Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work- Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu University of Nigeria, Nsukka Abstract This study focused on the socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work- family conflict among female primary school teachers in Enugu state, Nigeria. Cross-sectional and correlational study design were used to collect data from 2428 female primary school teachers in Enugu state, Nigeria. Two instruments were used to collect data; a structured questionnaire which was used to obtain data on socio-economic and household characteristics, and a standardized Work and Family Conflict Scale which was used to assess work-family conflict in the dimensions of work to family, family to work and overall work and family interference. Analyses were performed using IBM-SPSS version 23 software. Descriptive data were presented as frequencies and percentages. Two hypotheses proposing significant association between socio-economic characteristics and work-family conflict, and between household characteristics and work-family conflict, were analysed with Chi square at p < 0.05. Results showed that 23% of the respondents experienced work-family conflict with higher rate (29.9%) of work to family conflict than 25.1% of family to work conflict. Higher salary, urban location, living in ≥ 2-bedroom apartment and using communal toilet and bathroom at home were socio-economic factors significantly (p < 0.05) associated with increase in all the dimensions of work-family conflict. On the other hand, household characteristics associated with higher work-family conflict include having dependent children, age of oldest child > 12 years old, caring for chronically ill family members, and uneasy accessibility of household water supply. Caring for the elderly and having house helps were associated with increased work to family conflict while household size was not found a factor in any dimension of work- family conflict. ISSN 1916-7822. A Journal of Spread Corporation Volume 11. No. 1 2022 Pages 143-165 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ajote/index Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 144 Keywords: conflict; work-family conflict; work; family; socio-economic characteristics; Household, Female teachers Introduction Work and family are two interrelated aspects of adult life especially among women. Factors inherent in work or family can influence a woman’s ability to effectively function in the other area. In a typical African society, family responsibilities of a woman occupy a very central position from which all other social roles take a bearing. Even when women are educated, have professional careers, and provide for the family, they still shoulder most of the family responsibilities, often with little or no participation from the men folk . Working in paid employment and taking care of the house chores simultaneously is strenuous and often comes with the challenge of imbalance between work and family roles. Work-family conflict is an interference that occurs when work and family roles have to be undertaken concurrently (Kara, Güneş, & Tüysüzer, 2021). It is the inability to effectively handle excessive workload and stressful behavioural, time and energy demands of work and family responsibilities (Akoensi & Annor, 2021). Work-family conflict is conceptualized as a balance scale, on which are work roles on one end, and family roles on the other. As individuals spend more time and energy satisfying the demands of one role, the scale tilts against the other end. The result is a two-directional imbalance which places work demands above and beyond the needs of family, or alternatively place family demands above those of work (Annink, den Dulk, & Steijn, 2016). Haslam, Filus, Morawska, Sanders, and Fletcher (2014) described these two directions of conflict as work to family conflict (WFC) and family to work conflict (FWC). Work to family conflict arises when work roles are satisfied to the detriment of family roles, thus sloping the balance against family. Family to work conflict on the other hand, occurs when the reverse is the case. Hence, individuals’ self-report of work-family conflict is usually based on their perception of which end is being weighed down by the other. Work–family conflict could be experienced mildly or severely, depending on how much pressure an individual experiences from the two domains (Haslam et al., 2014). Household characteristics associated with work-family conflict experienced by women are often revolve around caregiving roles such as having children, and subsequent childcare responsibilities, and living with dependent elderly persons. In fact, Cory and Stirling (2015) referred to modern women as the “sandwich generation” caught in between caring for the older Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 145 and the younger generations. This has increased the overall workload of women much more than in times past. Other household characteristics associated with work-family conflict include marriage responsibilities, overwhelming house chores and living with chronically ill or physically challenged family member (Nart & Batur, 2014). Lower family socio-economic status indicated by poor income has also been found to increase conflict between work and family roles. According to Hiciano (2020), women with higher income could afford more household labour saving devices and paid assistance in some household responsibilities such as child care, laundry and shopping in order to reduce workload and have more time for their families and work. Women with lower income often have to personally carry out most of their responsibilities at home and work harder at paid employment to make ends meet. Work-family conflict in any form of it, is associated with exhaustion, anxiety, high blood pressure, marital, work and life dissatisfaction, poor quality childcare, low organizational commitment, burnout, psychological distress, work dissatisfaction, poor commitment to work, absenteeism and intention to leave the employment (Adalikwu, 2014; Ajala, 2017). Nart and Batur (2014) are of the opinion that the type of work a woman engages in is a significant factor in the experience of work-family conflict. Teaching profession in Nigeria is currently being dominated by women especially at the primary level. Women who work as teachers experience very high work demands (Sultana, Zahir & Yaacob, 2014). Handling young and dependent children from diverse demographic and family backgrounds could be overwhelming. Furthermore, most Nigerian primary schools have one class teacher, teaching all the subjects irrespective of area of specialization and qualification. In addition, poor and inconsistent remuneration, stressful work environment and the demand on teachers to meet the unique needs of every learner, have made the teaching profession more challenging. The increasing assumption of family and career responsibilities by women teachers, poses a great challenge in establishing an equilibrium between fulfilling their family obligations and commitments, and meeting the work demands (Nanda, 2015). Various studies on work-family conflict in Nigeria have focused workers in other professions (Adalikwu, 2014; Ajala, 2017; Ajayi, Amoo, & Ogunniyi, 2014). A few studies carried out among teachers concentrated on teachers in higher institutions of learning (Ademuyiwa, Dahunsi, Adetunji, & Adeniran, 2020). Much is not known about work-family conflict among primary school teachers in Nigeria. The female teachers in primary schools play critical roles in shaping the life of the nation’s future generation. Therefore, their well- being cannot be overlooked, hence this study is aimed at filling this gap. Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 146 Theoretical framework The current study explores the interaction of socio-economic and family characteristics with work-family conflict using the spillover theory. Spill over theory explains how experiences in one domain of life (work or family) could positively or negatively influence life in the other domain. According to Weale, Oakman and Clays (2021) positive spill over is experienced when pleasant experiences of an individual at work place spills over to produce pleasant emotions and behaviours at home and vice versa. On the other hand, negative or unpleasant experiences in one sphere could also negatively affect one’s experiences on the other (Weale et al., 2021). The current study however focuses on the negative spill over in which the problems and stressors in the socio-economic and household environment, preoccupy an individual, such that the individual finds it difficult to function effectively in the work or family domain. Exploring theoretical nuances of work-family conflict among primary school teachers in Nigeria is still thematic in teacher development research, hence the rationale for this study. Objectives of the study were to 1. identify socio-economic and household characteristics of the female primary school teachers. 2. assess the level of work to family, family to work and overall work-family conflict experienced by the respondents. 3. determine the socio-economic factors associated with work-family conflict and 4. determine the household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among the respondents. Hypotheses Based on the spill over theory which posits that experiences in work or family aspects of an individual’s life could affect effectiveness in the other areas of life, this study hypothesizes that socio-economic and household variables play a role in the role spill over across work and family domains. Specifically, the following hypotheses were tested in this study. H1: Socio-economic characteristics (monthly salary, residence type, toilet/bathroom used at home, dwelling location and household size) of the respondents are significantly associated with work-family conflict. Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 147 H2: Significant association exists between work-family conflict and household characteristics (dependent children, age of oldest child, caring for elderly persons, caring for chronically ill family members and accessibility of household water supply) of the respondents. Methodology Research design A cross-sectional and correlational survey study designs were used in this study. Cross- sectional survey was used to determine socio-economic, and household characteristics as well as the level of work-family conflict in the dimensions of work to family and family to work conflict. This design is considered appropriate because it is a type of observational study used to obtain information about the characteristics or traits that exist in a population at a given time (Alexander, Lopes, Ricchetti-Masterson, & Yeatts, 2014). The correlational survey design was used to determine the socio-economic and family characteristics associated with work-family conflict among the respondents. This design was used because it is suitable for determining statistical relationships between variables. Participants for the study A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 2428 out of 22,666 female primary school teachers in Enugu state, Nigeria. The first stage involved a random sampling of three (50%) out of the six educational zones in the state. The selected zones were Nsukka, Enugu and Agbani zones. The three zones had a total of 14, 849 female teachers in 463 public and 1130 private schools. The second stage involved a purposive selection of two LGAs from each of the selected zones; the ones with the highest number of schools and the ones with the lowest number of schools in each zone. This gives a total of six local government areas which are Enugu South, Nkanu East, Enugu East, Isi-Uzo, Nsukka and Uzo-Uwani local government areas with a total of 10,940 teachers in 435 public and 868 private schools. In stage three, the World Health Organization (2013) guideline for calculation of sample size in a survey was used to determine the sample size for schools and teachers in each local government area using this formula: Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 148 Where, z = level of confidence (1.96); p = baseline prevalence level of the indicators (0.5 or 50%); e = margin of error (0.05 or 5%) and N = Population size. The calculation gave a total sample size of 2500 (1273 public and 1227 private) female primary school teachers. The fourth stage involved purposive selection of schools with up to eight teachers in each LGA. A total of 2428 female (1233 public and 1195 private) teachers adequately filled the questionnaire and became the actual sample for the study. Table 1: Descriptive characteristics of the sample Parameter Frequency Percentage (%) *Age < 20 years 20-40 years 41-60 years > 60 years Total 203 1298 836 52 2389 8.5 54.3 35.0 2.2 100 Type of school Private Public Total 1195 1233 2428 49.2 50.8 100 *Educational qualification SSC and less NCE/Diploma First degree Post graduate certificate Total 481 1095 718 117 2411 20.0 45.4 29.8 4.8 100 *Teaching experience ≤5 years 6 -15 years ≥16 years 806 1277 291 33.9 53.8 12.3 Total 2374 100 *Religion Christianity 2180 92.7 Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 149 Islam Tradition Others 66 52 53 2.8 2.2 2.3 Total 2351 100 *Marital status Single Married Divorced/separated Widowed Unmarried mothers 593 1471 82 246 29 24.5 60.8 3.4 10.1 1.2 Total 2421 100 *, response frequency not equal to sample size of 2428 due to missing data. More than half (54.3%) of the teachers were between 20 – 40 years of age and a few (2.2%) were ≥ 60 years (table 1). About half (50.8%) taught in public schools while 49.2% taught in private schools. Nigeria certificate in education (NCE) was the most common (45.1%) educational qualification among the respondents, 20.0% had Senior Secondary School Certificate and 4.8% had post graduate qualification. A greater proportion (53.8%) of the respondents had been teaching for 6- 15 years; majority (92.7%) of the teachers were Christians. Many (60.8%) of them were married, 24.5% were single, 13.5% were divorced/widowed and 1.2% were unmarried mothers. A written; informed consent form was used to get the respondents’ consent to participate in the study. The form stated the purpose of the research, the procedure, the voluntary nature of participation and assurance of confidentiality of the information. The content of the form was duly explained to the respondents after which they signed the forms. Data collection instruments Data were collected from the respondents using a structured questionnaire and the Work and Family Conflict Scale (WAFCS) developed by Haslam et al. (2014). The structured questionnaire was face validated based on the objectives of the study by three lecturers in the Departments of Home Science and Management, and Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The corrections of the validators which included ambiguity of items and grammar, were effected before producing the final copies of the questionnaire. Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 150 Two thousand, five hundred (2500) copies of the instrument were hand distributed by the researcher and 12 trained research assistants within a period of two weeks. A total of two thousand, four hundred and twenty-eight (97.1%) were found to be viable for analysis. The WAFCS has two subscales; work to family conflict (WFC) and family to work conflict (FWC) subscales. The structured questionnaire had sections A, B and C. Section A contained specific questions on the demographic characteristics, section B contained items of the socio-economic and section C was used to identify household characteristics of the respondents. The WAFCS is a 10-item instrument that has two sub scales: work-to-family conflict (WFC) and family-to- work conflict (FWC). It is rated on a 7-point Likert Scale starting from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree) but a 5-point Likert Scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used for the study to reduce response time. Sample question for WFC is “My work prevents me from spending enough quality time with my family” (item 1). Sample question for FWC is “Family related issue/ responsibilities often distract me at work” (item 7). The scores obtainable for each sub-section (WFC and FWC), ranges from 5 to 25 while the total obtainable scores on the overall work-family was 10 – 50. The instruments were subjected to Cronbach’s Alpha test to determine the reliability, and the coefficient values obtained were 0.93, 0.86, 0.91 and 0.92 for the structured questionnaire, WFC, FWC and overall WAFCS respectively. The values showed high internal consistency of the instrument among the respondents. Data and statistical analysis Data obtained were coded into the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (IBM-SPSS) version 23 for analysis. Score range for WFC and FWC is 5 – 25, where higher scores indicate higher level of work-family conflict. The median score of 15 was used as cut off point for establishing conflict (Haslam et al., 2014). Respondents with WFC and FWC scores ≥15 were classified as undergoing conflict, while those who scored < 15 were regarded as the no conflict group in the two forms of work-family conflict. The scores on WFC and FWC were summed to obtain the total WAFC scores. Obtainable score fro WAFC is 10 – 50, where higher scores indicate higher level of work-family conflict. The median score of 30 was used as cut off point for establishing conflict (Haslam et al., 2014). Total WAFC scores ≥ 30 were grouped as experiencing work-family conflict while scores < 30 were categorised as no conflict. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe the socio-economic and family characteristics data and the level of work-family conflict. Chi square was used to determine Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 151 socio-economic and family factors associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict at p ≤ 0.05. Results Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents Table 2 shows data on the socio-economic and household characteristics of the respondents. Majority (71.0%) of the respondents earned below ₦40,000 per month; 17.9% lived in single room apartment; 78.2% lived in rented houses, 18.8% made use of communal toilet and bathroom and 61.5% lived in urban area. Majority (82.6%) had household size of ≤ 6 people, 73.7% had dependent children, 73.5% had oldest children >12 years of age. About a third (34.8%) had dependent elderly people, 19.9% had chronically ill family members and 21% had house helps. Table 2: Socio-economic and household characteristics of the respondents Socio-economic parameters Frequency Percentage N (%) Salary per month ≤ ₦40,000 (> ±$120) 1708 71.0 >₦40,000 (< ±$120) 697 29 2405 (100) Type of apartment Single room apartment 432 17.9 ≥ two bedrooms 1979 82.1 2411 (100) Residence type Privately owned house 524 21.8 Rented/communal house 1881 78.2 2405 (100) Toilet and Bathroom in use at home Personal/family toilet and bathroom 1961 81.2 Communal toilet and bathroom 453 18.8 2414 (100) Dwelling location Urban 1494 61.5 Rural 934 38.5 2428 (100) Household size ≤ 6 people 1981 82.9 >6 people 453 17.1 2391 (100) Household characteristics Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 152 Have dependent children No 630 26.3 Yes 1765 73.7 2395 (100) Age of oldest child ≤ 12 years old 328 26.5 >12 years old 910 73.5 1238 (100) Have dependent elderly No 1561 65.2 Yes 832 34.8 2393 (100) Care for chronically ill family member No 1910 80.1 Yes 475 19.9 2385 (100) Have House help No 1899 79.4 Yes 494 20.6 2393 (100) Accessibility of household water supply Easily accessible 1729 71.7 Not easily accessible 683 28.3 2412 (100) Level of work-family conflict among the respondents Table 3 shows the proportion of the respondents who experienced work-family conflict. Data presented showed that more than 30% of the respondents experienced work-family conflict in the direction of work to family conflict (WFC). About a quarter (25.1%) of them experienced family to work conflict (FWC) and 23.0% faced work-family conflict (WAFC) in general. Table 3: Proportion of the respondents who experienced work-family conflict Forms of conflict No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) Total N (%) Work to family conflict 1750 (72.1) 678 (29.9) 2428 (100) Family to work conflict 1818 (74.9) 610 (25.1) 2428 (100) Overall work and family conflict 1869 (77.0) 559 (23.0) 2428 (100) Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 153 Socio-economic characteristics associated with work-family conflict Table 4 presents data on the socio-economic characteristics associated with work-family conflict. From the data, salary, location, type of apartment and toilet/bathroom used at home were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. Hypotheses 1 were thus upheld in these items. Respondents who earned >₦40,000 had higher proportion (31.3%) of WFC, FWC (33.0%) and WAFC (31.3%) than 19.4%, 21.5% and 19.4% respectively of those who earned ≤ ₦40,000. Those who lived in urban areas experienced higher WFC (31.9%), FWC (25.1%) and overall WAFC (27.5%) than respondents in the rural areas. Respondents who lived in ≥ two-bedroom apartment had higher proportion experiencing WFC (29.2%), FWC (26.2%) and WAFC (24.0%) than those who lived in single-room apartments. Residence type was associated with FWC and overall WAFC but not WFC. Hypotheses 1 is partly rejected. Those who lived in privately-owned house experienced less conflict than those who lived in rented/communal houses. Household size was not found to be associated with any form of work-family conflict. Hypothesis 1are therefore rejected in the item of household size. Table 4: Socio-economic characteristics associated with work-family conflict Socio-economic parameter Work to family conflict Family to work conflict Work-family conflict No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) Salary per month ≤ ₦40,000 (≤ ±$80) 1376 (80.6) 332 (19.4) 1340 (78.5) 368 (21.5) 1376 (80.6) 332 (19.4) >₦40,000 (> ±$80) 479 (68.7) 218 (31.3) 467 (67.0) 230 (33.0) 479 (68.7) 218(31.3) Total (n=2405) 1855 (72.1) 550 (27.9) 1807 (75.1) 598 (24.9) 1855 (77.1) 550 (22.9) χ2 = 49.51, p = 0.000* χ 2 =34.75, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 39.3, p = 0.000* Dwelling location Urban 1018 (68.1) 476 (31.9) 1051 (70.3) 443 (25.1) 1079 (72.2) 415 (27.8) Rural 732 (78.4) 202 (21.6) 767 (82.1) 167 (17.9) 790 (84.6) 144 (15.4) Total (n = 2428) 1750 (72.1) 678 (27.9) 1818 (74.9) 610 (25.1) 1869 (77.0) 559 (23.0) χ 2 = 29.90, p = 0.003* χ 2 = 42.34, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 49.54, p = 0.002* Type of apartment Single room apartment 333 (77.1) 99 (22.9) 347 (80.3) 85 (19.7) 351 (81.3) 81 (18.8) Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 154 ≥ two bedrooms 1401 (70.8) 578 (29.2%) 1460 (73.8) 519 (26.2) 1505 (76.0) 474 (24.0) Total (n =2411) 1734 (71.9) 677 (28.1) 1807 (74.9) 604 (25.1) 1856 (77.0) 555 (23.0) χ 2 = 6.95, p = 0.016* χ 2 = 8.10, p = 0.027* χ 2 =5.41, p = 0.001* Residence type Privately owned house 366 (69.8) 158(30.2) 419 (80.0) 105 (20.0) 423 (80.7) 101 (19.3) Rented/communal house 1363 (72.5) 518 (27.3) 1383 (73.5) 498 (26.5) 1428 (75.9) 453 (24.1) Total (n = 2405) 1729 (71.9) 676 (28.1) 1802 (74.9) 603 (25.1) 1851 (77.0) 55.4(23.0) χ 2 =1.39, p = 0.230 χ 2 =9.04, p = 0.021* χ 2 = 5.30, p = 0.032* Toilet and Bathroom used at home Private/Family toilet and bathroom 1432 (73.0) 529 (27.0) 1494 (76.2) 467 (23.8) 1534 (78.2) 427 (21.8) Communal toilet and bathroom 305 (67.3) 148 (32.7) 316 (69.8) 137 (30.2) 325 (71.7) 128 (28.3) Total (n = 2414) 1737 (72.0) 677 (28.0) 1810 (75.0) 604 (25.0) 1859 (77.0) 555 (23.0) χ 2 =5.92, p = 0.001* χ 2 =8.11, p = 0.021* χ 2 =8.73; p = 0.000* Household size ≤ 6 people 1428 (72.1) 553 (27.9) 1468 (74.1) 513 (25.9) 1513 (76.4) 468 (23.6) >6 people 291 (71.0) 119 (29.0) 323 (78.8) 87 (21.2) 326 (79.5) 84 (20.5) Total (n =2391) 1719 (71.9) 672 28.1) 1791 (74.9) 600 (25.1) 1839 (76.9) 552 (23.1) χ 2 = 0.21, p = 0.063 χ 2 =3.95, p = 0.521 χ 2 =1.88, p = 0.057 *; values are significant at p < 0.05, χ 2; Chi square values, n; number of responses on the variable, F; frequencies, %; percentages. Household characteristics associated with work-family conflict Table 5 shows the household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among the respondents. Data revealed that having dependent children, age of oldest child, caring for chronically ill family member, and accessibility of household water supply were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. The hypotheses 2 were upheld in these items. Respondents who had dependent children reported higher WFC (28.1%), FWC (28.4%) and overall WAFC (23.0%) than 15.2%, 14.9% and 12.2%, respectively of those who had no dependent children. Those whose oldest child were >12 years old and those who cared for chronically ill family member had statistically (p < 0.05) higher proportion in all the dimensions of work-family conflict than those whose oldest child were ≤ 12 years old and those Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 155 who had no ill family member, respectively. Respondents who did not have easily accessible household water supply also reported higher WFC (36%), FWC (37.6%) and WAFC (34.0%) than 24.9%, 20.1% and 18.7% of those who had easily accessible water supply. Partly supporting hypothesis 2, caring for dependent elderly person and having house help were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with WFC. Higher proportion (33.1%) of respondents who cared for elderly person and 33.2% of those who had house helps experienced WFC compared to 25.4% who had no dependent elderly and house help (26.6%). Caring for elderly and having house help were not associated with FWC and overall WAFC. Hypotheses 2 are therefore rejected on the items. Table 5: Household characteristics associated with work-family conflict Work to family conflict Family to work conflict Work-family conflict Family/household parameter No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) No conflict group F (%) Conflict group F (%) Have dependent children No 534 (84.8) 96 (15.2) 536 (85.1) 94 (14.9) 553 (87.8) 77 12.2) Yes 1188 (67.3) 577 (32.7) 1259 (71.3) 506 (28.7) 1290 (73.1) 475 (26.9) Total (n =2395) 1722 (71.9) 673 (28.1) 1795 (71.6) 600 (28.4) 1843 (77.0) 552 (23.0) χ 2 = 70.0, p = 0.030* χ 2 = 46.74, p = 0.011* χ 2 = 56.49, p = 0.002* Age of oldest child ≤ 12 years old 249 (75.9) 79 (24.1) 268 (81.7) 60 (18.3) 275 (83.8) 53 (16.2) >12 years old 613 (67.4) 297 (32.6) 618 (67.9) 292 (32.1) 644 (70.8) 266 (29.2) Total (n = 1238) 862 (69.6) 376 (30.4) 886 (71.6) 352 (28.4) 919 (74.2) 319 (25.8) χ 2 = 8.34, p = 0.00* χ 2 = 22.55, p = 0.00* χ 2 =21.54, p = 0.000* Have dependent elderly person No 1164 (74.6) 397 (25.4) 1171 (75.0) 390 (25.0) 1210 (77.5) 351 (22.5) Yes 557 (66.9) 275 (33.1) 623 (74.9) 209 (25.1) 632 (76.0) 200 (24.0) Total (n =2393) 1721 (71.9) 672 (29.1) 1794 (75.0) 599 (25.0) 1842 (77.0) 551 (23.0) χ 2 = 15.61, p = 0.022* χ 2 = 0.01, p = 0.065 χ 2 = 0.74, p = 0.078 Care for chronically ill family member No 1437 (75.2) 473 (24.8) 1481 (77.5) 429 (22.5) 1523 (79.7) 387 (20.3) Yes 276 (58.1) 199 (41.9) 306 (64.4) 169 (35.6) 311 (65.5) 164 (34.4) Total (n = 2385) 1713 (71.8) 672 (28.2) 1787 (74.9) 598 (25.1) 1834 (76.9) 551 (23.1) Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 156 *; values are significant at p < 0.05, χ 2; Chi square values, n; number of responses on the variable, F; frequencies, %; percentages. Discussion The findings on the socio-economic and household characteristics of female primary school teachers showed that majority of them earned below forty thousand naira (approximately, 80 US Dollars). They are thus classified as low income workers, falling below the global benchmark for average income level of $3.20 (±₦1,600) per person, per day, as defined by The World Bank (2017). A good number of them lived in rented or communal houses mostly consisting of two or more bedrooms while a few lived in privately-owned houses. Living in rented apartment could be a major source of family expenditure in terms of rent, compared to living in one’s own house. Many of the female teachers used personal or family toilets and bathrooms while some of them shared with other occupants of the house. Sharing bathrooms with others could make the hassles of preparing for work more stressful and time consuming, and could also breed conflict with other users as it concerns bathroom use etiquettes (Grebey, 2014). Many of the respondents had at least one dependent child with the oldest child more than 12 years of age. This implies that a good number of the teachers were mothers/caregivers of adolescents and perhaps adult children. In 2017, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), reported that more than 80% of African families had at least one child and this influences how much of the family resources are allocated to child care needs such as education and health care. Some of the teachers had one or more dependent elderly persons who were most likely to be their aged parents and parents-in-law. Elderly persons are χ 2 = 55.16, p = 0.012* χ 2 = 34.85, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 43.57, p = 0.000* Have House help No 1393 (73.4) 506 (26.6) 1423 (74.9) 476 (25.1) 1466 (77.2) 433 (22.8) Yes 330 (66.8) 164 (33.2) 371 (75.1) 123 (24.9) 377 (76.3) 117 (23.7) Total (n = 2393) 1723 (72.0) 670 (28.0) 1794 (75.0) 599 (25.0) 1843 (77.0) 550 (23.0) χ 2 = 8.35, p = 0.010* χ 2 =0.01, p = 0.529 χ 2 = 0.17, p = 0.341 Accessibility of household water supply Easily accessible 1299 (24.9) 430 (24.9) 1382 (79.9) 347 (20.1) 1406 (81.3) 323 (18.7) Not easily accessible 437 (64.0) 246 (36.0) 426 (62.4) 257 (37.6) 451 (66.0) 232 (34.0) Total (n = 2412) 1736 (72.0) 676 (28.0) 1808 (75.0) 604 (25.0) 1857 (77.0) 555 (23.0) χ 2 =30.16, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 80.40, p = 0.000* χ 2 = 64.58, p = 0.000* Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 157 at the stage of physiological and psychological depreciation, hence they need assistance for most of their care needs (Echeta & Ezeh, 2017). A few of the teachers also had chronically sick family members who depend on them for care. Lim and Zebrack (2004) noted that when family provide home-based care for chronically ill members, the cost of hospital-based treatment is reduced and could also provide emotional support needed by the invalid to go through the illness, however, this could also affect the physical, psychological, and social well-being of the caregivers leading to increased stress, anxiety and depression. A few of the teachers had house helps also known as domestic workers. Many working couples, depending on their family life stage, had over the years sought the services of domestic helps to relieve working mothers of some house chores as a strategy to balance family and work life (Tade & Aderinto, 2012). However, having house helps tends to add to family financial burden. From the study, majority of the respondents lived in households of six or less persons. From the study, majority of the respondents lived in households of six or less persons and more than a quarter of them did not have easy access to household water. Nnaji (2015) also observed the issue of household water scarcity as a major problem facing residents of Enugu urban. The finding further established that about a quarter of the respondents experienced at least one form of work-family conflict. Work to family interference was reported more frequently than family to work interference. This corroborates the findings of previous studies in which prevalence of work to family interference was higher than that of family to work interference among subjects (Adalikwu, 2014; Erdamar & Demirel, 2014). This could be attributed to the fact that family roles are less rigid than schedule of work responsibilities with regards to time and commitment. Individuals find it less detrimental to their general wellbeing to satisfy work demands at the expense of family demands and as observed by Adalikwu (2014), work has a priority because individuals and families depend on the income from work for survival. Thus, work responsibilities mostly tend to spill over into the time and energy resources needed for carrying out family roles. Further findings showed that in partial support of hypothesis 1, socio-economic characteristics of the respondents such as salary, location, type of apartment as well as toilet and bathroom used at home, were associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. Respondents who earned more than forty thousand naira per month, reported higher conflict than those who earned less. Although this finding is unexpected as poor income has been found Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 158 to predict higher work-family conflict (Hiciano, 2020). However, the finding could be attributed to the fact that higher pay is usually associated with greater responsibilities both at workplace and at home, which might increase the workload of the women and hence lead to higher work-family conflict. More respondents in urban areas experienced work-family conflict than those in rural areas. This finding is in line with the observation of Gaikhorst, Beishuizen, Roosenboom and Volman (2017), that teaching in urban schools is difficult and challenging with significant high work load, stress from parents and administrators, and dealing with children from heterogeneous backgrounds. However, it appears that rural versus urban factor in work-family conflict, is dependent on the peculiarities of various professions. In a study of work-family conflict among female doctors in India, Sweety (2016) reported that urban doctors experienced less work family conflict than their rural counterparts and the finding was attributed to the difference in lifestyle and heavier work load of rural doctors compared to urban doctors. Further finding showed that respondents who lived in two or more-bedroom apartments reported more conflict in all dimensions than those who lived in single room apartments. This suggests that bigger apartments could contribute to greater demands in time and efforts with regards to cleaning and maintenance. In explaining this finding, further analysis (not presented on table), showed that 60% of the respondents who lived in single-room apartment were single women who are likely to have fewer dependent children and less family responsibilities than the married or widowed women. Residence type was associated with family to work, and overall work-family conflict but not work to family conflict. Those who lived in privately- owned house experienced less conflict than those who lived in rented or communal houses. It is likely that living in one’s own house offers more privacy and other conveniences needed to effectively carry out personal and family roles. This is buttressed by another finding of this study which showed that women who used communal toilet and bathroom at home (facility serving all the occupants of the residential unit) experienced higher work and family conflict than those who used private/family convenience. In line with the finding, Shiras et al. (2018) also observed that living in rented apartments and sharing bathrooms and toilets with other occupants of the house, were also found to found to increase stress and conflict. Use of private/family toilets and bathrooms is more obtainable among those living in their own houses than those who live in rented houses. During the morning rush hours, personal or family toilets and bathrooms offer much more timely and stress-free preparation for work, compared to use of communal facilities which usually require waiting for turns. This could lead to interference Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 159 in time required to resume at workplace. Further finding of the study showed that household size was not found to be associated with any form of work-family conflict. The study further found that in line with hypotheses 2, household characteristics such as having dependent children, age of oldest child, caring for chronically ill family member, and accessibility of household water supply were significantly associated with all the dimensions of work-family conflict. Respondents who had dependent children reported higher work-to family, family to work and overall work-family conflict than those who had no dependent children. Children take up most of the family time, as they require constant care and attention. The finding confirms the report by Omar, Ahmad and Ismail (2016) that work-family conflict is influenced by the arrival of children and subsequent child care roles. Unexpectedly, mothers/caregivers of older children (>12 years) experienced all the dimensions of work- family conflict more than mothers/caregivers of younger children. The finding suggests that parenting older (adolescents or adult) children places more demands of time and energy of working women compared to parenting younger children. This might be as result of huge financial demands associated with higher education of older children. Even though older children or adolescents may not require as much active caregiving as younger children, their needs still demand much of parents’ time and energy (Waldfogel & McLanahan, 2011). As further observed by America Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP] (2015), the movement of children towards independence can cause stress for parents as some children do not make the transition easily. In line with the finding of Omar et al. (2016), caring for dependent elderly person was significantly associated with higher work to family conflict. In Nigeria, it is generally accepted that caring for the aged parents is the cultural obligation of family members especially women (Tanyi et al., 2018). Therefore, it is possible that work demands of women might be making it difficult for them to effectively carry out this role. As observed by Waldfogel and McLanahan (2011), caring for a chronically ill family member was associated with all forms of work-family conflict in this study. Caring for chronically ill family members usually increases time and energy expenditure of working women. They could also add to emotional strain and stress of the women, thereby making them less psychologically disposed to effectively handle other family and work responsibilities. Respondents who had house help had higher proportion experiencing work to family conflict than those who had none. Muasya (2016) and Okonkwo, Ekwochi and Uwaezuoke (2019) found that the use of domestic help for childcare was one of the major strategies adopted by working mothers to cope with work-family conflict. However, Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 160 it appears in this study that house helps increase other areas of household responsibilities, even as they assist in house chores. Furthermore, having easy access to household water supply was associated with less work-family conflict in all its dimensions. Water is an indispensable resource in getting house chores done in good time. Therefore, having easy access to it, is expected to facilitate much of domestic duties and help to alleviate stress and pressure of house chores among working women. Conclusion Work-family conflict is an established phenomenon among female school teachers; with work interfering with family much more than family interfered with work roles. In furtherance to the spill over theory, various socio-economic characteristics of primary school teachers were associated with experiencing all dimensions of work-family include higher salary (more than forty thousand naira), living in urban areas, living in bigger (two or more bedroom) apartments, and using communal toilet and bathroom at home. Furthermore, having dependent, older children (above 12 years of age), caring for chronically ill family member, and accessibility of household water supply were household factors that account for higher work-family conflict. Caring for the elderly and having house helps was associated with increase in work-to family conflict. The implications of work-family conflict among women teachers is far reaching; from individual level to the family and society at large, with its greatest effect on the family circle. It affects childcare, marital relationships and overall family stability. Hence this study brought to limelight, various modifiable risk factors associated with work-family conflict, with a view to providing a road map for development and implementation of policies aimed at promoting the wellbeing of the individual female teachers, families, and the society. Recommendations: It is therefore recommended that; 1. Individual teacher and families should endeavor to make some adjustments in their personal and family lives so as to minimize the domestic factors that contribute to work- family conflict. 2. The government should assist families to get easily accessible household water so as to facilitate carrying out of house chores such as cleaning and cooking. 3. The government should provide adequate and subsidized health care support for the elderly persons especially chronically ill ones. Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 161 4. Sensitization campaign should be carried out by Home Science professionals, to promote work-family conflict awareness among primary school teachers, so that they will adopt lifestyles that will enable them achieve balance between family and work. Author Contribution • Uju Ifeoma Nnubia conceived the research, wrote the initial manuscript, and participated in data collection for the study. • Vivienne N. Ibeanu was responsible for fine-tuning the research concept and design, supervision of the research, and editing of the manuscript for grammar and technicality. • Franca O. Okechukwu organized and supervised the data collection and was participated in data analysis. Uju Nnubia, Vivienne Ibeanu, & Franca Okechukwu AJOTE Vol.11 No.1 (2022), 143-165 162 References Adalikwu, C. (2014). 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