Competency-Based Assessment in Entrepreneurship Education in Kenya’s 

Tertiary Institutions 

 

Rose Moindi & Bernard Nyatuka  

Kisii University, Kenya. 

Abstract  

Education systems worldwide are shifting to knowledge-based curricula with emphasis on the 

learners’ acquisition of relevant competencies. Entrepreneurship education was introduced in 

tertiary institutions in Kenya in 1999 to produce entrepreneurs, including preparing graduates 

for the world of work. However, limited studies have focused on the assessment of acquisition 

of such competencies, especially in entrepreneurship education.  This study was designed to 

examine the effectiveness of assessment modes used in entrepreneurship education in 

imparting requisite competencies among students in tertiary institutions in the country. The 

study adopted a cross-sectional research design. A total of 412 students selected from three 

tertiary institutions were involved in the study. Data were collected using questionnaires and 

analysed quantitatively using descriptive and inferential statistics. The study showed that 

written examinations were the most commonly used mode of assessment of entrepreneurship 

education, followed by projects and attachment. The study revealed that there is no significant 

difference in the influence of the mode of assessment as adopted in the different tertiary 

institutions in fostering the acquisition of competencies (F Ratio<F Critical) (0.835<3.02). 

However, when the requisite competencies were compared, the study showed that the mode of 

assessment adopted enhanced acquisition of ideas and opportunities (0.313 units) and 

resources (0.364 units) competencies more compared to the into-action competencies (0.249 

units). To enhance the acquisition of relevant competencies, the study recommends adoption 

of different appropriate modes of assessment in entrepreneurship education.  

Keywords: Assessment, competence, entrepreneurship education, tertiary institution 

Introduction  

To produce graduates with the requisite competencies in their areas of specialization and world 

of work, the world’s education systems have been shifting from the traditional lecture-based 

 
ISSN 1916-7822. A Journal of Spread Corporation 

 

Volume 11. No. 1   2022 Pages 100-120 

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curriculum to a knowledge-based one (Hassanein, 2021). Since tertiary institutions have a 

crucial role in supplying to the labour market competent workforce (Chukwurah & Akpo, 

2019), there is need to provide a kind of curriculum that imparts to their students the required 

competencies. According to Hassanein (2021) and Chukwurah and Akpo, (2019), the crucial 

evidence of the relationship between tertiary education and development manifests in the 

institutions' teaching and learning function. Assessment of the learning outcomes is an 

important function in the teaching and learning process (Lile & Bran, 2014, Bhatti, Doghan, 

Saat, Johari & Alshagawi, 2021). It is on this backdrop that the current study sought to assess 

the effectiveness of the modes of assessment adopted in tertiary institutions in assessing 

entrepreneurial competencies in one of Kenya’s counties.  

Entrepreneurship education is taught to students in both universities as well as technical 

institutions as a means of enhancing graduate self-employment (Mshenga, Okello, Ayua, 

Mwangi, Jabu & Mungai, 2020; Ngigi, Gichunge & Orero, 2020).  However, a study by Yusoff, 

Zainol, and Ibrahim (2015), on the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in Malaysian 

public institutions of higher learning showed that universities produced many graduate 

entrepreneurs, but did not attract them to being entrepreneurs, compared to those from the 

technical and vocational education training (TVET) institutions. This implies that TVET 

centres in Malaysia have been able to inculcate students with entrepreneurial competencies 

better in comparison to the universities. The success of entrepreneurship programmes in 

Malaysia, according to Rahim, Kadir, Abidin, Junid, Kamaruddin, Lajin, Buyong, and Bakri 

(2015), was attributed to the fact that in addition to the compulsory entrepreneurship education 

course, the students are exposed to many entrepreneurial activities such as seminars, short 

courses, conferences, and related events within the duration of the study which enable them to 

link course content with entrepreneurship. While these studies observed the students’ activities 

within the duration of the study, they did not consider the effectiveness of the modes of 

assessment that were adopted to assess entrepreneurship education in these institutions.  

Studies have shown that entrepreneurship education can build on entrepreneurial 

competencies (Bacigalupo, Kampylis, Punie & Van den Brande, 2016; European Union, 2017; 

McCallum, Weicht, McMullan, & Price, 2018; Chukwurah & Akpo, 2019). However, the 

challenge is how effective tertiary institutions are in assessing entrepreneurial competencies. 

For instance, the study by Masemola (2013) on the assessment of competencies acquired by 

alumni students in the University of South Africa showed that 41.4% of them were not 

equipped with entrepreneurial skills, 54% needed practical knowledge of how to start a 



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business, and 15.3% who were already self-employed lacked the necessary skills in running 

their enterprises. This study indicated that there was a deficit in the orientation of students to 

being entrepreneurs. On the other hand, Gibb (2005) observed that learners are expected to 

write down their own objectives in a bid to reflect and do a self-assessment at the end of the 

learning process. While assessment could be done at any point of the learning process, this 

would be an integral aspect of gauging whether learning took place (Bhatti, Doghan, Saat, 

Johari & Alshagawi, 2021; Shirandula, 2021). Limited studies have focused on the assessing 

students acquired competencies.  

Literature Review 

Kenya introduced the Competence Based Curriculum (CBC) as a new system of education in 

2016. Its 6-6-3 structure replaced the 8-4-4 system (Kenya Institute of Curriculum 

Development (KICD, 2016). In the CBC, competencies have to be assessed by use of 

questionnaires, rubrics, portfolio, rubrics, projects, journals, anecdotes, records, oral 

questioning, rating scale, learners profile, written tests and observation schedules (KICD, 

2016). The KICD observed that these modes of assessment present to the learner conducive 

environments for learning. These assessment modes are aligned with Kenya’s Vision 2030 

development blueprint which calls for a curriculum that develops learner’s entrepreneurial 

competencies in addition to the identification and nurturing of talents (Republic of Kenya, 

2014). Whilst the KICD has recommended these modes of assessment as being ideal in 

enabling students to acquire competencies, there is need to assess their effectiveness in tertiary 

institutions, a focus of this study.  

Assessment of students in entrepreneurship education has often posed a challenge 

(Mwasalwiba, 2010; Lokoko, Rankhumise, & Ras, 2012). For instance, the analysis of different 

journals that was conducted by Mwasalwiba (2010) on the assessment of entrepreneurship 

education revealed that little attention had been dedicated to how to measure the overall 

effectiveness of this unit by individuals and society. On the other hand, Lokoko, Rankhumise 

and Ras (2012) observed that the lack of generally accepted measures was due to the different 

factors characterising entrepreneurship education such as the target group. Entrepreneurship 

education, for instance, is not only taught to students in formal education alone but also to 

persons in the non-formal education or in business. This study sought to compare the 

effectiveness of the formal type of entrepreneurship education that is taught to diploma students 

in selected tertiary institutions in Kenya.  



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Studies in Kenya have shown that entrepreneurial competency is measured by 

assessment of entrepreneurship education which is largely theoretical (Calhoun, Davidson, 

Sinioris, Vincent & Griffith, 2002; Republic of Kenya, 2019). However, Etzkowitz and Viale 

(2010) observed that there is need to link what is taught in school with what is happening in 

the industry as in a triple helix society. The Kenyan government introduced the Competence-

Based Education and Training (CBET) as a means of testing a variety of student’s 

competencies, especially during industrial attachment (Republic of Kenya 2018; Republic of 

Kenya, 2019). In this mode of assessment, students in TVETs are assessed by both internal and 

external verifiers who are trained to national standards by the TVET Curriculum Development 

Assessment and Certification Council (CDACC) (Republic of Kenya, 2018). Thus, students in 

an institution would be assessed together at an appropriate time. Accordingly, each student is 

assessed when they feel that they are ready to minimise re-seats (Republic of Kenya, 2018).  

The current study focused on third-year students at Kisii University (KSU) and two 

TVET institutions; Kisii National Polytechnic (KNP) and Keroka Technical Institute (KTI). 

For both KNP and KTI, students had been exposed to the industrial attachment at the end of 

both their first and second years of study and this placed them in a position to identify the 

competencies required in the industry. On the other hand, students in the universities are 

assessed by their lecturers who are the internal verifiers as universities are autonomous. A 

comparative analysis of the modes of assessment adopted in the TVET institutions as well as 

the universities would provide useful information regarding entrepreneurial competency 

acquisition.  

Kenya has a centralised system of education. The epistemological reason for a 

centralised education system is to reinforce national strength (Bray & Kai, 2014). This 

consequently produces products that have similar qualifications. However, education at the 

post-secondary level is mixed as the TVET institutions are controlled by the national 

government through semi-autonomous agencies such as the KICD and Kenya National 

Examination Council (KNEC), while universities are autonomous, including the control over 

their own examinations (Republic of Kenya, 2012b; Kaane, 2014; Republic of Kenya, 2016).  

The Entrepreneurship education curriculum in the country was introduced in the tertiary 

institutions in late 1999 and developed within the framework of the International Labour 

Organisation (ILO) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in a bid to create 

persons with entrepreneurial competencies (Republic of Kenya, 1988; UNDP, 2009; Farstad, 

2002). Diploma examinations in universities are a combination of continuous assessments 



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whose marks are combined with an internal terminal examination for each unit at the end of 

the semester (Republic of Kenya, 2012b). On the other hand, national examinations are 

conducted at the end of each module or academic year through a final external examination 

conducted by the KNEC in both national polytechnics and technical training institutes 

(Republic of Kenya, 2012b). This difference in assessment has been observed to create 

disparity in the qualification of diploma graduates (Republic of Kenya 2012a; Republic of 

Kenya, 2005). A comparative analysis of the model of assessment of entrepreneurship 

education would provide information on the effective mode of assessment of competencies to 

be adopted by tertiary institutions.  

Statement of the Problem 

Entrepreneurship education is considered as a precursor to the industrial development of any 

country. This explains why this unit has been incorporated in diploma courses in different 

tertiary institutions (Bacigalupo., Kampylis, Punie, Van den Brande, 2016; Wang, Yueh & 

Wen, 2019; Hassanein, 2021). Effective acquisition of competencies is integral to providing a 

competent labour force for the country (Hassanein, 2021). In a bid to assess competences, 

different modes of assessment have been adopted by different institutions (Republic of Kenya, 

2014; Shirandula 2021). This study sought to determine the effectiveness of modes of 

assessment of entrepreneurship education in enabling students to acquire the required 

competencies.  

Study Objectives 

1. To determine the influence of the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education 

on acquisition of requisite competencies.  

2. To compare the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted in the 

different tertiary institutions in fostering students’ acquisition of requisite 

competencies. 

Hypotheses 

Ho1.  There is no significant difference in the influence of modes of assessment of 

entrepreneurship education in fostering students’ acquisition of the requisite competencies.  

Ho2.  There is no significant difference in the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship 

education adopted in the different tertiary institutions in fostering students’ acquisition 

of the requisite competencies.  



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Theoretical framework 

The study adopted the Entrepreneurship Competence Framework (EntreComp framework) 

(Bacigalupo, Kampylis, Punie, Van den Brande, 2016). The EntreComp framework builds a 

bridge between the worlds of work and education and encourages active participation in all 

economic and societal areas, allowing citizens to turn ideas into actions, creating value, not just 

for oneself (Teneva, 2018). The framework has three competence areas (ideas and 

opportunities, resources, and into-action); with each competence area having five competencies 

(see Figure 1).  

 

Figure 1. EntreComp Wheel 

(Source: Bacigalupo, Kampylis, Punie, Van den Brande, 2016) 

Each competence has associated learning outcomes. According to Bacigalupo, 

Kampylis, Punie, Van den Brande, (2016), the learning outcomes are statements of what a 

learner knows, understands, and can do after learning. These statements can be used for 

educational planning and curriculum development. This is because the learning outcomes help 

to design the mode of assessment (Proitz, 2010). The EntreComp framework sets out a set of 

expected learning outcomes in each competency (McCallum, Weicht, McMullan, & Price, 

2018). This study adopted the framework and used the associated learning outcomes to 



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compare the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in respect to the mode of assessment 

as adapted in three tertiary institutions in Kisii County, Kenya. 

Methodology 

The study adopted a cross sectional research design. According to Kesmodel (2018) and 

Maninder (2016), this design is ideal in obtaining a holistic understanding of the phenomenon 

under investigation. The research design was appropriate in assessing the experiences of 

respondents with similar exposure at a given point in time. The assessed students had been 

exposed to entrepreneurship education while undertaking their diploma course. In the process 

of undertaking their course, different modes of assessment were adopted. The research design 

was appropriate in establishing the effectiveness of the modes of assessment of 

entrepreneurship education in enabling trainees to acquire competencies.  

This research design was considered to be appropriate in determining the effectiveness 

of entrepreneurship education in imparting the requisite competencies among third-year 

students in the 2019/2020 academic year in the three selected tertiary institutions in this study. 

Population 

This study targeted all third-year diploma students in selected public tertiary institutions (KSU, 

KNP and KTI) in Kisii County. The three institutions were a national university, a national 

polytechnic, and an institute of technology, respectively. These institutions offered similar 

diploma courses to students where entrepreneurship education was taught. According to Bray 

and Kai (2014), an ‘intranational’ system of education is a situation where different systems of 

education are observed in the same country. They further observed that when comparing 

systems of education, researchers would be able to identify elements which converge and 

diverge despite having common overreaching frameworks.  

Purposive sampling was used to identify diploma courses (personnel /human resource 

management, supply chain/stores and supplies management, business management/business 

administration, and Information Communication Technology/Information Technology) since 

they are offered in the selected institutions in the 2019/2020 academic year. This study sought 

to assess the effectiveness of the mode of assessment of entrepreneurship education that were 

adopted in these institutions. 



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The study targeted 180 students at KSU, KNP (220) and KTI (230) in the 2019/2020 

academic year. The sample size for students in each target population or tertiary institution was 

determined using Glenn’s (2012) sample size determination formula which is presented below.   

 

 In the equation, N is the total population of students in an institution, n is the sample size for 

each institution and, e is the level of precision which was 0.05. Using this formula, the sample 

size for students in the three institutions was calculated as follows: 124, 142 and 146 students 

in KSU, KNP and KTI, respectively.  

Selection of participants 

Proportionate sampling, which involves dividing a population into sub-populations and then 

applying the random sampling technique for each of them (Deshpande & Grime, 2019) was 

used. Since this study constitutes three target populations (KSU, KNP and KTI), each was 

divided into sub-populations, comprising four courses (IT/ICT, human/personnel resource 

management, supply-chain/store management, and business management/administration). 

Proportionate sampling was adopted in the process of selecting the final subjects 

proportionately from the different sub-populations or courses.   

Instruments 

To determine the prevalence of a particular trait among respondents, Kesmodel (2018) has 

recommended the use of questionnaires.  The student’s questionnaires comprised of five-point 

Likert scale items. According to Jamli and Salim (2019), the Likert scale would be appropriate 

in the process of collecting data from a large group of respondents. In this study, a total of 412 

questionnaires were distributed by the researcher to three institutions (124 in KSU, 142 in KNP, 

and 146 in KTI).  

The student’s questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section sought to 

identify the modes of assessment adopted in the institutions, as well as the persons responsible 

for the setting and marking of the examinations. The second section of the questionnaire 

comprised of five-point Likert scale items regarding the related competencies. The Likert scale 

items were adopted from the EntreComp model (Bacigalupo, Kampylis, Punie, & Van den 

Brande, 2016). 

Analytical framework 



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Inferential statistics were used to form a database from which to infer characteristics 

concerning the population (Kothari, 2014). Inferential statistics involved the use of regression 

analysis and ANOVA. In this study, simple regression equation was used to find the 

relationship between each independent variable and the dependent variable (Saunders, Lewis 

& Thornhill, 2007). 

Regression analysis allowed an examination of the relationship between several 

individual independent variables on one dependent variable. To assess the extent to which the 

modes of assessment adopted in the different tertiary institutions were effective in fostering 

students acquire the requisite competencies, a regression equation was developed.  

CMoE = β1MoE1 + β2 MoE 2 + β3 MoE 3 

Where: 

CMoE – required competencies linked to the mode of assessment. 

MoE1 - denotes aspects of modes of assessment to ideas and opportunities component 

of entrepreneurship competency 

 MoE2 - denotes aspects of modes of assessment associated with the resources 

component of entrepreneurship competency 

MoE3 - denotes aspects of modes of assessment associated with the into-action 

component of entrepreneurship competency 

β1, β2, and β3 are coefficients of MoE1, MoE2, and MoE3 variables denoting the number 

of times competency will change if any variable is changed by 1 unit.  

To establish the effectiveness of modes of assessment on required competencies, a regression 

analysis of CMoE on MoE1, MoE2 and MoE3 was conducted. 

Data Collection Procedures 

The reliability condition was met by use of test-retest which was separated with a three weeks’ 

time interval from 17th September to 8th October 2019. According to Christodoulou, 

Kalokairinou, Koukia, Intas, Apostolara, Dalas, and Zyga (2015), the three-week period was 

long enough to prevent learning or recall. 

Criterion validity ensures that the method of measurement matches the criterion the 

researcher intends to measure (Rahim, Mohamed, Masrom & Amrin, 2018). To achieve this, 

they have recommended that items in the questionnaire be based on the existing knowledge. 



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Rowley (2014) suggested the adoption of items from published work since they have already 

been validated. Thus in this study, the items in the Likert scale were adapted from the 

EntreComp model developed by Bacigalupo, Punie, and Brande (2016) as well as McCallum, 

Weicht, McMullan, and Price (2018). 

In Kenya, the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation 

(NACOSTI) was put in place following the enactment of the Science Technology and 

Innovation Act, 2013 (Republic of Kenya, 2013) to oversee the overall code of conduct that 

governs the way research is carried out. This study adhered to the NACOSTI requirements that 

include observing such ethical considerations as confidentiality of the data collected as well as 

anonymity of the study respondents.   

The questionnaires were administered to the respondents at both the pilot stage and the 

main study. Administering of the questionnaires was conducted during the official working 

days (Monday to Friday) and hours (8:00 am to 4:00 pm) at the convenience of the respondents 

in their respective institutions. The questionnaires were then collected once the respondents 

had filled them.  

Findings  

Modes of Assessment of Entrepreneurship Education adopted 

The study sought to identify the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted 

in different tertiary institutions. An analysis of the student's responses is presented in Figure 2.  

 

Figure 2: Modes of Assessment Adopted in Tertiary Institutions 

Source: Current Study 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

attachment business

plan

assignment CATs examination

KTI

KNP

KSU



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Figure 2 shows that cognitive (Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs), assignments, and 

examinations) as well as operational structures (attachment and business plans), were adopted 

in the assessment of students in the three tertiary institutions. The majority of students observed 

that they were exposed to assignments and CATs which are categorized as cognitive structures 

(Calhoun, Davidson, Sinioris, Vincent & Griffith, 2002; Zimmerman, 2012).  

According to Sessional Paper Number 1 of 2019, students in the TVET institutions (in 

this case KNP and KTI) are required to go for a compulsory attachment every academic year 

to expose them to the industry experience (Republic of Kenya, 2019). This could have 

contributed to more students in KNP (59%) and KTI (41%) stating that attachment was a mode 

of assessment compared to the students in KSU (15%).  

Effectiveness of Mode of Assessment in Competency Areas 

In this study, students were asked to indicate the extent to which the mode of assessment that 

was adopted in their institution fostered their acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies. 

These statements were grouped into three competency areas: ideas and opportunities, 

resources, and into-action. Competencies in ideas and opportunities were spotting 

opportunities, and creativity, while those in the resource competence area were mobilized 

resources and financial and economic literacy. Finally, competencies in the into-action 

competence area were to do with working with others.  

Table 1 shows the summary of the regression equation output. 

Table 1 Mode of Assessment effect on acquired Competencies 

  Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Regressio

n statisctic 

MoE1 0.313 0.041 7.664 0.000  

MoE2 0.364 0.044 8.192 0.000  

MoE3 0.249 0.043 5.826 0.000  

Multiple R     0.96 

R Square     0.927 

Source: Current Study 

From the above model, the required competencies associated with modes of assessment can be 

estimated using the following equation. 

CMoE = 0.313MoE1 + 0.364MoE 2 + 0.249MoE3      (R
2 = 92.7%, R = 0.96) 



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In Table 1, the coefficients column shows that all aspects of modes of assessment 

associated with ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action competency areas positively 

affect the acquired competencies. This implies that any positive change in MoE1, MoE2, and 

MoE3 brings about a positive change in the acquisition of the required entrepreneurship 

competencies. For instance, a unit change in aspects of modes of assessment associated with 

ideas and opportunity while other factors are held constant will change the acquired 

competencies by 0.313 units. Similarly, a unit change in aspects of modes of assessment 

associated with resources while other factors are held constant will change the acquired 

competencies by 0.364 units. Similarly, a unit change in aspects of modes of assessment 

associated with into-action competencies while other factors are held constant would change 

acquired competencies by 0.249. Thus, the modes of assessment adopted in the three 

institutions effectively influenced the acquisition of resources and ideas, and opportunities 

competencies more than the into-action ones.  This result is similar to the study that was 

conducted by Rahayu, Wijijayanti, and Agustina (2019) which showed that the mode of 

assessment adopted in evaluating entrepreneurship education lacked aspects measuring change 

of attitude but rather focused on the subject matter. This could be attributed to the fact that the 

modes of assessment adopted required students to recall what was taught in class.  

The P-values of 0.00 > 0.05 suggest that MoE1, MoE2, and MoE3 (ideas and 

opportunities, resources, and into-action) are significant in explaining the effect of mode of 

assessment on the acquisition of the requisite competencies. The R2 value of 92.7% change in 

CMoE (mode of assessment) can be explained by changes in ideas and opportunities, resources, 

and into-action (MoE1, MoE2, and MoE3). This means that 92.7% of changes in the mode of 

assessment can be explained by MoE1, MoE2, and MoE3 (changes associated with ideas and 

opportunities, resources, and into-action).  

The regression analysis results show a very strong positive relationship (R = 0.96) between the 

mode of assessment and fostering entrepreneurial competencies (MoE1, MoE2, and MoE3). This 

indicates that an improvement in the mode of assessment will positively foster the student’s 

entrepreneurial competencies. 

Ho1.  There is no significant difference in the influence of modes of assessment of 

entrepreneurship education in fostering students’ acquisition of the requisite 

competencies.  



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To assess the first hypothesis, an ANOVA was carried out to determine the extent to which the 

mode of assessment fosters the acquisition of the acquired competencies.  The results of this 

analysis are presented in Table 2.  

Table 2  Mode of Assessment in fostering Competency areas 

  df SS MS F F crit 

Regression 3 1379.86 459.95 1622.74 0.00 

Residual 378 107.14 0.28 
  

Total 381 1487 
   

Source: Current Study 

From the results in Table 2 above, (F ratio > F critical) [F 3, 378) =1622.95 > 0.00]. This shows 

that there is a significant difference in the extent to which mode of assessment of 

entrepreneurship education was effective in fostering the acquisition of the requisite 

competencies (ideas and opportunities, resources, and into-action competencies). This suggests 

that the modes of assessment adopted fostered the acquisition of competencies differently.  

Ho2.  There is no significant difference in the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship 

education adopted in the different tertiary institutions in fostering students’ 

acquisition of the requisite competencies.  

To examine effectiveness of assessment modes among the three institutions, an ANOVA for 

the average responses was carried out. The results that were obtained from the respondents are 

presented in Table 3. 

Table 3 Effectiveness of Mode of Assessment per Institution 

Source of 

Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit 

Between Groups 1.244 2 0.622 0.835 0.435 3.02 

Within Groups 281.439 378 0.745 
  

 
Total 282.682 380 

   
  

Source: Current Study 

From the results in Table 3, the F value is less than F critical (0.835 < 3.02) implying 

that there is no significant difference in the mode of assessment in the three institutions. This 

means that although students were exposed to different modes of examinations, CATs, 

assignments, attachment, and project writing, there was no significant difference in the extent 



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to which these modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions fostered the acquisition of 

competencies.  

The P-Value (0.435 > 0.05) was greater than 0.05, hence it can be concluded that the 

modes of assessment in the three institutions (KSU, KNP, and KTI) are not statistically 

significantly different at 5% significance level (P < 0.05). Therefore, despite the fact that 

different modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions, there was no significant 

difference in their influence in fostering acquisition of competencies.   

Discussion 

The modes of assessment adopted in the three institutions ranged from the use of Continuous 

Assessment Tests (CATs), assignments, examinations, and attachment to project writing. 

While CATs and assignments were adopted as formative modes of assessment in KNP and 

KTI, in KSU, CATs and assignments were used for both formative as well as summative 

assessment. This is because in KNP and KTI, assignments and CATs were used to measure 

how much the students had learned so that they could be assisted to improve their learning, a 

situation that was described as an “assessment for learning” (Bhatti, Doghan, Saat, Johari & 

Alshagawi, 2021; Shirandula, 2021) In KSU, the CATs and assignment marks were not only 

used to improve the student’s learning but were also included in the final score for grading 

purposes. This inferred that in KSU, formative assessment or “assessment of learning” was 

adopted right from the beginning of the unit.  

Regression analysis of the second objective showed that the modes of assessment 

adopted in the three institutions played a significant role in assessing entrepreneurial 

competencies R2=92.7% and an R-value of 0.96. This implies that 92.7% of the aspects of 

assessment of entrepreneurship education influence the acquisition of entrepreneurial 

competencies. However, analysis of the three competence areas as described in the EntreComp 

model (McCallum, Weicht, McMullan, & Price, 2018) showed that the modes of assessment 

adopted influenced the acquisition of competencies on ideas and opportunities (0.313 units) 

and resources (0.364units) competencies more compared to into-action competencies (0.249 

units). This implies that the modes of analysis favoured assessment of recall aspects of learning 

which comprised of ideas and opportunities as well as resources compared to the manipulative 

aspects (into-action).  This would affect acquisition of into-action set of competencies which 

is important in creating a competent entrepreneur to the job market (Boldureanu, Ionescu, 

Bercu, Bedrule-Grigorut,ă & Boldureanu, 2020; McCallum, Weicht, McMullan, & Price, 

2018).   



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In KNP and KTI, the final examination comprised of marks from project writing and 

from industrial assessment in addition to the last examination that was conducted by KNEC. 

Thus, while in KSU CATs and examination marks provided a final score in entrepreneurship 

education, sit-in examination, industrial attachment and project writing scores provided the 

final tally in entrepreneurship education assessment in both KTI and KNP. This difference in 

the modes of assessment adopted showed a significant difference in the acquisition of 

entrepreneurial competencies in the three institutions (ideas and opportunities, resources and 

into action) {(F value > F critical) (1622.74>0.00)} in these institutions.  

ANOVA of student responses showed that the P-Value was {(P-value > 0.05), 

(0.435>0.05)}. This suggests that despite the students being exposed to different examinations 

by KNEC and the respective universities, the extent to which these modes of assessment 

fostered acquisition of competencies in the three institutions were similar. This is because there 

was no significant difference in the extent to which the modes of assessment influenced the 

acquisition of competencies.  This implies that there is a need to not only include more aspects 

of assessment, but also improve on the current modes used to enable the students view 

assessment as a learning process. More often than not, students consider passing examinations 

as the ultimate purpose of assessment (Kadir, Abidin, Junid, Kamaruddin, Lajin, Buyong, & 

Bakri, 2015).  There was need to adopt exhibitions as a mode of assessment to enable students 

to showcase their unique competencies in entrepreneurship education. 

Limitations and Recommendations of the Study 

In this study, data was collected by use of questionnaires. However, whilst questionnaires are 

appropriate in drawing information from a large number of respondents, individualised 

information from the respondents cannot be obtained (Creswell, 2014).  Additionally, the scope 

of the study was confined to students in the business and ICT departments in three tertiary 

institutions in a county in Kenya.  Furthermore, the study was limited to the influence of the 

modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education in fostering acquisition of competencies in 

three competence areas.  

To foster acquisition of the requisite competencies among students, the study recommends 

that different appropriate modes of assessment in entrepreneurship education be used. The 

following recommendations for further studies are made: 

1. Assess the effectiveness of the modes of assessment of entrepreneurship education adopted 

in fostering acquisition of competencies not covered in this study.  



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AJOTE Vol.11 No.2 (2022), 100-120  115 

 

2. Assess the effectiveness of modes of assessment as adopted in other courses which were 

not included in this study. 

3. Conduct a similar study to a broader geographical area, population as well as using a 

combination of instruments. 

Author contribution 

• Dr Rose Moindi was responsible for writing the literature review component of the study 

as well as the collection of the data from the study respondents. She was also involved in 

the analysis and reporting of the data. 

• Dr Bernard Nyatuka was responsible for ensuring that the study complied with the 

relevant study ethical considerations and/or policies as well as regulations. He was also 

responsible for ensuring the validity and reliability of the research instruments as well as 

data collected. 

  



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