationships and overall family stability. hence this study brought to limelight, various modifiable risk factors associated with work-family conflict, with a view to providing a road map for development and implementation of policies aimed at promoting the wellbeing of the individual female teachers, families, and the society. recommendations: it is therefore recommended that; 1. individual teacher and families should endeavor to make some adjustments in their personal and family lives so as to minimize the domestic factors that contribute to workfamily conflict. 2. the government should assist families to get easily accessible household water so as to facilitate carrying out of house chores such as cleaning and cooking. 3. the government should provide adequate and subsidized health care support for the elderly persons especially chronically ill ones. socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in enugu state, nigeria ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 161 4. sensitization campaign should be carried out by home science professionals, to promote work-family conflict awareness among primary school teachers, so that they will adopt lifestyles that will enable them achieve balance between family and work. author contribution • uju ifeoma nnubia conceived the research, wrote the initial manuscript, and participated in data collection for the study. • vivienne n. ibeanu was responsible for fine-tuning the research concept and design, supervision of the research, and editing of the manuscript for grammar and technicality. • franca o. okechukwu organized and supervised the data collection and was participated in data analysis. uju nnubia, vivienne ibeanu, & franca okechukwu ajote vol.11 no.1 (2022), 143-165 162 references adalikwu, c. 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(2013). steps sample size calculator and sampling spreadsheet. retrieved february 24, 2020, from https://www.who.int/ncds/surveillance/steps/resources/sampling/en/ practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa rina lemmer sarlina1 & gertruida le roux2 1aros, pretoria, south africa 2 university of south africa abstract mentoring student teachers is a fundamental approach in teaching practice. traditionally, teaching-practice models have been based on cognitive apprentice approaches and have been hierarchical in nature. problems with finding suitable schools for teaching practice and mentoring experiences have been challenging, which has led to the implementation of collaborative partnership approaches. in south africa, minimal research has been undertaken on the establishment of partnerships to strengthen teaching practice, with work in the third space almost non-existent. the research question under investigation in this paper is as follows: how do we move away from hierarchical models of teaching practice and establish collaborative partnerships between schools and universities? the paper is underpinned by both third space theory and border theory. the aim of the paper is, first, to explore the challenges encountered with the hierarchical models used in teaching practice. second, we explore what collaborative educational partnerships entail and investigate the various models used internationally to establish partnerships between universities and schools to strengthen teaching practice. this non-empirical paper uses a secondary-source data design that draws on existing texts, research findings, and journal articles. a qualitative research approach has been employed as it allows a narrative description of the data collected. an interpretive approach is employed to interpret and to discuss the findings. the paper concludes by reviewing practice schools as a type of school that allows lecturers, teachers, and students to cross institutional borders and collaborate in the third space. keywords: border theory, cognitive apprenticeship, communities of practice, mentoring, partnerships, practice schools, supervision, teaching practice, third spaces, work-integrated learning. issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 148-165 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 149 introduction mentoring student teachers from observation to co-teaching and, eventually, to teaching whole sessions without the involvement of a mentor teacher is a fundamental approach used around the world to prepare student teachers for teaching (ambrosetti, knight & dekkers, 2013; dhet, 2011). orland-barak (2014) describes mentoring as a process of mediation between persons and content in value-laden contexts of practice. most definitions assume a hierarchical relationship between the experienced mentor and an inexperienced or less experienced mentee. in this relationship, the mentor provides knowledge and skills that the mentee wants or needs (ambrosetti & dekkers, 2010). the arrangement between schools and teacher-education institutions is commonly referred to as a partnership, though, in reality, it is nothing more than a procedure that enables the university1 to gain entry to schools so that its students can complete their practical sessions. this paper is an extension of lemmer’s study (2021) which investigated the shortcomings of teaching-practice2 models in south africa with a view to making suggestions for improving teaching students’ practical preparation. lemmer made recommendations for improving mentoring and proposed the establishing of formal partnerships between schools and universities to address problems with the placement and mentoring of student teachers. her findings and recommendations are in line with graham’s (2006) finding that points to mentoring and placement (at the teaching site) as the two most critical factors influencing the success of teaching-practice experience. the aim of this paper is to expand on these factors by highlighting common problems experienced with the placement and mentoring of student teachers in south africa and to motivate for a necessary shift away from hierarchical apprenticeship models towards collaborative partnership approaches if we are serious about improving the quality of pre-service teacher education. this paper was motivated by the fact that a literature search via google scholar and on the sabinet african journals (formerly south african publications) website exploring partnerships between universities and schools between 2010 and 2022 produced results for only three south african studies on establishing partnerships between universities and schools in order to strengthen the teaching practice of 1 we recognise that student teachers are trained at different types of institutions, ranging from colleges to universities. for the sake of consistency, in this paper, we use the term “university” to include all the various types of teacher training institutions. 2 in the literature, we have come across the terms practicum, practicals, and internship to refer to the practical experience of student teachers teaching at schools during their pre-service training. for the sake of consistency, we use the term “teaching practice”. rina lemmer sarlina & gertruida le roux ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 150 pre-service teachers. only one of the three articles refers to working in a third space, which refers to a participatory approach to professional practice in which lecturers, mentor teachers, student teachers, and local communities collaborate and co-construct knowledge of teaching (daza, gudmundsdottir & lund, 2021). the rest of the south african research studies over the last decade describe either the mentor or the mentee’s mentoring experience or highlight the value of mentoring. this gap prompted us to undertake a literature search for partnership models between universities and schools internationally with the aim of guiding us towards making recommendations to improve the quality of teaching practice in south africa. this paper thus does not involve fieldwork and may be classified as theoretical research. the research methodology comprises a review of the literature as this allows us to answer our research question. the purpose of the literature review as a research methodology in this theoretical paper is to test the research question against what is already known about the subject. finally, we offer recommendations that can be used by stakeholders to initiate discussions to call for policy changes. background to and rationale for the study as mentioned above, most teacher-education institutions use supervision and mentoring to ensure that student teachers learn about, in, and from practice. in the south african context, the “minimum requirements for teacher education qualifications” (dhet, 2011) states that teaching practice, or work-integrated learning, should: • be spread out across the academic programme and should take place in blocks of varying duration throughout the programme, • where a more extended period is envisaged, such as a component of a final year of study or within a structured mentorship programme, involve a guarantee of proper supervision, suitable school placement, and formal assessment, and • in the form of work-integrated learning, take place in functional schools. these points emphasise that there should be mentoring and supervision and that teaching practice must take place in well-functioning schools. the problem is that the south african schooling system is one of the worse-performing in the world (howie et al., 2017; juan, reddy & arends, 2019), and research reports confirm that a staggering 80% of schools are dysfunctional (equal education law centre, 2022). what this means is that poorly trained teachers (dlengezele, 2020; gravett & ramsaroop, 2015; robinson & taylor, 2019; spaull, 2013) are becoming mentors for student teachers in dysfunctional schools (lynch & smith, practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 151 2013). in south africa, there is no criterion for qualifying as a mentor teacher other than years of experience – no formal training is required (dlengezele, 2020; maphalala, 2013; smith, moletsane & small, 2014). another problem, which seems to be a global one, is that relationships between the university and schools are not as collaborative as they should be. due to a power imbalance and a separation of responsibilities, it seems that the school’s function is to merely provide a place for pre-service teachers to practice what they are taught at university (knight, turner & dekkers, 2013). with no to minimal contact between university lecturers and mentor teachers, each function separately, with no shared vision or common goals (smith et al., 2014). most of the power lies with the university, while schools are passive recipients of student teachers. there is no agreement between the two sectors on each other’s expectations and roles (lemmer, 2021). during teaching practice, student teachers are preoccupied with delivering lesson plans and mastering the experience, rather than with paying attention to the learners and what they are learning. these lessons are often seen as an add-on and as being disconnected from the educational life of schools (helgevold, næsheim-bjørvik & østrem, 2015; lynch & smith, 2013). south african teachers are provided with scripted lessons by their respective provincial education administrations, and mentors expect student teachers to present these scripted lessons during teaching practice, rather than what is prescribed by the university (lemmer, 2021). these scripted lessons generate minimal evidence of reflective practices occurring in schools. in the context of student teachers entering schools for teaching practice, mentoring reflects the view that every teacher has their own approaches to teaching, and there is little evidence of peer and group mentoring to facilitate co-operative learning. this situation often leads to problems such as personality clashes, power struggles, and threatening or distancing behaviour (lemmer, 2021), issues which are commonly associated with hierarchical models of mentoring. this is because universities do not play a supportive role in preparation for the kinds of mentorship they require (smith et al., 2014). furthermore, it seems that mentoring has become intertwined with supervision as it is increasingly being used as a substitute for supervision. increasingly, teacher education institutions rely on mentor teachers to assess the practical performance of students. this exacerbates confusion about the nature of mentoring and the role the mentor plays. assigning a grade needs to be considered strictly a supervisor’s function as the mentor teachers are not rina lemmer sarlina & gertruida le roux ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 152 held accountable for the new teacher’s capacity to teach (lynch & smith, 2013). there should be a clear distinction between the role of the supervisor and that of the mentor teacher. if teaching practice in south africa is considered a partnership, schools certainly do not benefit much from such a partnership as an important feature of a partnership is knowledgesharing, which is largely absent from the process. furthermore, partnerships should allow institutions to frequently engage in communication and to find ways to understand one another. in this way, a common vision and shared goals are established. this would enable both institutions to reflect on the process and to develop critical thinking as they interact; little evidence for any of this was found in the south african research studies. the research focus as a quote attributed to albert einstein has it, it is certainly insanity to keep on doing the same thing and to expect different results. as the challenges involving placement and mentoring is not unfamiliar to us, the question is: how do we implement changes that will improve placement and mentoring in teaching practice? how do we move away from hierarchical models of teaching practice and establish collaborative partnerships between schools and universities? the aim of the paper the aim of this paper is, first, to explore the challenges associated with the use of hierarchical models in teaching practice. second, we explore what collaborative educational partnerships entail and investigate a variety of models used internationally to establish partnerships between universities and schools in order to strengthen teaching practice. research methodology as this is a theoretical or non-empirical paper, the research design used here is a secondarysource data design (babbie & mouton, 2006) which draws from existing texts – research findings and journal articles. a qualitative research approach has been employed as it allows for a narrative description of the data collected. an interpretive approach, as is employed here, is viewed as a method of argumentation and interpretation of specific occurrences and repetitive patterns in data which can then be used to make generalisations and to apply principles. practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 153 a review of the literature a range of international studies found via google scholar and the online database epscohost for the years between 2010 and 2022 confirm the conflicting agendas of campus-based learning (the theory) and school teaching (the practice). many of these studies propose educational partnerships to address the challenges associated with hierarchical models of teaching practice. daza et al. (2021), caution that balancing school-based (practice) and university-based (theory) knowledge about teaching and learning is a challenge to the sustainability and effectiveness of partnerships, which is something that is important to keep in mind for researchers and policymakers. in the next section, we discuss what the literature says about educational partnerships and present models found in the literature. educational partnerships, according to lillejord and børte (2016), are complex relationships that require the cross-cultural sharing of resources, infrastructure, and knowledge to truly support professional learning. they also emphasise that the design, implementation, and replication of partnerships in teacher education is never linear but is rather layered and requires open and constant dialogue among all participants in the partnership. barnett, hall, berg and camarena (2010) note that it is difficult for any partnership model to portray all that a partnership encompasses. they describe partnership development in three parts. the first details the level of involvement of the partners in the process and activities. the level of involvement starts with simple support, and then moves to the next level, which is cooperation that is characterised by shared decision-making to achieve the goals of the partnership. if the partnership is strengthened and sustained, it reaches the final level of involvement, which is more complex. this last level of involvement is identified as true collaboration between the partners. the second facet of partnership involves its structure, which also begins simply and then proceeds to a moderately complex structuring; in the final stage, the structure of the partnership can become complex and entangled. the last facet of partnership development refers to the impact of the partnership in terms of the achievement of its goals and objectives. this impact is conceptualised as a hierarchy that proceeds from easily obtainable results to changes in management and leadership procedures, and then, lastly, to systemic educational improvement and new policy development. barnett et al. (2010) encourage educational agencies to evaluate the level of interdependence that is required to achieve the goals of a partnership. these can be achieved by evaluating the following three levels: cooperation, coordination, and collaboration. the first rina lemmer sarlina & gertruida le roux ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 154 level proposed by barnett et al. (2010) is the vendor model, which occurs when a school or school system contracts with an organisation for a specific service or form of education. this level of engagement usually reflects a short-term relationship. the most complex level proposed by barnett et al. (2010) is the collaborative model, which involves intensive and sustained mutual exchange and benefit. the goal of the collaborative model is more complex than the first two levels, and the partners become intertwined in the process. the linking agents in the partnership must establish credibility and trust within their own organisation because they are often asked to make commitments that must be honoured for the duration of the partnership. barnett et al. (2010) make use of griggs’ (2015) six primary elements that foster partnership success and sustainability and infuse them into their conceptual framework for educational partnerships, namely purposeful planning and flexibility in implementation; shared values and common goals; open and regular communication; and commitment, trust, and leadership. this conceptual framework is illustrated in figure 1 below. figure 1: continuum of interagency efforts (1992) reprinted in barnett et al. (2010), and adapted by lemmer and le roux practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 155 cooperation: organisational trust characterises this level of partnership: because the organisations are known and trusted, the participants are willing to trust one another. this type of partnership often has the approval of the leaders of the institution but lacks their involvement. collaboration: trust between the organisations develops from trust in each organisation to trust among the individuals. the employees believe in the vision of the partnership and become personally committed. leaders emerge at all levels of this partnership. the leaders are committed to a successful outcome of the partnership because its goals are important to the organisation as a whole. coordination: at this level of partnership, new participants are incorporated as being a priori trustworthy because they belong to the organisation, and they quickly move to establish individual trust. at all levels, the leaders are active participants in the partnership endeavour. by making use of this framework, institutions and schools can better assess their understanding of an educational partnership and of the level of partnership they have employed for teaching practice. in many countries, the time periods stipulated for teaching practice are prescribed by the qualification-accreditation authorities. rather than meeting prescribed requirements such as timeframes, frameworks such as the one presented above should be used to evaluate the quality of the partnership outcomes. theoretical framework theoretical frameworks serve as a lens to help interpret the knowledge that is presented in a study. the foundational review of existing theories serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments used in a study. this paper is underpinned by three theories. first, we consider social constructivist theories of learning in order to understand how these have shaped teaching practice over the years. then we investigate third-space theory to understand the concepts of hybridity and binaries and how these apply to teaching practice. lastly, we draw from border theory to understand the challenges involved in crossing institutional borders. russian psychologist lev vygotsky advocated apprenticeship learning in terms of which the more knowledgeable scaffold activities within the zone of proximal development of the novice learner (vygotsky, 1978). for vygotsky, cultural context and social interaction are fundamental for making meaning and for learning. for gessler (2009), the “cognitive apprenticeship” learning arrangement is an approach to designing situated-learning environments. among other focuses of cognitive apprenticeship, the development of problemrina lemmer sarlina & gertruida le roux ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 156 solving skills in the context of real-life situations is encouraged. the novice thereby obtains an understanding of how experts cope with complex problems and tasks and of how to select cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies to solve problems, as demonstrated by the expert. progressively, according to the level of skill and knowledge of the mentee, mentoring and support are gradually reduced until mentees can cope with the learning situations by themselves. situated learning theory, located within the cognitive apprenticeship theory, also holds that the acquisition of knowledge is contextually tied to the learning situation; however, lave (1988) adds another line of theory, namely, establishing a community of practice which strengthens the collaborative nature of learning. while these principles remain valid and underpin learning in and from practice, the hierarchical relationships associated with cognitive apprenticeship have led to research studies that explore other ways to address the abovementioned challenges commonly associated with teaching practice. since learning to teach is a dynamic, non-linear endeavour that occurs across multiple spaces, relying separately upon either the university or the school has proven to be ineffective. in order to establish less hierarchical spaces where the university and the schools can strengthen their partnerships, the third space has recently become a focus in research. it involves creating hybrid spaces where the expertise of all participants is welcomed equally. the third space refers to a participatory approach to professional practice in which lecturers, mentor teachers, student teachers, and local communities collaborate and co-construct knowledge of teaching (daza et al., 2021). working in the third space implies a crossing of institutional boundaries, in which identities are constantly negotiated. the concept of the third space originates with post-colonial academic homi bhabha (1994). in his work, the location of culture, bhabha challenges us to think of our identities as being flexible rather than fixed. for bhabha, our identities are hybrid because we derive our ideas and knowledge from the different cultures and spaces in which we move and work. consequently, we are all between cultures, and our identities are therefore hybrid because they demonstrate characteristics of all the cultures and spaces with which we are familiar. the third space is thus an analogy that critically challenges binaries, such as that of coloniser and colonised or, as is the case with teaching practice, of the university (the theory) and the school (the practice). binaries are terms typically situated in opposition to each other. rather than bridging two extremes or compromising between two opposing camps, third-space theory redefines, recreates, and/or replaces a binary relationship. this is achieved by imagining a new practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 157 space in which innovative and creative ideas can emerge. this hybridity thus presents an alternative to the two terms locked within the binary. in teaching practice, this means that students learn in familiar yet overlapping contexts; however, to do so, they need to cross the institutional boundaries of the university and the school and combine their total lived experience in what is referred to as the third space. the university is usefully regarded as the first space and the school as the second. as noted by moje et al. (2004), the naming of these spaces as primary and secondary is less important than how they are constructed and reconstructed to form a third space. zeichner’s (2010) view of the third space as a metaphor to indicate the merging point where schools and universities come together for the purpose of teaching practice is illustrated in figure 2. figure 2: the merging point, the third space, between two institutions in teaching practice working in the third space has the potential to transform inter-institutional relationships and to build stronger collaborative practices for the benefit of pre-service teacher education. however, anzaldúa (1998) and bhabha (1994) have warned that the third space is not an easy one in which to exist. it requires deconstruction and an examination of the binaries and of identity as it relates to power and oppression, processes which are difficult to actualise but necessary in order to create change. central to third-space theory is border theory, which explains how borders, as lines of demarcation and differentiation, divide countries, spaces, and institutions. borders may be physical and visible, such as the walls surrounding a school or institution, or invisible and metaphorical (social, cultural, or political). spaces verging on either side of a border are defined as borderlands and are seen to be socially constructed sites. when individuals cross a border into another space, they may experience conflict that must be carefully negotiated (anzaldúa, 1987; chan, 2019). border theory is important because it gives a voice to groups or individuals who have experienced tension, oppression, or conflict as a result of their moving between spaces (anzaldúa, 1987). according to border theory, hybridity (as explained in the discussion rina lemmer sarlina & gertruida le roux ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 158 on third-space theory, above) makes it possible for individuals or groups to mediate the tensions between two domains by mixing cultures (anzaldúa, 1987). in teaching practice, institutional borders are those lines of demarcation that divide the university and school domains. such a conceptualisation of borders explains the tension experienced by students when they go to schools for teaching practice, as there are few measures in place to manage the transition between the university and the school. discussion practical teacher training in schools is influenced by many personal, interpersonal, institutional, social, and historical factors. as a result of all that is involved in this process, toohey (2013) cautions that mentoring relationships do not merely occur of their own accord. they need a clearly defined partnership structure, starting with the identification of suitable schools for placement. as schools and universities play a dual role, and we need a shared vision of how best to shape teaching-practice experiences, it is, in the final analysis, important to explore the role of teaching schools in creating opportunities for moving between institutional borders. some countries, such as the usa, the uk, canada, finland, denmark, and norway use teaching schools as a vehicle to establish collaboration between universities and specific schools, which are known as practice schools, and also sometimes referred to as education schools, teaching schools, lab schools, or professional development schools (henning, petker & petersen, 2015). in norway, it seems that a practice school refers to one identified as such in the common practice of finding regular schools for teachers to visit for their teaching practice. practice schools, in the sense in which they are referred to in this paper, are what norwegians refer to as university schools (smith, 2016). figure 3, below, highlights the division of responsibilities between the school and the university, as is common practice, as opposed to what occurs in university schools, which have the same status as university hospitals. for this paper, university schools are what we refer to as teaching schools. practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 159 figure 3: school-university relationships (smith, 2016) historically, university schools (in the norwegian context), or teaching schools, as we refer to them in this paper, served as sites of practice learning for student teachers and, at the same time, as research sites. the idea is that such schools are affiliated with universities in the same way that teaching hospitals, where health practitioners are educated, are affiliated to universities. in the education sector, these schools are places where student teachers can learn from best practice in well-functioning schools. in these somewhat protected environments, student teachers can safely test their pedagogy under the watchful eye of carefully trained mentor teachers and university lecturers. at the same time, such a scenario allows lecturers to undertake research that will improve practice. drawing from third-space theory, teachingpractice schools create the space where university lecturers, teachers, and students journey beyond their own organisational and professional territories to combine their respective skills, knowledge, and expertise in creative ways. furthermore, within this space, all participants can contribute to much-needed critical reflective action, which is currently missing from most teaching-practice experiences in south africa. furthermore, gravett and ramsaroop (2015) caution that, for this to be the case, teacher education programmes would need to be redesigned so that both the university and the teaching school serve as sites for the intentional investigation of practice. a word of caution as highlighted briefly above, creating and working in the third space is a challenging process. as confirmed by gravett et al. (2014), it may not be easy to achieve the harmonious third space desired to bring together theory and practice in teacher education. tensions in the third space are likely to occur between individuals, within and across groups and institutions, and in the practical construction of the space. the collaborative nature of the third space necessarily rina lemmer sarlina & gertruida le roux ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 160 implies the existence of a challenging web of relationships. according to daza et al. (2021), relational tensions include power struggles and the tensions related to defining whose knowledge has greater value. tensions relating to crossing institutional and personal boundaries, shifting identities, and power differentials are also mentioned in research. tensions relating to development and sustainability concern the practical difficulties of developing, applying, and sustaining the third space in teacher education. in 2012, the department of basic education and higher education and training (2011) presented “the integrated strategic planning framework for teacher education and development in south africa”. this framework was conceptualised with the aim of strengthening the teaching-practice component of teacher-education programmes through the development of teaching schools and professional practice schools. it was envisaged that such schools would have different yet complementary roles in the pre-service education of student teachers and that mentors would be adequately developed. even before the framework document was released, the faculty of education at the university of johannesburg (uj), in partnership with the gauteng department of education, had established a public school on its soweto campus in 2010. the intention here was to develop an integrated practice site for student teachers (gravett & ramsaroop, 2015; henning et al., 2015). based on the work that uj had already undertaken at its school, the department of higher education and training supported by european union funding, commissioned researchers to conduct research on the viability of establishing teaching schools in south africa. unfortunately, it seems that the framework has remained merely a good idea on paper, and the uj practice school remains the only teaching school whose activities may shape our experience of teaching schools in the south african context. the first obstacle highlighted by gravett et al. (2014) is the legal status of practice schools. the current education legislation framework allows only for ordinary public schools, public schools for learners with special educational needs, public schools that provide education with a specialised focus on talent (such as art schools), and private schools. second, gravett et al. (2014) highlight the fact that the university has no say in teacher appointments, which means that the university has little capacity to intervene if teachers do not adequately fulfil their role as teacher educators. third, the teacher educators in their study reported feeling caught between the gauteng department of education, their employer, and the university. the study further highlights issues of teacher autonomy. teacher educators expressed their frustration of not having the freedom to practice schools as third spaces? between hierarchical models and collaborative partnerships in teaching practice in south africa ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 148-165 161 experiment with new ideas and the initiatives expected of them because of extreme levels of control and monitoring by department officials. even the timetable arrangements prevented teacher educators from meetings with students to discuss their observations. lastly, gravett et al. (2014) caution against making the assumption that university resources such as lesson plan templates will successfully make the transition to the teaching school context while maintaining their integrity as tools for the facilitation of student teacher learning. they highlight the need for teaching school staff and academic staff to co-create a shared epistemological space in which the binaries can be bridged. they further caution against assuming that teachers will magically transform into teacher educators. teaching experience alone is insufficient and, importantly, they emphasise that teacher educators need to be prepared to make a shift in order to properly inhabit their new role. as advocated by myllyviita (2013), this problematic calls for the planning and implementation of a coherent programme for teaching schools to develop staff as teacher educators. according to gravett et al. (2014) these challenges may seem immense, but they are by no means insurmountable. overcoming the challenges raised in gravett et al.’s (2014) study will require high levels of engagement and collaboration between the department of higher education and the department of basic education in order to create an enabling policy environment that will allow for the existence of teaching schools. conclusion in the face of the glaring problems in the south african education system, it appears that there is no desire or capacity to transform our approaches to teacher education in south africa. this may be due to a lack of reflection on accreditation-body requirements and the lack of accountability for ensuring quality and effectiveness in the industry. for now, it seems as though our focus remains directed by sustainable development goal 4, that of putting access before quality. the system lacks both incentives and criteria for universities and schools to change the outcome (lynch & smith, 2013). globally, the concept of the third space has moved beyond the status of theoretical conceptualisation into policy and practice. for south africa, it seems this is yet a bridge too far to cross. references ambrosetti, a., & dekkers, j. 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(2010). rethinking the connections between campus courses and field experiences in collegeand university-based teacher education. journal of teacher education, 61(1-2), 89-99. • leann a. johnson, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9090-5043; scolastica kariuki-githinji, https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-9885-0438; joab namai, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2246-7210 • correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to leann johnson 18717 planters lane, keedysville, md 21756 usa. email: ljohnson@shepherd.edu the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching leann a. johnson1, scolastica kariuki-githinji2, & joab namai2 1 shepherd university, us 2 daystar university, kenya abstract traditional university-based teacher training in kenya has relied on theoretical campus-based coursework which provides strong knowledge but little opportunity to develop practical skills. the need for practical skills is particularly evident for teacher candidates who are expected to teach students with disabilities who attend class in regular education settings. this case study outlines a pilot class at daystar university that incorporated video, field trips, and real-world assignments within an experiential learning model to determine the impact of real-world experiences on student attitudes towards individuals with disabilities and their families, knowledge of disabilities, and skills in identifying and using understanding of learner strengths and weaknesses to make instructional recommendations and incorporate those recommendations into the design of class-wide learning activities. teacher candidates enrolled in the pilot class reported positive changes in attitude and understanding towards individuals with disabilities, increased learning, and had more confidence in their ability to work in inclusive classrooms. these results have implications for ongoing curriculum restructuring in teacher education in areas of the world where educator preparation lacks the necessary resources for implementing a series of fully supported field experiences leading to a full-time teaching practice opportunity. keywords: teacher preparation, educator preparation, experiential learning, special education, inclusion issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 121-142 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 122 introduction effective teachers actively combine content knowledge, understanding of students, and pedagogical skill to maximize the learning of their students. consequently, university educator preparation programs (epps) rely heavily on courses held on campus to address the knowledge base necessary to become effective teachers. however, application of this knowledge requires opportunities to be in classrooms to see and experience elements that can only be covered theoretically in a campus classroom and to obtain the practice necessary for developing important teaching skills. this paper is based on changes incorporated into education for exceptional children, a required course in the teacher education program at daystar university. course outcomes expect students to be prepared to teach in inclusive secondary classrooms, to recognise learners with disabilities, and to be able to modify instruction to meet the learning needs of all students. this paper seeks to provide awareness of the need for experiential learning in higher education to meet those expectations. political background for education of students with disabilities in kenya in 2003, kenya introduced free primary education (abuya et al, 2015) open to all learners, including those with disabilities. in 2008, kenya ratified the 2006 united nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities which included protecting the right to education. in 2009 the ministry of education issued the national special needs education policy framework which laid out the goals and objectives for educating students with disabilities including an emphasis on providing inclusive education in regular schools. these rights were further affirmed in article 27 of the 2010 constitution of kenya which specifies that every person is equal before the law. furthermore, article 54 is clear that persons with disability are entitled to dignity, respectful treatment, access to education and institutional facilities, reasonable access to all places, public transport and information, appropriate means of communication such as braille and sign language and access to materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from a disability. while much remains to be done, increasing numbers of children with disabilities are being educated in inclusive classrooms. the national special needs education policy framework, (ministry of education, 2009) defines inclusive education as an approach in which learners with disabilities and special needs, regardless of age and disability, are provided with appropriate education within regular schools. in order to provide an appropriate education in the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 123 regular classrooms, teachers need multifaceted training that addresses their own attitudes towards disability as well as practical skills in analysing learner strengths and needs and utilizing appropriate accommodations to capitalize on strengths while meeting the learning needs of students (brownell et al, 2019). it is in light of this need that daystar university requires a course on education for exceptional learners. experiential learning in educator preparation experiential learning is the process where learning happens through direct experience. educational theorists john dewy, carl rogers, and david kolb have highlighted the importance of “learning by doing” (dewey, 1986, reprint from 1938). this experiential education takes a problem-based approach with critical thinking that is very different from the less impactful rote learning referred to by rogers as ‘meaningless’ cognitive learning. as reviewed by morris (2019), kolb’s experiential theory argues that effective learning can happen at any point in a four-stage cycle. at the concrete stage, the learner gets a new experience or interprets an experience in a new way. during the reflective observation stage, learners reflect on personal experience using the lens of their experience and understanding to gain meaning from it. the abstract conceptualization stage involves forming new ideas or adjusting thinking to align with experience and personal reflection. finally, the active experimentation stage involves the learner applying new ideas to the world around them. this model of experiential learning recognizes that while each stage contributes to learning, different types of learners may approach each stage in unique ways. for example, divergent learners may prefer to observe and reflect with others before immersing themselves into a new situation where they focus on concrete learning. in contrast convergent learners may prefer to actively experiment with new ideas drawn from abstract theory to solve practical problems. in short, experiential learning theorists view students, regardless of learning style, as being central in the learning activities, gaining knowledge, and therefore being personally involved in learning. in the context of teacher training, experiential learning provides teacher candidates with context that enables them to link theory to practice. as a profession that is situated in community settings, field-based learning experiences are particularly vital to teacher preparation. as programs aimed at preparing individuals to be effective in this setting, the most critical aspect of the learning continuum in teacher preparation is application. when facing a class of students, each with their individual learning strengths and weaknesses, a leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 124 teacher is continuously problem-solving. in this complex and constantly changing environment, teachers must be able to flexibly figure out different ways to meet the significant challenge of determining the best options for meeting varied student learning needs in order to maximize learning. experiential learning is a particularly important element of teacher training in the united states where educator preparation programs are required to provide teacher candidates with significant amounts of hands-on experience and opportunities to connect theories and knowledge gained in the university classroom to real-world classrooms prior to their culminating full-time clinical experience (caep, 2022). a great deal of research has taken place in the united states that shows that experiential education in teacher training programs leads to a better understanding of course material, a broader view of the world and heightened appreciation of the community. it also allows development of personal insights into the teacher candidate’s own skills, interests, passion, and values as they gain opportunities to collaborate with diverse organizations and people, gain skill sets of positive professional practices, develop a feeling of gratification from assisting in meeting community needs, and gain self-confidence and leadership skills (kent state university, n.d). the benefits of experiential learning have been consistently linked to general achievement in higher education (xerri & radford, 2018). in addition, learners that actively participate and take interest in their academic achievement gain higher levels of learning (wang et al., 2021). more specifically, a large body of evidence shows that teachers become more effective as they gain more experience (podolsky et al, 2019). experiential experiences in kenyan teacher preparation in recognition of the importance of experiential education and the demand for mandatory community-based practicum experiences (dorasamy & pillay, 2010; kadii, 2012), the kenya teachers service commission requires all teacher candidates pursuing a bachelor’s degree in education to practice teaching for at least six months in a period of two years before graduating as a qualification for employment. this experiential experience, popularly known as teaching practice, requires teacher candidates to plan, teach, and assess students with regularly spaced supervision from their university and daily mentoring from a cooperating teacher. however, research indicates that teacher candidates are inadequately prepared for their teaching practice experience (amolloh, ganira, & wanjiru, 2018) and universities frequently fail to fully https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771272/full#ref34 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771272/full#ref31 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771272/full#ref31 the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 125 implement policies related to supporting teacher candidates during teaching practice which results in inadequate levels of supervision (kasomo, 2012). universities in kenya face many challenges in trying to oversee the teaching practice semester. these challenges include finding enough quality placements for their teacher candidates and having the resources necessary to provide for the time and travel needed to supervise teaching practice experiences. additionally, teacher candidates report a number of difficulties related to translating course content into teaching practice and indicate that they do not receive adequate support for doing this successfully (chumba & kiprop, 2014). while high-quality teaching practice experiences share the need for strong supervision by well-trained teachers and university faculty, it is also critical for teacher candidates to have a better understanding of pedagogy prior to the teaching practice semester (chumba & kiprop, 2014). unfortunately, the disconnect and inconsistency between university coursework along with limited opportunities for preparatory field experiences prior to the teaching practice semester, do not support the development of that pedagogical knowledge. consequently, as chumba and kiprop (2014) concluded, there is a need for taking on the complexity of integrating part-time field experiences with university coursework even though doing so would add additional challenges to universities that would need to provide flexible schedules and develop strong relationships with schools near the university. the challenges associated with implementing experiential learning prior to the teaching practice semester are many. most notably are the limited resources available to many kenyan institutions. for example, teacher candidates preparing to teach in the sciences or in technical subjects like computers, may have limited opportunities to participate in laboratory work or utilize computers necessary for their own learning (nooghabia, iravanib, & famichigher, 2022). using factorial analysis, these researchers showed the significant impact physical facilities, equipment, and physical space have on the quality of teaching, a finding that is consistent with many other studies (fowler, 2008, warner & washburn, 2009). thus, a lack of resources for university coursework limits development of knowledge and skills required for effective transfer of this learning to the students they will be teaching. this is compounded by the documented lack of basic infrastructure in primary and secondary classrooms (unesco, 2018; aphrc, 2014) which can further hinder opportunities for teacher candidates to benefit from pre-teaching practice opportunities. leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 126 beyond availability of instructional resources, making experiential learning opportunities that extend beyond campus available to teacher candidates is expensive and requires specific funding support. in the united states where preparatory field experiences in teacher education are common, universities commonly employ a field placement coordinator to identify placements with highly trained teachers and faculty teaching load includes time required for supervision of part-time field placements. with low faculty-student class ratios, 14:1 at shepherd university where the lead author teaches (shepherd university, 2022), and administrative support for field placements, regular observations, feedback, and application of coursework is possible. however, most kenyan universities lack the funding to provide for this level of support. edger (2021) estimated the higher education faculty-student ratio as 1:500 in kenya. workloads at this level leave little time and energy for travel to field placement sites and eliminate the possibility for individualized observation and evaluation of individual teacher candidate performance. moreover, university budgets do not support travel to those sites or compensation for cooperating teachers who would be expected to provide regular guidance and feedback to teacher candidates. another challenge to providing preparatory experiential learning opportunities in kenya involves an emphasis on subject matter expertise over pedagogical expertise of university faculty. content knowledge is not adequate for effective teaching in primary and secondary classrooms. rather, a well-prepared teacher candidate should have considerable skill in knowing how to build on students’ prior knowledge, break information into manageable chunks, and cognitively engage students in application of new concepts using a variety of learner-centred approaches. however, many of the faculty teaching courses in education programs are subject-matter experts but lack pedagogical skills that would enable them to effectively model learner-centred pedagogy or to facilitate experiential learning opportunities in which teacher candidates are engaged in teaching subject-matter content to primary or secondary students. with little support for learning to apply research-based pedagogy to content instruction, teacher candidates fall back on teaching the way they were taught. traditionally, in kenyan schools, teachers have been viewed as the sole source of knowledge. in addition, only 33% of teachers in kenya have received training in studentcentred teaching methods (ministry of education, 2017). consequently, teacher candidates are unlikely to see student-centred pedagogy modelled in the primary or secondary classroom during a field experience. when combined with a lack of textbooks and other instructional resources, which is common to many schools where teacher candidates might engage in both the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 127 preparatory and full-time teaching practice, a preparatory experiential teaching experience may result in experiences based on opportunities to deliver lectures in a teacher-centred manner that fails to take learner needs into account. such experiences do little to promote improved skill in delivering effective instruction and, consequently, promotes the view that field experiences are a waste of time and resources. cultural barriers exacerbate this problem as teacher candidates from some cultures that place a strong emphasis on traditional academic activities may be reluctant to participate in experiential activities that are perceived as non-academic (kakai, 2019). developing the practical pedagogical knowledge needed for working in classrooms that include students with disabilities is an even greater challenge. in fact, teacher candidates need even more preparation for working with students with diverse needs because they are often placed in schools where the host teacher does not provide much needed guidance. (policy brief 14-03 kusu). in summary, the inclusion of the semester-long teaching practice is a critical component in kenyan teacher preparation, but typical preparation for it does not include experiential learning through part-time field experiences and it does not address the greater demands necessary for meeting the needs of students with disabilities who are included in regular classrooms. options for incorporating preparatory experiential learning given the significant challenges faced by educator preparation programs in kenya, it is important to consider possible options that can lead to more robust experiential learning opportunities that will prepare teacher candidates for teaching practice. the following options take into account these challenges and are offered as a starting point for curricular changes in university educator preparation programs in areas of the world that experience similar challenges. first, teacher candidates may be able to gain important preparatory experiential opportunities through service learning (furco, 1996; muiruri, 2015) service learning involves a paradigm shift towards providing civic engagement as teacher candidates volunteer with governmental or nongovernmental organizations to address real community issues and challenges involving social, economic, and behavioral issues that affect learning (wambugu, 2018). with high student-teacher ratios in kenya’s public schools, teachers are challenged in meeting the varied learning needs of all their students. utilizing teacher candidates as school volunteers to work with small groups or individual students provides valuable service to the leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 128 community. after checking with local public schools, university faculty can determine the number of hours and type of activities that would benefit teacher candidates and meet the particular needs of partner schools. a commensurate service-learning expectation can then be built into course requirements. each week class time should be dedicated to having teacher candidates share their experiences as they relate to course content. additionally, assignments can be designed to allow teacher candidates to apply course content incrementally in the service-learning environment thus providing a fully integrated approach to preparation for a successful full-time teaching practice experience. research has shown that teacher candidates who are given opportunities to practice what is taught in their courses gain in both confidence and competence (kwok, & bartanen, 2022; crisp, 1994; kim & choi, 2019; singh, 2017). service-learning can provide the means for providing that practice. furthermore, utilizing service learning has the potential of capturing the positive outcomes from previous research showing that service-learning provides opportunities for integrating issues related to professional responsibility, social justice, diversity and stereotypes, and public policy in kenya (arellano & jones, 2018). second, while not as in depth as part-time service-learning options that take place throughout the semester, targeted field trips can play an important role in preparation for successful teaching practice by providing real-life experiences that are only found in specific locations. planning class field trips does require faculty time and can incur travel expense that needs to be carefully balanced against university budgets and the expected learning outcome for teacher candidates. however, taking advantage of economies associated with traveling as a group, focusing on options within the local community, and scheduling experiences strategically can minimize financial impacts and make occasional field trips possible as teacher candidates progress through an educator preparation program. research has shown that field trips can serve to anchor learning for students and that the learning can have long-lasting impacts in both the cognitive and affective domains (rone, 2008; jakubowski, 2003) thus these single experiences should be considered at the program level in relationship to particular desired course outcomes. third, with the increasing availability of quality multi-media resources through the internet, experiential learning can be based on vicarious experiences. while not a replacement for direct experience, faculty now have the ability to ensure that all students are able to at least see and hear things that they may not be able to experience directly due to availability, travel, or budget constraints (schneider et al. 2022; townsel, 2016). selection of multi-media the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 129 resources should be used to supplement course readings and content provided by the instructor. by providing illustrative examples of practices that are not common to a particular locale, that are difficult to conceptualize, or that are entirely new to students, multi-media-based experiences provide a window to new ideas that even field-experiences may not be able to provide. in kenya, inclusion is not yet common practice so in the context of preparing teacher candidates to meet the needs of students with disabilities in regular classrooms, multi-media resources can provide a particularly unique and valuable role in experiential learning. a final option for experiential learning involves incorporating more opportunities for collaborative problem-solving in education courses (fiore, et. al, 2017). unlike typical instruction which focuses on presentation of content and then testing memory of that content, collaborative problem-solving involves posing a problem, placing student in pairs or groups, and facilitating their interactions as they draw from experiences and relevant content to seek potential solutions. problems to be examined can be posed by the course instructor or can come from the experiences of the teacher candidates’ own lives. combining problem-based collaboration with service-learning opportunities, other direct experiences such as a class field trip, and with multi-media vicarious experiences can be particularly powerful when groups of teacher candidates are allowed to focus on applying content to specific challenges posed. teacher preparation at daystar university at daystar university, teacher candidates take 30 credit hours of general education courses, 60 credit hours in two subject areas they are preparing to teach, 6 credit hours of teaching methods, and 46 credits of core education courses for a total of 142 credit hours in the undergraduate degree program. core education courses include the history of education, philosophy of education, educational psychology, human growth and development, educational technology and media, sociology of education, curriculum planning and development, guidance and counselling, comparative education, environmental education, education research methods, and teaching exceptional children. however, like other kenyan educator preparation programs, all this coursework takes place in campus classrooms with few opportunities to apply coursework in field experience prior to teaching practice. like teacher candidates at other institutions, during teaching practice, daystar teacher candidates are given sole responsibility for teaching a class at a public school and do not simultaneously attend courses at the university. as their first opportunity to work directly with students, and without the close supervision of the educator preparation program, teacher leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 130 candidates face significant challenges in trying to apply many semesters of educational content all at once in classrooms that typically have more than 50 students and provide limited instructional resources. in an effort to reduce this challenge and prepare teacher candidates for the rigours of the teaching practice experience and their subsequent first year as a new teacher, daystar university accepted both the challenge to provide preparatory experiential learning opportunities (chumba & kiprop, 2014) as they relate to meeting the needs of special education students (policy brief 14-03 kusu, 2014) through a one semester pilot to explore the impact that experiential leaning would have on teacher candidates enrolled in the program. edu 226, teaching exceptional children, is a course dedicated to ensuring that graduates of the education program have introductory knowledge of various areas of disability, factors contributing to disability, assessment, and intervention. this course is in keeping with kenya’s 2030 vision which includes capacity building to embrace inclusive education practices (ministry of east african labour and social protection, 2016). traditionally, this class has relied largely on lecturer notes, class and group discussions, and presentations. in keeping with daystar university’s policy of problem-based learning, many discussions focus on case study analysis. however, such discussions remain abstract when teacher candidates taking the course have no direct contact with students, with classrooms where students with disabilities are included, or with teachers who are engaged in meeting the needs of students with diverse learning needs. during the pilot, both direct and indirect experiences were included in the course to make the abstract concrete and provide students with opportunities to apply course content to real-world settings. as indicated previously, many factors impact an epp’s ability to include practical experiences as a component of their program. the epp must develop relationships with primary and secondary schools and identify appropriate opportunities for teacher candidates to engage with teachers and youth (caep, 2022). university faculty are called upon to go well beyond normal responsibilities in overseeing field experiences. programs that incorporate extensive field experiences may need to hire additional personnel to handle the many administrative tasks and oversight involved in coordinating field placements used by multiple classes that are taken concurrently as illustrated in extensive practicum policy guidelines (shepherd, 2022). in addition, the expense of travel between campus and the school site may be prohibitive for students and/or the university. most recently, the advent of covid 19 impacted opportunities for face-to-face interactions in real schools. consequently, this pilot the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 131 represented a significant effort by the epp at daystar university. quotes from participating teacher candidates are used to illustrate many outcomes in the following sections. case study: experiential learning video based-discussions the first element of the real-world pilot was the inclusion of short videos into the class each week. to prepare for class, students were not only asked to read designated information about the topic to be covered, but they were also provided with a link to a short video illustrating an aspect of the topic. daystar university provides computer labs with internet connectivity for all of its students making the use of electronic resources possible for teacher candidates who are unable to personally afford this access. all selected videos were less than 10 minutes long and included footage of students with disabilities, their teachers, administrators, and/or parents. the adage, ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’ was applied as these video clips formed the basis for a great deal of class discussion. for example, one week, teacher candidates watched a short news broadcast, “kenyan experts raise awareness on learning disabilities” (juma, 2021) prior to class. in class, the instructor presented teacher candidates with a quote extracted from the video, “these are not chalk and talk students.” teacher candidates were asked to work in small groups to explain what this meant and how it applied to students with learning disabilities who were placed in traditional teacher-centered classrooms and to identify evidence from the video clip of teaching practices that would not be considered ‘chalk and talk.’ as happiness commented, “there has been so much wrong information going around with learning disabilities and this has biased the way people perceive learners with disabilities. i have learnt that these people…possess amazing skills if their strengths were to be built on.” videos were also used in class to expose students to content that challenged conventional thinking in kenya related to individuals with disabilities. for example, one week, a video was shown featuring david, a young man with down syndrome, who was working for a corporation in the united states delivering mail within a large corporate building (careers for people with intellectual disabilities, 2008). initially, teacher candidates reacted strongly to this video indicating that independent living with gainful employment for individuals like david could “never happen in kenya.” however, class discussion was followed by smallgroup work to identify social factors that could be changed and how they as future educational leaders could support changes that would make opportunities like those shown in the video leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 132 possible in kenya’s future. “i realized that the government has equally catered for all students despite their appearance, ability, or creation…they have not been kept in a dark corner, rather they are exposed to explore their capabilities” (patricia). use of videos also highlighted progress that kenya is making in the area of education for students with disabilities and set the stage for teacher candidates to consider their future role as a teacher of a class where students with disabilities were included. “i learnt that the kenyan government is very serious about matters of special need education” (mukuu). the final survey supported anecdotal comments from students during the semester. all responding students rated the use of video content to augment readings as a 5 on a 5-point scale. in the words of pauline, “videos increased my motivation and deeper learning. specifically, it impacted my ability to facilitate discussions with others about what we learnt.” class field trip the second element of the pilot involved a field trip to three schools for students with disabilities. the visits were arranged through the administrator at the local primary school who had worked with teachers and administrators at the three schools. to minimize transportation costs for the university, visits were scheduled consecutively on the same day and teacher candidates were asked to bring their own lunch. there was a great deal of excitement for this opportunity on campus and many teacher candidates not taking the class asked to be included. inasmuch as space was available on the university bus, eight additional individuals were allowed to accompany the class. the eagerness for this unique experience was captured in this statement by patricia, “many questions ran in my mind giving me sleepless nights eagerly waiting for the field trip to quench my thirst desiring answers.” at the first school, students with intellectual disabilities were playing outside when the teacher candidates arrived. teacher candidates were able to observe students happily interacting with each other and talking with friends. “we were received with a warm welcome from the students. it was heartwarming” (mukuu). at the request of the teachers, the students arranged their classroom to accommodate the visiting teacher candidates who soon found themselves sitting side by side with the students while the two teachers discussed their work. “they welcomed us to their classroom, got seats for us, and i was happy to see them actively willing to help us” (margret). the teachers provided examples of student work, individual education plans, and assessments for teacher candidates to examine. teachers also called upon students to demonstrate things they had learned in the class to provide examples of the potential the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 133 for learning demonstrated by their students. throughout the time spent in this classroom, teachers answered a number of questions posed by the visiting teacher candidates. “the teachers spoke with so much passion. you could tell that they loved what they did. seeing such passion reminded me of my own passion for teaching. just like them, i do not want to do it because of the money, but because i want to be of help to the students under my care” (mukuu). on campus, teacher candidates read many things about various types of disability. however, despite things read for the class, many teacher candidates arrived at this school with misconceptions. their first-hand experience resolved such misconceptions. for example, pauline said, “before going, i felt that it’s very difficult to handle these students, especially those with intellectual disabilities (because) some are very violent and can even harm you. i used to tell myself that i can’t and will never become a special education teacher in my life. i also had a feeling that the disabled can’t do anything. they just ate and had to be helped to do everything…after the trip, i was able to change my mentality and admired to become a special education teacher.” in addition to learning first-hand about the characteristics of various types of disabilities, teacher candidates also learned a great deal about kenya’s curriculum. “i learnt that they use a stage-based curriculum...this goes from foundation, intermediate, prevocational, and finally vocational and it is individual based on where an intellectually challenged student is” (brendah). the second visit was to a school for students with physical disabilities. after an introduction by the head administrator, teacher candidates visited a grade 6 class which integrated students with and without disabilities. teacher candidates were encouraged to directly ask the students questions about their school, their class, and their dreams for the future. “one of them was asked what he wanted to be and proceeded to say, ‘a neurosurgeon.’ it was really beautiful to see someone with a disability believe in himself enough to reach for the stars” (mukuu). teacher candidates were given time one-on-one to get to know a student in order to see them as individuals rather than as a category. “my student wants to be a teacher and travel abroad. he wants to make an impact on society. he is a boarder, and the school makes spacious rooms for the students even though his family can’t pay school fees. he has overstayed the school because of an inability to move to the next level but his intellectual ability was really leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 134 great. he just wished and hoped to finish school and continue studying like other kids” (susyline). teacher candidates then moved on to a vocational class where students were working on various beaded projects that were sold to provide money for their families to live on. once again teacher candidates were given an opportunity to talk one-on-one with students in the class. “the student i spoke with is 20 years old. she is great at making bracelets and aspires to make money through selling them, so she doesn’t have to beg” (mitchelle). the final stop was to the school for the deaf. teacher candidates were able to visit a number of classes where they spoke through an interpreter to both students and teachers. “the school has deaf teachers too!” (mukuu). they learned a few signed words and discovered firsthand the vibrancy of this language. most importantly, they learned that students who could not hear were capable of learning the same school subjects they themselves had learned before attending the university. “i have always had an interest in learning sign language and seeing students being taught using sign language was very cool. it was an interesting environment to be in. my friends and i discussed how it did not feel like a regular school. it was definitely quieter, but there were still kids playing with each other” (mukuu). “i expected them to be calm, like stay in one place, and not communicate with each other. i had always imagined them having a lonely life” (susyline). the students easily corrected those assumptions as they sat at desks arranged in an oval, answering questions, and goofing around with friends as they shared the same types of things typical of their same-age hearing counterparts. while all three visits were done in a single day for budgetary purposes, one teacher candidate’s response demonstrated why real-world experiences were so important. “going right from one school to another, i realized that disabilities are different. i always (thought of) disability as one thing, but i learned that they are different and that was very educative to me” (brendah). the field trip was held shortly after midterm. consequently, this student had done more than half the class with an incorrect schema about disability that readings, videos, and class discussion had not corrected. universal design for learning, a model used for addressing the needs of students with different abilities in the regular classroom, highlights the need for making content available through multiple pathways (cast, 2022). the field trip acted as a new way of representing content for teacher candidates. by providing this experience, the student’s schema was corrected, something that may not have happened without the experience, and which highlighted the importance of content being presented through multiple pathways even at the university level and with students who do not have disabilities. the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 135 following the field trip, on-campus classes were able to focus on the things seen firsthand as topics like hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, and intellectual disabilities were discussed. being able to refer directly to things that had been experienced and making connections between what was read and what had been seen first-hand resulted in deeper discussions that were anchored in practical experience rather than theoretical assumptions. this was reflected in statements such as, “i learned never judge a book by its cover, everyone is capable of doing anything they want to do” (vistas). “at the end of the trip, i felt a burning urge to complete my undergraduate studies and specialize (with) a masters in special education, a feeling i’ve never felt” (patricia). like the indirect experience provided by video, students indicated that the fieldtrip was valuable because they learned first-hand, not just “theory wise” which made their learning more “memorable.” students unanimously rated the fieldtrip as a 5 for providing valuable experience on a 5-point scale. real-world assignments three assignments that required teacher candidates to learn from real-world experiences were built into the class. the first assignment came early in the semester as the class focused on the impact of disability on family and the importance of early identification and intervention. students were tasked with interviewing an individual who had a family member with a disability. support was provided for composing interview questions that would lead to greater insights into the experiences of families and connecting those insights into how they, as a future teacher, could support students with disabilities and their families. “talking to parents...is another very key thing. i learned that as a teacher it is essential”(susyline). using shared experiences with family members as the basis for discussion, teacher candidates were able to examine their own attitudes towards individuals with disabilities and their families. even more importantly, teacher candidates were encouraged to explore the essential question, “how does my attitude towards children with special needs impact what i will do as a teacher?” predictably, fear and avoidance were addressed. the other extreme was also addressed, assuming someone has commendable attributes simply because they had a disability. class discussion focused on the concept that each person has individual strengths and needs, likes and dislikes independent of membership in a disability category. the second assignment required students to spend a minimum of two hours of servicelearning in a regular classroom with students representing a range of abilities. with the help of the classroom teacher, teacher candidates focused on a single student. they applied skills leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 136 initially developed in class to observe the student, use checklists, conduct interviews, and analyze work samples to create an outline of the focus student’s present level of performance in five developmental areas: academic achievement, executive processing, functional skills, social/communication skills, and psychomotor abilities. “the physical things that the child does have to be considered for evaluation” (munene). from the data collected, teacher candidates then summarized the focus student’s strengths and needs and made specific instructional recommendations based on those strengths and needs. “i learnt to (give my students) full support. help them in each and every way you can and also appreciate their progress because that matters” (brendah). the challenge of implementing what had been theoretically learned resulted in many teacher candidates returning repeatedly to the school; going well-beyond the two hours required to gain further insights into the abilities of their focus student. in-class feedback was also provided throughout this process to help teacher candidates refine these skills and make realistic instructional recommendations. as one student said, all this will help me cope with my weak students in class…i will always be ready to teach again…until they all understand” (margret). “it’s the kids who should drive us as teachers to always want to interact with them, teach them, and make them feel important (susyline). the final real-world assignment involved applying what had been learned from the field work to create a learning activity for the class their focus student was in, incorporate their instructional recommendations into the activity, and then answer a series of questions in which they had to explain how they were applying course content to the learning activity and justifying the elements of the proposed activity for meeting the learning needs of the focus student. students found this two-part assignment to be a significant challenge, however, they gave the assignment unanimous ratings of ‘5’ for its ability to help them learn important skills necessary for their future as teachers. in contrast to in-class case studies, nicole said, “the practical aspect was very interesting and a new thing for me…it made it easier to point out challenges and come up with recommendations.” they also found it satisfying to be able to “design an activity that will help the student improve in his area of weakness and also help the entire classroom.” the imperative for real-world experiences in kenyan teacher preparation for disability inclusive teaching ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 137 conclusion including real-world experiences into a course that had previously focused on simply teaching about disability was challenging for both instructor and students. however, the pay-off was significant. as nicole said, “i was hesitant…i was expecting to feel depressed...people with disabilities are rarely discussed at home…some actively work to distance themselves from those who are impacted, others choose to live in denial...but i’m glad i was able to (have these experiences). class discussions were grounded in the real-world experiences of the teacher candidates. “i felt privileged that i had an opportunity to witness with my two eyes. i was exposed to the real world of (what) we are learning in books” (patricia). rather than simply talking about something, instructor and teacher candidates were able to use explicit real-life examples to address important topics like the social model of disability, current cultural views of disability in kenya, the challenges of engaging families in meeting the educational needs of their children with disabilities, response to intervention, developmentally appropriate practice, and self-determination. in the words of one student, “i’m so grateful that this (class) forced me to face my fear…i was embarrassed that i had been this ignorant” (happiness). “while i do not have an interest in pursuing special education, i have newfound respect for it” (mukuu). the inclusion of experiential learning experiences also gave teacher candidates an opportunity to develop important skills in assessment and planning that cannot be effectively carried out through mock teaching in a university classroom with peers pretending to be students. by utilizing feedback cycles and revision, teacher candidates got more than just experience, they were able to develop beginning level skills in these areas. “in simple terms, exposure is the best learning experience” (patricia). results of this pilot support chumba and kiprope’s (2014) conclusion that both experienced and pre service teachers see real-world experiences as a powerful, sometimes the single most powerful, element of teacher preparation. consequently, discussion is under-way at daystar university to determine how more practical application through real-world experiences could be incorporated into other education courses. preparing teacher candidates to succeed in the challenges of their teaching practice and as new classroom teachers following graduation should be the goal of all educator preparation programs and moving education coursework from hypothetical to actual practice with the inclusion of experiential learning opportunities will contribute significantly towards this goal. the success of the daystar leann a. johnson, scolastica kariuki-githinji, & joab namai ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 121-142 138 experiential learning pilot can serve as a model for other institutions who are seeking ways to strengthen the preparation of their teacher candidates for teaching practice amid the many challenges and 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(2009). issues facing urban agri-science teachers: a delphi study. journal of agricultural education. 50(1).105-115. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej867387.pdf xerri, m.j. & radford, k. (2018). student engagement in academic activities. a social support perspective. higher education, 75, 589-605. doi: 10.1007/s10734-017-0162-9 https://en.unesco.org/countries/kenya/education https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731721/full https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej867387.pdf intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it olaide agbaje ali mazrui centre for higher education studies university of johannesburg abstract intra-africa student mobility holds immense opportunities for students, institutions, nations and the african continent in general through the resourcefulness promoted by cross-border education and research capacity building. if well harnessed, the benefits of intra-africa student mobility will enhance the visibility of africa and its higher education institutions and serve as a vehicle through which the continent can profit from internationalisation. this paper argues that intra-africa student mobility offers several benefits for both africa and africans and is a viable means for turning the tide of the brain drain in the continent. the paper addresses an important question: in what way is intra-africa mobility beneficial to africa? the paper was developed qualitatively through a review of relevant literature. keywords: keywords: africa, student mobility, higher education, internationalisation, development introduction the search for knowledge and the exchange of academics has brought about an international dimension in higher education. until the 1990s, this internationalisation was not of particular interest to researchers; recently, however, there has now been a shift in focus to higher education exchanges and international collaboration (teichler, 1999). students are constantly in search of quality higher education, both within and outside their countries of origin. globally, the number of higher education students studying outside their countries of origin has been steadily rising, from two million in 2000 to over 5.3 million in 2017 (organization for economic cooperation and development [oecd], 2019), and the number is expected to rise to 5.8 million by 2025 (adebisi & agagu, 2017). kigotho (2020) further expects this figure to rise to 22 million by 2027. the most popular destinations have been the united kingdom, the united states, canada and australia, accounting for about 40% of the world’s internationally mobile students (oecd, 2019). in addition, there is an increasing demand for higher education in africa. over the last few decades, there has been burgeoning growth in the issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 144-161 https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=202012020758261 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 145 number of students seeking higher education enrolment on the continent, especially in subsaharan africa (adebisi & agagu, 2017; agbaje, 2020; sehoole & lee, 2021). unfortunately, most african higher education institutions (heis) are unable to accommodate the growing demand owing to a lack of space, as well as quality issues, unstable academic calendars and diminishing government funding for education in many african countries (agbeniga, 2016; badoo, 2021). the gross tertiary education enrolment rate in sub-saharan africa is around 9.4%, far below the average global rate of 38% (world bank, 2020). these concerns, amongst others, constantly spur african students to seek better and more accessible higher education outside their countries of origin. africans are among the most mobile people in the world, thereby contributing immensely to income generation in the receiving countries and to capital flight in the sending countries. this phenomenon further widens the gap in the standard of higher education between the west and africa, which is evident in the global university ranking system, for example, and thus reaffirms the dominance of the west in higher education (adebisi & agagu, 2017). indeed, migration, from the perspective of a receiving country, is one of the crucial drivers of social and economic development in africa. if well-harnessed, migration boosts productivity on different levels through the supply of skilled labour, the growth in per capita income and the acceleration of knowledge transfer. in 2018, the oecd and the international labour organization found that migration contributed to 19% of cote d’ivoire’s gdp in 2008, 13% of rwanda’s in 2012 and 9% of south africa’s in 2011. there are projections that migration could boost africa’s per capital income from usd 2,008 in 2016 to usd 3,249 in 2030, based on the assumption of a 3.5% annual growth rate (pailey, 2019). in addition, the share of african migrants within africa is estimated at 53% (pailey, 2019). intra-africa migration in general and intra-africa student mobility in particular are catalysts for economic integration and continental growth. international education is associated with graduate employability in a global market, transferable skills and the training of global citizens (albien & mashatola, 2021). while there are copious studies on the vertical mobility of students around the world, studies reporting on the horizontal mobility of students are limited (albien & mashatola, 2021). vertical mobility refers to the movement of students from developing countries to heis in developed countries, while horizontal movement is the movement of students from one country to another with the potential for the same economic advancement and educational quality (prazeres, 2013). in the same vein, altbach (2004) argues that most research reports on intra-european and inbound north american mobility, while africa-related chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/viewer.html?pdfurl=https%3a%2f%2fthedocs.worldbank.org%2fen%2fdoc%2f764421611934520379-0090022021%2foriginal%2foneafricateandcovidupdated.pdf&chunk=true olaide agbaje ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 146 mobility is often viewed from the negative perspective of a brain drain or as an effect of the poor state of heis in africa. moreover, very few studies exist on the mobility of students within the african continent (agbaje, 2020; agbeniga, 2016; sehoole & lee, 2021). hence, this paper argues for the advancement of inbound mobility in africa, claiming that intra-africa student mobility holds immense benefits for the development of africa and its people. to harness these benefits, there is a need to remove or minimise restrictions, especially immigration policies that inhibit meaningful mobility on the continent, as well as to address safety concerns and quality issues in african heis. despite pessimistic views on inbound mobility in africa, knight and woldegiorgis (2017) submit that considerable changes have taken place in intra-africa mobility in terms of its expansion and recognition. an overview of student mobility in africa africa consists of 54 countries and is regarded as the fastest-growing continent; it is predicted to account for more than half of the world’s population by the year 2050 (united nations, 2020). sadly, drop-out rates across all levels of education are at an all-time high compared to other regions of the world, largely owing to struggling economies, conflict, poor infrastructure and lack of social amenities (sehoole & lee, 2021). the demand for higher education in africa exceeds the supply, with the number of higher education students in sub-saharan africa almost tripling over the last 15 years (quacquarelli symonds [qs], 2020) although the number of heis had not increased commensurately. this has resulted in an outflow of higher education students from most african countries to other countries within or outside africa, especially outside africa. african countries serve as the largest market for international higher education study, with the top countries being nigeria, morocco, cameroun, algeria, zimbabwe, kenya, senegal, angola, ghana and sudan (sehoole & lee, 2021). even today, colonial legacies continue to shape the pattern of student mobility. mobility in africa has always been tied to the language and cultural milieus of anglophone, francophone and lusophone africa (woldegiorgis & doevenspeck, 2015), and african students are generally attracted to countries with which they have historical, linguistic and cultural ties. for example, students from francophone countries like mali and the republic of congo are attracted to france, while students from english-speaking countries like nigeria and ghana are attracted to the united kingdom, the united states of america and canada. intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 147 the number of outbound african students and their destination countries differ from one country to another. however, the traditional destinations for most of the students from subsaharan africa are the united states of america, the united kingdom, france, canada and germany, while about 50% of students from southern african development community (sadc) countries often choose to study in south africa (campus france, 2016). the large numbers of students from sadc countries who choose to study in south africa show that intra-africa student mobility is a very real phenomenon in africa. ghana is also making giant strides in hosting international students, especially from sub-saharan africa. evidence also shows that a good number of nigerian students choose to study in ghana, thereby contributing up to $1 billion in tuition fees and upkeep annually as of 2013 (fatunde, 2014). the number of international students in ghana leapt by 838% from 1,899 to 17,821 between 2015 and 2017, with students from nigeria accounting for the majority (badoo, 2021). the percentage of international students in ghana’s tertiary institutions is considered to be high and stood at 2.8% in 2017 (kamran et al., 2019). although a common trend in african countries is an outbound flow of the youth, including students, the case of south africa is different. south africa is the most popular destination for inbound international students in africa, but south african students rarely leave the country to study abroad. only between 1 and 5% of south african youth migrate from the country, 28% desire to leave but never do so, while 67% prefers to remain in the country (mataure, 2013). the popular destinations for those who leave are the united kingdom, australia and north america. further, about 20,000 (13% of the total) zimbabwean university students were studying abroad in 2020, with more than half of these students studying in south africa, while the united kingdom, the united states, canada, australia and malaysia appear to be the most popular destinations outside africa (laakso, 2020). on the other hand, zimbabwe only had 600 incoming international students from neighbouring countries, which again points to the skewed number of inbound and outbound international students in africa. in the case of cameroun, 26,000 students (9% of the total) studied abroad, mostly in france and germany, while belgium, italy, canada, the united states, tunisia and south africa are also popular destinations (laakso, 2020). conversely, cameroun only hosts about 400 international students, with these students mostly coming from chad. botswana recorded 25,000 (5% of the total) university students studying abroad, mostly in south africa, the united states, the united kingdom, australia and canada. the number of inbound international students to botswana was 1,200, mainly from zimbabwe, but there were international students https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20140529173131311 olaide agbaje ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 148 from other african countries, the united states, india and bangladesh (unesco institute for statistics, 2020b, cited in laakso, 2020). contrary to the popular narrative of a brain drain in africa, countries like south africa, egypt and senegal record a higher number of incoming international students than domestic students studying abroad (sehoole & lee, 2021). according to the unesco institute of statistics (2020b, cited in laakso, 2020), only 8,068 south african students were studying abroad while the country hosted 45,334 international students. similarly, egypt had 34,992 studying abroad and hosted 51,162 international students, while senegal recorded 12,815 of its students undertaking international study and 14,437 incoming international students. south africa, in particular, is a regional hub for international students from africa, competing with most top destinations in the global north, and is also ahead of some popular destination countries in the global north in hosting african mobile students. as of 2013, south africa had the highest share of african mobile students in the world (9.3%); a higher percentage than those of popular destination countries like the uk (9.3%) and the us (9.3%) (unesco institute for statistics (uis), 2012). continentally, south africa hosts the highest number of international students from other african countries (48%). this is followed by ghana (14%), morocco (10%) and tunisia (7%) (campus france, 2016). additionally, a good number of internationally mobile students across africa – lesotho (93%), swaziland (89%), namibia (83%), zimbabwe (74%), the democratic republic of congo (57%) – now find it suitable to study in another african country and at an african university, rather than traditional study destinations in the global north (campus france, 2016). the choice of some african countries as popular international study destinations is largely informed by the affordable tuition fees of their heis compared to heis in the global north. african students who desire international education but who cannot afford the tuition fees of universities in the global north often settle for south africa and other african countries, finding the quality of education to be relatively high. data from unesco (2020b, cited in laakso, 2020) estimates that there are 250,000 international students in africa – 137,892 in sub-saharan africa and 86,199 in north africa. notwithstanding, the lack of availability of accurate data poses a challenge to ascertaining the actual figures on intra-africa student mobility. important figures on inbound and outbound international students in africa are not available, which makes it difficult to understand the extent of mobility taking place on the continent. this has also largely excluded africa from mobility research in spite of its enormous size (sehoole & lee, 2021). intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 149 the benefits of intra-africa student mobility for africa as with global student mobility, intra-africa student mobility is driven, inter alia, by the desire to acquire the quality education that might not be available in one’s home country. in africa, this is further exacerbated by the issue of inadequate facilities and the disproportionate lecturerto-student ratio – 50% more students per lecturer in sub-saharan africa – among other issues (british council, 2014). for example, many nigerian students study outside their country of origin owing to the incessant strike action that interrupts the higher education calendar in the country, making nigeria one of the highest senders of international students abroad. african students therefore cross the borders to study in another country to avoid such disruptions and to acquire or reinforce necessary educational skills. the establishment of bilateral and multilateral agreements, including academic collaboration between countries and heis, informs the choice of study destinations for international students. accordingly, african students study in other african countries because of the opportunities it presents in the form of scholarships, flexible immigration policies or even job preferences following graduation. most governments of african countries are aware that higher education and research are fundamental to social and economic development and that panafrican cooperation, otherwise referred to as ‘regional internationalisation’, holds the potential for advancing internationalisation in africa. it is believed that intra-africa student mobility has the capability of ushering in a new set of african leaders who are competent to make the best use of african human and material resources for the promotion of a peaceful, prosperous and integrated africa. further, intra-africa student mobility enhances the quality of national education systems and builds capacity for research and development (cabegin & alba, 2014). intra-africa mobility is an effort geared towards higher education cooperation amongst african countries for the promotion of sustainable development on the continent that will not only bring about quality education but also eventually reduce poverty. this shifting pattern in african mobility strengthens collaborations between african heis, while also improving the skills and competencies of students and faculty. intra-africa mobility encourages increased regional movement for african students who would have studied outside the continent, with many undertaking graduate and postgraduate studies within africa itself. campus france (2016) reports that nearly one in five (19.9%) mobile african students studied in another african country in 2013, an increase from 14.7% in 2012. some african countries have become regional hubs for international students while also strengthening their universities to rank with the world’s best. olaide agbaje ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 150 speaking at the african summit held in senegal in 2015, prof neil turok of the african institute for mathematical sciences maintained that ‘this will be africa’s century if the continent’s youths can reach their full potential’. he went further to say that africa has the largest number of young people in the world; 50% of africa’s population is less than 20 years of age and, by 2050, one-third of the world’s youth will be africans. hence, there is a dire need for african higher education to be ready for this massive increase. this is corroborated by a statement in the unesco report of 1998, which focuses on higher education in the twentyfirst century. the report comments on the role of african universities in assisting to address the lack of support systems confronting government, businesses and industries. although africa’s tertiary enrolment is expected to catch up with the rest of the world by 2050, it is doubtful that this can be achieved without strengthening internationalisation efforts on the continent. internationalisation holds many benefits for students and institutions through the resourcefulness promoted by cross-border education and research capacity building. these activities bring about development for individual students, institutions and the nation concerned at large. this is not in any way to say that the international dimension of higher education is not without its risks and consequences, including compromised quality, excessive focus on revenue generation, diminishing cultural heritage and the brain drain which is often associated with africa. however, developing new policies and strengthening existing policies on intra-africa student mobility will help address this phenomenon. student mobility in africa has not been beneficial to the region in that africa has been on the sending end rather than the receiving end. african students are among the most mobile students in the world – nearly 5% of the total 8.1 million higher education students from subsaharan africa study abroad, compared to an average of 2.4% from the rest of the world (african students & alumni forum [asaf], 2020). these students seek higher education in the developed world to gain different perspectives and develop global skills and languages that will prepare them to be global citizens and become a part of the global workforce (deardorff, 2014). deardorff believes that international education enhances capacity building for the reconstruction of the political and socioeconomic milieu of the continent. as much as this line of thought is true, its realisation is uncertain given the fact many of these students do not return home upon graduation, hence putting the region at risk of continuing brain drain. as of 2002, the world bank estimated the number of highly qualified scholars and professionals who leave africa annually to be 70,000. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000116428 https://www.asaf.africa/activities/news/detail/students-from-sub-saharan-africa-most-mobile-tertiary-students-in-the-world intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 151 obtaining international education gives students an edge when contributing to a knowledge-based economy. there has been a wide debate about the employability skills of african graduates (trust africa, 2015). graduate employability skills have often been decried by employers, as very few graduates have gained the skills required by the workplace. in other words, african graduates have been criticised for not being able to apply their university education to the demands and realities of the workplace. international education goes a long way in exposing students to different realities that apply to the world of work – and such international education can be obtained in africa. promoting intra-africa student mobility for education in africa will also strengthen cultural identity. some scholars of internationalisation have lamented the fast erosion of africa’s identity brought about by globalisation and aided by internationalisation. hence, the choice of african students to study in africa would be beneficial for preserving the african heritage. moreover, the creation of wider opportunities for students and academics to take on intellectual risks, develop ideas and engage in critical thinking is undoubtedly one of the benefits of the internationalisation of higher education. needless to say, this is the income-generation benefit of the internationalisation of higher education, as international students are regarded as customers of higher education and the money they spend on school fees, housing and other general expenses at their institutions goes a long way to relieving the problem of underfunding in these institutions. money realised from the recruitment of international students adds to the coffers at the institutional level as well as translating to financial empowerment at the national level. one could perhaps also argue for africanisation as one of the rationales driving intraafrica student mobility. africanisation is described as a process through which an african university retains its unique african character to achieve certain academic, cultural and political goals (botha, 2010). in other words, the movement of african students within africa could serve as a means of liberating africa from the influence of western supremacy. global student mobility could also easily assist in building resistance to direct and indirect influences from the west. continental moves towards intra-africa student mobility the increasing demand for higher education and the urgent need to boost human capital in africa has necessitated the creation of various intra-africa initiatives, with many being created at both the regional and continental level. some of these initiatives are modelled on europe’s bologna process and include the development of quality assurance and credit transfer systems within africa, as well as with international partners (jowi, 2018). in addition, these initiatives olaide agbaje ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 152 are aimed at strengthening africa’s higher education research space, while also promoting sustainable development on the continent by reducing poverty and boosting the number of highly trained african professionals (laakso, 2020; sehoole & lee, 2021). so far, there have been concerted and commendable regional and continental efforts to promote the mobility of students and talent within africa. one such example is the 2004 accra declaration, which emanated from the meeting held by the association of african universities (aau) in conjunction with unesco and the south african council on higher education. at the meeting, the commitment to provide access to higher international education in the region was reiterated, and a couple of academic programmes aimed at facilitating student mobility were established. similarly, the african union (au) instituted the nwalim nyerere african union scholarship scheme in 2007 to offer opportunities for african students to study at recognised heis within africa, particularly in the areas of science and technology. on graduation, students who participate in the scholarship scheme are required to remain and work in africa for a minimum of two years, as a way of enhancing africa’s human capital (bruneforth & wallet, 2010). the establishment of african centres of excellence (ace) by the world bank in 2015, in collaboration with the governments of participating african countries, is another laudable initiative operating in many african countries. the ace targets and supports disciplines in the area of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem), environmental sciences, agriculture, applied social science, education and health (sehoole & lee, 2021). the major objective of the ace is to encourage regional integration among participating universities to address common regional problems and boost capacity building. the first phase of the ace initiative (ace i) was launched in 2014 with the establishment of 22 centres of excellence in west and central africa, namely, nigeria, ghana, gambia, cote d’ivoire, burkina faso, cameroun, senegal, togo and benin. the second phase of the project (ace ii) was initiated in 2016 across 24 centres in east and southern africa, namely, kenya, malawi, uganda, tanzania, mozambique, rwanda, zambia and ethiopia. the pan african university (pau) was established in 2008 as the culmination of the continental initiatives of the au to encourage collaborations within specialised areas of study in african countries to promote excellent research and enhance quality postgraduate education. this took place under the auspices of the second decade of education for africa and the consolidated plan of action for science and technology for africa. specifically, the pau was founded to revitalise higher education and research in africa; boost the attractiveness and intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 153 global competitiveness of african higher education; and position african universities at the core of africa’s development. its strategic mission is to develop institutions of excellence in the five focus areas of science, technology, innovation, social sciences and governance, which form the foundation for an african pool of higher education and research. the pau is operated as an academic network of existing african institutions and is currently hosted by five universities in five african countries, one representing each region in africa. since its creation, the pau, which is relevant to africa’s needs, has become globally competitive. the intraafrica academic mobility scheme was set up under the pan african programme (development co-operation instrument) and aims to (i) improve higher education by promoting the internationalisation and harmonisation of curricula and programmes; and (ii) enable students and staff to benefit culturally, professionally and linguistically from the experience gained through mobility to another african country. furthermore, this scheme operates under different programmes and projects, one of which is termed ‘arise ii’. this project builds on the intra-acp africa regional international staff/student exchange: food security and sustainable human wellbeing. the project, which is funded by the european commission, is in partnership with heis in three african regions, as well as an associate partner in south africa and a technical partner in the european union. the project also offers 46 mobility opportunities in six thematic fields. in south africa, stellenbosch university drives the intra-africa mobility scheme, having entered into bilateral partnerships with 12 universities in ten african countries, namely, botswana, cameroun, ghana, kenya, malawi, mozambique, namibia, tanzania, uganda and zimbabwe. the scheme offers grants to postgraduate students, postdoctoral fellows and stellenbosch university staff as a way of facilitating cooperation between countries in africa. at the regional level is the creation of the african and malagasy council for higher education. this involves 19 francophone countries and the establishment of the interuniversity council of eastern africa in 2009, which serves five countries, namely, rwanda, tanzania, burundi, kenya and uganda. in the same vein, the quality assurance network was established in 2007 in a bid to assist universities to enhance their quality assurance systems. also in 2007, the african quality rating mechanism was developed by the african union commission as part of its commitment to revitalisation and harmonisation strategies for putting africa’s higher education on a pedestal with its global counterparts. intra-africa student mobility has also taken on a regional dimension such as in the east african community (eac) and sadc. these regional dimensions are reflected in the agenda of regional university olaide agbaje ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 154 organisations, including the inter-university council for east africa and the southern africa regional universities association (sarua) (jowi, 2018). the african virtual university (avu) is another initiative that has made significant contributions to higher education in the continent. launched originally in 1997 by the world bank in partnership with the african development bank (afdb), the avu is a pan-african effort aimed at providing open and affordable distance and e-learning education to higher education students in africa. so far, the avu has established large e-learning and distance learning networks in more than 27 countries in sub-saharan africa, offering 219 open educational modules, and has produced over 4,000 graduates (afdb, 2013). the avu facilitates learning in english, french and portuguese to provide inclusive education for african students of different linguistic backgrounds. the avu continues to gain international recognition and its interactive portal is accessed beyond africa in 142 countries, especially brazil and the usa. in promoting intra-africa mobility further, many international universities have established branch campuses in various african countries. for example, lancaster university has a branch campus in accra, ghana, while the limkokwing university of malaysia also operates branch campuses in lesotho, swaziland and botswana (adebisi & agagu, 2017). the aforementioned initiatives are commendable moves toward promoting student mobility in africa; however, they are not without challenges. for example, the au, a continental organisation, has not succeeded in bringing the disjointed sub-regional higher education initiatives together. the au commission, which is also in charge of harmonisation processes, is underfunded and the implementation of most of the harmonisation strategies depends on external funding. similarly, the arusha convention, now referred to as the addis ababa convention, which serves as the legal framework for harmonisation processes, has neither been ratified nor implemented by member states (woldegiorgis & scherer, 2019). moreover, the aau, whose mission is to enhance the quality and relevance of higher education in africa and strengthen its contribution to africa’s development, has not fully succeeded in fulfilling its mission. other enablers of quality higher education in africa and intra-africa student mobility, such as credit transfer systems, unified visa regulations, harmonised tuition policies and qualification recognition frameworks, have not been implemented (woldegiorgis & scherer, 2019). https://www.afdb.org/fr/projects-and-operations/selected-projects/african-virtual-university-transforming-africa-into-a-global-knowledge-hub-88 intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 155 challenges confronting inbound student mobility in africa peace, safety and stability are some of the factors that inform the choice of a study destination, while xenophobia and terrorism are some of the ills that pose a threat to the rate of inbound international students in africa. adebisi and agagu (2017) argue that xenophobia and terrorism could inhibit the development of transborder higher education and sustainable development in africa if not quickly nipped in the bud. in the case of south africa, racial discrimination entrenched in society by the apartheid system has made the country one of the most hostile to foreign nationals (adebisi & agagu, 2017; albien & mashatola, 2021). it is important to sensitise the citizens of south africa to the positive contributions of foreigners to the economy, and the social and cultural milieu of the nation. in addition, in her article on the pull factors that attract international students to nigeria despite safety concerns, agbaje (2021) submits that the actions of the boko haram insurgent group in the north-eastern part of the country have meant that the whole of nigeria is deemed unsafe by international students. in kenya, attacks by the somalia-based islamist terrorist group, al-shabaab, have likewise raised security concerns for international students. in particular, the attack on the garissa university college in april 2015 that killed 148 people, left 79 injured and resulted in 700 students being taken hostage has left a stain on the safety profile of kenya. the worst aspect of conflict in a country is the way the media portrays it, as it cut across the entire country when in fact it only takes place in some parts of the country. for example, even though boko haram mainly operates in north-east nigeria and xenophobia is centred in south africa’s informal settlements, intraafrica student mobility is still greatly affected by these and other similar issues. safety and security concerns serve as deterrents to internationally mobile students who would have chosen to study in africa. this in turn hampers socioeconomic development in african countries. conversely, the political stability and peaceful atmosphere in ghana have been hailed as the major drivers of international students into the country (badoo, 2021). promoting intra-africa student mobility and curbing the brain drain in africa the majority of those who emigrate from africa are in the productive age range – between 20 and 64 years. additionally, africans are highly mobile (asaf, 2020), with north africa accounting for 24% of african migrants, west africa for 39% and the rest of sub-saharan africa 29% (sehoole & lee, 2021). a considerable number of these migrants are skilled and possess the wherewithal needed for the growth and development of their nations. thus, policies targeted at movement within the continent should be at the heart of strategies needed to stem olaide agbaje ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 156 the brain drain in africa. there is a need for policymakers to make african countries desirable as study destinations. as pailey (2019) argues, african immigration policies should enable africans to study on the continent because they want to, not because they are prohibited from migrating elsewhere. she further proposes the establishment of knowledge transfer programmes that would enable skilled africans in the diaspora to return home to contribute their knowledge to the development of the continent. promoting intra-african movement through open visa policies for african nationals would also facilitate freer movement, knowledge circulation and better trade on the continent. the africa visa openness index (avoi) was flagged by the afdb and aligns with the au’s agenda; this was done because having a protocol on the free movement of people is a vital initiative toward the facilitation of intra-african movement and the integration of africa. published annually since 2016, the avoi measures the openness of african countries to travellers from the continent, be they students, researchers, workers, entrepreneurs, visitors or tourists. namibia, morocco and tunisia have reportedly made the most progress in visa openness (african union, 2021). seychelles, benin and the gambia have proposed the most welcoming policies in the continent by offering visa-free access to all african visitors in 2021, thereby leading the avoi for that year (faria, 2022), while senegal has given visa-free access to 42 african countries as of 2019 (pailey, 2019). djibouti, guinea and south sudan, on the other hand, had restrictive visa policies in place in 2021. overall, however, the avoi can be said to be achieving remarkable success. as of 2021, 25% of african countries did not require visas from some or all of their visitors, 24% allowed the purchase of visas on arrival for some or all of their visitors, while 54% required visas before departure from some or all of their visitors (faria, 2022). it would be beneficial for african countries to extend their open visa policies, or at least offer less restrictive and less cumbersome visa application processes to international students in the continent. however, despite the open visa policies prompted partly by the avoi, africa remains restrictive to intra-african mobility and is also the least integrated region in the world; hence, achieving a borderless africa remains a mirage for now. regional skills matching programmes could be another initiative toward curtailing the brain drain in africa. skills matching, otherwise referred to as ‘skills portability’ by pailey (2019, p. 28), implies matching the skills acquired in one african country to job opportunities in another, which aligns with the au’s regional skills pooling efforts. the joint labour migration programme of 2015 and the revised convention on the recognition of studies, certificates, degrees, diplomas and other academic qualifications in higher education in https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20211215/report-calls-easier-travel-propel-africa-out-covid-19-slump#:~:text=the%20africa%20visa%20openness%20index,market%20of%201.3%20billion%20people. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1283343/visa-openness-index-in-africa/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1283343/visa-openness-index-in-africa/ intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 157 africa (2014) are efforts made to integrate academic qualifications and the workforce in africa. some of these initiatives have proven successful. for example, the economic community of west african states operates a platform that connects jobseekers from benin, senegal, ghana, mali, cape verde and mauritania with available job opportunities both nationally and continentally. skills matching and portability hold the potential to turn the brain drain into brain circulation in africa. policymakers could enhance skills and qualifications in the continent by formulating and implementing policies that would enable african youths to obtain internationally recognised skills and qualifications from african heis to the benefit of africa as a whole (pailey, 2019). conclusion globally, there is increasing recognition of the important role played by higher education in economic and social development. without the acquisition of quality education by the citizenry, failure (or at least the threat of failure) looms over any nation (archer, 2017). for the 54 developing countries of africa, intra-africa student mobility is one of the viable strategies for obtaining quality education. if well-harnessed, intra-africa student mobility may promote the visibility of african universities, providing an open channel through which africa can profit from the world’s knowledge, which may then translate to the development of the continent. in africa, we have reached a point where international education should no longer be undertaken merely for the sake of international education. there is an urgent need to make a shift away from the status quo and to concentrate on how the process of student mobility can be utilised to attain local and regional development. when developing internationalisation programmes, research role players in intra-africa mobility should bear in mind local socioeconomic needs that will be beneficial to africa and africans. these will contribute to the advancement of not only individual countries, but also the continent at large, as the internationalisation of higher education in africa undoubtedly holds enormous benefits for students, 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(2020). population. https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/ wikipedia. garissa university college attack https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/garissa_university_college_attack#:~:text=on%202%2 0april%202015%2c%20gunmen,took%20responsibility%20for%20the%20attack. https://media.africaportal.org/documents/afrobriefno112_2.pdf https://www.qs.com/out-of-africa-whats-happening-to-africas-international-student-market/ https://www.qs.com/out-of-africa-whats-happening-to-africas-international-student-market/ http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/garissa_university_college_attack#:~:text=on%202%20april%202015%2c%20gunmen,took%20responsibility%20for%20the%20attack https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/garissa_university_college_attack#:~:text=on%202%20april%202015%2c%20gunmen,took%20responsibility%20for%20the%20attack intra-africa student mobility: benefits for africa and factors militating against it ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 144-161 161 woldegiorgis, e. t. & doevenspeck, m. (2015). current trends, challenges and prospects of student mobility in the african higher education landscape. international journal of higher education, 4(2), 105–115. woldegiorgis, e. t. & scherer, c. (2019). challenges and prospects for higher education partnership in africa: concluding remarks. in e.t. woldegiorgis & c. scherer (eds.), partnership in higher education (pp. 203–211). brill. world bank. (2020). sub-saharan africa: tertiary education. the docs world bank, december 11, 2020. chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/viewer.html?pdfurl=https%3a%2f% 2fthedocs.worldbank.org%2fen%2fdoc%2f7644216119345203790090022021%2foriginal%2foneafricateandcovidupdated.pdf&chunk=true access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia emnet tadesse woldegiorgis ali mazrui centre for higher education studies, university of johannesburg, south africa kennedy monari teachers service commission, patterson memorial school, kampala, uganda. abstract an intricate mesh of factors hampers students from refugee backgrounds from accessing and having success in higher education (he). the paper examines he within a broader framework of refugee education and the future politics of its provision. much research is done on refugee children and youth in schooling contexts, but less is known about students from refugee backgrounds in he. according to the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr), an estimated 65 million people are currently displaced, of whom over 21 million meet refugee status criteria. nevertheless, only five percent of this group has access to he. thus, access to he and the success of students from refugee backgrounds are central to the discussion on the future of he. the paper provides a comparative overview of difficulties regarding access to he for refugee students in uganda and ethiopia, highlighting policy and settlement issues in their legislative and political contexts. it also interrogates students’ coping mechanisms, exploring their experiences through interviews. the study uses secondary data, document analysis, and interviews with a total of 30 students from refugee backgrounds, fifteen from makerere university in uganda and fifteen from addis ababa university in ethiopia. keywords: access to higher education, refugees, displaced people, uganda, ethiopia introduction refugees experience limited access to adequate education at all levels, but opportunities for higher education (he) are particularly scarce. very little research has specifically focused on access to he for refugees whose pursuit of education is contextualised by not having the same issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 56-81 issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 1-19 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 2 rights and opportunities as citizens – with experiences of persecution, forced migration and navigating life in a country of asylum or resettlement. the issues and challenges of students from refugee backgrounds attempting to access, participate in and utilise he study (and the relationship between refugees and he in general) constitute an under-explored area of research. the question of access to primary and secondary education is widely accepted to be critical to the well-being and livelihood of young people. however, he for refugees has only come into focus in recent years, following the release of the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr) 2012–2016 education strategy that included he for refugees as a key priority area. prior to this, he for refugees was rarely considered to be part of a humanitarian response strategy (unhcr, 2012). students from refugee backgrounds have specific experiences that make access to and participation in he distinct (koehler & schneider, 2019). evidence suggests that education plays an important and protective role in helping refugee individuals and communities cope with their daily existence during protracted waiting periods (crea & mcfarland, 2015). for instance, ferede (2018, p. 7) highlights the significant role he plays ‘in advancing refugees’ integration into host societies, in developing skill sets that can be leveraged for entry into labour markets and toward post-conflict reconstruction in countries of origin’. he is a gateway to upward social and economic mobility in that it enables access to higher-skilled, better-paid positions, well-connected social networks and entry into the middle class (ma et al., 2016). koehler and schneider (2019, p. 2) describe refugee education as a ‘social investment in the long-term’, which can be used to promote peacebuilding and stability. as such, he holds an important value for refugees in paving the way for repatriation, integration and resettlement into their country of origin. the prioritisation of universal primary education is a clear illustration of how a limited conception of development goals favours the privatisation of post-secondary education and the widening of educational disparities (novelli et al., 2014). nevertheless, the question of providing access to he services to refugees and addressing the various barriers has been one of the areas of concern for both academic and policy discourses since the unhcr recognised he as a basic human right. even though progress has been made in terms of access to primary and secondary education, access to and retention of refugee students at the he level remains a barrier. a myriad of challenges accounts for this, including learning gaps owing to interrupted schooling, issues with academic credentials, financial constraints and limited fluency in the language of instruction (ferede, 2018). moreover, the cost of he remains elevated in access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 3 comparison with primary or secondary levels, and in addition, tertiary education programmes require multi-year donor commitment to enable students to graduate. some education interventions may fail to recognise the political, cultural and socio-economic contexts of migration. there is a dearth of cross-sector factors between education ministries and other sectors inside the national borders of refugee-hosting countries, which obstruct access to he for refugees (novelli et al., 2014). the dynamics of the provision of he for refugees are reflections of the intervention strategies of various agencies and actors ranging from local and national to global. one cannot deny that the influx of refugees has socio-economic and political implications for the host countries, especially if the host is a developing country (novelli et al., 2014). nevertheless, the responsibility of providing access to he for refugee students does not lie only with hosting countries but rather demands a coordinated intervention strategy among national, regional and international bodies. the unhcr estimates that at least 65 million people currently are displaced, with over 21 million meeting refugee status criteria. of those numbers, only five percent have access to he as compared to 36 percent of young people globally (unhcr, 2021). thus, the question of access to he for refugees requires urgent attention. the role of regional and national policies on migration and freedom of movement is important in understanding refugee protection and access to he services. these policies, relating to the status of refugees, as well as the individual country’s refugee protection act(s), inform and regulate conditions surrounding refugee access to education and labour markets. the eastern africa region hosts one of the largest displaced populations in the world, with a total refugee population of 4.5 million as of june 2021 (wfp [world food programme] eastern africa, 2021b). as such, uganda and ethiopia are still the largest refugee-hosting countries within this sub-region, providing refuge to close to 1.5 and 1 million refugees respectively, from more than 14 countries (wfp eastern africa, 2021a). this paper aims to provide a comparative overview of the challenges for refugee students in accessing he services in uganda and ethiopia, highlighting both policy and settlement issues. the research explores relevant legislative and political contexts in the two countries. it also interrogates the coping mechanisms of refugee students, exploring their challenges and experiences through interviews. the study relies on secondary data, document analysis and interviews with a total of 30 students from refugee backgrounds 15 from makerere university in uganda and 15 from addis ababa university in ethiopia. emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 4 general overview of refugees and access to higher education in africa defining a refugee is challenging since the status of each displaced person might differ in terms of their immigrant, refugee, asylee or temporary protected status – with each invoking a set of de facto and de jure implications. the 1951 refugee convention defines a refugee as ‘someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion’ (un, 1951). in most african countries, including uganda and ethiopia, the term ‘refugee’ has legal status but is often used more broadly for those seeking asylum and those who are stateless. although internally displaced people and migrants are not included in the term refugee, they may experience similar challenges in accessing he (unhcr, 2020). the country to which refugees flee is commonly called a ‘host country’. however, the notion of a host country is potentially problematic because of its connotations of short-term benevolence – with the refugee positioned as a temporary guest. yet, research indicates that many refugees are unlikely to return to their original homes and aim to live permanently in what should rightly be called ‘re/settlement’ countries (mcintyre & abrams, 2020). the african continent has for many years experienced a refugee crisis as a result of ongoing violence and political conflict on the continent, which shows no signs of abating soon. according to the unhcr (2020), sub-saharan africa is home to more than 18 million refugees (26% of the global refugee population) (unhcr, 2019). the number of refugees has risen over time as a result of ongoing crises in somalia, chad, the democratic republic of congo (drc), eritrea, south sudan, burundi, the central african republic and nigeria, among others. refugee camps, which were initially concentrated in the horn of africa, are now developing at many locations across the continent, particularly in west and southern africa (unhcr, 2019). civil unrest, conflicts, natural disasters, oppressive regimes and concurrent violations of human rights are the primary causes of forced migration in africa. while old causes of refugee flows have waned, new ones have emerged, complicating the search for longterm solutions (unhcr, 2017). the african union (au) made 2019 the year of ‘refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons’ in recognition of the fact that over a third of the world’s displaced persons are in africa (au, 2019). africa also has the highest number of internally displaced people (idps) as a result of conflict and violence that has erupted in numerous nations across the continent (unhcr, 2020). recent conflicts and violence in africa have forced millions of access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 5 people to flee their homes in search of safety. in east africa, forced displacement has affected approximately 9.6 million idps and 4.7 million refugees and asylum seekers (unhcr, 2021). south sudan continues to have africa's worst refugee crisis, with vast displacement, raging conflict and severe food shortages (unhcr, 2021). uganda and ethiopia are the countries on the continent with the greatest numbers of refugees fleeing civil unrest and famine from south sudan, the drc, somalia, eritrea and burundi. despite the recognition by unhcr of the relevance of he for students from refugee backgrounds, the provision of the service by host countries has been complicated by legislative bottlenecks, logistic challenges and incompatibility of education systems of home versus host countries. many african countries (including ghana, nigeria, south africa and morocco) treat refugee students as international students, which puts them at a disadvantage and prevents them from being eligible for scholarships and fee reductions (mcintyre & abrams, 2020). thus, refugees and asylum seekers struggle to access bursaries, scholarships and loans designed to help financially needy students. with the launch of the comprehensive refugee response framework (crrf) in 2016, many african countries are under enormous pressure to provide he to the vast majority of refugees despite their socio-economic and political challenges (unhcr, 2019). the crrf aims to make lifelong learning accessible to all, from early childhood development to he, including adult education and vocational training. where possible, the unhcr’s general approach is the integration of refugee learners into national systems. besides working with connected learning partners to increase access through distance/blended learning, the unhcr provides limited scholarships for refugees to universities in host countries. according to sheehy (2018), to reduce barriers to accessing he by refugees (resulting from factors including the need for legal documentation, school certificates and payment of international student fees), strong advocacy is carried out with african ministries of education and local institutions. to access he, like other applicants refugees must undergo an admissions process demonstrating their eligibility and aptitude for study. although eligibility requirements vary widely by country and institution, requirements of he institutions for applicants include proof of citizenship, residence or immigration status; documentation of secondary school level education completion (such as a diploma); transcripts of secondary school level courses and grades achieved; passing scores on secondary leaving examinations; university entry examinations; evidence of language proficiency in the language(s) of instruction; and access emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 6 to financial aid or payment forms (indicating ability to pay/financial aid needed) (unhcr, 2019). access to documents of prior learning or credentials for refugees is extremely challenging, as documents may have been lost or stolen during the migration process, or in reception centres and refugee camps. even if refugees manage to flee with documentation, these credentials must be evaluated and recognised in the host country. having little or no proficiency in the language(s) of instruction is another barrier to he access. a further barrier faced by refugees is insufficient knowledge or understanding of the he system in their host country which is exacerbated by a lack of availability of information and counselling services (unhcr, 2018). moreover, the cost of he is a barrier to he access with tuition fees varying widely by country and institution type (such as public or private and/or diploma or degreegranting institutions). as such, refugees’ access to education services and opportunities is hindered by structural, procedural, socio-cultural or political factors (molla, 2021) which results in them being marginalised and alienated from the social, economic and policy contexts of the host country. the settlement options for refugees are usually limited as they either resettle or remain for a long time in the host country, resettle in countries such as the united states of america (usa) or europe, or go back to their country of origin. providing he services offering training and new skills for refugees could open new opportunities for coping in all settlement situations. in countries of settlement, refugees who have engaged in he are more likely to find work and contribute to the local economy (cantat, 2022). nevertheless, the opening of national he spaces for refugees in africa is a complex matter with multiple constraints that demand intervention by both national and international agencies. like all foreigners who seek to access higher educational services in most african countries, refugees are treated as foreigners and are subject to all procedures and regulations of the host country such as tuition fees, compliance with admission requirements and accreditation of documentation. the provision of funds and scholarships is generally facilitated by international agencies that cover the cost of education for refugees, but national regulatory acts and frameworks related to admission requirements still restrict refugee access to he. even though most african countries are signatories of most international conventions on the rights of refugees, it is challenging for the unhcr to enforce these agreements without the full cooperation of host countries. apart from national regulatory frameworks, policy dynamics within he institutions also hinder access for displaced or refugee students. as indicated by access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 7 cantat (2022, p. 90), ‘access programmes for displaced students constantly face institutional obstacles and disempowering dynamics inside universities’, with ‘websites and recruitment booklets relegating them to the margins of institutions’. as a result, access to he for refugees requires a paradigm shift from applying a ‘foreigner’ status to a ‘settler in transition’ status to ensure inclusive and equitable access to he services that promote lifelong learning for all. the notion of access, quality and protection must be conceptualised as integrally connected to effective policy and programmatic approaches for refugee education. access to he includes the ability to enrol in and graduate from learning institutions in the host countries. the vision of the unhcr is also to ‘ensure the right to education [including he] for all people of concern to unhcr’ (unhcr, 2009, p. 4). however, he has largely remained outside of the global education movement, which tends to focus on primary education (unhcr, 2021). given this focus, the unhcr has been struggling to win over donors to support both secondary and he services for refugee students (unhcr, 2021). yet the provision of education services – from the primary level to he – is paramount for refugees to address the overall challenges of resettlement and reconstruction of livelihoods. comparative context from ethiopia and uganda the refugee host nations in the global south suffer the brunt of the refugee burden. the east africa crisis has succeeded in focusing global attention on refugee education in ways that past crises have not, culminating in the current global refugee education movement (unhcr, 2020). uganda and ethiopia are among the largest refugee-hosting countries in africa. from 2012 to date, uganda has hosted large numbers of refugees as a result of three simultaneous crises in neighbouring countries, namely, south sudan, the drc and burundi. ethiopia has also had to deal with thousands of people fleeing their homes from eritrea, somalia and south sudan – with more than half of those being women and children (unhcr, 2021). the delivery of humanitarian relief is hampered by ongoing civil war, unrest and access challenges, which result in displacement and food insecurity (unhcr, 2021). currently, uganda hosts close to 1.5 million refugees concentrated in urban areas and refugee camps (predominantly in the north-west, north-east and central districts), while ethiopia hosts approximately 1 million refugees and asylum seekers (predominantly from south sudan, somalia, eritrea and yemen) (unhcr, 2021). emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 8 in recognition of the challenges of hosting refugees, the crrf was launched in ethiopia, kenya, rwanda and uganda to ease the pressure on east african host countries, enhance refugee self-reliance, expand access to third-country solutions and support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity (wfp, 2021b). although in principle there are no restrictions on refugees’ access to he in either uganda or ethiopia, in practice, there are structural constraints and hurdles that prevent access. while international agencies and ministries of education in uganda and ethiopia are working to help refugee youth gain access to he, there have been several obstacles; in addition, support for the few he projects that do exist is woefully inadequate. in both countries, the concerns most raised by refugee students include documentation, language barriers and the difficulty of obtaining a job after graduation in host countries. for instance, one of the eritrean refugees at addis ababa university stated: i receive a monthly scholarship from unhcr to support my living expenses and accommodation; i have been admitted to the department of journalism and communication at addis ababa university, where i will be graduating in 2023. my hope for employment opportunities in the future is not optimistic since, as a foreigner, i am not allowed to be employed, at least in the civil service sector in ethiopia. there are few jobs available, and they are reserved mainly for citizens (refugee student ‘c’ from addis ababa university, april 28, 2019). the narratives of ‘temporariness’ and ‘foreigner’ restrict opportunities for refugees seeking employment within the host countries. only a few refugee youths enrolled in he institutions by humanitarian and educational agencies have been able to get jobs in the host countries. barriers to access include matriculation restrictions that limit enrolment of certain refugee groups, such as in the case of makerere university in uganda – until recently, they did not accept translations of high school diplomas, making it impossible for anyone educated in the drc with a french language diploma to enter the university. in some cases, refugees also have difficulties coping with the language of instruction of the host country. many congolese refugees in uganda wish to study using french as the medium of education, but they do not have that option. refugee students fear that their poor french skills will result in great difficulties (including unemployment) once they repatriate to francophone drc. a refugee student at makerere university, uganda, expressed his concern about returning as follows: i came to uganda as a refugee when i was 12 and now, i am 24 years old and doing a bachelor of art in education at makerere university. everything we do here is in english, and i am not sure i will be of any use if i return to drc one day as i have access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 9 almost done all my education in english (refugee student ‘a’ from makerere university, march 15, 2019). as of may 2021, uganda hosts the largest refugee population in africa and the third largest refugee population in the world, with 1 494 505 refugees and asylum seekers (wfp, 2021b). most of the refugees come from south sudan, followed by the drc, burundi and somalia. in the same way, as of may 2021, ethiopia hosts the second largest number of refugees in africa, with 806 541 registered refugees and asylum seekers, the majority of whom originate from south sudan, somalia, eritrea, sudan and yemen. nevertheless, he for refugees is still deprioritised in both countries by governments, international agencies and aid organisations because it is expensive and only caters to a small set of people who are then likely to become the educated elite within the refugee communities. there are also conflicting and competing interests, roles and responsibilities among various agencies, including unhcr, united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco), wfp and national governments regarding providing he services for refugees. moreover, education as a human right is currently constrained by legal status, fee-based provision, and he sector differentiation across national settings. uganda and ethiopia are parties to the dakar framework for action (unesco, 2000) and the africa regional training conference on tertiary education (yizengaw, 2003). these meetings (both held in senegal) highlighted the importance of he for displaced persons. the two countries are also signatories to the global compact on refugees and the crrf, which identify he as a means of ensuring refugee integration and inclusion in society by allowing them to ‘thrive, not simply survive’ (grandi, 2019, p. 2). they have also endorsed the united nations sustainable development goal 4 to provide all people with access to high-quality education by 2030 (unhcr, 2019b. despite growing support and efforts in uganda and ethiopia, available he initiatives frequently fail to address the challenges refugees face in gaining access to he, such as their isolation in areas with limited resources, a lack of technological infrastructure, electricity, access to devices and internet connectivity (bauer & gallagher, 2020). challenges and prospects the case of uganda uganda has been praised for its progressive refugee management policies on education and promoting the integration of refugees into the country (au, 2019). however, despite having emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 10 considerable rights in principle for accessing higher institutions in uganda, refugees face myriad challenges beyond educational considerations that prevent them from accessing he. one of the first hurdles for refugees seeking he is to meet the academic requirements for enrolment. once this is accomplished, a slew of structural barriers to continued education must be overcome. many refugees in both urban and rural areas with the potential of becoming students are prevented from doing so based on the inaccessibility of information portals/hubs (dryden-peterson & giles, 2010). this obstacle to access is exacerbated by a lack of coordination among providers which puts prospective students under pressure to find information in multiple places about the wide range of programmes. the cost of furthering one’s education is also a significant impediment to promising refugee students. university tuition fees are out of reach for the vast majority of refugees owing to a lack of funds (unesco, 2019). in practice, foreign students in uganda pay higher tuition fees, particularly at private universities: in uganda, universities and other institutions of higher learning recognise us as international students, and we pay higher tuition costs than domestic students (refugee student ‘c’ from makerere university, march 18, 2019). the trend of increased fees for international students impacts access to he for refugees. both public and private universities treat refugees as international students and they charge them a higher rate than ugandan students. this impacts on refugees’ capacity to pursue he. the ugandan government does not offer scholarships or bursaries to refugees pursuing he. one of the refugee students explained: for the past four years, i have been hunting down scholarships to quench my thirst and hunger for higher education. and every time i apply for a scholarship, i almost go through but things do not work out well. but i have always kept my head up well, knowing that the educational opportunities that come through are not for everyone but for the lucky ones (refugee student ‘b’ from makerere university, march 16, 2019). refugee students are ineligible for the uganda higher education students’ financing board (hesfb), a fund intended to provide financing to ugandan students who have qualified for he in recognised institutions of higher learning (kyaligonza, 2017). most refugee students cannot support themselves financially unless they are enrolled in a programme geared specifically toward refugees. without financial assistance to pursue he, the number of refugees access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 11 enrolling in institutions of higher learning in uganda will remain low, irrespective of the progressive policies supporting their integration. certification demonstrating prior education is another obstacle challenging refugee students who want to continue their education in uganda. a refugee student explained that: in uganda, educational institutions barely acknowledge refugees’ unique challenges and prevent them from progressing to the next level of their education because they lack adequate documentation and certificates detailing past education (refugee student ‘c’ from makerere university, march 18, 2019). the study found that refugee students frequently struggle to verify their past educational achievements owing to the loss of examination certificates and academic transcripts, as well as the non-acceptance of diplomas gained in other countries. it is also possible that documents establishing identity or nationality requirements have become misplaced. as a result, the process of identification becomes extremely challenging. the prospective students have been known to risk their lives by returning to their home countries to obtain the necessary papers. early guidance is emerging in response to this key protection problem, with new resources focused on recording suggested procedures to assist institutions in recognising refugee applicants' past learning when full, official, or verified paperwork is not available. the language barrier is also a major impediment to effective education among refugee youth in uganda (see government of uganda, 2018). english has been a language of instruction in uganda since colonial times. many refugees, especially from francophone nations such as burundi and the drc, find it difficult to adjust to and succeed with a new curriculum in a foreign language in uganda. for instance, one of the students noted that: language barriers are an unfortunate part of our daily life, especially for students from francophone countries. we frequently rely on information provided by refugees and friends who have gone through similar experiences (refugee student ‘c’ from makerere university, march 18, 2019). language barriers explain low enrolment rates/high dropout rates among refugee students in he. the study showed that refugee students from francophone nations often feel isolated because of limited language skills in their new environment, which exacerbates exclusion from he. moreover, the bulk of scholarship programmes in uganda and overseas, as well as blended learning programmes authorised by institutions in anglophone countries, are conducted in emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 12 english. this further prevents french-speaking students from benefitting from he opportunities, since learning new language skills is both costly and time-consuming. realising the severity of the ongoing crisis and the flaws in global emergency response plans, several new initiatives have emerged, ranging from small programmes serving a small cohort in specific camps or host countries to large online providers with the potential to provide he courses to an unlimited number of refugee students. initiated in 1992, the unhcr dafi scholarships (with dafi being the german abbreviation for the albert einstein german academic refugee initiative) are invaluable for encouraging and supporting refugees to access he and register for undergraduate courses in uganda and other sub-saharan countries. for instance, one of the dafi scholarship recipients noted that: receiving the dafi scholarship was a lifelong dream come true. i yearned to finish university and help my family and community, but i lacked the financial means to do so. it was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for me (refugee student ‘b’ from makerere university, march 16, 2019). the dafi programme is based on the notion of inclusion in recognised systems, allowing refugees to study alongside citizens in universities in their host countries. awards cover a wide variety of expenses, including tuition and study materials, as well as a regular stipend to assist with covering rent, transportation and living expenses. the ugandan government has taken steps including the ratifying of the new york declaration for refugees and migrants and the crrf, to protect the right of refugees (unhcr, 2017). this indicates the political commitment of the government, at least in principle, to protecting human rights and guaranteeing access to basic services. nevertheless, in the past two decades, access to he and employment have still not shown substantial progress. the case of ethiopia ethiopia has an open borders policy regarding the influx of refugees and asylum seekers. it permits humanitarian actors to support and protect those seeking asylum (unhcr, 2020). it has recently gained recognition for enacting a progressive refugee law that addresses refugees’ basic needs. in terms of education, the law (fdre, 2019) specifies that any certified refugee or asylum seeker should enjoy the same treatment as ethiopian nationals. this includes preprimary, primary, secondary and he, technical and vocational training. it also encompasses non-formal and adult education (within ethiopia’s educational policy and available resources). access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 13 despite the above-mentioned milestones and numerous positive developments brought about by the recent declaration and refugee education plan, refugees face numerous obstacles in accessing he in ethiopia. refugee students confront two sorts of qualification-related obstacles to accessing he. firstly, a lack of documentation of previous education (credentials) impedes their access to he. in ethiopia, all prospective students must present their academic credentials and all necessary documents of admission to enrol in he (fdre, 2019). however, a range of problems prevents refugee students from providing all the required documentation. this situation is likely to worsen with the instability associated with increased forced displacement resulting in refugees losing or misplacing vital documentation. the official institutions in charge of issuing documentation may also be inaccessible across borders, dysfunctional, or discriminatory against specific groups. a south sudanese refugee student spoke about his traumatic experience as follows: we fled our country and spent several days on the road before arriving here. i could not carry anything, including my academic certificate, which has slowed my progress toward further education (refugee student ‘a’ from addis ababa university, april 21, 2019). critical documents may also be stolen in refugee camps, or damaged during forced migration. during interviews, refugee students further revealed that, although some of them had fled with documentation, these needed evaluation by the higher education relevance and quality agency (herqa) before being recognised by an ethiopian institution of higher learning. in complying with global and regional standards and agreements, credential recognition can be a time-consuming process, with validation of the quality of original (including partial) studies. furthermore, the process of evaluation and equalisation necessitates financial and human resources, both of which may be in short supply in host nations. during the study, the herqa admitted that recognising and validating credentials can be particularly challenging for refugees arriving from crisis zones where institutions have been plundered and destroyed or exploited for military purposes. the cost of education is one of the difficulties that refugee students face in their quest for he. ethiopia’s out-of-camp scheme, established in 2010, allows self-sponsored refugees living in addis ababa to attend local private he institutes on a fee-paying basis, among other benefits. the majority of refugees pursue he with the support of family members living emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 14 abroad, notably in europe and north america. the situation was described as follows by one of the eritrean refugee students: i spent three years in the adi-harush refugee camp. later, i moved to addis ababa since my brother in the united states promised to pay me $200 every month to fund my college expenses. things were difficult for me in college because i could not sit and learn for hours on end, and i could not be inspired to read because i did not understand anything (refugee student ‘b’ from addis ababa university, april 26, 2019). the budgetary allocation by the ethiopian government and the unhcr is not disbursed on time and is severely challenged owing to soaring inflation. it is worth noting that funding set aside for refugee students is comparable to that set aside for native students; nonetheless, most ethiopian students have other income and family assistance. most refugee students are unlikely to receive further financial assistance from their families because in many cases, their families are also in refugee camps and have no finances or financial assistance. language of instruction is a significant barrier for refugees seeking he in ethiopia. a significant proportion of refugee students in tertiary education experience major academic challenges owing to a lack of proficiency in both amharic and english as an additional language. while english is the primary medium of instruction in ethiopian universities, most lecturers prefer to use amharic to clarify concepts and ideas, making it difficult for refugee students to grasp the content. for example, one of the refugee students explained: our lecturer often uses amharic to clarify concepts making it difficult for refugee students to understand lessons due to their lack of proficiency in the language. participation in lectures is often hampered especially when instructors switch to amharic to facilitate communication (refugee student ‘c’ from addis ababa university, april 28, 2019). lack of language skills can also exacerbate the myriad socio-cultural problems experienced by refugee students. for example, in or out of the lecture hall, conversations concerning academic issues, including clarification of vague concepts, are commonly mediated purely in amharic, preventing refugee learners from expressing their dissatisfaction or raising questions. it is no surprise, therefore, that among the many academic difficulties they experience, refugee students frequently rate a deficiency of amharic or english language proficiency as one of the most critical challenges. access and politics of higher education for refugees: comparative contexts from uganda and ethiopia ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 15 ethiopia’s emerging response to refugee he is encouraging. the current refugee response plan is guided by three broad principles: out-of-camp, encampment and local integration policies. in partnership with global organisations such as the unhcr, the ethiopian government has over the last ten years implemented programmes to assist refugees in dealing with their situation. following the nine commitments made in 2016 at the leaders’ summit on refugees in new york, the government has increased he opportunities for refugees. one of the refugee students explained: i am grateful that i never had any difficulties during my studies because the ethiopian government paid my allowance and tuition on time. this has provided access to higher education opportunities on par with ethiopian citizens (refugee student ‘d’ from addis ababa university, april 29, 2019). some institutions have opened up enrolment to qualified refugees without discrimination and within the constraints of available resources (moshe, 2020). government scholarships available to refugees have mostly been provided to those from eritrea, although since 2017, few refugees from other countries have been accepted into this programme (moshe, 2020). since 2000, the unhcr dafi scholarship programme has also been supporting refugees to access he both in universities and vocational institutions in ethiopia. the unhcr covers 25% of the total cost of education, with the ethiopian government covering the remaining 75% through government universities (unhcr, 2017). for instance, one of the eritrean refugees at addis ababa university stated ‘i will be forever thankful to dafi for helping me regain my hope. i was able to earn a first-class degree from addis ababa university’ (refugee student ‘c’ from addis ababa university, april 28, 2019). conclusion the challenges faced by refugee students necessitate a better understanding of their circumstances, as well as strengthened institutional support structures that will mobilise the he community in identifying and addressing the primary impediments to achievement in he by refugees. the study revealed a significant comparison in access to he in uganda and ethiopia relating to the barriers experienced by refugee students and the initiatives put in place in the respective countries. the findings show that the refugees in both cases are not barred from enrolling in he institutions if they have the necessary verified certification demonstrating prior education and can afford the fees as international students. the unhcr dafi scholarships and initiatives, ranging from small programmes serving a small cohort in specific camps or emnet tadesse woldegiorgis, kennedy monari ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 1-19 16 host countries to large online providers with the potential to provide he courses to an unlimited number of refugee students, have assisted refugee students in gaining access to he. the finding also reflects the varying levels of access to he. in uganda, refugees are ineligible for government scholarships unless they are enrolled in a programme geared specifically toward refugees. they are treated as international students and are charged international student fees at public and private universities. in contrast, in ethiopia, any certified refugee or asylum seeker enjoys the same treatment as ethiopian nationals. this includes tertiary education, technical and vocational training, as well as non-formal and adult education (within ethiopia’s educational policy and available resources). thus the evidence has revealed significant distinctiveness between the two countries. the effectiveness of he interventions for refugees is based on decision-makers taking into account knowledge of the context-specific political and cultural dynamics in which policies and programmes arise and take shape. recognising the importance of he for refugees in the context of a complicated environment with highly politicised power relationships may aid in avoiding acts that have unintended repercussions that contribute to the persistence of social injustices. even in settings where refugee students are accommodated in he, they face a multitude of academic and other related challenges that undermine their success in he. to inform context-sensitive implementation, it is critical to pay attention to the contextual limitations, identities, voices and aspirations of local, national and global actors that 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(2003). transformations in higher education: experiences with and expansion in ethiopian higher education system [keynote paper]. regional training conference on improving tertiary education in sub-saharan africa: things that work! https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ https://reliefweb.int/report/uganda/wfp-east-africa-regional-refugee-update-june-2021 https://reliefweb.int/report/uganda/wfp-east-africa-regional-refugee-update-june-2021 implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, arne jacob melting western norway university of applied sciences abstract around the world, schoolchildren suffer from vision disturbances that may challenge their ability to learn to read and write. often teachers lack the competences to identify and help children who struggle with vision problems. this study is a part of a norwegian-tanzanian research project with intentions to strengthen teachers’ competences on identifying and improving pupils’ vision problems. with a qualitative research design, we analyse how contextual factors of task, time, scale and direction provided possibilities and barriers for implementing the new competence in tanzanian special needs teacher education, and for scaling up the competence to mainstream teacher education. the task, timing, and direction of the capacity building meant that the efforts were well received in special needs teacher education. the core ideas of the competence building corresponded with the national education strategies for inclusive education and may spread awareness on learning difficulties amongst teachers. teachers’ knowledge and awareness of vision disturbances and other learning problems may contribute to enhancing inclusive educational goals. however, further scaling up of the competence to ordinary teachers and into mainstream classrooms is hindered by factors related to task and scale, in particular a dual-track educational system and lack of teacher competencies. keywords: tanzania, teacher education, special needs education, inclusive education, competence building, vision problems 1. introduction around the world, schoolchildren suffer from vision disturbances that may challenge their ability to learn to read and write. a qualified teacher is the key for a child’s thriving in school, but often teachers lack the competences to identify and help children who struggle with vision issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 70-94 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 71 problems. this study is a part of a norwegian-tanzanian research project with intentions to strengthen teachers’ competences concerning vision problems among primary school pupils. tanzania’s education policies are changing. a new teacher education, and a competence-based primary school curriculum has been implemented. the country has endorsed international agreements on the right to education and inclusive education (ie). national education policies aim to strengthen inclusion and learner-centred activities. teachers’ professional development is always essential in implementing new policies (reimers, 2020) and teachers hold a pivotal role in educational change (hooijer, van der merwe & fourie, 2021; pantic & florian, 2015). international research indicates that between 25 and 30% of children in primary school age suffer from often undetected vision disturbances that may complicate learning and reading, and our research project found high prevalence of vision disturbances also in tanzania (wilhelmsen & felder, 2021). researchers argue for increased attention to teachers’ and teacher educators’ preparedness to support inclusive education (florian, 2019; florian & camedda, 2020; possi & milinga, 2017). in tanzania this takes us to special needs education (sne). this article analyses the potential for capacity building in special needs teacher education as a facilitator for improved education for vision disturbed children. we study how competence building regarding vision disturbances may support the ambitions embedded in tanzanian education policies.1 more specifically, we ask how contextual factors provide possibilities and barriers for implementing new competence on vision disturbances in special needs teacher education, and for upscaling this capacity building into mainstream classrooms. we draw upon research underlining the role of contextual factors related to educational reforms and capacity building for inclusive education in a subsaharan setting as well as studies stressing local context translations and adjustments (ball, maguire & braun, 2012). in particular, the analysis relies on a transformative approach to reforms (christensen & lægreid, 2013) that regard mesolevel factors of tasks, timing, scale and direction influencing implementation and translation of new ideas. 1 inclusive education is an approach which transforms the education system, including its structure, policies, practices, and human resources, to accommodate all learners in mainstream education by addressing and responding to learners’ diverse needs (moest 2017; 12) vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 72 the article is based on findings from the norwegian tanzanian partnership research and capacity-building project securing education for children in tanzania (seced) (20172021), with the overall aim to contribute to improved schooling for children with learning problems2. a core element was a continuous professional development (cpd) course on vision and learning, also including training eyes for better vision. the cpd aimed at college tutors and primary school teachers. embedded in this knowledge is the focus on the individual learner, implicating a learner-centred perspective. the project was carried out in collaboration with the partner institution patandi teachers college for special needs. this article is based on the social research component of the project that aimed to understand the contextual factors that could support and hinder implementation of the innovative elements and their upscaling. the following text starts with a presentation of the tanzanian teacher education system and the organization of special needs education (sne). after that we will address the conceptual tools used for the analysis, emphasising how contextual factors influence the local processes related to translation and adaptation of the capacity building ideas. thereafter, we present the methodology, before going into the analysis and discussion of the material. 2. tanzanian education context since the days of president nyerere, education has been promoted as a key to the development of tanzania. this study concerns the structural and cultural framework of education for children with learning problems. most of these children are found in mainstream classrooms, often with high risk of drop-out. since 2008, inclusive education (ie) has been defined as the norm for learners with disabilities (lehtomäki, tuomi & matonya, 2014). the 2018-21 national strategy for inclusive education emphasise participation in basic education for all, addressing both impairments and problems of drop-out, and equity in learning outcomes (moest, 2017), and relies on three tiers: special needs schools, special needs units in mainstream schools, and inclusive classrooms in mainstream schools. these can also be termed special schools, integrated schools, and inclusive schools (mkumbo 2008, braun 2022). tanzania’s education system is highly hierarchical and centralised (braun 2022). the ministry of education, science and technology (moest) oversees policies, monitoring and evaluation, and teacher education. the presidents’ office – regional administration and local government (po-ralg) is responsible for management of pre-primary, primary and 2 tanzania is location for this project primarily for two reasons. the funding from norwegian research council, specified certain countries, tanzania being one. also, long lasting collaboration relations with local education institutions were already established. implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 73 secondary education. curricula are developed by tanzania institute of education (tie), organized directly under moest. po-ralg administers the country`s more than 17 000 primary schools, with a special needs department being responsible for the 38 special needs (sn) schools and the 790 sn units. the numbers of sn students are increasing (jmt, 2021). however, the country still lags far behind in terms of including persons with disabilities, and most impaired children remain outside of education (moest, 2020; tungaraza 2018; miles, westbrook & croft, 2018). primary education is compulsory in tanzania, and the enrolment rate is high (moest, 2017). however, there are challenges regarding drop-out and fluctuating pass rates. in 2017, only 91% of the pupils reached the last year of primary school (unesco 2020). the pass rates on school-leaving exams have fluctuated during the last 15 years (po-ralg 2019, 2020), and reading tests indicate low learning outcomes for many students (uwezo, 2019). mushi (2009) points at insufficient public spending and poverty as key reasons for low outcome of education. further, we know that children’s learning can be complicated by other factors. research (mcclelland, acock, piccinin, rhea & stallings 2013; posner & rothbart, 2005; wilhelmsen & felder, 2020) indicates a high probability that vision problems can explain dropout and failing academic performance. problems related to vision acuity, ocular motor control and other disturbances may complicate the ability to see, either on distance or close, or to concentrate over time. such problems may be hard to detect. like other countries, there are obstacles for detecting vision problems in tanzanian schools. classrooms are typically crowded, with few teachingand learning resources available. in 2020 the grand total qualified teacher to student ratio, in governmental schools, was 1:62(po-ralg, 2020). rote learning and copying text from the chalkboard are dominant teaching methods. it is commonly seen that children struggle to follow. tanzania does not perform universal health screening of school starters. together with generally meagre eyehealth infrastructure, this means that children may struggle with vision disturbances without being identified, assessed or helped (mwakyusa, katunzi & shilio, 2017). most tanzanian primary and secondary school teachers are educated at teacher colleges. the curricula proclaim that teachers should be able to handle learners with different learning needs. research indicates that teachers in general lack such competence and that teachers’ general working conditions inhibit following up each child (miles, westbrook & croft, 2018; tungaraza, 2014; westbrook & croft 2015). out of tanzania’s almost 200.000 vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 74 primary school teachers (po-ralg, 2020), only 2179 teachers are qualified as sn teachers (moest, 2017). in general, teachers and other stakeholders show low awareness pertaining to impairments or sensory problems that complicate learning (mnyanyi, 2009; possi & milinga 2017; tungaraza, 2014; 2018). rugambwa and thomas (2013) also found that teachers tend to conceptualise disability as only physical impairments, and in effect categorize learners who lag behind as “slow” learners. they also argue that teachers need additional training to ensure realisation of ie. as the only governmental teacher college that offers sne at higher diploma level in tanzania, patandi teachers’ college of special needs education has offered education for inservice teachers since 1996 (possi & milinga, 2017). the college adheres to the national curriculum for special education that is decreed by moest, and answers to moest in everything they do, from budgets to teaching activities. the tutors are mostly former teachers with a ba degree and specialised competencies in the three tiers of sne, and accordingly the college divides the teaching into three departments: intellectual impairment and autism, hearing impairment, and vision impairment and deaf-blind. in 2018, moest initiated a new programme for pre-service student teachers at patandi, due to the need for more sne teachers. the college has the capacity of accommodating above 500 students, and with the new teacher training programme, the college is close to that target. teachers who have been trained at patandi mostly work in sn schools or -units across the country (tungaraza, 2014), and the authorities are responsible for relevant job assignment. 3. literature review and theoretical framework our analytical perspective draws on several recourses, the first of which are studies of contextual factors related to capacity building and reforms aiming at enhancing inclusive education in sub-saharan setting. capacity development means transformation that empower individuals, leaders, organizations and societies (undp, 2009). with this being a cornerstone in international development, still many development projects involving capacity building and technology transfer fail, according to the literary review by lavagnon and donelly (2017). certain contextual conditions appear as important for capacity-building development projects; structural conditions (legislation, capacity in contextual institutions), institutional conditions, and project management. this also relates to the educational sector (nkosana, 2013; tabulawa, 2009). implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 75 ideas of learner-centred pedagogy, the underlying constructivist theories, and ie are examples of global ideas that spread across countries, often through global donors. tanzanian education policies and reforms are also informed by such ideas (damiani, elder & oswago, 2021). researchers point out how local contexts may complicate education reforms. local culture and practices, economy and political-structural framework can challenge implementation of educational reforms (vavrus & bartlett, 2013). according to schweisfurth (2011), challenges for implementing a learner-centred pedagogy in sub-saharan africa include timing challenges, lack of material and human resources, in particular competencies in teacher training. further, she points at cultural assumptions of authority, obedience and power relations between external donors, national stakeholders, and local actors as a barrier to reform. curriculum theory highlights possible gaps between the ideological level of society down to the actual practice in classrooms (goodlad, 1979). such gaps may complicate implementation processes. damiani et.al (2021) find few studies of the practical sides of implementing ie in african contexts. existing studies, however, report barriers to ie to include inadequate infrastructure, lack of resources, and learning materials, attitudinal barriers, lack of teachers’ training and capacities due to the topic missing in teacher education (braun 2022, mkumbo 2008, possi & milinga 2017, tungaraza 2014, westbrook & croft 2015). analyses of learnercentred reforms in sub-saharan countries also point to an incompatibility between western– infused ideas of learners and learning, and the local cultural approaches (nkosana 2013; vavrus, bartlett & salema, 2013). braun (2022) studies national stakeholders, and points to negative attitudes, limited knowledge, together with scarce resources and lack of materials in local markets, among factors preventing ie. florian (2019) regards teacher education as crucial for securing ie, but points to challenges regarding differing perspectives on inclusive practises and the content of teacher training. the blurred relationship between inclusive and special needs education has implications for teacher training. teacher education programs aimed at separate groups of learners may in fact prove to be a barrier to inclusion, as they reinforce teachers’ identities regarding who they are qualified to teach (miles, westbrook & croft, 2018; westbrook & croft, 2015). this analysis pertains to the tanzanian system, where a dual track system of mainstream and special education has been developed. this makes it relevant to regard the possible barriers related to this structural arrangement when analysing the possibilities for enhancing capacity building for inclusion and learner centred teaching. vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 76 from education policy research, we know that spread of innovations, such as new policies and curricula, may take the shape of translations and adjustments in the local contexts, where local stakeholders include new elements in their ongoing practices (ball et.al., 2012). the context in which innovations are implemented need attention from policy makers and researchers. schools have differing capacities, potentials, and limitations to incorporate new ideas or policies, and thus we need to pay attention to the context to appreciate the implementation process. stakeholders on school level may be regarded as “street level bureaucrats” who must exercise discretion in dealing with complex situations (lipsky, 2010). to develop a tool for studying the potentials and barriers of upscaling the capacity building process and potentials for upscaling, we will build upon a framework for studies of reforms as transformative processes coined by christensen and lægreid (2002; 2013). this provides a contextual understanding of the limitations and possibilities for reforming education through capacity building in teacher education. christensen and lægreid (2002; 2013) argue that public reforms are not characterized by simple adjustment but must be regarded as transformative processes where ideas and concepts are redefined through contextual factors. this meso-level approach combines an organizational and contextual perspective. reform programmes, like the one introduced through seced, are filtered, interpreted and modified by a combination of the national political administrative history, culture, traditions and governance style on the one hand, and on the other hand the national polity features and structures that provide constraints and opportunities for actions. the compatibility of reform ideas with national contextual factors effects the actual changes that may take place, and the implications of the reforms implemented can be varied and ambiguous (christensen & lægreid, 2002). the compatibility of reform ideas with national contextual factors effects the actual changes that may take place, and the implications of the reforms can be varied and ambiguous. by contexts is meant the circumstances, environment, background, or settings which affects, constrains, specifies, or clarifies the meaning of an event (christensen & lægreid, 2013). based on pollitt (2008), four context variables are singled out: type of task, time, scale, and direction. tasks regards the history of the jurisdiction, the nature of tasks and the principles for division of tasks. the time variable embrace different cultural attitudes as well as longand short-term perspectives and disruptions. scale has to do with the scope of reform – if it is narrow or wide, and whether it is international, national, local, or sectorial. direction regards factors that may further or hinder the suggested changes, and the compatibility of ideas with implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 77 the contextual values. there is a dynamic relationship between the different contextual factors, and they may reinforce each other (christensen & lægreid, 2002). the seced project represents capacity building based on international research about vision and learning problems. the chosen perspective questions a supposition that international norms may be spread through isomorphic diffusion with convergence as a result. according to christensen and lægreid (2013), the degree of compatibility between reform ideas and the embedded values of the national culture, decides the outcome. the polity, government form and formal decision-making structure affect the capacity to realize reforms. hierarchical structures may give clear goals and commands form top-down, as in our case. however, actors also work on the reform ideas and put their mark on them throughout the implementation process. (christensen & lægreid, 2013). thus, contextual variables also enable actors to transform new ideas to fit the needs and frames of their tasks. innovations are adjusted to local contexts according to capacities, preferences, and understandings of people in their contexts. in this study, we regard tanzanian educational values and the hierarchical structure of the education system as contextual factors influencing on possibilities for reforming teacher education and spreading new knowledge to the school. 4. methodology this study emerges from a four-year project involving multidisciplinary staff in norway and tanzania. the authors of this article are social scientists who were responsible for documenting the process and analysing the contextual factors for implementation and upscaling of the project results. as such we have been both involved participants and observers. with a social-constructivist perspective (burr, 2015), we search for local stakeholders’ perspectives with a critical stance towards taken-for granted knowledge, aiming to document local reception and responses to the project initiatives, local perspectives on potential scaling up and further application value of the new knowledge. the study can be characterised as abductive (rinehart, 2020) as it seeks to develop categories and analytical arguments arising from the local perspectives and practices. abduction involves immersion over time, together with a backwards mapping. arguments come from data analysis over four years and discussing them against other research, theory, and participants. data were collected during 2017-20 and embrace observations, field conversations and individual and focus group interviews with core stakeholders. in addition, we have collected survey data from local communities and course participants, and analyzed policy documents, vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 78 reports and statistics. this methodological triangulation ensures validity in the research. further, interviews were repeated, and information updated regularly with key informants. long-term research engagement is important in establishing the trustworthiness of the data, focusing on criteria such as credibility and transferability (lorelli et.al., 2017). further, systematic analysis contributes to avoid subjective discretion or unexpected events in the research process. the document material includes publicly available documents concerning strategies, programmes and statistics for primary education, teacher education, ie and sne, and were collected through a snowballing process, and with the aid of partner representatives. documents were examined for content, with the intention to understand the educational strategies and organisational context relevant to the project. qualitative, semistructured interviews were, with one exception, carried out in english to minimize problems of translation. the respondents are a strategic selection of managers and involved tutors from the college, primary school teachers and leaders who took part in the project activities. informants also include leaders of the special education units in the two involved ministries, and stakeholders on local administrative levels. college tutors and students participated in group discussions. data also arises from reflection notes from cpd participants regarding experience with course contents, as well as suggestions for implementation and scaling up of the new knowledge. the same participants were surveyed again after two years to probe their experiences with practising the knowledge in their daily work. data were coded in several steps individually and collectively by team members to secure intersubjective understanding. open individual coding was followed by team-based discussions and re-coding according to core themes. a specialized coding based on the theoretical framework was then carried out. preliminary results have been reported and discussed with peers throughout the project period, with the intention to increase credibility (lorelli, norris, white & moules, 2017). the study has been prepared according to approval by norwegian social science data services (nsd) and the national committee for research ethics in the social sciences and the humanities’ (nesh) ethical guidelines. the duty of confidentiality is guaranteed by the safe storage of notes and audio recordings. most interviews have been recorded, according to informed consent and ethical clearance. recordings were stored off-line and deleted once the research was completed. the names of informants have been anonymized to prevent recognition. implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 79 5. analysis tasks the specific history and the nature of the jurisdiction`s tasks make a difference when it comes to understanding the outcome of a reform process (christensen & lægreid, 2013; pollitt et al., 2004). the level of autonomy and control, the division and coordination of tasks and responsibilities as well as the historical-institutional context are considered crucial factors, along with cultural elements related to the political institutional system and the cultural compatibility of tasks. the new competence brought forth by seced were implemented into an existing hierarchical structure. the partner college is the only government teacher training college for special needs teachers with specialised skills to teach children diagnosed according to the three official categories of impairment. this reflects the categories used in the special education system, with special classes, units or schools dedicated to the same categories. the position of the college in the field of sne is unique, and the tutors can be considered national experts who are called to contribute when the national education authorities are initiating changes in sn curricula or syllabi. the college is, however, not autonomous, but directly governed from the national educational authorities. the tutors are civil servants, employed by the state. tasks are directed by national authorities, and tutors have a duty to carry out relevant tasks on behalf of the government, involving reporting back to authorities. for the project participants at the college, their primary role is to carry out their obligations in line with moest instructions. this top-down organisation may complicate the efficiency of project implementation. a previous patandi leader said about starting a project: in our country is from top to down... it is hard if not people are very committed… it takes many months to get permit. sometimes mentality… sometimes bureaucracy. the restricted possibilities to initiate new practises from below, to meet the full ambitions of the seced project were met by efforts to formally anchor the project amongst relevant government stakeholders, through an mou and dialogue with national and regional education authorities in collaboration with the local partner. this governmental support facilitated a commitment and enthusiasm for the project at college level. delivery of a better and modernized teacher education was a clear target for the college. in a post-project perspective, the college principal summarised the process like this: vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 80 first, the seced collaboration has capacitated our staff. several masters and two phds have been supported. secondly, patandi got support for teaching and learning material (...) thirdly, it has given a new methodology for identifying children with vision disturbances. we had some methods from before, to work with the totally blind. but now we also have methods regarding vision disturbances, which make us understand more about vision. fourthly, the project partnership has widened the scope of awareness of vision disturbances. there is a broader understanding of the issue of children`s vision disturbances. (…) it has changed the patandi college. not all is visible, that you can see with your eyes, but the change is there. the college reputation is growing. the working team is strong. instead of depending on other experts, we have our own now. strengthened interdisciplinary collaboration, across the categories of impairments reflected in the curricula, policies, and the education sector, appears as an important result. several tutors and leaders stressed it as an important outcome that the project activities brought them together in cross-departmental alliances. under the current leadership, this growing tendency towards collaboration continues, with cross-departmental committees and daily staff meetings, providing arenas for exchange of ideas across the specialities. on an individual level, tutors also reported increased confidence in their classroom activities, as well as increased openness to see impairments as interrelated. according to college staff and leaders, the project strengthened the expert status of the staff, and provided participation in curricular changes in line with the national strategy of ie (moest, 2017). it is possible to argue that the project initiated processes changed the college as an organisation and increased the competence amongst staff. an aim of the seced project was to try out models for spreading knowledge on vision disturbances from teacher education to teaching staff in mainstream classrooms. the local project groups engaged discussions and planning for upscaling efforts, to reach out with new understandings of vision problems to improve the situation for learners with vision disturbances in mainstream classrooms. participation from schoolteachers and school-leaders in the cpd was to ensure this. however, we find that that there are important challenges to succeeding with such efforts related to task, and particularly linked to the dual-track organization of the educational system. the special needs education can be described as a separate silo in the education sector, with specialized units and schools, teacher training as well as governmental structures (helgesen, heldal, ludvigsen, vågenes, 2020). the college implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 81 principal underlined the primary task of the college being: …providing special needs education to teachers, so that they can go and support children with special needs in school. this structure may shape teachers’ professional identification as qualified only to teach a specific group of children, and not others (florian, 2019). thus, it is necessary to regard the challenges related to capacity building amongst sn teacher education and sn education specialists as a measure to increase the understanding of vision problems in ordinary classrooms. the overall focus of the college's department of vision impairment is still on methods for teaching blind and low vision students, as this is stated in the national curriculum and instructions from the ministry. the professional training primarily leads to positions within the sn educational system. to reach out with more learner centred knowledge and methods regarding learning problems may be enhanced by anchoring it amongst leaders in the educational sector. to succeed, however, demands changing mindsets, as illustrated in this staff members’ group interview quote: respondent 1: the challenge is there, you know, because it is something new, you know, to let someone understand something new, it is somehow difficult. that is why we are thinking on using some leaders to get informed, so that they can influence others down the stream there. (…) mindset. the attitude. yeah. attitude. because as […] is saying even the leaders…their mindset towards individuals with different learning needs, is very negative (…) they just think that vision is all about deaf…ah…blindness, or low vision. only that. respondent 2: the leaders, we thought the leaders should get informed first so that they will give us permission to work with their teachers. and even time. because we are using their time. the potential to change the mindset towards an awareness for learning difficulties in ordinary classrooms may seem limited, considering both the top-down governing and the silo organization of the education system. training teachers for special units and -schools, answers to the need for teachers with this capacity, but the silo-organisation can be a barrier for increasing teachers’ capacity for dealing with learners with a range of learning problems and impairments in mainstream classrooms. the continuity of capacity building both at college level and in the educational system may be hindered by another barrier that has to do with the national practice of assigning public vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 82 employees like college tutors and schoolteachers to workstations according to the authorities’ priorities. amongst the 21 college tutors who completed the cpd-course, several have been assigned to other institutions. this dispersal of specialist capacity can be regarded as a loss to the institution where the capacity building took place, but, on the other hand, it may be regarded as a gain for the broader educational system if the capacity can be utilized and spread in the new institutional setting. our data indicate that so far, most of the reassigned staff are not positioned to directly use their newly acquired competencies in their new jobs. time the time variable embrace different cultural attitudes as well as longand shortterm perspectives and disruptions. we will here primarily regard the structural elements of timing and stress the timing of the introduction and development of the external project in relation to ongoing educational reforms in general, and in special needs teacher education and special needs education specifically. we also regard the regulation of time embedded in the regulation of work tasks that may limit the possibilities for initiatives of actors in the educational system studied here. according to all the interviewees at the college, the seced project came at the right time. the college staff had capacity to engage in project activities, as student number in the current in-service program was below capacity, and another donor-induced project was concluded. the ministry as well as the college leadership embraced the project and underlined the good timing. a local coordinator and later a local project committee was established, taking care of the dayto day-activities as well as plans for upscaling. the project gave two tutors the chance to start a phd and six cdp participants completed masters’ degrees within the field of vision in education. the principal argued that this capacity building was of high value to support their activities. training of tutors to inform and perform interventions in local schools could strengthen the college’s role in community support. the college participated in two other norwegian partner capacity building projects during the seced project period. parallel projects could potentially have challenged the staff regarding time and attention. our tutor informants, however, pointed out that the projects to a large extent reinforced each other. the projects matched by adding resources in the form of technology and competencies to all three specialities. thus, the projects jointly pushed for a synergetic development of the institution in a direction desired both by staff and authorities. implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 83 the establishment of a new pre-service teacher training program took place during the project period, initiated by the moest. this added to the teaching activities and provided a platform for trying out the newly acquired knowledge on vision through the curriculum. the college tutors` role as national experts in the sne field opened up for introducing the new vision-knowledge for preservice students specializing in vision impairment. the principal of the college was specific that this was a chance for the college to bolster their expert role and relate directly to the moest / tanzania institute of education. time as a variable is relevant also regarding the attempts for upscaling of the capacity building program. time as a resource was regarded a challenge to spreading competencies on vision problems among schoolteachers, and cpd students saw the time factor as a crucial barrier to further implementation, together with lack of material resources and societal awareness (vågenes, ludvigsen & mniyani, 2023). tanzanian teachers’ work is strictly structured by demands inherent in the syllabi and curricula. one of the participating teachers formulated it this way: according to our syllabus we do not have enough time …of even teaching, even describing to others to understand about this. (…) you know we teacher`s time to collaborate is an issue, everyone is busy with the routine work. teachers’ schedules challenge the intentions of scaling up the awareness of vision and vision disturbances. their limited time and massive workload, together with lack of resources in general may severely curtail the efforts to spread the awareness, and this calls for the attention of the national authorities. scale scale has to do with the scope of the reform program. we analyse here the implementation and possible upscaling of an externally initiated, time limited project, with the ambition to strengthening competence concerning specific sensory disturbances. the means were pedagogical and technological innovations, whilst the scale was limited to the single national teacher training college for special needs and two partnering local schools. regarding scale, the partner college must be regarded a strategically important partner, as a main actor in tanzanian special needs’ education. this is illustrated by one of our informants, a director in ministry of educations, science and technology: vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 84 you know there are three key areas of impairment at patandi which are actually… they produce resource persons in those three areas. that is visual, intellectual and hearing impairment. the ministry regards this teachers’ college as a key to developing seminars for teachers to strengthen the capabilities for inclusive education. more than half of the college tutors from all departments completed the cpd course in vision for reading and learning. a few local school headmasters and teachers took part in the two cpds. the college established structures to accommodate the project. a project-funded local coordinator position had day to day responsibility for the project at the college. a local project group of 10 tutors was established, with the intention to secure sustainability in the project and coordinate activities and outreach programmes. the wider scope of the seced project was to contribute to improving education by enhancing teacher competencies on learning problems related to sensory difficulties, in particular vision. during the project period, efforts were made to try out outreach and upscaling insights on vision problems to the mainstream classrooms and teachers. a model for diffusion of knowledge on vision disturbances to local schools was tried out, wherein cpd students taught teaching staff about vision and vision disturbances in a half-day course. in both schools the short course was well received. the participants were asked to reflect upon the potential of the new insights and for their perception of children in their classrooms. in both schools the short course was well received, and teachers reported increased awareness on learning problems gained from the course. according to the responsible college tutors, the short courses showed potential to stimulate critical reflection, develop informed professional practices and possible identification of children who need referral to specialist assessment. focus group participants expressed a clear ambition to continue short courses, as a way “to continue spreading the knowledge”. initiatives towards national and local education authorities were made to extend this practice, but with little success. other options for scaling up were discussed in focus groups. one cpd participant tutor reflected this way: we can use different methods, for example, one of the ways in which we started by…putting… some thematic of vision disturbances in the curriculum. but still, this curriculum will be only for special schools. where… a few numbers of learners are already identified and have been placed there. so, we can also incorporate the thematic in the general curriculum also. so that, at least every teacher who graduates from teacher education are having clues on how they can identify, and how they can make implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 85 reference, and how they can help these learners. but, for those who are at work already, we can also see on how we can give the knowledge to them. to reach out to teachers across the country, familiar low-cost measures like distance learning and cascading models were regarded by tutors as means to spread knowledge and awareness on vision disturbances to teachers. other efforts were also made to continue and enhance the capacity building into the school system. together with project researchers, the local coordinator and key staff members met with national and local education authorities to inform about the project and discuss models for upscaling the capacity building. central government officials pointed to the challenges of scale to reach out to schools and communities with competence and awareness on the needs of learners: and here in the country we have about 16.000 primary schools for example. so, you have to have teachers trained in special needs, in all these schools. about 250.000 teachers at primary school level. the new pre-service training programme must be seen in light of this, and the college principal answered in the following way to a question concerning the motifs behind the programme: the reason behind this is to prepare more teachers. the authorities have realized that there is a shortage. there is a demand in communities and schools, and children need to be taken care of. the government has decided to extend the colleges on this background, there is a need for many more teachers. this is due to the awareness of the needs. the tutors who completed the cpd engaged in implementing elements in the curricula of sn teacher training. some elements were incorporated in 2019 as an add-on for the approximately 40-50 students who are specialising to become teacher for vision impaired. further, a minor portion of the knowledge is added to the compulsory course called inclusive education, that introduces all the categories of impairments. following these additions, students who finished diploma in 2020, with a specialisation in vision impairment, should be capable of detecting a range of vison dysfunctions and carrying out vision training. according to one of the tutors, “the students are now able to screen for vision disturbances, and even to train or stimulate vision of children”. still, the challenge of scale will restrict the potential for profound changes, as the number of candidates is limited, and most schools will not have access to such competence. vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 86 direction direction is a variable that regards factors that may further or hinder the suggested changes, and the compatibility of ideas with the contextual values (christensen & lægreid, 2013). the project introduced knowledge on vision problems amongst children that may influence learning for college tutors and some primary school staff and leaders. to what extent do the project’s core ideas correspond with the direction of relevant political ambitions and measures? the competence building was seen a welcomed chance for individual career promotion, but also an important factor in the overall strengthening of the college and its position, and for the quality of teacher education and education in general. key stakeholders at government, district, and college level, stressed that the project goals and measures were well in line with national education policy ambitions and the aims and purposes of the college activities. through the mou and partnership, both national authorities and local actors at college level have approved of the key elements of the pedagogical and technological innovations involved in seced. the national policies aim at strengthening teacher education through new curriculum and prolonged training. tanzania has endorsed international agreements and ie has been defined to be the norm for learners with disabilities. several measures have recently been taken to enforce educational inclusion, but obstacles relate to enhancing awareness and competencies. the director of moest sn unit said about the national policies for ie and teacher qualifications: so, we don’t just want to go to the inclusive in the sense of salamanca, that is every child has to be in a school, in his neighbourhood… very difficult, because the challenges are quite different…parents, even the backgrounds of the parents, families…you know, they are not similar. diversity in this kind of things sometimes it requires some kind of… actually… having everything that is required. it is clearly a long way to go for a country like tanzania to accomplish its plan for ie. when asked about the commitment from the government to press for this goal another of the staff in the sn unit in the ministry filled in concerning national strategies, illustrating tanzanian authorities’ commitment and search for contextual solutions: …the professor asked about the commitment of the government to achieve inclusive education. and, i have to say that the commitment is there, because we complying to implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 87 the universal right for learning. so, we are also trying to see what…what… fits in the context of tanzania from the universal right for learning. the objectives of the seced project have been considered by various stakeholders as potentially supporting the core policy ideas related to inclusive education. upscaling the learnercentred knowledge and methods on vision problems may, however, be hindered by the divided tasks between the sn educational silo and the mainstream educational system, as well as the traditional learning methods, lack of time and teacher career patterns. stakeholders did, however, point to the potential of increased awareness on learning problems in general and vision disturbances specifically, as an important contribution in line with central educational policies. 6. discussion our material shows that task, timing, scale and direction of the seced project gave room and opportunity for strengthening competence among the staff at the college. the national authorities’ scenario is for more sn teachers to reach all the schools of the country. it is essential that the new competencies come in timely when tanzania is moving towards ie. the timing was good as the college had capacity to engage in the project and it was important with reference to the national strategy and policies for inclusive education, which in the case of tanzania, in fact implies an emphasis on special needs educated teachers. the moest representatives confirms the authorities’ commitment to universal education, to have every child in school. with reference to the direction involved in the project, we contend that the new competencies cohere with this. it is crucial that the implementation of the new competencies coincided with the implementation of a new sn teacher-education programme. this renewed investment in sn teacher training by the national education authorities can be interpreted as connected to the simultaneous activities and capacity building taking place through three externally funded projects in the college. development of curriculum for the new programme opened for implementing elements from the cpd through the role of college tutors acting as expert advisers in the process. the new competencies are additions to the more conventional curricula thematic, and clearly more directed towards teaching ie. knowledge on vision disturbances may contribute to teacher-awareness of learning problems. in other words, the nature of the task provides significant opportunity for scaling up the relevant capacity. this naturally vibeke vågenes, kari ludvigsen, & arne jacob melting ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 88 depends on continued support from the national authorities and general awareness of the importance of teachers. the major leap, however, remains, the implementation of this competence in mainstream teacher education. implementing knowledge of learning problems and sensory disturbances in mainstream teacher education curricula produces the potential to unleash an increased awareness among teachers who will be placed in ordinary schools around the country. ie builds on a learner-centred perspective. our findings, in line with other researchers, show that teachers are under pressure in a top-down governed system. this system does not necessarily provide room for individual reflections and awareness of learners’ needs. teachers are first line support for children who for some reason struggle to learn, but the teacher-student ratio and crowded classrooms (mnyianyi, 2009; possi & mlinga, 2017; schweisfurth, 2011; tungaraza, 2014; vavrus & bartlett, 2013) represent obstacles for seeing each child. sustainable scaling up the new competences on vision and learning is, according to our study, connected to anchoring elements of the competences in the mainstream teacher training. the current national policies have aimed to educate more sn teachers to support the policy for ie (moest, 2017b). this strategy may, however, be based on training into separate categories of disability, and not necessarily support the overarching strategies of inclusion (tungaraza 2018; 13). concerning structural barriers and challenges to the enactment of the new knowledge and further scaling up, the most obvious is the dual-track organization of the field of education. special needs education and mainstream education are managed by separate units at all authority levels and can be described as two silos, where sn schools or units are separate from ordinary classes and sn teacher education is separate from ordinary teacher education. in teacher education challenges relating to the dual track system is enhanced by the policy to strengthen the realisation of ie, especially because mainstream teachers in general lack capacity to handle learners with special needs and learning difficulties (mgeni, 2020; mnyianyi, 2009; rugambwa & thomas, 2013; tugaraza, 2014; 2018; westbrook & croft, 2015). this teaching structure may thus function as a barrier to increasing the teaching staff with capacity for dealing with learning problems and impairments and affect the scope of the upscaling efforts. curricula and specialization of sn teachers are structured by the categories of impairments. tasks, direction, and scope of the capacity building efforts are factors that are mainly connected to what we see as the special needs silo. further, it is important that local culture of top-down management and control systems, lack of teachers’ autonomy and time to follow up children who struggle to learn, are acknowledged as barriers that must be dealt with implementing competence about vision disturbances in tanzania’s teacher education – a contextual analysis ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 70-94 89 if the new competences on vision and learning, and even inclusive education, is to be enacted in the schools of tanzania. 7. conclusion this analysis point to the role of contextual variables of task, timing, scale, and direction in implementing and upscaling new competence on learning problems in teacher education and schools in tanzania. findings show potential embedded in capacity building on vision problems for increasing awareness on learning problems amongst teachers, teacher educators, educational leaders, and authorities. the cpd and other capacity building measures enhanced empowerment and professionalization of sn teacher educators. tanzanian teacher college staff showed strong commitment and thorough knowledge of the system of sne and put dedicated efforts into securing the implementation of the project, but this was within a task-structure and political-administrative system that may limit local stakeholder initiatives. one striking paradox is that teacher education for inclusive education so far has been defined as teacher training for special needs. we argue that the national authorities must be further acquainted with the new competences and see its relevance and potentials for mainstream school and teacher education. in other words, it remains a challenge to move from scaling-up the competences to mainstreaming the competences in schools around the country, by means of a strengthened teacher education, and teachers’ awareness of what causes learning difficulties. this will take time and resources and must be initiated by the cross-sectoral, national authoritative organs. the final comment concerns the relevance of this study. this study regards specific contextual factors in tanzania but has a wider relevance. competence on vision disturbances as a barrier for learning is limited in many contexts and 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(2015). beginning to teach inclusively: an analysis of newly qualified teacher pedagogy in lower primary classes in tanzania. teaching and teacher education, vol. 51, pp.38-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.05.003 wilhelmsen, g.b. & felder. m. (2020). learning is visual: why teachers need to know about vision. in s.waller, l.waller, v. mpofu & m. kurebwa (eds.). education at the intersection og globalization and technology. intechopen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.93546 wilhelmsen, g. b & felder, m. (2021). about the importance of vision screening by teachers in schools: a study from tanzania. improving schools 25 (3), 289-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/13654802211004787 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.05.003 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f13654802211004787 shireen motala is sarchi chair teacher education, university of johannesburg; yusuf sayed professor of education, university of cambridge & attached to cite, cput the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? shireen motala1, yusuf sayed2, terri maggott1 1university of johannesburg, south africa 2university of cambridge, uk abstract the sustainable development goals (sdgs) agreed in september 2015 set the scene for a renewed and ambitious development framework in a global context of widening inequalities within and between countries, global economic crises, conflict and climate change. higher education is framed in several of the targets that make up sdg 4 and is also argued as central to achieving all 17 goals. however, the extent to which they engage with higher education in the context of calls for responsive, decolonised higher education remains underexplored. it is this gap that this paper addresses, arguing that while the sdgs take a broad approach to education the focus on specific targets and indicators limit states’ autonomy by deterritorialising local frameworks (sayed & moriarty, 2020). as a result, universities in africa struggle to assert their agendas as power is overly located at the supra national level. we use the case of south african higher education to examine how and in what ways the national education agenda articulates with the sdg agenda. in particular, we focus on the lack of a clear equity and anti-racist focus in the sdg agenda which fails to engage with the disciplinary hold of racism over knowledge. we use boaventura de sousa santos’ (2014) notion of difficult questions in higher education with weak answers to address what a decolonised and deracialised higher education system might look like. in particular, we articulate how western domination has marginalised knowledge present in the global south. in so doing, we describe the influence of the sdgs in higher education noting the strides made but also their limited application in the global south and the decolonial turn. we argue that the decolonisation of issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 189-209 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index shireen motala, yusuf ym sayed, terri maggott ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 190 knowledge in higher education is a collective process in which disruptive disciplinary practices contribute to cognitive global justice. keywords: sustainable development goals (sdgs), climate change, higher education system, historically white, transformation, equity. introduction in september 2000 at the united nations (un) general assembly in new york, 189 member countries agreed to adopt eight broad, global millennium development goals (mdgs) to be achieved by 2015. related to education, mdg 2 focused on achieving universal primary education within the fifteen years. in march 2015, the un general assembly agreed 17 sustainable development goals (sdgs), with 169 associated targets to assist with measuring achievement of the goals. sdg 4 ("ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all") was further committed to at the global level at the 2017 world economic forum (wef) in incheon, south korea. sdg 4 can be seen as an advance on mdg 2 in that it includes a focus not simply on enrolment but on the quality of education globally and on life-long learning. both sets of global development agendas identify the reduction of poverty as the ultimate development goal and both see education as central to addressing global poverty. in recent years, global education policy has witnessed what sayed and moriarty (2021) call the ‘quality turn,’ which requires a decolonised approach to education and a turn to decolonial thinking in higher education. sdg 4 is measured by seven outcome targets and three means of implementation. while there have been many critiques of the global development agenda including its ‘one size fits all’ approach, the hollowing out of a comprehensive and holistic approach to education and the need to prioritise education in combatting environmental destruction (nhamo, 2021), the link between decolonial thinking and the role of universities in achieving sdg 4 is underdeveloped. this paper aims to address this gap by considering the possibilities of incorporating a decolonial approach to sdg 4. the paper begins by describing the theoretical frameworks that underpin our approach and then considers the policy history of the sdgs. this is followed by a critical review of the literature about the role of universities in the sdgs, focusing on higher education in africa including south africa. next, the paper explores the sa case, and reflects on progress on access, equity and decolonisation and curriculum change, addressing the achievement of the sdgs in the national context. the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 191 theoretical framing: sdgs, the global education agenda, and decolonisation the paper analyses the sdg agenda in higher education in south africa using an equity and anti-racist lens, paying attention to the disciplinary hold of racism over knowledge (keet, 2021). we use boaventura de sousa santos’ (2014) notion of difficult questions in higher education with weak answers to address what a decolonised and deracialised higher education system might be. in particular, we articulate how western domination has marginalised knowledge present in the global south and how the global sdg agenda may entrench this subordination. our starting point is to consider transformation and decolonisation. sometimes considered to be synonymous and sharing a focus on reform, change, equity and representation, they are rooted in different conceptions of what constitutes meaningful institutional and social change and consequently knowledge in higher education. transformation as a concept in higher education policy and practice is concerned with demographic representation, inclusivity in teaching culture, expanding access and offering academic support and for this reason can be considered as being on the more politically liberal end of the spectrum (joseph, 2017; morreira, 2017). decolonisation by contrast disrupts existing forms of coloniality in society and higher education by challenging epistemological and material/economic domination (mignolo, 2011; mamdani, 2016; motala, sayed & de kock, 2021). decolonisation encompasses transformation but transformation cannot be reduced to the radical programme of change that decolonisation seek to bring about. decolonisation as a field of enquiry is characterised by epistemic questions what and whose knowledge is affirmed, prioritised and legitimised (mignolo, 2011; santos, 2014) and material questions including issues of resourcing, economic exclusion and deprivation (motala et al., 2021). decolonisation holds that the political ending of colonialism did not end the domination, cultural imperialism and economic extraversion that characterised the colonial project (ashcroft et al., 2003). rather, it mutated into forms of neo-colonialism in which the global north as a standard of development, humanity and innovation prevails and continues to assert dominance of, and ‘others’, those of the global south (mignolo, 2011; morreira, 2017). because universities in the african context are so historically rooted in the project of colonial expansion, they are implicated in upholding and reproducing this coloniality (morreira, 2017). how knowledge is organised, by whom, for whom and to what end is an important indicator of the extent to which coloniality is still embedded within higher education and, by extension, society. shireen motala, yusuf ym sayed, terri maggott ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 192 the politics of knowledge production is arguably key to calls for decolonisation in higher education that seek to overcome epistemic dependency and subjugation (ndlovugatsheni, 2013; keet, 2014; nyamnjoh, 2017). universities reproduce coloniality through their endorsement, legitimation and valorisation of particular forms of knowledge, pedagogy and practice. keet (2014) and others (garuba, 2015; heleta, 2016; morreira, 2017) argue that, while issues of access are important in higher education, to decolonise knowledge and curricula is to grapple with what knowledge is, whose knowledge counts and what are the ontological, epistemological, and methodological foundations of disciplines and knowledge forms and canons (hountondji, 1997; ndlovu-gatsheni, 2014). framed in this way, decolonisation goes beyond inserting african voices into existing canons or ‘africanising’ curricula through a process of reform. it is process by which disciplines, and the very notion of disciplinary knowledge, require fundamental disruption and reimagining of what and whose knowledge is prioritised (motala, 2020). within this framework, we view the sdgs as part of a historical process sharing an epistemic lineage with the 1948 un declaration of human rights which included access to education as a universal human right. this was reinforced in subsequent global education commitments before the sdgs: in the mdgs and the education for all (efa) framework, in 2000, of the united nations education and scientific organization (unesco). however, the sdg education agenda marks a sharp disjuncture with the previous global education agenda as it centres attention on what is learnt and the knowledge function of education. sayed & moriarty (2020, p. 19) suggest that, to an extent, the turn to quality education in the sdgs targets and indicators reflects earlier global policy agendas but, significantly, “represents a shift in [global education policy] focus” from access to education to learning and the quality of learning. however, this shift in focus has occurred in a narrow and limited way that has inter alia limited educators’ agency by under-emphasising teacher education and neglecting curriculum development. this centring of knowledge in education in the sdg agenda has two key dimension which warrant attention. first, although the literature contests the ideas of sustainable, development and goals, these terms are presented by the un and unesco, individually and collectively (as the sdgs), as uncontested and universal. the idea of sustainable development is presented as achieving a balance between social, economic and environmental needs. this assumes global applicability and fails to foreground the idea that different cultures will have the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 193 different interpretations of the relationship between society, economy and the environment (burford et al., 2013, p. 303). secondly, sdg 4.7 seeks to provide arguably a more holistic approach to education and knowledge and for the first time in the sdg agenda argues for the ‘appreciation of cultural diversity and culture’s contribution to sustainable development’. however, sayed & moriarty (2020, p. 202), who describe sdg 4.7 as a “residual target” given its broad ambition, point out that the “lumping together” of the diverse learning needs of stakeholders can potentially prove a difficult task for national governments, for example, to implement. importantly, the measure it uses to ascertain achievement of this goal is underpinned by a modernist discourse which assumes that societies go through stages of development in their economic growth from traditional societies based on agrarian economies to economic maturity characterised by high levels of mass consumption and technological advancement (rostow, 1962). the potential for sdg 4.7 to support the development of an education for sustainability that is alternative to the modernist notions is clear; however, as is true of many of the sdgs, because it is tied to the neoliberal agenda of monitoring and measuring quality it reduces the expansive and radical knowledge in education and learning to narrow instrumentalist understanding and measures, reflecting a continuing coloniality of thought. south african and african universities’ approaches to sdg 4 and education: key debates having sketched out the global development agenda, particularly the sdgs and how education policy is located within this, this section considers the framing of the sdg 4 in the south african and african context. first, the literature on the relationship between the sdgs and higher education institutions (heis) is small but growing. in the south african context, this literature contains one central argument: that heis have a role to play in achieving not only sdg 4, which focuses on lifelong learning, but all 17 goals. scholars also agree that heis have a role to play in developing the capacity and skills required for achieving all sdgs and particularly sdg 4 (aarts et al., 2019). in a study of the ways in which education graduates at a particular university contributed to the achievement of several of the sdgs through their post-university work, jamison and meggan (2021) argue that heis are key sites for developing the crosssectoral individual and institutional capacities needed to achieve the sdgs and specifically sdg 4.7. these ways include integrating sdgs into research and research capacity development and policy design and offering research-based advice to national education shireen motala, yusuf ym sayed, terri maggott ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 194 departments (ketlhoilwe et al., 2020). scholars also agree that heis play a role in implementing the sdgs (nhamo & mjimba, 2020a) and in developing the esd curriculum (shava et al., 2020). second, a key aspect of the debate about the sdg 4 in relation to higher education in south africa is what nhamo (2021) calls localisation. in the introductory chapter to the edited volume sustainable development goals and institutions of higher education, nhamo and mjimba (2020b) suggest that localisation of sdgs occurs in three major ways: in the teaching and learning space; in the research and development space; and in the governance and management of heis. dube et al. (2021) show how the latter calls for a specific type of leadership and governance style which recognises the need for reducing poverty but expands this to focus on service delivery of resources needed for achieving the sdgs. nhamo et al. (2020) argue that domestic resource mobilisation is a necessary factor in countering or complementing the official development assistance (oda) flows that endorse sdg implementation at heis. the international donor aspect of mobilising resources to localise sdgs in heis might be at odds with the discourse on decolonisation as the sdgs were arrived at through unequal, international processes of negotiation and deliberation (nhamo, 2021). however, and linked to localisation, nhamo and chikodzi (2021, p.191) note that “universities remain at the forefront of scaling up the implementation of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development and its interlinked 17 goals”. it is through localisation and adapting the sdgs to local contexts that they are made “relevant for, in and with societies” (nhamo et al., 2021, p.3). third, while there is a growing body of literature about decolonisation and particularly about how universities should attempt to decolonise, there is scant literature about decolonisation as it relates to sdg 4 or the possibilities for decolonial thinking in the sdg. development theorists such as ogunrotifa (2015) and samir amin (2006) who focus on the political economy of global development agendas, in which the sdgs are rooted, argue that because of the historical hegemonic dominance of the global north over the global south, interventions such as the sdgs can be described as “‘grand developmentalism’ the general and narrow way in which development issues are defined and problematized takes priority over questions posed by the empirical world” (ogunrotifa, 2015, p. 1). this raises a question about how we can begin to talk about decolonisation in light of the sdgs, given that they can be regarded as representing the antithesis of decolonisation which is a form of neo-colonialism or epistemological hegemony. however, there is agreement about transformation of universities and of university curricula in particular (tella & motala, 2020; albareda-tiana et al., 2018). the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 195 in south africa, university transformation has been markedly slower than in other social institutions although there have been notable efforts to transform their institutional cultures (morreira, 2015) and epistemological traditions (motala et al., 2021). albareda-tiana et al. (2018, p. 474) note that “transformation is a complex and long-term ambition. it must start by recognizing the sdg agenda calls for a paradigm shift in education. it is not only a matter of transforming institutional responsibility but also curriculum reorientation and teaching to better serve the needs of current and future generations.” thus, the debate about the sdgs in south african higher education returns to the themes of transformation and decolonisation. scholars agree that transformation in universities is central to achieving sdgs and that, in turn, heis will facilitate the transformation of the societies in which they are located (ketlhoilwe et al., 2020). as mentioned above, heis need to institutionalise capacity development specifically related to sdgs if they are to achieve any of the goals and “not leave any behind” (savo et al., 2021, p.163). fourth, although it is widely asserted that heis play a key role in achieving the sdgs, there is debate in the literature about the specific role of universities in doing this. scholars are grappling with questions about the nature of ‘development’ (globally sanctioned versus locally relevant) and ‘education’ whether formal, informal or non-formal (karani & preece, 2020). it is important to remember that the nature of development itself is contested, is not universally accepted and is dependent on specific approaches (nhamo et al., 2020). chankseliani and mccowan (2021) take simultaneously a rights-based approach and a liberation or freirean approach since, they argue, the two are necessary for meaningful and contextually appropriate development programmes that teach people and communities the value and agency of freedom and ownership over their lives. ketlhoilwe et al. (2020) raise the issue of the resources needed for integrating sdgs into heis’ visions and missions which, they argue, is one role that universities can play in realising the global goals. fifth, there is a growing body of literature about sdg 4 as it relates to its vision of “sustainability” that is argued to be narrow and reductionist and that overemphasises environmental and climate-related interventions (albareda-tiana et al., 2018). in this respect a key debate is, as mjimba and nhamo (2020, p.199) note, the fact that “sustainable development remains a relatively simple concept to understand. as such sustainable development remains difficult to practise and deliver”. in south africa, sdg 4 and esd have been “localised” at the university of south africa (unisa) (nhamo, 2021), and to a lesser extent at the university of cape town (uct) (mawonde & togo, 2019). the localisation of shireen motala, yusuf ym sayed, terri maggott ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 196 strategies to implement the sdgs and esd centre not on how universities can realise sdg target 4.3 but on how issues of environmental sustainability can be adapted for teaching and learning in specifics locales. fadi el-jardali et al. (2018) argue that universities are uniquely placed to participate in the cross-sectoral implementation of sdgs as they are centres of research and development. in addition, they point out that the role of universities in society is changing and that this presents a new opportunity for them to be integrated into sdg programmes (fadi el-jardali et al., 2018). the issue of university transformation already contested has further complicated the ways in which they locate their work in the overall pursuit of the sdgs and particularly sdg 4 (fadi el-jardali et al., 2018). sixth, durofika and ijeoma (2018) are more critical of the possibility that sdg 4 can be successful in universities and particularly in african universities or heis. they argue that, like the mdgs, the sdgs follow a top-down agenda for development and impose development goals and associated targets on developing countries and on institutions in those countries. they describe this process as a new form of colonialism and domination by global powers (durofika & ijeoma, 2018). others, such as easterly (2009), held this view about the mdgs and argued that the targets set by these global development policies positioned poorer countries and especially african ones at a permanent disadvantage. this is not by any deliberate scheme and cannot be explained by any conspiracy theory but is a methodological error. setting level targets as opposed to absolute targets will always leave africa unable to meet the sdg targets (easterly, 2009). this conceptualisation of the neo-colonial nature of the sdgs is useful for picking through the decoloniality inherent in current global education policy, unpacked in the final section of this paper. finally, scholars are also debating the ‘one size fits all’ implementation of the goals which are set around pre-determined targets and strategies for implementation. allais et al. (2020) argue that the quality of education should not be measured using the individualistic, narrow focus on enrolment but in terms of how he benefits the wider society by addressing historical inequalities such as racism, sexism and structural poverty. ogunrotifa (2015) suggests more explicitly that the sdgs are simply a continuation or cementing of the mdgs into global education policy, particularly as they have been introduced in africa. scholars argue for the need for context-specific solutions when implementing sdgs and that these should be aligned with national development policies as well as with those of multilateral organisations such as the african union. the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 197 the debates about sdgs in general and sdg 4 in particular in south africa and africa raise substantive concern about its underpinning theoretical and philosophical assumptions, implementation, global domain over national priorities, and crucially the blind sport of attention to recentring the epistemic framework reflecting the knowledges in and of the global south. in so doing the sdg and sdg 4 in particular can overcome the epistemic subjugation wrought by development approaches and theories which today still carry their imperial imprints. the sdgs, equity, expansion and quality in higher education – the south african case in our reading of the literature, we make an observation about a global-national-local dialectic, or what is referred to by mjimba and nhamo (2020) as the “sustainable development-education nexus”. at the global level, the sdgs are a way to ground a particular vision of social change and development (jamison & meggan, 2021) in which education and heis are deeply implicated. at the level of the state, heis are ideal for integrating sdgs into sustainable development strategies (ketlhoilwe et al., 2020). at the local level, a “reciprocal relationship between heis and their surrounding communities can be used to accelerate the implementation of sdg 4” (shabalala & ngcwangu, 2021). these levels must be in an appropriate relationship with each other to achieve the cross-sectoral collaboration needed for realising the sdgs (unterhalter et al., 2021). in the case of sdgs related to heis, ignoring these institutions will impact the achievement of the sdgs at the national and thus the global level (shava et al., 2020). amongst their other aims, the sdgs point to the need for access to tertiary education, adequate resourcing and life-long learning and well-being. the following section looks at this through the lens of the south african case. in south africa, universities formed part of apartheid social engineering in that they were racially segregated, differentially resourced and oriented to upholding white domination (rensburg, 2020). historically white, englishand afrikaans-medium universities were wellresourced, research-intensive centres of excellence with expansive networks and prestige while institutions designated for black (including coloured and indian) south africans suffered from staff and resource shortages and were primarily expected to train students as functionaries of the apartheid state such as teachers and bureaucrats (heleta, 2016; rensburg, 2020). postapartheid higher education policy aimed at redressing this imbalance through a series of interventions including rationalisation, institutional mergers and pursuing equity through demographic transformation. however, this resulted in uneven systematic reform of the higher education system which contributed to the creation of a three-tiered higher education system shireen motala, yusuf ym sayed, terri maggott ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 198 with historically white, research-intensive universities at the top, new comprehensive universities in the middle and universities of technology formerly technikons at the lowest level. the growth in demand for massification of higher education can at least in part be explained by its construction as an aspirational lever and pathway to improved economic returns (imenda, kongolo & grewal, 2004; menon & castrillon, 2019). for working-class students, higher education is an invaluable opportunity for social and economic mobility, even in cases, as described by chetty & pather (2015), where they opt into particular degree programmes as a last resort. this is valuable context for situating student concerns around funding, fees and accessing the resources needed to successfully undertake tertiary study. the process of massification of higher education, which received a major boost following the demands of the student movement and protests in 2015/16 formed part of the drive to democratise access and improve equity through increasing the number of skilled graduates (soudien, 2020). the protests had two major demands, free tertiary education and decolonising the curriculum. however, this took place in a context of limited financial resources for the system and a higher education funding model torn between the competing demands of equity and efficiency (badat, 2010; motala, 2020b). the increasing demand for higher education due to globalisation and the rise of the knowledge economy is reflected in fast-growing higher education enrolments in sub-saharan africa, with a growth of 10 per cent annually between 2000 and 2010 (wangenge-ouma, 2010; rensburg, motala & david, 2016). higher education has been shifting from an elite system to one promoting universal access. however, many challenges persist. these include inadequate access (particularly at secondary and tertiary levels), poor quality of provision, inefficiency (as reflected in high rates of dropout and repetition) and inequity in access and distribution of resources. in sub-saharan africa, low expenditure on higher education is a consequence of competing pressures on education budgets, severe resource constraints, pressure from sectors such as health and welfare and a lack of sufficient recognition by governments of the value of higher education for economic growth, social welfare and broad sustainable development (pillay, 2008). statistics relating to the major indicators of access, efficiency, quality and resource allocation in tertiary education give valuable insights into the situation. student enrolments the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 199 increased by 67 per cent between 2002 and 2016, from 450 000 to 950 000, with the major growth being in black african enrolment which reached 70 per cent of the total student population. in the same period, the number of permanent academic staff grew by 20 per cent with the staff–student ratio thus increasing to an alarming 1:55 from a previous 1:40 (simkins, 2016). cohort studies (che, 2013) show that fewer than half of students enter a three-year degree programme and, of those who do, up to 50 per cent take up to six years to graduate. excluding those at unisa, one in four students drops out before the second year of study. only 35 per cent of the total intake, and 48 per cent of contact students, graduate within five years. allowing for students taking longer than five years to graduate and those returning to the system after dropping out, it is estimated that some 55 per cent of an intake never graduate. access, success and completion rates continue to be racially skewed, with white student completion rates on average 50 per cent higher than those of african students. to maintain a competitive edge in a rapidly transforming knowledge economy, countries need to invest more in quality education. however, at below 1 per cent of gdp, historically south africa has not sufficiently invested in higher education, nor has it reached its own target of 1 per cent expenditure on research and development, a figure that is well below international targets. external and internal efficiencies need also to be addressed, the former by improving the relevance of programmes and graduates to meet societal and labour market needs and the latter by improving how resources are allocated, within and across institutions, and by improving levels of degree completion. muller (2016) notes that, while the ostensible intention of the #feesmustfall movement was to benefit poor youth, only 5 per cent of south africans aged between 15 and 34 years are university students while 34 per cent are unemployed. a recent world bank study (2021) which examined the effect of government spending and taxation on inequality noted that higher education was the least progressive element of social expenditure as it benefits only a very small part of the population. unterhalter et al. (2018) raise the overarching question of who defines the public good and how. there appear to be two distinct ways in which higher education and the public good are conceptualised. firstly, qualifications, knowledge production, innovation, development of the professional classes and expertise can be perceived as leading to particular economic, social, political or cultural manifestations of public good (stiglitz, 1999; mcmahon, 2009). alternatively, the relationship between higher education and the public good can be seen as reducing prejudice and increasing democratisation, critical thinking and active citizenship (marginson, 2011; leibowitz, 2013; locatelli, 2017). shireen motala, yusuf ym sayed, terri maggott ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 200 higher education in sub-saharan africa has moved from the establishment of flagship national universities in the post-independence period and intended to underpin a state bureaucracy (teferra, 2016) to developmental universities with a commitment to indigenising knowledge and benefiting marginalised populations through to more recent tendencies towards marketisation of public institutions and encouragement of the private sector (coleman, 1986; adea & aau, 2004; assié-lumumba & codesria, 2006; mamdani, 2007; mccowan 2016). this relates to current debates which closely associate calls for decolonised education with effective resource allocation and equity. as maringira & gukurume (2018, p. 38) note, the #feesmustfall movement created a space to articulate grievances about broader social and structural transformation as well as raise issues around being black and about racial inequality. the broad intent of the sdgs is understood in the south african higher education context. its application has been uneven, characterised by a resource constrained environment, escalating levels of inequality and poverty, and limited knowledge about the implementation of colonised curriculum at universities. in particular, university transformation has been markedly slower than in other social institutions although there have been efforts to transform their institutional cultures (morreira, 2015) and epistemological traditions (motala et al., 2021). albareda-tiana et al. (2018, p. 474) note that “transformation is a complex and long-term ambition. it must start by recognizing the sdg agenda calls for a paradigm shift in education. it is not only a matter of transforming institutional responsibility but also curriculum reorientation and teaching to better serve the needs of current and future generations.” there is space to sharpen research into the role of universities and decolonisation, and how sdgs can be used to transform universities which are themselves located in specific national and regional contexts. concluding comments although highly contested, the sdgs have informed and shaped global education policy. in particular, sdg 4 has serious implications for the role of universities in implementing the sdgs. the history of the development of the sdgs shows that they emerged from a series of policy processes that involved various multilateral organisations such as the un and international financial institutions including the world bank. these policy processes were varied and uneven (hulme & scott, 2010), with the mdgs of 2000 setting the agenda for the launch of the sdgs in 2015. for education, this meant expansion from a narrow view of universal primary education enrolment to include a focus on quality and access to tertiary education. this shift reflected a broader change in the global development agenda from a rigid, the sdg agenda and university transformation in africa: the decolonial turn deferred? ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 189-209 201 quantitative focus on targets in the 1980s to one that was more affective and qualitative. scholars agree that universities do and can play a role in implementing the sdgs in the society in which they are located (mawonde & togo, 2019) although the specific form that this role can take is as yet poorly understood. in the african context, as with universities in other parts of the world, allais et al. (2020) have shown how narrow, individualistic measurements of success in education policy are not suitable for the african context. heis are linked not only to individual students, academics and institutional management but, given how universities contribute to the development of society by addressing historical inequalities of colonialism and racial capitalism (apartheid), are linked also to the less individualistic public good. in this, they are helping to achieve the aims of sdg 4 (allais et al., 2020). the public good of universities is also evident in their links, not in isolation from but in co-construction with other sectors of society, to new african states as sites of national development (tella & motala, 2020; mbembe, 2019). going forward, a priority has to be to identify how the decolonial turn in universities can play a role in achieving the aims of the sdgs and particularly of sdg 4. we are yet to address to boaventura de sousa santos’ (2014) notion of difficult questions in higher education with weak answers to fully envision and implement what a decolonised and deracialised higher education system will be. references aarts, h., greijn, h. & jowi, j.o. 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(2021). education finance watch (efw) report. available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/5076816139989422970090022021/original/efwreport2021219.pdf [accessed 5 april 2022]. alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila university of johannesburg, south africa abstract this paper explores the extent to which pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality (var) applications can be harnessed as a means to alleviate social injustices in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) education through open learning. the enhancement of epistemic and epistemological access in stem education requires coherent implementation of appropriate strategic interventions which are essentially geared towards the promotion of pedagogic innovation in its broadest sense. the empirical investigation adopted a qualitative research design located within the interpretivist paradigm. qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews. the study is underpinned by the theory of social justice framework as a theoretical lens. key findings emanating from the study demonstrated that sustainable integration of var applications in stem education can essentially be harnessed as a catalytic tool to address the articulation gap between school and higher education through parity of participation within the broader south african context. the realisation of this key strategic imperative hinges to a large degree on the critical interrogation of enablers and constraints about sustainable utilisation of var applications in stem teaching and learning. keywords: pedagogical affordances, virtual and augmented reality (var), engineering and mathematics (stem), south african context, teaching and learning introduction fostering transformative change in south africa requires the promotion of open learning as a strategy that seeks to address the historical suffocation of educational dreams and limited issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 210-227 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 211 access to opportunities. open learning is described by paine (1989) as a process that emphasises access to educational opportunities and a philosophy which makes learning more learner-centred. as a pedagogic philosophy, open learning provides learners with the opportunity to choose how to learn, when to learn, where to learn and what to learn as far as possible within the resource constraints of any education and training provision (paine, 1989). characterized by principles of flexibility, recognition of prior knowledge, improved access, quality and success, open learning has the potential to transform education and allow for parity of participation. south african diverse and complex post-school education and training (pset) sector has institutions finding avenues of expression in multiple ways by taking different paths towards different kinds of openness. in an attempt to foster sustainable integration of technological applications in stem education, a hub in virtual and augmented reality in stem education (varsteme) was launched at a south african university in 2021. the hub is envisaged to drive the strategic thrust in empowering pre-service and in-service teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem. in addition, it is envisaged that the hub would also support the pursuit of research studies on the efficacy and pedagogy of virtual and augmented reality. in the long to medium term, the hub would immensely contribute to the promotion of cutting-edge research which can subsequently be disseminated and shared with the global community. the varsteme hub seeks to promote access to sustainable utilisation of var applications through open learning. as a timely and strategic intervention, a hub in virtual and augmented reality in stem education essentially provides meaningful platforms to harness opportunities for open learning in stem education. to this end, this paper explores the extent to which pedagogical affordances of var applications can be harnessed as a means to alleviate social injustices in stem education through open learning. background and contextualisation the white paper promulgated by the department of higher education puts considerable emphasis on the importance of post-school education and training (pset) in meeting the needs of south african society (dhet, 2013). the pset sector is tasked with addressing the economic demands through the provision of skilled and economically relevant labour force while playing “a vital role in relation to a person’s health, quality of life, self-esteem, and the ability of citizens to be actively engaged and empowered” (dhet, 2013, p. 3). these requirements must be met in a national context that is not only plagued by historical thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 212 inequalities, but also contending with multiple contemporary challenges, including poor economic growth, fragmented infrastructure development, and political and social disunity as well as the prevalence of covid-19 pandemic. according to doyle (2020), a potential consequence of the covid-19 pandemic is the widening of inequalities in education and skills development. south africa has witnessed a dramatic increase in student enrolment in undergraduate programmes across almost all universities (hornsby & osman, 2014). in addition, it has also been observed that south african higher education institutions have a particularly dismal track record and poor performing system that is characterised by pervasive discrepancies and other social and economic biases (scott, yeld & hendry, 2007; che, 2013). epistemic and epistemological challenges stifle meaningful enhancement of human capital development within the pset sector as evidenced by the fact that less than 5 per cent of african and coloured youth succeed in any form of higher education (che, 2013). fundamental challenges encountered in this regard can also be attributed to high levels of failure and dropout rates which have become a characteristic feature of the south african higher education system (van zyl, 2013; che, 2013). student under-preparedness for tertiary studies is exacerbated by pervasive knowledge gaps exhibited by most poor students who emerge from disadvantaged contexts and dysfunctional schools (spaull, 2015). the highlighted systemic challenges underscore the critical need to fundamentally rethink the complexity of the articulation gap between school and higher education within the broader south african context. this arduous task requires the implementation of strategic and innovative interventions which are geared towards the enhancement of the quality of stem education. virtual and augmented reality immersive systems can play a pivotal role in the maximisation of students’ academic experience. different types of immersive systems can enable students to maximise their academic experience. these immersive systems include virtual reality (vr), augmented reality (ar), and mixed reality (mr). by their very nature, immersive systems offer the capability to capture new data, create new experiences, and provide new insights by creating virtual elements of physical and imagined worlds. sacks et al. (2013) define virtual reality as “a technology that uses computers, software, and peripheral hardware to generate a simulated environment for its user” (p.1007). according to schroeder (1996), a virtual environment or virtual reality technology is “a computer-generated display that allows or compels the user (or alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 213 users) to have a sense of being present in an environment other than the one they are actually in and to interact with that environment” (p. 25). augmented reality (ar) is distinct from virtual reality. augmented reality modifies physical surroundings with superimposed virtual elements. javornik (2016) explains that “this virtual layer, placed between the physical environments and the user, can add textual information, images, videos, or other virtual items to the person’s viewing of the physical environment” (p. 252). augmented reality is defined by carmigniani et al. (2011) as a realtime direct or indirect view of a physical real-world environment that has been enhanced/augmented by adding virtual computer-generated information to it. this implies that ar is both interactive and registered in 3d as well as combines real and virtual objects. in support of these sentiments, azuma et al. (2001) posit that ar is essentially a system that “supplements the real world with virtual (computer-generated) objects that appear to coexist in the same space as the real world.” (p. 34). the integration of virtual and augmented reality applications in stem education provides interactive learning environments which can be accessed through open learning as a key pedagogical modality. open learning in the south african context the south african department of higher education and training (dhet) introduced open learning as a transformative response to the many challenges it faced during the apartheid era. dhet has promulgated several policy documents on open learning (doe, 1997; dhet, 2013); dhet, 2017). open learning is defined in the white paper for post-school education and training as an “approach which combines the principles of learner centredness, lifelong learning, the flexibility of learning provision, the removal of barriers to access learning, the recognition for credit of prior learning experience, the provision of learner support, the construction of learning programmes in the expectation that learners can succeed, and the maintenance of rigorous quality assurance over the design of learning materials and support systems” (dhet, 2013, p. 48). this definition is also encapsulated in the open learning policy framework promulgated by the department of higher education and training (dhet, 2017). open learning is built around four key areas, namely, access, flexibility, quality and success. more specifically, open learning focuses on the development of initiatives to improve performance (govender & dhurumraj, 2022). according to govender and dhurumraj (2022), access can be addressed through recognition of prior learning experience, the flexibility provided through the provision of tuition and peer engagement through various modes of thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 214 learning (i.e. face-to-face, blended and online learning) either synchronously or asynchronously. quality is supported by the development of learning materials that undergo rigours quality assurance checks. success is addressed through work-integrated learning (wil) opportunities for pre-service teachers (dhet, 2013; dhet, 2017). associated with open learning are open educational resources (oer). open educational resources (oer) are defined as educational resources that are openly available to all at no cost, and under some licences, there is an allowance for the resources to be reused, adapted, and redistributed with no restrictions (hoosen & butcher, 2019). open educational resources are believed to have the potential to expand access and promote student success (cannell, macintyre, & hewitt, 2015). according to blumenstyk (2017), a massive decline in the textbook market has resulted in the development of open educational resources. colvard, watson, and park (2018) argue that the exorbitant costs of textbooks have resulted in many students not attaining degrees due to the financial impact of exorbitant costs. the prevalence of the covid-19 pandemic has critically exposed existing socio-economic disparities in south africa. to mitigate the impact of the covid-19 pandemic and socio-economic constraints, the use of oer can be adopted as a pedagogical modality to serve as a panacea for prevailing social injustices. katz (2019) states that the use of oer represents a fundamental paradigm shift in education. open learning and the concomitant use of oer in the pset sector allow students to fulfil their higher-order needs as described by maslow’s theory without compromising their basic needs. an empirical study conducted by hilton (2019) revealed that students’ academic performance is greatly enhanced by the usage of oer than hardcopy texts. var applications are essentially open educational resources that can be harnessed for the coherent development of scientific literacy through parity of participation to alleviate social injustices in stem education. parity of participation fraser (2005) assigns a generic meaning of justice to “parity of participation”. according to fraser (1996), social arrangements must allow every adult member of society to engage with one another as peers to attain justice for individuals. educational redistribution can be defined as the provision of resources that require more equitable distribution while including intellectual as well as monetary matters (fraser, 2003). fraser (2005) concurs with hodgkinson-williams and trotter (2018) that there are always manifestations of socioeconomic injustice during the use of open educational resources. these socioeconomic challenges include but are not limited to a lack of access to the required educational alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 215 infrastructure and materials such as functional technological equipment, affordable and stable connectivity and uninterrupted power supply (hodgkinson-williams & trotter, 2018). the establishment of the varsteme hub at a south african university seeks to provide meaningful platforms to confront these socio-economic injustices through parity of participation. the hub allows preservice teachers to make use of oer to enhance their learning experience. however, recurring load shedding in south africa often restricts teachers’ participation and access to interactive learning environments. consequently, this restriction creates constraints which have an adverse impact on their studies. hence, hodgkinsonwilliams and trotter (2018) stress the need for economic redistribution to address maldistribution. various studies focusing on different higher education institutions demonstrated that open learning and the use of oer is a more cost-effective form of learning for students (e.g., hilton, bliss, robinson, & wiley, 2013; ikahihifo, spring, rosecrans, & watson, 2017; ross, hendricks & mowat, 2018). hence, there is a need for a coordinated and ameliorative response to economic maldistribution. educational recognition refers to ensuring access to learners in every lecture as well as every classroom and not just in the rhetoric of policies and plans. the demise of apartheid meant that an intellectually rich curriculum for learners would now allow for inclusive access that caters for the needs of previously marginalized communities (fraser, 2003). fraser (2005) describes parity of participation as the creation of social arrangements for individuals to be able to collaborate. however, success in creating such environments is dependent on knowledge of the students themselves, who they are, where they come from and their equity needs, and the ability to act on this information and tailoring support to address these needs to improve capacity (keddie, 2012). in south africa, the domination of western culture in teaching and learning results in cultural injustices. open learning has the potential to ameliorate cultural injustices by creating opportunities for students to share their contextualised experiences. curriculum planning requires the involvement of various stakeholders to ensure equitable representation in curriculum reform. exclusionary practices engender power asymmetries which lead to political injustices or misrepresentations (fraser, 2005). according to fraser (2005), a political dimension of justice brings matters of representation and framing strongly to the fore. alongside the question of representation, the question of framing arises. brought into sharp focus by increasing globalization, the porousness of national boundaries, thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 216 migrational flows and increased digitization critically exposed fault lines on identity issues (fraser, 2010). this paper argues that the implementation of open learning coupled with the concomitant use of available oer would create opportunities for preservice teachers to learn from their primary domain thereby reducing financial constraints and allowing individuals some degree of political power to interpret and share content based on their contextual setting. fraser (2005) maintains that for “parity of participation” to be achieved, obstacles such as economic structures and the institutionalized hierarchies of cultural values that exist in societies need to be addressed. hence, an educational curriculum that subscribes to the construct of open learning would ideally create opportunities for interaction among individuals. in support of this assertion, kennedy (2016) states that curriculum programmes must afford learners opportunities to translate new ideas shared through collaboration into their systems of practice. the realisation of this key imperative requires coherent enhancement of epistemic and epistemological access. the paper further argues that coherent integration of var applications in stem education can potentially provide opportunities for teachers and learners to fully embrace digital transformation as a key feature of the fourth industrial revolution. formal access vs epistemological access morrow (2007) views epistemology as the theory of knowledge, especially about its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion. apartheid policies had an adverse impact on the provision of quality education in south africa. morrow (2007) states that apartheid education generated and perpetuated cycles of epistemological deprivation which deprived many learners of a fair opportunity to gain access to the kind of knowledge that is supposed to be distributed in formal schooling. the key question that we need to grapple with is whether formal access is a precondition for epistemological access. morrow (1994) argues that there is a fundamental difference between formal access to the institutions that distribute knowledge and epistemological access. in essence, morrow’s argument implies that formal access is not a sufficient condition for epistemological access. physical access does not automatically translate into epistemic and epistemological access. physical access alone is not sufficient according to morrow (2009) as increased enrolments have historically not translated into equivalent student throughput (scott, 2009). the integration of var applications can catalyze to promote access to disciplinary knowledge. morrow (2009) defines epistemological access as “access to disciplinary knowledge and the alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 217 ways of knowing within a discipline” (p. 36). by its very nature, epistemological access promotes alignment between institutional values and students’ epistemological attributes as it enables a student to confidently and independently access the ways of doing and thinking within a particular discipline (morrow, 2009). antia and dyers 2016 concur with morrow (2009) and state that epistemological access may also address how new entrants to the system are confronted with epistemic barricades, that may be imposed or self-imposed. within the broader south african context, various institutions of higher learning grappled with the complexity of the articulation gap between school and higher education through the sustained implementation of extended curriculum programs. however, sustained implementation of extended curriculum programs requires pedagogic innovation which underscores the need for integrating var applications in stem teaching and learning in particular. theoretical framework the study is underpinned by the theory of social justice framework proposed by fraser (2005). as a theoretical lens, the framework provided insightful elucidation into the extent to which initiatives promoting access, quality and success respond to historical and contemporary social injustices as well as conditions that enable and constrain success. according to fraser (2005), social justice can be achieved through “parity of participation” which is defined as the “creation of a space in the learning domain for the equal participation of all individuals through the use of open educational resources” (p.73). fraser (2005) identifies three dimensions of the social justice domain, namely, economic (maldistribution of resources); cultural (misrecognition of culture and identities); and political (misrepresentation or exclusion of voices). parity of participation is achieved when these three interwoven domains are met (de kadt, 2019; leibowitz & bozalek, 2016). the social justice framework served as a theoretical lens to demystify barriers that stifle the parity of participation in open learning. the varsteme hub mitigated social injustices that stifle meaningful participation in open learning as it promoted parity of participation in stem education through the provision of access to var applications. methodology the study adopted a qualitative research design located within the interpretivist paradigm. mcmillan and schumacher (2010) posit that a qualitative study is meant to be descriptive and interpretive. the qualitative design provided insightful elucidation into the pedagogical affordances of var applications as a means to alleviate social injustices in stem education through open learning. qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews with thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 218 purposively selected varsteme team members. the varsteme team members provided insights into the pedagogical affordances of the integration of var applications as a means to develop scientific literacy in stem education through open learning. the varsteme hub development team members further provided insights into the strategic vision that inspired the establishment of the hub itself. collected data were transcribed verbatim and the emerging themes were generated from participants' narratives. qualitative data was subsequently thematically analysed using axial coding. research findings key findings were clustered according to the themes that emerged during data analysis, namely: professional empowerment of pre-service and in-service teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem, pedagogical affordances of var applications in stem education, var applications as a means to support academic research endeavours, and the integration of var applications as a means to foster epistemic and epistemological access in stem education. theme 1: professional empowerment of pre-service and in-service teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem the establishment of the varsteme hub was inspired by the critical need to professionally empower pre-service and in-service teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem. the hub provides opportunities for innovative utilisation of var applications to develop disciplinary knowledge to address pervasive knowledge gaps in key stem domains. these sentiments are encapsulated in the following excerpt from the varsteme team members. broadening educational pathways in stem education requires the use of interactive technological applications such as var applications to foster pedagogic innovation in stem teaching and learning. these applications can be harnessed to demystify abstract scientific concepts in key stem knowledge domains (participant 1). professional empowerment of pre-service and in-service teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem remains a key strategic imperative. the realisation of this key strategic imperative hinges to a large degree on the active involvement of the department of basic education and other key stakeholders in innovative undertakings of this nature as the following excerpt illustrates. alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 219 the varsteme hub development team is engaging the department of basic education and other key stakeholders to forge a partnership geared towards the promotion of public awareness of the pedagogical affordances of var applications in south african schools. it is envisaged that appropriate arrangements can be made to train teachers on the use of var applications as part of the partnership (participant 2). theme 2: pedagogical affordances of var applications in stem education the participants highlighted the pedagogical significance of var applications in the development of scientific literacy in stem education. pedagogical affordances of var applications in stem education are explicated in the following excerpt. var applications can be used to develop learners’ visuo-semiotic reasoning skills and foster interactive learning in science classrooms. in addition, they can be used as semiotic tools to enhance conceptual understanding of abstract scientific concepts (participant 3). it is argued in this paper that access to var applications can be facilitated through open learning. demystifying abstract scientific concepts in stem teaching and learning can be an arduous task. this task can be ameliorated through the sustainable integration of var applications in stem teaching and learning to enable the coherent development of scientific literacy. therefore, the availability of open educational resources is of critical importance. theme 3: var applications as a means to support academic research endeavours while the efficacy of var applications in the enhancement of teaching and learning is duly acknowledged, there is a critical need for formal empirical studies on the use of var applications within the broader south african context. the following excerpt highlights possible areas of research. teachers’ and learners’ experiences of var applications can be examined as part of formal empirical studies. pedagogical affordances of domain-specific var applications can also be investigated. in addition, the extent to which the use of var tools fosters deep learning through the development of higher-order thinking skills merits investigation as well. other research areas include the use of var tools to foster science inquiry-based learning and the exploration of the impact of the use of var tools on different individual characteristics (e.g., level of performance, motivation, spatial ability) (participant 4). thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 220 context-specific exploration of the impact of var applications on teaching and learning is of vital significance as this critical endeavour would serve to provide insightful elucidation into the nature of intrinsic and extrinsic contextual factors affecting the sustainable integration of var applications in stem teaching and learning in various educational settings. theme 4: the integration of var applications as a means to foster epistemic and epistemological access in stem education the use of var applications can be harnessed as a means to enhance epistemic and epistemological access in stem education. the south african basic education system is characterised by socio-economic disparities which serve to perpetuate social injustices about the provision of quality education. innovative use of var applications can be adopted as a means to alleviate socio-economic challenges which stifle the provision of quality education in south african schools as the following excerpt illustrates. access to var applications can be harnessed as a means to address the complexity of the articulation gap between school and higher education. enhancing student preparedness for tertiary studies is of crucial significance (participant 5). the enhancement of epistemic and epistemological access in stem education requires a clear and critical understanding of the complexity of the articulation gap between school and higher education. various institutions of higher learning in south africa responded to this fundamental challenge through the implementation of extended curriculum programmes which are aimed at addressing student under-preparedness for tertiary studies. confronting social injustices bedevilling the provision of quality education requires robust intellectual exchanges which disrupt the prevailing status quo. these intellectual exchanges ought to be predicated on a “business unusual approach” and unorthodox philosophical practices. discussion the covid-19 pandemic critically exposed socio-economic disparities within the south african basic education system. the advent of the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) provided opportunities for teachers and learners to fully embrace digital transformation. however, there is a critical need to develop teachers' professional capacity for meaningful integration of 4ir in stem teaching and learning using e-learning platforms. var applications can be used to develop learners’ visuo-semiotic reasoning skills and foster interactive learning in science classrooms. this assertion is consistent with a research study conducted by nugroho and surjono (2018) that demonstrated that an interactive and meaningful learning process is alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 221 required for learners to develop science process skills. in particular, interactive learning helps to overcome difficulties of perception and comprehension during the learning process (tversky, morrison & betrancourt, 2002). in addition, var tools can be used as semiotic tools to enhance conceptual understanding of abstract scientific concepts. the communication of any science is mostly through visuo semiotic models such as graphs, tables, diagrams, or simulations (daniel et al., 2018). various research studies demonstrated that learners lack representational competencies (e.g., linder et al., 2014; strickland et al., 2010; treagust, 2008). however, it must be pointed out that inappropriate use of visuo semiotic models may lead to poor conceptual understanding (schönborn & anderson, 2006). these research findings underscore the need for the development of visuo-semiotic reasoning and representational competencies amongst learners. this mission can be accomplished through meaningful exposure to visualization (daniel et al., 2018; trelease, 2016). var tools can be used to foster science inquiry-based learning. the impact of the use of var tools on different individual characteristics (e.g., level of performance, motivation, spatial ability) can also be explored as part of formal empirical studies. spatial ability refers to the ability to generate, retain, retrieve, and transform wellstructured visual images (lohman, 1996). by their very nature, stem subjects require high levels of spatial ability for learners to understand them (stieff & uttal, 2015). the use of var applications can be harnessed as a means to enhance epistemic and epistemological access in stem education. however, the south african basic education system is characterised by socio-economic disparities which serve to perpetuate social injustices about the provision of quality education. evidence-based solutions are required to adequately address the complexity of the articulation gap between school and higher education within the broader south african context. in support of this assertion, morrow (2009) posits that epistemological access promotes alignment between institutional values and students’ epistemological attributes. according to antia and dyers (2016), epistemological access can also serve as a means to address how new entrants to the system are confronted with epistemic barricades that may be imposed or self-imposed. professional empowerment of pre-service and in-service teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem remains a key strategic imperative. the realisation of this key strategic imperative hinges to a large degree on the active involvement of the department of basic education and other key stakeholders in innovative thasmai dhurumraj, sam ramaila ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 222 interventions of this nature. sustainable exposure to the use of var applications is commensurate with the implementation of the coding and robotics curriculum by the department of basic education (dbe, 2019). the use of var applications can be harnessed to develop disciplinary knowledge to address pervasive knowledge gaps in key stem domains. interpretation of key findings in terms of the adopted theoretical framework as indicated earlier, the study is underpinned by the theory of social justice framework proposed by fraser (2005). embracing digital transformation requires fundamental access to technological resources. a substantial number of schools in south africa are under-resourced. the general lack of resources perpetuates social injustices in the provision of quality education. socio-economic disparities characterising the south african education system ought to be addressed to pave the way for sustainable utilisation of var applications to enhance the quality of stem education in schools. challenges that often stifle meaningful integration of var tools in stem education include technical problems (kamarainen et al., 2013), cost of devices (echeverría et al., 2012), usability and complexity of devices (fidan & tuncel, 2019) and marker detection problems (cai et al., 2014). in addition, students can be cognitively overloaded by the large amount of information they encounter, the multiple technological devices they are required to use, and the complex tasks they have to accomplish (dunleavy et al., 2009). the highlighted challenges should not serve as a deterrent to sustainable integration of var tools in stem teaching and learning. the use of var tools should instead be harnessed as part of key strategic interventions to promote epistemic and epistemological access, quality enhancement and success to provide a coordinated response to historical and contemporary social injustices. this paper advocates for the promotion of social justice through parity of participation in the use of var tools which is largely predicated on the need to create spaces in the learning domain for equal participation of all individuals through the use of open educational resources. the realisation of this key strategic imperative requires critical interrogation of enablers and constraints about sustainable utilisation of var applications in stem teaching and learning. conclusion sustainable integration of var applications in stem education provides a solid basis for the promotion of epistemic and epistemological access to alleviate social injustices bedevilling the provision of quality education. professional empowerment of pre-service and in-service alleviation of social injustices in stem education: harnessing pedagogical affordances of virtual and augmented reality applications through open learning ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 210-227 223 teachers with knowledge and skills in the use of advanced learning technologies in stem remains a key strategic imperative. meaningful development of scientific literacy in stem classrooms hinges to a degree on the innovative integration of var applications in teaching and learning. there is a need to harness the pedagogical affordances of var applications to 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(2013). teaching the students we have: two perspectives on first year students at the university of johannesburg and the uj first year experience initiative. higher education learning and teaching association (heltasa), unpublished doctoral thesis, university of johannesburg, johannesburg. moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention gilbert arinaitwe1 & michael corbett 2 1 university of tasmania, australia 2, acadia university, nova scotia, canada abstract this paper explores a little understood aspect of education labour markets, the tendency for teachers to simultaneously engage in both white-collar side-hustle and blue-collar or land-based entrepreneurial activities. the papers argues that teacher’s engagement in multiple activities such as moonlighting and agriculture in rural community enhances their income and this helps to compensate for wage differentials with their urban counterparts. this practice is also associated with teacher retention and community integration of teachers which is a common challenge relating to rural school staffing. we suggest that the phenomenon of non-education related teacher side-hustles, which are typically understood to be problematic, is a more complex issue and a practice which may have potential benefits for hard-to-staff schools. keywords: moonlighting, agricultural production, sidehustle, male teachers, rural teachers, uganda introduction while there are national and sub-national spatial variations in the standards of qualification for public and private school educators, the field of teaching has, in most contemporary jurisdictions been significantly professionalized, standardized and bureaucratized (tyack, 1974). the history of education is typically understood to be a steady progression from teaching as a marginal and temporary occupation, to a lifelong increasingly professionalized and regulated vocation requiring protracted preservice education, induction, and ongoing professional learning (perry & boylan, 2018; tyack, 1974). this remains the case despite the well-publicised evidence about teacher burnout (saloviita & pakarinen, 2021) widespread privatization and quasi-privatization of education (ball, 2021; brass & holloway, 2021), alternative schooling (illich, 1971; teitelbaum, 2020) and contemporary critiques of teacher education (labaree, 2006) and backlash movements such as teach for america and its offshoots notwithstanding (blumenreich & gupta, 2015). issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no. 1 2023 pages 21-48 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 22 as a result, teaching has come to widely be perceived as a sole form of employment. professional teachers agree to devote their full time during the expected school days and hours, to give their best efforts to the activities of the school and agree not engage in any manner, directly or indirectly, in any employment, and commit not to accept any other employment whatsoever from any other person, firm, corporation or entity. this conception of professionalization assumes that teachers should avoid engagement in activity that interferes or conflicts with their duties and responsibilities. images of professionalism tend to focus on virtues such as dedication, service, as well as a largely singular occupational focus therefore most theories of work lack the explanatory power necessary to understand modern work experiences of a growing number of individuals who work multiple jobs for multiple organisations. scholars have used a handful of terms to refer to moonlighting (see table 1), but these terms overlap to refer to individuals who work more than one job. table 1: example definitions of moonlighting from the literature citation discipline term definition paxson and sicherman (1996) economics dual jobholding holding a second job marucci-wellman et al. (2014) health and medicine multiple jobholding working more than 1 job in a 1-week period caza et al. (2018) management plural careerists people engaging in two or more jobs simultaneously for identity rather than financial reasons nelson (1999) sociology entrepreneurial moonlighting self-employment that occurs as side work taken on in addition to one’s ‘regular job’ arcuri et al. (1987) psychology moonlighting holding a second job eggleston and bir (2006) health and medicine dual practitioner physicians employed in government clinics and hospitals (who) also . . .have private practices burmeister-lamp et al. (2012) management hybrid entrepreneur those who maintain a wage job while starting a new enterprise source: campion et al. (2020, p. 169) moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 23 drawing from a synthesis of these terms, we adopt the definition of moonlighting proposed by campion et al. (2020): “the act of working more than one job simultaneously, including working for employers and self-employment, wherein all tasks, or sets of tasks, are performed in exchange for, or expectation of, compensation.” (p. 170). individuals work several jobs either because they are “pushed” to do so (e.g., financial reasons), or because they are “pulled” into it for professional reasons (e.g., career development) or personal (e.g., psychological fulfillment). examples of these motivations are indicated in table 2 below. table 2: categories of motivations of moonlighting motivational category example motivations finances • hours constraint • pay off debts • meet regular expenses • insure against job insecurity • buy something special • save for the future career development • heterogeneous job model • opportunity to learn new skills • learn about another industry • work shifts of primary job (e.g., firefighters) psychological fulfillment • enjoy the work • identity expression • desire to mix with other people • balance out negative primary job experiences • work–life balance and flexibility source: campion et al. (2020, p. 172) regardless of their dedication and responsibility, professional teachers in many if not most parts of the world are often underpaid compared to similarly educated workers (garcia et al., 2009; liu & onwuegbuzie, 2012), and many turns to side-hustles to make ends meet (arinaitwe, 2021). educationally related side-hustles such as extramural tutoring or “sharing-economy” selling of teaching resources on online platforms such as teachers pay teachers are well-known side-hustles. a small but growing body of research to the practice of side-hustling has caught the attention of cognate researchers in countries such as kenya (muthoni, 2017), australia (campbell, 2010), canada (breshears, 2019) caused by the precariousness of sole employment to provide the desired income. bennell (2004) gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 24 observes that in africa and south asia, earning secondary income is a coping strategy adopted by teachers to meet minimum subsistence needs. betts (2006) argued that multiple jobholding potentially changes employees’ perceptions, decisions and behaviours and may impact their performance, absenteeism and turnover at their primary jobs. there is also emerging analysis in the economics of education that generally argues that teachers’ multi-occupational activity correlates with lower student achievement (elacqua & marotta, 2020), and that it is a phenomenon associated with teaching in high-poverty schools (garcía & weiss, 2019). our research has uncovered several different types of teaching-related side-hustle. one is a form of “moonlighting,” where schools unofficially share teachers (urwick & kisa, 2011), but improves the living wages of teachers (gyaviira, 2016). in most of the western industrialised countries, moonlighting is a widespread phenomenon that has by and large gone unnoticed (blair, 2018; gilpin, 2020; heineck, 2009). in some non-western countries, studies show that holding multiple jobs is a common practice (chaudhury et al., 2006; gyaviira, 2016; timothy & nkwama, 2017). the second side-hustle is intrapreneurial, where teachers are paid for extra roles within the context of their primary job. bennell (2004) mapped out intrapreneurial side-hustles of teachers typified by academic production units in secondary schools in zambia where teachers conducted after-school extension classes in primary schools for additional pay supported by additional fees paid by those parents who could afford it. another example from vietnam saw teachers offering two to three hours of publicly funded lessons each day for which pupils pay. benell also found that in sierra leone teachers sell summaries of textbooks as pamphlets in urban secondary schools. a significant observation in the literature indicates inconsistent or discrepant findings across and within the disciplines regarding whether moonlighting is depleting or enriching for teachers. research on financial and career outcomes shows moonlighting is generally enriching. in contrast to research on financial and career outcomes, how moonlighting affects performance remains contentious. scholars are also mixed regarding whether moonlighting is personally (work–life interface, psychological well-being and physical well-being) depleting or enriching but generally supports the depletion logic. the generally mixed results are presented in the table 3. table 3: outcomes of moonlighting in the literature category outcome citation financial increases earnings gruen et al. (2002); schulz et al. (2017) career experience skill and task variety, job transitions, and skill acquisition brunet (2008) moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 25 can create meaning arora (2013) enrich the overall experience of work due, in part, to taking breaks and recovering between jobs caza et al. (2018); hennekam (2015) liberating because workers had creative freedom and the power to add or drop clients fenwick (2006); fraser and gold (2001) the acquisition of new skills, which can support promotions in primary jobs or transitions into new jobs or occupations, such as self-employment. demetry (2017); panos et al. (2014); thorgren et al. (2016) performance less time and inefficiency at primary job goodwin and mishra (2004); hurka et al. (2018); ologunde et al. (2013); walsh (1986); winters (2010) no difference in time spent and efficiency at primary job arcuri et al. (1987); bell and roach (1990); bennett et al. (1994); jamal et al. (1998); socha and bech (2011) more time on primary job and more effective. for example, stronger work ethic, are less likely to be absent and are more involved in voluntary organizations and attend more meetings bennett et al. (1994); jamal (1981); livanos and zangelidis (2012) poorer student outcomes as a result of teacher moonlighting elacqua & marotta, 2020; garcia & weiss, 2019 personal: work attitudes less job satisfaction and less organizational commitment baba and jamal (1992); grant (1977) no differences in attitudes between moonlighters and single job holders among police officers (arcuri et al., 1987), pharmacists (guest et al., 2006), rank-andfile workers (jamal, 1981), teachers (jamal et al., 1998), and retail grocery employees (martin & sinclair, 2007; socha & bech, 2011) gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 26 higher satisfaction in their primary job /weaker turnover intentions kumar and chaturvedi (2017); martin and sinclair (2007); zickar et al. (2004) personal: work– life interface experiences working more hours than single job holders leaving less time for family and friends and higher levels of work–life conflict atherton et al. (2016); bamberry (2012); boyd et al. (2016); marucci-wellman et al. (2014); osborne and warren (2006); webster et al. (2019) no difference guest et al. (2006); kumar and chaturvedi (2017) enable positive work–family management: the flexibility of this type of arrangement gives individuals a greater sense of control over their work, thus allowing them to manage work, family, and friends more effectively clinton et al. (2006) personal: psychological well-being higher risk of depletion in physically demanding and risky jobs firefighting (boyd et al., 2016), service work (walsh, 1986) and portfolio work (fenwick, 2006) struggle with identity and self-presentation caza et al. (2018); hennekam (2015, 2017); hennekam and bennett (2016) more energetic, outgoing, and enthusiastic and had higher emotional stability than single job holders mott (1965) moonlighters reported less stress than their non moonlighting counterparts jamal et al. (1998); pearson et al. (1994) another job can have a compensatory effect for those who have suboptimal experiences in their primary job mckenzie (2017) personal: physical wellbeing. moonlighters report sleeping fewer hours per night than single job holders marucci-wellman et al. (2014) at a higher risk of physical injury at work marucci-wellman et al. (2014) can result in compromised performance russo et al. (2018) moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 27 work–life conflict can compound across jobs, leading to headaches, fatigue, insomnia, and less frequent exercise boyd et al. (2016) source: campion et al. (2020, pp. 174-177) most analysis of this phenomenon suggest that more research is warranted to explore the hybrid nature of side-hustle in teaching in different contexts. this paper reports on how rural teachers in one particular african context combine teaching and non-teaching work. here we explore how teachers in rural uganda combine teaching and non-teaching related employment to supplement their incomes, but also how they combine academic skills and training (i.e., their teacher education) with other forms of technical and local knowledge to help us understand how hybrid occupational practices contributes to rural teacher retention. in this paper we focus principally on the question of rural teacher retention as it relates to social, cultural and familial connections as well as moonlighting strategies. how these practices effect teacher productivity and performance are important questions but fall beyond the scope of this analysis. methodology an embedded single case study of two ugandan districts (kanungu and kisoro) selected from 24 districts that the mops (2010) described as both hard-to-reach and hard-to-staff was chosen with ethics approval obtained from the relevant authorities. the two districts are adjacent to each other in the extreme southwestern corner of uganda’s international borders with the democratic republic of congo (drc) in the west, and rwanda to the south. the study began with a reconnaissance and mapping exercise of all 22 rural public secondary schools in both districts; 12 in the kanungu district and 10 in the kisoro district. following the reconnaissance and mapping exercise, a total of four schools, two from each district, were selected for an in-depth case study (ridder, 2017; yin, 2014) because they had relatively high teacher retention for their district. in this we followed the lead of reid et al. (2011) terra nova study seeking to understand the factors that retain teachers in rural and remote schools. the headteachers of all four schools agreed to participate in the study and were requested to invite all teachers who were in school at the time of the researchers’ visits for an information session. in these meetings, teachers could meet the researchers to build rapport and trust, review ethical considerations and complete consent forms. the researchers explicitly requested teachers’ voluntary and anonymous participation in the study during the information session in the staff room. the headteacher could not find out which teachers had volunteered. each headteacher was also asked the addresses of all members of the parents & teachers association (pta) executive committee, members of the boards of governors (bog) and five key community leaders. in this way we could conduct interviews without disclosing to the headteacher the participants who eventually expressed interest to gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 28 participate in the study. a total of 31 participants were selected including four head teachers, three pta chairpersons, two bog chairpersons, two community leaders and 20 teachers. thus, a combination of opportunistic and purposeful sampling techniques (ritchie et al., 2003; robinson, 2014) was used to select all participants. these techniques allowed for on-the-spot sampling decisions that emerged during fieldwork (suri, 2011). data were gathered through document analysis and semi-structured interviews (creswell & poth, 2017). to establish rapport, there was a prolonged and intense exposure with participants within their context. an average of two weeks per study site was spent and eight months of the entire data collection process was spent engaging with participants. as a result, multiple perspectives were collected and understood and hence reduced potential for social desirability responses in interviews. using braun and clarke (2006) thematic analysis, data were analysed deductively and inductively using an iterative process (bazeley, 2013) to re-identify themes. first, a verbatim transcription was created for the audio recorded interviews for member checking (birt et al., 2016) , coding and analysis. there was repeated reading of the transcripts, searching for meanings and patterns. all data was read at least twice before coding began and rereading continued throughout all steps of the analysis and writing. as an initial step, a deductive, theory-driven analysis (gibbs, 2007) was used, that is, a codebook was developed from literature reviewed, key summary points identified during data collection as well as personal hunches gained from the researchers ‘years of experience in living and working in rural areas. however, further rereading led to clearer insights about the interview data (decuir-gunby et al., 2011) and a shift from theory-driven codes to data-driven codes that closely suit the nuances of participants and context. subsequently, the initial theory-driven codes were aligned with data-driven codes as a blueprint to generate trustworthy codes. the codes were collated into broader themes by looking at the list of codes and their associated extracts to find matching patterns. a tree map or hierarchy of codes was drawn using nvivo and codes were moved around to identify those that fit together to form themes. consistent with braun and clarke (2019) and guest et al. (2011), some themes were collapsed into each other (those that had little data to support them), some themes were dropped (those that were not coherent with the developing pattern), and other themes were broken down into separate themes (those that had a large, diverse data set). this paper reports one of the themes, teacher side-hustles. the first author conducted all of the interviews and in reporting the findings, schools’ and participants’ names are anonymised to protect confidentiality. moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 29 findings in analysing the interview data, the theme side hustle emerged with three subthemes which are presented in this section. these subthemes were: land purchase and land rent from community, side hustle in agriculture production and agribusiness, side hustles in non-teaching roles at the primary job and moonlighting in other schools. purchase of land from the community nearly all interviewed teachers mentioned land possession as a key factor that influenced their decision to stay or leave their current workplace. teachers’ investments in immovable assets, such as land and houses, provided a sense of accomplishment and membership in community. teachers regarded possessions as a part of self and assets which composed a totality that was considered when they chose where to live and whether to remain in the rural area. due to their low salaries, teachers were only able to buy small pieces of land rather than large pieces of land in one purchase. social interactions with potential sellers within the community enabled teachers to negotiate the terms of land purchase. in the words of one head teacher:: i am here but i am a farmer. i have a farm and most of that money i have accumulated it through my working in rural areas. i got the land because i was working in rural areas. if i were working in town, i would not have got a chance to buy it because i have continued increasing the acreage. i was buying in pieces and adding on. when you are nearby the community, they run to you to buy small pieces of land and eventually you accumulate. i am telling you, as of now, even if you bring a billion (uganda shillings), i will not accept it for my land. i have bought it for nearly 20 years to bring it to a farm level where animals can stay. the person who was born in rural but goes to work in urban areas is completely detached from his community and members will not turn to him when selling land. he enjoys the town life, which is a bit expensive, and therefore saving with little income may not be possible. if he saves, he will maybe buy a vehicle, construct a house and you think you are satisfied but that one in the village, when you calculate in terms of asset accumulation, he might be far ahead of you. (jeremy, headteacher cressy high school) jeremy illustrated a common practice for most rural teachers who were both teachers and farmers. jeremy reported that through a gradual process and because he remained working for a long period in the same community, he accumulated land that he would not be able to purchase working in an urban school or far away from his family home. similarly, kevin described the process to acquire land: gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 30 as you work, you can easily interact with the community. at times where you are talking, you find someone is selling a piece of land. and it becomes easier for you to buy before even that one (someone) in kampala (very far away urban city) comes. when it is a small piece of land, someone from kampala may not be notified by the seller and he may as well not be interested unless it is a big piece of land. but at the end of the day, you find you have accumulated a lot before he can even imagine (kevin, teacher riverside high school). kevin showed that access to crucial information was available mainly to those living in the community. interaction of teachers with members of the community helped connect the seller and the teachers. he further reported that teachers were fortunate to negotiate terms of purchase affordable for their flow of income such as instalment purchase. rural teachers perceive personal development in land investment more so than mutual funds, stocks and technology as was perceived to be the case in urban areas. in addition, newcomer teachers who bought land and used their land for farming in workplace districts were perceived as new members of community. this was observed by terry who said: incidentally, many of them who are coming here are buying land here. they are not going back. they are settlers now, like those from kabale, the land from their place is much more expensive and even few are willing to sell their land in kabale. so many of them who are coming here, they buy land and settle here. they are becoming citizens of the area (terry, community leader riverside high school). terry’s comments illustrate how land ownership is central to rural teacher retention. the ownership of land integrated a teacher in community as reported by duncan: people may resist to be transferred because they have integrated into the community. the moment you become integrated, even if you are from kabale or kisoro (adjascent districts) when you reach here, like for example i have like three teachers who are from kabale they have bought land here, they have built houses there. those ones now they have made it their homes and they do not think like going away, because they some attachment in this area (duncan, headteacher riverside high school). duncan reported that teacher’s personal investments tied them in the place. norman, a teacher who did not grow up in the community where he was teaching, reported: i bought a small land which had a small house. so, i am in my own house, my own home. because i stay in my home, i do not feel any problem. (norman, teacher riverside high school) norman was the most community integrated teacher of all newcomer teachers interviewed. the ownership of property in the community indicated both economic and psychological investment in the community which strongly influenced teachers such as norman to stay. moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 31 land rent from community and school when a teacher enters a rural ugandan community they will not typically own land locally. however, in rural areas, it is assumed that land is a crucial resource for sustenance. we found in this research that teachers were supported by the community to obtain land for farming. members of the wider community rented (or sold) land to teachers. for example, james said, ‘there are some people in villages who normally hire (rent) land. you hire [sic] for a year or six months. those people do not have to be known to you. the community is open to hire out their land to anyone’ (james, teacher prospect high school). james reported that the community was willing to support teachers through the rent of farming land. this was mutually beneficial to both the members of the community who obtain land tenants and earn income from unused land, and for teachers who obtain land for farming to sustain their families. this mutuality influenced local community to support and retain teachers irrespective of their teaching role in schools. teachers built a relationship with the landowners and employed members of the local community as farm workers as reported by fletcher: i have somewhere i rent land, at least i have some crops there. at times i do not buy food. i may not even buy food for a whole month. so, i hire cheap labour from members of the local community and my wife supervises them to work in the land we hire (fletcher, teacher riverside high school). in addition, rural schools also rented land to teachers and, therefore, schools proactively assisted teachers to engage in farming as a way of reducing food expenses. silas put it this way: here, the school has 15 acres of land and we have the land committee chaired by the deputy headteacher. so those interested in doing agriculture activities, submit applications and they are given plots where to dig. each teacher is provided a minimum of one acre. some of them are looking after chicken (silas, headteacher lilydale high school). gad was one of the beneficiaries of the land which the school rented out to teachers. he said: i like to dig. so, around my small house where i reside (in the staff quarters), i have small garden activities, which can make me busy when i am out of the school and make supplementary food. i have a little banana plantation, i grow some beans and vegetables like spinach, tomatoes, and others. i use intensive agriculture (gad, teacher brooks high school). we found that both the rural community members and the schools rented land for farming to teachers. this practice integrated teachers into the community and effectively installed some as small scale farmers and employers in the local economy. gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 32 agriculture and agribusiness in community agriculture was typically reported as the backbone of teachers’ livelihood and considered the prime source of economic security, social prestige, and self-identity. the cost of living for teachers in rural areas was reduced by their involvement in small to medium scale food production. most participants agreed with stanley who stated: “teachers’ income is being subsidised by what they do from the gardens. so, in terms of income, there is that kind of job satisfaction” (stanley, bog chairperson prospect high school). this additional income activity was a practice supported by headteachers and other local school authorities. for example, albert said, “we have been encouraging them to do other income generating activities like farming and i believe that thing has helped us and them to keep here” (albert, headteacher prospect high school). albert reported that the teachers’ farming activities helped the school retain teachers and the teachers stay because of meeting their financial needs. similarly, duncan reported: i am one of the headteachers in kanungu district, who encourage teachers to work hard. for example, they go in those surrounding villages, they buy land, they plant trees, they plant coffee, they plant tea – those ones are motivated to stay because when they go away, their fields will not be managed well. they feel motivated in working here because they have made some investments in the place, including myself. i am a tea farmer, i am a banana farmer, i am a cattle keeper. therefore, i feel like staying around because if i go away, my assets will not be managed well (duncan, headteacher riverside high school). albert and duncan show that the school payments did not provide sufficient income for teachers and, therefore, the headteachers encouraged teachers to diversify and generate income producing activities. all teachers reported engagement in farming which lessened the dependence on a regular salary from the school. in short, the teachers stayed longer when able to do private farming. for example, grant said: i also practise some little farming where i get food to sustain my family as i budget my little income i work for. i plant beans, maize, sorghum some little banana plantation. part of it i sell and another part i consume (grant, teacher prospect high school). grant was engaged in farming to supplement income from his teaching job. similarly, leo reported: when you go home you feed on your own food which you have grown (from your garden). so, that is the thing which keeps us moving. in addition, i do not rent a house, i stay in my own, i eat what i have planted, so life becomes a bit easy (leo, teacher brooks high school). in addition to subsistence or market gardening some teachers engaged in livestock farming and poultry keeping. they mostly had both perennial crop farming such as tea, coffee, moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 33 bananas and trees, and seasonal crop farming such as beans, onions, and potatoes. the ownership of immovable assets and perennial crops encouraged teachers to stay longer to continue to manage their farms. in some cases and in addition to farming, teachers ran agribusinesses that sold their farm produce, as reported by lewis: i grow coffee. i also buy coffee from other farmers. i do some business. i deal in coffee seeds. but basically, that work is handled by my wife. i leave her with money, she also has some money and she buy. the business is in my name, but we do the business together with my wife (lewis, teacher brooks high school). similarly, kevin reported: i have a butchery in the nearby trading centre. if it is not a community buying from me, i would be out of business. we have other teachers who are having some small shops around. my boss has tea plantations, two fuso canter trucks (brand of vehicle) for carrying construction things and he employs very many members from the community… like 20 people. (kevin, teacher riverside high school) kevin, was an entrepreneur like other teachers who own diverse business interests. for instance, teacher ownership of grocery stores in rural towns is common because of the lack of supermarkets in rural areas. these small, independent enterprizes also provide industrial commodities purchased from urban areas. with these multiple activities near their workplace, teachers were able to generate reasonable income that improved their welfare and encouraged them to stay, running their income generating activities alongside teaching responsibilities. because of such activities, teachers reported that the earnings from farming and other activities compensated for low salaries and wage differentials with their urban counterparts. side-hustles in non-teaching roles at primary job because of low salary, there is an expectation that the salary will be augmented by allowances. the amount of allowance a school pays to its teachers plays a significant role in the attraction and retention of better-qualified teachers. typically, due to differences in incomes, rural teachers receive less allowance than urban counterparts. since rural schools charge low fees per child per term, headteachers of these schools have little money at their disposal to pay teachers well. teachers shun those nonteaching responsibilities unless there is a reasonable additional allowance attached. each school determined extra activities and assigned them to teachers and these attracted an allowance. therefore, similar extra duties attracted allowances in some schools yet did not attract allowance in some other schools. this also meant that school transfer was sought in order to maximise incomes. teachers who gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 34 accepted these roles are paid extra allowances by the locally-generated revenue at the school. these roles are done alongside direct class teaching time. individual teachers were assigned extra responsibilities in certain schools which were categorised as “overtime teaching” and “non-teaching duty” which attracted allowances that improved their gross salary. non-teaching duty meant any work outside the normal scope of the teacher’s official duties assigned to a teacher by the school administration. this assignment involved temporary additional responsibilities and required the direct use of the teacher’s special talent or professional skill or his or her active participation in the actual work. most frequent non-teaching roles include administrative roles like director of studies, head of department, class teacher, food teacher, senior woman teacher, housemaster, sports teacher, staff pta representative, chairperson electoral commission, chairperson contracts committee. other common non-teaching allowances were for supervisory work such as: day duty, weekend duty, and night prep supervision. gideon commented, ‘with my hard work, i have been given a lot of responsibilities and financially they support me very well.’ (gideon, teacher brooks high school). gideon reported that engagement in non-teaching roles attracted allowances. overtime teaching roles meant any period of teaching, in the interest of the school, assigned to a teacher by the school administration on weekends, public holidays, before/after school official working hours or in excess of 16 hours in any single week, from monday to friday. in most schools, overtime was termed ‘remedial teaching’ as this category of activity allowed for the collection from parents of additional monies permitted by the ministry of education. overall, the perception of the participants was that these allowances were less than what their counterparts earned in either urban areas or other rural schools where parents were more affluent, but they were highly valued and important as a way to boost employment income. moonlighting at other schools in this research we found that teachers preferred employment in rural schools near other schools rather than in more isolated rural schools because it allowed for additional employment in proximate schools. this ‘additional employment’ was described by teachers as their ‘moonlighting’ side hustle. our data showed that most rural teachers taught in more than one school. a common report was, ‘i have another school, which is still in the nearby town. the presence of nearby schools that present opportunity for part-timing also contributes much to my stay’ (brian, teacher kings meadows high school). when taking a position, teachers considered the ‘availability of other nearby schools to moonlight in’ (arthur, headteacher kings meadows high school). headteachers supported the practice of ‘moonlighting in other schools’ to retain teachers. for example, duncan said, ‘in my timetable, i accommodate that moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 35 because i know they teach in other schools and for us our timetable accommodates a teacher for three days. i encourage them to work to bring some income’ (duncan, headteacher riverside high school). the practice of holding more than one job was perceived as a coping mechanism which helped compensate for the low salaries. stanley explained: ‘it is not appreciating it. i would talk of coping mechanisms. there is nobody who does part-timing and likes it. it is a coping mechanism so that maybe they can get a package to meet their needs’ (stanley, a bog chairperson for prospect high school). the interapreneurial practice of moonlighting supported low salaries, as reported by felix: the money i get from the other side (side hustle teaching job) has facilitated me to keep coming here (primary job). in case here we are not paid on time it facilitates and likewise, the other side is also facilitated by the money i get here (felix, teacher kings meadows high school). whereas teachers were able to supplement their regular salaries with extra jobs, the practice of moonlighting in another school was reported to negatively impact effective teaching. for example, francis said, ‘we are forced to teach in other schools and sometimes it is bad because one may not deliver very well’ (francis, teacher kings meadows high school). furthermore, moonlighting meant that the ministry of education policies re full-time teachers required to be at workplace for all the school session time, were negotiated with their headteachers to condense the working days to accommodate this practice. this employment pattern showed a policy gap that teachers and schools have worked around to give a reasonable income to their teachers. a common statement from teachers was, ‘i also teach in another school though i don’t know whether government allows it, i don’t have to hide it from you’ (gerald, teacher kings meadows high school). teachers expressed that the policy was silent on the matter of ‘part-timing’ yet all school authorities encouraged the practice as a mechanism to ensure a sustainable income for their teachers. consequently, teachers had apparent leeway to engage in multiple jobholding in preferred areas with neighbouring schools. the data showed how rural teachers managed to piece together a lifestyle that was reasonable despite the initial low pay. while the salaries and incentives from both the government and school were not enough individually but when packaged together with side-hustle activities, they provided a reasonable income to encourage teachers to stay. in short, teachers augmented their regular income by multiple job holding. discussion the side hustles reported several ways in which ugandan rural teachers were able to engage in as both teachers and farmers. as stated earlier, this paper reports the theme from the research question sought to understand why some teachers stay while others leave ugandan rural public secondary schools. the paper has focused on the complexities of teachers’ side hustle activities to teacher retention in ugandan rural public secondary schools. these complexities are discussed below. gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 36 land as a cultural and economic possession the native teachers owned land both as a result of an inheritance from extended family and through gradual purchase from community at prices and terms suitable to their income. this results, over time, in expanded land ownership. this acquisition process of land expansion for farming and family property wealth was desired by most teachers interviewed. the newcomer teachers who reported they were tightly integrated into their school’s community were landowners and had purchased property/land from the rural community which, in turn, strengthened their ties to the community. this participation in local lifeways and the acquisition of resources provides both economic resources to underpaid teachers but also integrates them into a rural sociocultural situation. these teachers built their houses and carried out agriculture production on the land, a factor discussed below. newcomer teachers who preferred to purchase land and engage in farming in their place of domicile – not in their current teaching area, intended to leave. this pattern is consistent with research in china (xu et al., 2019) and australia (baldwin et al., 2017) attachment to land ownership influences teachers to stay. in australia, for example, rural land ownership has been viewed as an attractive lifestyle choice for urban dwellers (gill et al., 2010). this present study found that land ownership in rural areas served both cultural reasons (illustrated by the cases such as that of teacher leo) and economic reasons (illustrated by cases of land use in agricultural activities by numerous rural teachers interviewed) to enhance teacher retention. there is considerable work in the field of rural education and in the history of education that has documented the tension between rural lifeways and the pedagogical and bureaucratic/administrative practices, policy and curriculum of modern education systems (author 2, 2020; theobald, 1997). what our research here illustrates is that in this context, rural teachers, administrators and community members operate beneath the bureaucratic and regulatory radar to develop hybrid practices that integrate state educational provision and the situational exigencies, affordances and opportunities available in rural communities. reid et al. (2011) also found that in the rural australian context, community integration is foundational for newcomer teacher retention. side-hustles in agricultural production and agribusiness in the local community consistent with some of the international literature from the democratic republic of congo (kisumano & wa-mbaleka, 2017), indonesia (suryani, 2017) and sweden (lindström & mispelaere, 2017; westberg, 2019), our data showed that rural ugandan teachers were integrated in rural agricultural production as a way of life. our data confirm these conclusions in the ugandan context and also showed moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 37 that rural school administrators and members of the wider rural community rent (or sell) land to teachers for small-scale farming to supplement income from their government or school salary. this is consistent with research elsewhere which found that successful rural teacher retention was linked to ‘what one does in their environs’ (reid et al., 2010). teachers engaged in farming as a way of life to fit in with what other rural residents do and as an important source of livelihood providing food security for their families as discussed in earlier sections. teachers’ farms were often sources of employment for members of the wider rural community. internationally, teachers who engage in the rural economy have been found to stay longer (reid et al., 2011). the findings reported that teachers operated businesses that included grocery stores in rural towns, school canteens, money lending business, agribusiness and private schools to supplement their income. teachers’ businesses were run by their spouses and were more common in rural towns because of the lack of supermarkets in rural areas. internationally, school canteens are owned by school councils to promote student nutrition such as in australia, (drummond & sheppard, 2011) and india (rathi, 2018) and there seems to be no literature from western countries on teacher ownership of school canteens, rural grocery shops, agribusinesses or private schools. the study’s findings showed that teachers engaged in businesses that were not necessarily aligned with their skills or teaching qualifications, but rather, ventures that fit the rural opportunities. teachers were able to generate income from multiple activities near their workplace and improved their welfare and encouraged them to stay running their income=generating activities alongside teaching responsibilities. side hustle in non-teaching roles at the primary job involvement in non-teaching roles provided an opportunity to be involved in the school’s decision making and also provided extra financial benefits. this built the teachers’ psychological and professional bond with the school. the extra non-teaching roles were concurrently performed alongside official teaching duties. however, occupying teachers with non-teaching responsibilities meant a reduction on the amount of actual teaching they did. internationally, the engagement of teachers in nonteaching roles has been seen as work overload that results in teacher exhaustion and attrition (buchanan et al., 2013; easthope & easthope, 2000; williamson & myhill, 2008). this study established that teachers perceived extra school roles as forms of motivation and integration in decision making that enhanced their commitment to stay. it appears from this study that teachers negotiate with the school leadership to be assigned less classroom teaching to have more available time for other non-teaching roles that attracted financial benefits and social status in the school. this finding agrees with international research where teachers requested multiple in-school jobs as a way of increasing their livelihoods in rural areas (sharplin, 2008). gilbert arinaitwe & michael corbett ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 38 side hustle moonlighting in other schools the data showed that teachers desire rural schools close to other schools where they engage in moonlighting as an extra job. the primary job of teaching was not able to fully meet the financial needs of teachers and, consequently, they coped by holding multiple jobs by engaging in activities that sustain their livelihood, namely, extra in-school duties, teaching in more than one school, farming and business, consistent with research in us (ames et al., 2006; chandler, 2009), canada (blair, 2018) and sweden (lindström & mispelaere, 2017; westberg, 2019). consistent with earlier research, this pattern of moonlighting in multiple schools is clandestinely negotiated by the teacher and school administration (urwick & kisa, 2014). the findings agree with prior research in us where the practice results in low psychological contract fulfilment (conway & briner, 2002) and high employee mobility (pouliakas, 2017). the respondents noted that multiple moonlighting jobs resulted in teacher exhaustion. the practice corrupts standards as it impacts on a teacher’s ability to focus on their students (blair, 2018). conclusion we think the most intriguing and perhaps most important overall conclusion of this research is that teacher side-hustles in rural communities take a different shape in particular locales and are themselves quite diverse. it is common to frame “additional” work that teachers do in deficit terms, whether it be work that is related to education (such as tutoring, extra duties or selling lesson plans on the internet) or unrelated to education such as the agricultural activity we present in this paper. econometric analysis of this phenomenon is both new and emerging and incomplete in the sense that it only focusses on measured aspects of teacher “productivity” such as standardized test scores. we conclude that by engaging in occupational practices that are common in the community, that it is also possible that teacher retention is promoted by teacher side-hustles. these activities seem, in this research, to integrate teachers into rural communities causing them to be more invested in people and place. at the same time, these teachers may also be learning crucial sociocultural lessons about the lifeworlds of their students, potentially making them more sensitive, place-oriented and culturally responsive teachers. in many rural and remote contexts a key struggle for educational provision is simply keeping teachers in remote communities (green & reid, 2021) and the problem of rural teacher retention has led to the developpment of “home-grown” teacher programs (gereluk et al., 2020). the centrality of land as a cultural and economic anchor in rural uganda, for instance, appears to be integral to teacher retention, sustainable incomes and community integration. finally, it might also be said that teacher participation in agricultural activity is not only self-sustinence and commercial activity, it also draws upon indigenous practices that insure food security for a low income occupational group (i.e., ugandan rural teachers). moonlighting agricultural practices of ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention ajote vol.12 no.1 (2023), 21-48 39 it is clear to us that the relationship between the professionalization of teaching and the idea that teaching is a sole career, rather than something a person does in combination with other economic activities, is a more complex problem that should be understood situationally. it is equally clear that the conditions that support single-focus teachers simply do not exist everywhere. yet established hybrid occupational practices such as the ones we analyze here might provide stable incomes and forms of community integration that have positive dimensions. questions concerning the complexity of teachers’ professional, economic and social lives in diverse global contexts merits further research, and partiularly forms of qualitiative analysis that seek to understand the meaning making and lived experience of rural teachers. further research is needed in multiple geographic areas around the world. additionally, how moonlighting impacts student outcomes is not well understood and apart from a small number of studies (e.g., elacqua & marotta, 2020; 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(2004). job attitudes of workers with two jobs. journal of vocational behavior, 64(1), 222-235. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020420 academics with disabilities during transformation to a new african university in south africa sibonokuhle ndlovu ali mazrui centre for higher education studies, university of johannesburg, south africa abstract the idea of transformation to a ‘new african university’ has become topical in contemporary african education scholarship. whilst it is claimed that the process seeks to include all stakeholders, academics with disabilities are excluded because of discourses and dynamics in africa’s higher education that have remained deeply embedded in eurocentric thinking and mind-set. this paper applied critical disability theory to analyse the challenges that face academics with disabilities in the areas of teaching, research, community engagement and doctoral supervision in south african higher education and that must be appropriately and adequately addressed for a successful transformation to a “‘new’ african university”. data were collected through an analysis of south african literature on exclusion of students with disabilities as research, community engagement and supervision are regarded as a continuum and involve both students and the academics. findings revealed that academics with disabilities are confronted with specific challenges similar to those faced by students with disabilities, as they all function within the same context during transformation to a ‘new african university’. the challenges are inaccessible physical environment, negative attitudes from the community members, impairment-related disadvantages, lack of adequate funding and lack of adequate media for use, which all compound to limit their functioning like their able-bodied counterparts. including the voice of academics with disabilities in disability policy was proposed as a way to alleviate the challenges they confront enabling them to contribute positively to scholarship and thus affirm the transformation to a new african university. key words: new african university, transformation, academics with disabilities, teaching, research, community engagement issn 1916-7822. a journal of spread corporation volume 12 no.2 special issue 2023 pages 69-93 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 70 introduction transformation to a ‘new african university’ in contemporary scholarship has become a global issue of debate. among other african scholars, mbembe (2001), zeleza (2002), nyamnjoh (2012), maringe (2017) and ndlovu-gatsheni (2017) have published studies on what they understand as a ‘new african university’. these scholars have for decades, proposed transformation of universities in africa from their colonial nature into an authentic indigenous one, which is a ‘new african university’. the role played by that kind of a university, the ideals and the approaches used in knowledge production, are explicitly stated by maringe (2017).) in a ‘new african university’, inclusion of all stakeholders in all their diversity as knowledge producers, is of paramount importance. during the transformation process, pluriversality is of paramount importance. all knowledges centred and all stakeholders included in producing it, is a move that transforms the context and the way in which all academics with and without disabilities contribute to knowledge production. reforms in a ‘new african university’ cross and ndofirepi (2017) and maringe (2017) have suggested a number of reforms that should constitute a ‘new african university’. they argue majorly for africanisation and pluriversality whereby african epistemology becomes central but with other worldviews also being considered legitimate. in other words, a pluriversal approach, which considers other knowledge such as the indigenous knowledge systems (iks) (murove, 2018), is one of the reforms required during transformation to a ‘new african university’. besides change in epistemology, there should also be curriculum reform, to address the needs of the community. this would mean aligning the curriculum content to ensure that graduates are equipped with knowledge and skills to solve problems in the local environment and to improve their communities (maringe, 2017). in addition, a reform in methodology is also envisaged; employing methods that would enable access to knowledge by the diverse body of students, especially the african subjects who have been previously excluded. sithole (2016) argued for methodological tools that were creative and decolonial. one of the reforms envisaged in the ‘new african university’ is that diverse students and academics, including those with disabilities are included in producing knowledge in higher education. students and academics with disabilities are also in the social group that has been previously excluded in terms of accessing higher education system in south africa. it could be argued that a number of reforms are expected in the process of transforming to a new african university. the paper’s main focus academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 71 is on transformation to the ‘new african university’ as it pertains specifically to inclusion of academics with disabilities in knowledge production. key concepts transformation the term transformation could be understood in a number of ways in different contexts. transformation refers to a reform or change, in an education system. maringe (2017, p. 2) defined transformation as “…complete radical change, in which the original idea or process becomes unrecognisable, and the new creation serves new purposes”. it could be argued that transformation means a complete overhaul of the previous system of education to a new one. in the context of the paper, the term refers to a radical change in which academics with disabilities are also included in knowledge production in south african higher education. transformation into a ‘new african university’ is a process that is underway in south africa to include all students and academics in knowledge production, including those with disabilities. ‘a new african university’ the debate about and idea of a ‘new african university’ has emerged from the realisation that universities in africa were modelled on ideals and template of the colonising countries of the west (maringe, 2017; ndlovu-gatsheni, 2017). universities in africa t served the needs of african people but western universities in africa. the aim and purpose of a ‘new african university’ is therefore to move away from western models, from colonialism and apartheid that have characterised universities in africa, even after attainment of political independence, to democracy in african countries and in south africa in particular. a ‘new african university’ is thus a completely transformed system of higher education that is dissimilar from universities that were informed by the eurocentric thought and ideas and where ‘new’ refers to doing things differently. the concept of transforming to a ‘new african university’ the common understanding about transforming to a ‘new african university’, is that of a process of moving towards a totally transformed higher education that is radically different from the previous eurocentric one. conceptions of among other things, universalisation of knowledge, placing eurocentric knowledge and ways of knowing at the centre and decentering other knowledges, should change during the transformation process (maringe, 2017). the sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 72 system should also be radically changed, so that it does not exclude other social groups, such as those with disabilities, who are deemed not to suit the criteria of normalcy by dominant society standards (ndlovu-gatsheni, 2012). thus, it is about rethinking educational practices, processes, structures and policies, so as to embrace pluriversality. pluriversality refers to several cosmologies and epistemologies which are based on the understanding that multiple realities exist (mignolo, 2011). it disrupts the whole idea of universalisation and construction of the world from a single perspective and one worldview. pluriversality could therefore provide conditions that allow for inclusivity in terms of knowledge production and dissemination of knowledge by all academics, including those with disabilities. ndlovu-gatsheni (2017) further argued that transformation to a ‘new african university’ is a multi-layered and multi-dimensional move, which involves new ways of thinking, requiring universities in africa to draw knowledge from their own environments. it is about reinvention, where universities should reflect african identity and african soul imbued with african values, which should be embedded in its knowledge systems. it could be argued that reinvention should start from africanisation in knowledge production and dissemination of african knowledge. transformation to a ‘new african university’ in south african higher education the process of transformation to a ‘new african university’ is underway in the south africa. it has been on-going since attainment of independence but intensified in the days of student protests in 2015/2016 and has continued to date (heleta, 2015; mbembe, 2016), as the idea of transitioning to a ‘new african university’ was being fuelled by debates on decolonisation of the universities and the curriculum. institutional culture is changing to incorporate african cultures, which metz (2017) refers to as the change to africanisation of institutional culture in higher education. in some institutions of higher education, the language of teaching and learning is changing from being exclusively english to include the use of local languages for instruction (cross, 2018). for instance, the university of kwazulu-natal and the university of limpopo have adopted a language policy which ensures that undergraduates have learnt their local languages (isizulu and sepedi respectively) in a formal way by the time they graduate (metz, 2017). besides the transformation of institutional culture and language of teaching and learning, other changes taking place comprises of the inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems (iks) in the curricular (mkosi, mavuso & olawumi, 2023). such as a move is to reacademics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 73 centre knowledges from the non-western worlds which has been de-centred in epistemology because of universalisation of eurocentric knowledge and ways of knowing. african indigenous knowledges (aik) is given priority to develop africa-based generation of knowledge, develop local epistemologies and inculcate african values in all dimensions of higher education (maringe, 2017). the south african government has also made efforts from the early period of democracy to address issues of equity. it promotes equity through the employment equity act, no 55 of 1998 (rsa, 1998a) and the promotion of equality and prevention of unfair discrimination act, no 4 of 2000 (rsa, 2000). these legislations forbid discrimination on grounds of disability and maintain that all citizens, including those with disabilities, have the right to employment. however, academics with disabilities require more than mere access to formal employment; they require a totally transformed environment in which to function as effectively as their able-bodied counterparts. unfortunately, the 1994 dawn of democracy in south africa did not see policy on disability put in place to inform the inclusion of persons with disabilities in higher education (mutanga, 2017). however, in 2018, policy specifically designed for the inclusion of persons with disabilities in higher education, the strategic policy framework on disability for the postschool and training, was promulgated (dhet, 2018). its purpose is to “…create an inclusive pset system for people with disabilities, guide pset institutions in the creation of an enabling environment for people with disabilities” (dhet, 2018, p. 6). the enactment of this policy in recent years is evidence that efforts of transformation to a ‘new african university’, with specific reference to inclusion of students and academics with disabilities, is being made in south african higher education. by virtue of the legislation largely, and policy specifically, it implies that qualified academics with disabilities now have the opportunity for formal employment in universities, to teach, conduct research, become involved in community engagement and supervise doctoral students, as expected during transformation to a ‘new african university’. transformation to a ‘new african university’ is however, a journey. south african universities are still engaged in the process of reform to meet the criteria for a transformed system of higher education that is radically different from the previous eurocentric system. however, a ‘new african university’ in its true sense, has not yet emerged. institutional ethos still draws from the western philosophy and normativism still exists, hence issues of social sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 74 injustice and exclusion still prevail (maringe, 2017). it intimates that though transformation to a ‘new african university’ is occurring, significant change has not yet taken place. inclusion during transformation to a ‘new african university’ inclusion is a concept that can be understood and defined in different ways and it supports a broad and narrow conceptualisation (ainscow et al., 2006). broadly, it refers to the inclusion of all people in society largely or in an educational context such as higher education. narrowly, the concept of inclusion is about including specific social groups that are vulnerable to exclusion, such as those with disabilities working in the mainstream. in the paper, inclusion is narrowly considered and is focussed on academics with disabilities. diversity is another important dimension required in the transformation to a ‘new african university’. the term refers to differences in people, which include among other things, gender, race, age, ability and disability, which has impact on inclusion. all diversity refers to different social groups being considered as legitimate knowers, who are capable of knowledge production. during transformation, universities are expected to implement this reform from being institutions that previously served the interest of the few elite to ones that are conducive for all to function in, including those who were previously excluded, such as academics with disabilities. since 1994, those previously disadvantaged social groups have had formal access into south african higher education; however, inclusion of all diverse social groups have not been fully realised (cross, 2018). thus, despite being legitimate knowers also, academics with disabilities face challenges that exclude them from being effective knowledge producers as their able-bodied counterparts. with specific reference to those with disabilities, masitera (2023) argued that they should be included on the basis of tolerance, respect, acceptance “and inclusive attitudes that emanate from african moral thinking” (p. 3). moral african thinking considers all people as human and thus deserving of equal dignified treatment. thus, during transformation to a ‘new african university’, academics with disabilities need to be included on the moral grounds that they are human and should also have the opportunity to fully participate in knowledge production. hence, african scholars like mbembe, 2001; zeleza, 2002; nyamnjoh 2012; maringe, 2017; and ndlovu-gatsheni, 2017 consider inclusion of all diverse social groups in knowledge production as fundamental to the transformation to a ‘new african university’. however, as transformation to a ‘new african university is a process underway, the issues of diversity and inclusion of all are yet to be fully realized because academics with disabilities academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 75 are still left out in terms of fully contributing to knowledge production in the system of higher education in south africa. in the context of the paper, academics with disabilities refers to the teaching staff members who live with different categories of impairments such as hearing loss, visual impairments or physical disabilities and other limitations that restrict their physical functioning. transformation to a new african university demands that these challenges be explored and overcome to ensure that these academics with disabilities are also included in knowledge production in higher education. there is considerable literature on challenges faced by students with disabilities in africa (matshedisho, 2017; mutanga, 2017; ndlovu, 2017; ntombela & mahlangu, 2019; ndlovu, 2020a; ndlovu, 2020b; ndlovu, 2020c; ntombela, 2020). in contrast, literature focused on challenges confronting academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in the south african context of higher education are few. this paper thus contributes to the literature in an area of study that has not received adequate research publication. the fact is that academics with disabilities also face challenges that confront students with disabilities, and both groups exist in the same context of higher education, during transformation to a ‘new african university’. by exploring these challenges, this paper offers a contribution to scholarship on the intervention to assist the inclusion of academics with disabilities so that they can also contribute to knowledge production in the south african context of higher education. the paper thus seeks to answer the following central questions: 1. what are the challenges for academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in south african higher education? 2. what are the intangible underlying causes for the challenges confronted by academics with disabilities? 3. what intervention could assist in overcoming challenges confronted by academics with disabilities, to produce knowledge during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in south africa? this paper argues that while academics with disabilities have opportunity of being included during the transformation process to a ‘new african university’ in south africa, they are still confronted with challenges in teaching, supervision, research and community engagement; all limiting their full participation in producing knowledge. the system is not yet fully transformed sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 76 to include their voice in policy, hence the current study addresses the challenges they are confronted with and the need for their voice to be integrated into policy making so as to include them in knowledge production as well. theoretical frame: critical disability theory critical disability theory (cdt) draws from critical theory which is focused on emancipation of social groups from oppression (horkheimer, 1972). cdt seeks to bring about social change by raising awareness of hegemonic practices that have been taken for granted. cdt provides theoretical tools that can assist the oppressed in becoming liberated. the theory thus seeks to improve the living conditions of all diverse people, but particularly those with disabilities who find themselves undervalued and discriminated against (meekosha & shuttleworth, 2009). as it seeks improvement and change for the marginalised, such as those with disabilities, the theory is relevant for this study because the ultimate goal is to ensure that the voice of academics with disabilities is being included and heard by the responsible authorities during transformation in the ‘new african university’ in south africa. cdt also helps to understand how the material and local contextual conditions shape the marginalisation or privilege of social groups, more particularly those with disabilities (shildrick, 2012). the theory therefore helps to illuminate and create an understanding of the obstacles or opportunities the marginalised meet in their day-to-day activities within a specific social environment. it is a theory that critiques the social practices, processes and structures that result in the marginalisation of social groups and especially those with disabilities (meekosha & shuttleworth, 2009). it assists in developing an understanding of what influences the exclusion, where they are excluded, how they are excluded and why they are excluded. for a study focused on the context of a ‘new african university’, the theory was useful in understanding the obstacles that confront academics with disabilities. cdt is concerned with shifting focus about disability writing from the global west perspective to that of south and non-western perspectives (meekosha, 2011; grech, 2015). the theory thus privileges the voice from the global south (grech, 2015), which has been placed at the periphery, particularly as disability writing has been viewed from western perspectives and dominated by the scholars from the west. the argument is that it is those with a lived experience of disability, who know exactly what they need (hosking, 2008) and whose voice needs to be privileged (devlin & potheir, 2006). as the appeal in contemporary scholarship requests that the voice of the marginalised be heard, the theory is relevant for a academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 77 study focused on academics with disabilities, whose voice also needs to be heard to overcome the challenges they confront in knowledge production. the theoretical tools of context and intersectionality were drawn from cdt and used to illuminate and explain the challenges that are confronted by the academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in the south african context of higher education. the two concepts were important in order to understand the hidden and underlying causes of the challenges, as when these are identified and established, practical solutions for those with lived experiences can be sought. context context as a theoretical concept of cdt refers to how disability is generally perceived, socially constructed, and conceptualised within a specific social environment (sherry, 2009). the context within which disability is located shapes and influences how disability is conceived and how those located in a specific social context view disability. as sherry(2009). notes, disability should be understood as a contextual issue because it is in itself defined by context and as a result, is conceptualised differently from one context to the other. furthermore, context influences perceptions and perceptions determine people’s actions (william, 1999). thus, the stakeholders’ perceptions about disability within a specific context can influence how those with disabilities are accommodated, provided for, included, or excluded. in the south african (and african) context, for example, disability has been conceptualised in a negative light because historically, the view has been informed by cultural tradition and african belief systems whereby disability was perceived as a curse (kisanji, 1995). persons with disabilities were traditionally viewed as charity cases, who needed to be ‘normalised’ in institutions (barnes & mercer, 2010). they have often been cast as ‘less normal’ and therefore less human (barnes, oliver & barton, 2008). the way disability has been conceived has therefore led to segregation and marginalisation of persons with disabilities in society. though gradual changes have occurred in the way context has influenced the negative conception of disability in african societies, some stereotypes about disability have continued. negative conceptions about disabilities that draw from the historical traditions and african beliefs have spilled over into higher education in south africa. it has been reported that due to negative conceptions about disability, academics have low expectations of students with disabilities (howell, 2006). in classroom teaching and learning, some academic staff are unwelcoming of students with disabilities as they view them as burdensome (mutanga, 2017). sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 78 disability is still conceived, perceived and constructed in a negative way in higher education because the stakeholders have not disposed of the stereotype perspective they hold about disability. the issue of context as a theoretical concept is therefore critical to explain the challenges confronted by academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’, within the context of south african higher education. it was thus a useful analytical tool that provided an insight into important contextual issues that could have been overlooked in the analysis process. intersectionality/intrasectionality intersectionality as a theoretical concept in cdt helps to explain diversity within disability and those with disabilities. it is a concept that recognises the overlap of identities and different layers of oppression and privilege in the positioning of social groups. persons with disabilities have been mistakenly understood to be a homogenous social group with ‘special needs’, who require ‘special’ intervention. however, disability embodies and intersects with other identities such as race, gender, class, economic and educational backgrounds and ethnicity (sherry, 2009). the concept of intersectionality therefore helps to understand different aspects of disability and how these interact to influence each individual differently. in other words, the concept of intersectionality assists in illustrating that persons with disabilities are also diverse in themselves, in their own various ways, as they are placed in different positions of oppression and privilege. persons with disabilities could have the same impairment, but have different needs (picard, 2015). this explains the heterogeneity that goes with disability as the same disability category might require different support and intervention. critical disability scholars like sherry (2009) places an emphasis on intra/intersectionality as a factor of diversity. her argument is that disability should be understood as being at the centre of other identities and not an isolated entity. in essence, intersectionality disrupts the notion of homogeneity and enables consideration of other identities and factors that are in intersection, and how they interact and have an impact, positive or negative, on an individual with disabilities (moodley & graham, 2015). privilege that may go with disability has, in most instances been glossed over. goodley (2011) argued that persons with disabilities were intersectional subjects who also embodied other powerful positions, valued in an ableist culture (goodley, 2013). it implies that while disability has always been associated with disadvantage and oppression, intersectionality academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 79 helps to understand that disability could also yield positions of privilege and advantage. in essence, persons with disabilities could also be placed in positions of power; they are not always placed in the position of oppression, as assumed. thus, the concept of intersectionality helps to understand that challenges for academics with disabilities may not be overgeneralised. it is no doubt that intersectionality of privilege and oppression exists with academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’. illuminated by intersectionality, overgeneralisations and glossing over the specifics were avoided in terms of challenges encountered by academics with disabilities and interventions proposed. method a systematic literature review was considered as an appropriate approach for sourcing data relevant for understanding the challenges that could be confronted by academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’. data were sourced from published books, journal articles, online sources and book chapters. the search terms and their combination such as transitioning, new african university, students with disabilities, academics with disabilities, south african higher education, south african higher education and challenges, were used to search the online databases, which include proquest, ebsco, eric, jstor, psycinfo, sage, springerlink and taylor and francis online. selection criteria for literature for review inclusion and exclusion criteria were used as protocol to select relevant sources and literature, with sources matching the inclusion criteria being selected. there was a paucity of literature on sources specifically focused on the challenges confronted by academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african university’. thus, though the paper meant to specifically focus on academics with disabilities, there was limited literature on the issue both internationally and in the south african context. as literature that would provide adequate data for analysis was not available, the author had to select from a wide array of literature related to challenges confronted by students with disabilities. this was based on the fact that, as students and academics with disabilities belong to one social group of persons who live with a disability and as they function within the same context and time of transformation to a ‘new african university’, they face the same challenges. secondly, teaching and learning, research and community engagement are a continuum and not mutually exclusive, in that they inversely involve both students and staff members. if students with disabilities are confronted by challenges in their respective practices, sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 80 academics with disabilities could also be confronted with similar challenges within the same context. taking this in account, literature on challenges that students with disabilities face was selected and reviewed to understand the challenges that academics with disabilities face. publications that matched the search criteria were identified and duplicates were deleted. selected literature was read and re-read, guided by the research questions of the study. journal articles, books, book chapters, online resources, reports and conference papers presented from the 1979 to the 2021s were selected. the significance of the period speaks to struggles of persons with disabilities against exclusion in general, but also during transformation to ‘a new african university’ when scholarship, globally and nationally, is shifting to embrace inclusion and diversity. challenges for academics with disabilities during transformation infrastructural challenges limiting teaching academics with disabilities are limited in teaching by the challenge of inaccessible physical structures during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in the south african context of higher education. challenges of the inaccessible built environment have not yet been resolved in institutions of higher education in south africa. literature has revealed that students with physical disabilities and low vision have the challenges of inaccessibility of physical structures. academics with physical disabilities and total visual impairment have the same challenge because they operate within the same university environments that are inaccessible in terms of physical infrastructure. literature reveals that despite efforts of renovations and retrofitting of old buildings, the built environment is still inaccessible to many, particularly those with physical disabilities and total visual loss (engelbrecht & de beer, 2014). negotiating their way to lecture-venues to teach is a challenge resulting in them missing lectures or arriving late, as has been experienced by students with disabilities (hall & belch, 2000). swartz and schneider (2006) argued that renovating and retrofitting all buildings is still in the pipeline because of the expense involved. it implies that even as universities are transforming to a ‘new african university’, physical structures in higher education remain inaccessible to academics with disabilities, resulting in them getting to lecture-room late. the negative impact on teaching cannot be over-emphasised. some institutions of higher education have made significant progress in terms of renovation and retrofitting of physical structures to conform to the principles of universal design (fitchett, 2015). however, inaccessibility within the new buildings has been reported academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 81 by students with disabilities at an institution of higher education in south africa (ndlovu, 2017), which implies that not only students with disabilities, but also academics with disabilities who use the same venues for teaching, are limited in the same way. for example, the distance between student seating and the podium is a challenge for academics with hearing impairments as they have difficulties hearing what students are saying. this in turn has an effect on knowledge production. thus, the inaccessibility of physical structures in the south african higher education context hinders academics with disabilities to effectively produce knowledge with all students with and without disabilities, which is a core mandate during transformation to a ‘new african knowledge’. evidence from literature is that students with disabilities experienced challenges to learning within the new buildings as these new building were built without diversity in mind (ndlovu, 2017). hence, academics with disabilities suffer similarly. impairment-related disadvantages in research academics with disabilities are confronted with impairment-related challenges in conducting research. impairment-related disadvantages hinder functionality and academics with disabilities are also faced with the challenge of functioning effectively which limits them in terms of participating in specific activities. shakespeare (2010), a person with total visual impairment, stated that she cannot drive because driving is an activity that requires sight. some scholars have continued to embrace the medical model of disability because it does not evade the reality of impairment. although oliver (1990) argues that disability is imposed on individuals by society and a fully transformed social and physical environment should include persons with disabilities, shakespeare and watson (2001) in contrast, argue that the effects of impairment should not be overlooked because they do limit persons with impairments. academic who are totally visually impaired confront challenges to do with sight in conducting research that requires observation at the institution or in the community. cues and facial expressions in which deep meaning is derived, are missed by a visually impaired academic when conducting empirical research with participants. the evidence from literature shows that students with disabilities were limited in doing research and activities in their field of study due to impairments. a medical student with albinism, who had low vision stated from a lived experience that he could not use small needles on patients because of his limited sight (ndlovu, 2017). it is the same experience with academics with disabilities because they confront the same challenges using some specific equipment during research. sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 82 academics with severe physical disabilities also find it difficult to handle specific research equipment or instruments that are used in fields of architecture, mining or in engineering research. literature has revealed that students with disabilities implementing offcampus integrated learning reported that they had challenges with handling specific equipment during fieldwork (odendaal-magwaza & farman, 1997). the experience is similar for academics with total visual impairment and severe physical disabilities because as already highlighted, an impairment is a restrictive reality that can disadvantage all persons with disabilities in their functioning, including academics with disabilities. compounded challenges in supervising doctoral students during transformation to a ‘new african university’, doctoral training has especially become very important because it can enable quality knowledge production through research (sawahel, 2018). training more doctoral researchers through supervision is one of the reforms expected during transformation to ‘a new african university’ (maringe, 2017). the increased demand for quality research and output by doctoral graduates has spurred an increase in the recruitment of doctoral candidates in south african higher education (assaf, 2010). despite the demand, some doctoral candidates have not developed the relevant basic research skills (ungandi, 2021). supervision of doctoral students by academics with disabilities has a range of challenges, which limit them in terms of contributing to knowledge production. a multitude of challenges, which include miscommunication, negative attitudes, limited media, inadequate funding for the services of language interpretation and increased pressure, are confronted by academics with disabilities in supervising doctoral students during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in south african higher education. a number of these challenges have been identified with academics supervising doctoral candidates in the south african context of higher education (ungandi, 2021). overcoming these challenges has resulted in a greater workload for supervisors, increased time for supervision, and more time required for building student-supervisor relations, which when compounded, takes its toll on the supervisors (ungandi, 2021). it is argued that while supervisors are pressured to increase their research output, they are also pressured to produce doctoral graduates (carter, miller & courtney, 2017). academics with disabilities face the challenge of even more increased pressure to meet the requirements of doctoral supervision in comparison to other supervisors because the challenges are exacerbated for those with disabilities. academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 83 academics with disabilities face the challenge of miscommunication resulting from using special media to communicate with doctoral students without disabilities. literature has revealed that students with disabilities have experienced miscommunication that result from those with disabilities being not able to use special media to communicate effectively. for example, powerpoint slides were used in lectures which was a challenge for students with visual impairments (mutanga, 2017). academics with disabilities also experience the same challenge of miscommunication in the use of special media with doctoral students without disabilities. miscommunication leads to further challenges in building good student-supervisor relationships due to negative attitudes from students without disabilities. evidence from literature shows that some students without disabilities lack sensitivity and hold negative attitudes about disabilities (ntombela, 2020). while there are common challenges for all academics in supervision, there are also impairment-related challenges for academics with disabilities. evidence from the literature shows that students with disabilities who were totally hearing impaired had challenges in conducting research with hearing participants (ndlovu, 2020a; 2020b). academics with hearing impairment, who use sign language and not oral communication, also face a communication barrier with their doctoral students without disabilities in both desktop and empirical research. participants without disabilities are not able to use and interpret sign language, and vice-versa, and the academic who use sign language do not hear oral communication from participants without disabilities. the communication barrier negatively affects academics with total hearing impairments as they supervise students without hearing impairment who do not use sign language for communication. in cases where sign language is used, the cost implication is a challenge if interpreters are involved. sign language interpretation in south africa is currently an expensive service, charged per an hour (ndlovu, 2017), hence only a few individuals and institutions have adequate funding for this type of support. matshedisho (2007) argued that some institutions in south african higher education do not even admit students with hearing impairments because of issues of inadequate funding for sign language interpretation and lack of funding to hire interpreters. the issue of inadequate funding for language interpretation reported some years ago, is still being reported in more recent studies (ndlovu, 2017). academics with disabilities relying on interpreters are limited in conducting research as institutions of higher education do not have adequate funding to pay for the service, to facilitate their research engagements with hearing participants. sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 84 relying on interpreters to facilitate communication during research engagement is another challenge for academics with disabilities because of unreliability of human resources, which could affect the research process. an interpreter could fall ill, take leave or decide to change jobs at any time (ndlovu, 2017). the absence of human resource for interpreting sign language impacts the academic with hearing impairment negatively, and consequently, the doctoral student and the research process. arguably, though academics with disabilities are capable of producing knowledge, there are unique obstacles they face in the process of knowledge production, which are not confronted by those without disabilities. negative attitudes in community engagement academics with disabilities who are expected to participate in community engagement face with the challenge of negative attitude in society at large, which has an impact on the effective engagement with the local community members. society in south africa, as in many other african countries, still holds negative attitudes towards persons with disabilities, which are traced to the eurocentric disability writing, resulting in myths and stereotypes about persons with disabilities in particular (grech, 2015). in addition, the negative perception of disability has generally been passed from one generation to the other. society denies that there are people who are ‘different’, and as such, deviate from the ‘normal’ because it uses a standard for ‘normalcy’ and continues to hold onto the mentality of the normative. persons without disabilities are sceptical of those with disabilities, consequently manifesting negative attitudes towards them, resulting in people with disabilities having low expectations of their capabilities. literature reveals that students with disabilities were limited in doing their fieldwork outside the university because of negative attitudes and low expectation of their performance by members of the community (ndlovu, 2017). it is the same experience with academics with disabilities as they do research in the able-abled communities. it could be argued that negative attitudes manifested towards people with disabilities result in academics with disabilities not engaging effectively with community members and working together to produce knowledge relevant and useful for solving community problems. ndlovu-gatsheni (2020) argued that community engagement helps to solve the problems of the local community through knowledge produced in higher education that is context-relevant. he argued that it is a prime concern for the ‘new african university’ to ensure epistemic freedom (ndlovu-gatsheni, 2020). when academics with disabilities are limited in community engagement, they are unable to contribute to epistemic freedom during transformation to a ‘new african university’. in summary, south african society as a social context, is not yet fully academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 85 transformed to be inclusive to diversity in terms of disability (ndlovu, 2017), and consequently, a range of factors hinder community engagement by academics with disabilities. south african higher education context during transformation as explained in detail in the theoretical framework section, context plays an important role in shaping and influencing how disability is conceived and consequently, how those with disabilities are included or excluded. the process of transformation to a ‘new african university’ in still in process, hence the south african context of higher education, which has always been exclusive to those with disabilities as the ‘other’, has not yet fully transformed. this means that social, physical, academic and institutional environments are still restricted for some social groups, more particularly the previously disadvantaged, including those with disabilities. literature has revealed that students with disabilities are confronted by challenges in learning (mutanga, 2017; ntombela, 2020; ndlovu, 2020c), when doing fieldwork (ndlovu, 2017), in research engagement (ndlovu, 2022) and limited by infrastructure (hall & belch, 2000; fitchett, 2015). as already indicated, teaching and learning and research are practices that are a continuum and involve both students and academics. when they occur within a similar context of higher education that is not yet fully transformed during transformation to ‘new african university’, challenges confronting students with disabilities also confront academics with disabilities. intersectionality and challenges for academics with disabilities from the perspective of intersectionality, the range of challenges that confront academics with disabilities of different categories are differ from one academic to the other. goodley (2013) argued that persons with disabilities are intersectional subjects who embody other identities such as gender, race, class and ethnicity. they are not a homogeneous group and their challenges are not the same. academics with disabilities confront varying challenges during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in the context of south african higher education. the challenges differ because of different variables such as disability category, severity of disabilities, gender, age and/or economic background of individual academics with disabilities. severity of impairment, for example, determine whether or not academics with disabilities face challenges during transforming to a ‘new african university’. those whose impairments are severe are more hindered than those with mild ones, in teaching, conducting research, community engagement and supervision of doctoral students. for example, academics with totally hearing impairment who use sign language have more challenges than sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 86 those with the same impairment at a mild level who may use oral language, can signor lip read. the literature revealed that it is students with total loss of hearing who experience greater communication challenges when conducting research with participants who have a hearing sense (ndlovu, 2022). in addition, academics with disabilities from disadvantaged backgrounds confront more challenges in doing research or community engagement because of lack of adequate resources. literature revealed that students with disabilities from disadvantaged contexts face more challenges in conducting research (ndlovu, 2020) and in doing field work (ndlovu, 2017). it is the same with academics with disabilities. those from disadvantaged social contexts face more challenges in doing research, teaching, and community engagement. privileged and under-privileged academics do not confront the same challenges in knowledge production during transformation to the ‘new african university’. from the perspective of intersectionality. disability should not always be looked at from the perspective of oppression, disadvantage and exclusion, but also privilege (crenshaw, 1989). by way of association and interaction with privileged persons in society, some academics with disabilities occupy privileged positions, which advantage them and enable them to engage effectively during transformation to a ‘new african university’ and produce knowledge even more effectively than academics without disabilities. for example, academics with an impaired bodies from a high economic class family who had an elite background of previous schooling, also have habitus, social and cultural capital, which has always been associated with those from the privileged and elite backgrounds (cross, 2018). they bring from their elite backgrounds, skills and knowledge of technology, high self-esteem and confidence as assets, which they use effectively for teaching, for research, community engagement and supervision of doctoral students, and are thus not hindered by challenges that other academics with disabilities, experience during transformation to a ‘new african university’. technology savvy academics with disabilities do not face challenges experienced by those who are not equipped with the relevant technological skills. being acquainted with technology assists functionality and performance of those with disabilities. the literature also revealed that students with disabilities from privileged backgrounds were not faced with the same challenges in learning because they brought with them the social capital and habitus that assisted their learning (cross, 2018). so it is with academics with disabilities. thus, intersectionality explains why some academics with disabilities are confronted with different challenges while some do not face any challenges in the transformation to a ‘new academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 87 african university’ in south african higher education. thus, without considering intersectionality, the challenges for academics with disabilities are over-generalised. arguably, some academics confront challenges which are similar, but they are not confronted in the same way or at the same level. thus, before thinking that all academics with disabilities are disadvantaged and have challenges which require intervention strategies to help their inclusion, the author reiterates that it is not all academics with disabilities who are limited and experience challenges in research community engagement and supervision of doctoral candidates. ‘publish or perish’ requirement of higher education the pressure of the popular ‘publish or perish’ requirement applies to higher education institutions in south africa. it is a popular mantra that puts all academics under pressure as they are compelled to publish research studies. academics with disabilities are subjected to the pressure of publishing with much greater disadvantage compared to those without disabilities. as previously discussed, academics with disabilities face a myriad of challenges in producing and disseminating knowledge through research because of their impairments. this pressure is exacerbated within a higher education context that is not yet fully transformed. it is argued that the notion of ‘publish or perish’ counteracts and contradicts the reform ideal of including academics with disabilities in transformation to a ‘new african university’. it is in that respect that the intangible and invisible underlying cause for the challenges confronted by academics with disabilities during transformation to the ‘new african university’, should be understood, so that interventions could be put in place. the way forward: the voice of academics with disabilities taking note of the voice of academics with disabilities who have lived experiences of disability is the way in which their teaching, research, community engagement, including supervision of doctoral students, can be improved. hosking (2008) emphasises that the able-bodied have been speaking and continue to speak for disabled persons, which has resulted in those with impairments being seen as powerless and voiceless. the experience of disability has been and generally continues to be viewed from the able-bodied perspective. this implies that the needs of those with disabilities are not been taken into consideration. assistive devices are designed for those with disabilities without consultation, with the voice of those with disabilities not being noted. it has been observed that when the disabled say things that the mainstream society wants to hear, they are listened to, but when they speak of what they do not want to hear, it is considered as an inappropriate response to disability (titchkosky, 2003). it is therefore sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 88 imperative that during the process of transformation to a ‘new african university’, the voice of those with lived experience of disability should be privileged and they should be given the opportunity to express themselves, be listened to and be heard (hosking, 2008). in a practical way, it could start with transforming the social context so that it also includes academics with disabilities. this could be operationalised by including the voice of the academics with disabilities in disability policy, starting at institutional level. the limitations of the current disability policy, the strategic policy framework on disability for the postschool and training system (dhet, 2018) promulgated in 2018 is that firstly, it excludes the voices of those with disabilities and, secondly, it homogenises disabilities and does not disaggregate them according to categories (mutanga, manjonga & ngubane2018). when institutional disability policies are being reviewed, academics with disabilities should be invited to participate so that they give voice to the challenges they face in research, community engagement, supervising doctoral students or even in teaching, and offer suggestions on how those challenges could be addressed. individual academics with different categories of disabilities should speak out because persons with disabilities may have the same impairments but different needs (picard, 2015). the value of voicing these individual and unique needs may assist in them being effectively addressed. it is argued that disability, persons with impairments and their voice, concepts and knowledge are over-simplified and over-generalised as homogeneous and disability in general is decontextualised in the global south (grech, 2015). when their voice has been included in institutional disability policies, responsible authorities as members of the transformation committee in institutions can collate their collective voice and escalate it to the policy makers at national level, to include in the current disability policy, which is available at national level (dhet, 2018). when operationalised accordingly, the voice of academics with disabilities could be heard, and a conducive environment could be created during transformation to a ‘new african university’. this would allow them to be core producers of knowledge through research, community engagement and doctoral supervision, just as their abled-bodied counterparts. a bottom-up approach (devlin & pothier, 2006) in which the voice comes from the academics with disabilities through the university authorities to policy makers allows the previously stifled voice to emerge. in a previous study in britain, collective voice of persons with physical disabilities resulted in the transformation and their inclusion (upias, 1979). the same is possible for academics with disabilities during transformation to a ‘new african academics with disabilities and transition to a new african university in south africa ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 89 university in south africa. leaders and authorities in the south african higher education context can also hear a collective voice from the academics with disabilities on how they want to engage in research and community engagement and how they want to be supported in their supervision of doctoral students. assistive devises should be designed according to the needs of the individual and unique needs of academics with various disabilities. thus, there should be a shift from offering support and making provision for academics with disabilities, without them being involved and considered. stakeholders should be reminded that it is the agenda of the ‘new african university’ that the previously silenced voices be heard, listened to and what they are saying be implemented, with the backup of policy. limitations of the study as highlighted in the methodology section, the challenges confronting academics with disabilities are the same as confronted students with disabilities. literature review based on studies used for analysis and evidence focused on students with disabilities and it is understood that the same context of transformation to a ‘new african university’ has similar influence and challenges for both students and academics as they belong to the same social category of persons with disabilities. the existent literature reviewed for this study was focused on challenges confronted by students with disabilities which we then use as evidence for the challenges faced by the subject of research, i.e., academics with disabilities. however interviewed academics have different experiences in terms of the challenges they confront during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in the system of higher education in south africa. thus, though the study is limited in that regard, it lays a foundation for empirical studies in which academics with disabilities can confirm or refute the challenges presented in the paper. concluding remarks during transformation to a ‘new african university’ in the context of higher education in south africa, academics with disabilities face challenges in conducting research, being involved in community engagement, and supervising doctoral students. because they experience unique challenges, this limits their engagement because the context has not yet fully transformed to include them. total transformation at institutional and national levels would calls for an overarching intervention that could help academics with disabilities become included and effectively engage in producing knowledge, just as their able-bodied counterparts do. total transformation of the social, academic, and physical context to fully include academics with disabilities might not be achieved within a short period due to over-stretched sibonokuhle ndlovu ajote vol.12 no.2 special issue (2023), 69-93 90 resources experienced in south african 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