AgBioForum, 21(3): 35-47. ©2019 AgBioForum Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia: causes and solutions Nguyen Van Song Vietnam National University of Agriculture (VNUA) Trauquy, Gialam, Hanoi, Vietnam Vu Ngoc Huyen* Vietnam National University of Agriculture (VNUA) Trauquy, Gialam, Hanoi, Vietnam *Corresponding Email: vungochuyen.vnua@gmail.com Dinh Van Tien Ha Noi University of Business and Technology (HUBT) Vinh Tuy, Hai Ba Trung, Ha Noi, Vietnam Thai Van Ha Ha Noi University of Business and Technology (HUBT) Vinh Tuy, Hai Ba Trung, Ha Noi, Vietnam Nguyen Thi Minh Phuong Vinh Universitty, Vinh City, Vietnam Thai Thi Kim Oanh Vinh Universitty, Vinh City, Vietnam Vương Thị Khanh Huyen Vietnam National University of Agriculture (VNUA) Trauquy, Gialam, Hanoi, Vietnam Nguyen Thi Thuy Vietnam National University of Agriculture (VNUA) Trauquy, Gialam, Hanoi, Vietnam The results of this study provide data on the logistics, scope, routes, channels, seasons, and the economy of illegal wildlife trade in the country and across Vietnam. It investigates the main reasons for the continued illegal wildlife trade and highlights the key failures in Vietnam and other concerned countries undertaking efforts to prevent and control it. This study identifies the most important wildlife trade routes in, and through Vietnam. The study points out eight (8) causes of illegal wildlife trade, suggesting some economic regulation measures as well asten (10) specific and actionable policy recommendations. The report recommends that the government strengthen the capacity of responsible institutions to combat illegal trade practices. It also emphasizes the need to use education to discourage the people of Vietnam fromconsuming illegal wildlife products. The report concludes that given the unprecedented scale of the problem, there is a need for strong institutional commitment and political will at all levels of government within Vietname as well as effective international cooperation among Asian countries in order to have a significant impact on controlling illegal wildlife trade in and through Vietnam. Key words: Illegal; Routes; Revenue; Profit; Wildlife Trade 1. INTRODUCTION The economies of Vietnam, China, and Asian countries have grown rapidly over the recent years, leading to an increased demand for consumption of wildlife products. Wildlife products are often used in the production of traditional medicines, pets, foods, jewelry items, decorations, handicrafts, displays, and gifts or considered as luxury products (Van Song, 2008). Vietnam has transformed from a country mostly illegally exporting and transhipping wildlife commodities into a final destination that satisfies the demands of the emerging rich. Outdated cuisine culture, “special dish” enjoyment and blind faith in "esoteric" remedies without scientific evidence, have put many rare wildlife species in jeopardy (Reconciliation, 2018). Vietnam has become an important center of trading, captive breeding, and consuming wildlife in Asia (Government, 2004). Wildlife trading is developing with 40 species of coleopteran and 90 species of butterfly. Besides 3,500 species of fauna and flora and about 20,000 tons of other flora have been used as medicine (Government, 2004; Ha & Truong, 2003). In summing up, Vietnam is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries in the world, accounting for 10% of known species, while its territorial area is just less than 1% of the Earth's (Nguyen, 2008). Vietnam has been a rich source of wildlife in past years, but as it is, it has become an effervescent wildlife market that unfortunately serves as an important cross-bridge for illegal wildlife trade from the world to neighboring countries. Although the Vietnamese Government and international conservation organizations have made rigorous efforts to combat illegal wildlife trade in the past, the problem endures and continues to cause adverse and negative impacts on the wildlife and biodiversity of Vietnam. In general, this study tracks the illegal wildlife trade supply chains in, and through Vietnam; and proposes effective solutions to limit illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam. To estimate illegal wildlife trade, and to track the illegal wildlife trade supply chains in, and through Vietnam; To identify limitations for effective implementation and enforcement of wildlife protection policies; To provide recommendations for effective implementation, enforcement, and management of wildlife in Vietnam. 2. LITERATURE REVIEWS Drury (2011) concludes that “wild meat is the product most commonly reported to be consumed, predominantly by successful, high-income, high-status males of all ages and educational levels and is used as a medium to communicate prestige and obtain social leverage”. The harvest of wildlife through hunting, trapping and snaring is illegal in Vietnam but nevertheless, remains widespread and is understood to be a major threat to many species mailto:vungochuyen.vnua@gmail.com AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 36 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia (MacMillan & Nguyen, 2014). Study results of Sandalj, Treydte, and Ziegler (2016) conclude that increasing urban wild meat consumption in Vietnam poses a major threat to faunal biodiversity, especially in light of the fact that Southeast Asia is a georgrapgical region that supports more threatened species than any other comparable continental area (Gray et al., 2018). The several studies uses mixed social science approaches to understand the motivations driving consumers of bear products for medicine in Vietnam, and of traditional medicine practitioners who may be influencing consumers. They provide current information about the ways bear products are used in the two largest cities of Vietnam: Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Trade of turtles, for both food and pet, represents a substantial business in Vietnam, especially because this country is a cross-bridge for wildlife trade from Indochina to China (Van et al., 2019). In Hanoi, it is generally purchased by the individual for self-use, while in Ho Chi Minh City it is generally purchased as a gift. They suggest that conservation organizations should focus on behavior change campaigns that are informed by the results”. It is clear that the demand for endangered wildlife species is increasing rapidly in East Asia (Hanley, Sheremet, Bozzola, Kasterine, & MacMillan, 2016). Among the wildlife species illegally traded, more than half of them are mammals and reptiles. Wildlife trade products can be leather, pharmaceuticals, and meat via air routes (Petrossian, Pires, & van Uhm, 2016). According to (Hanley et al., 2016), rhino horn consumption in Vietnam showed that wild rhino horns are preferred and paid the highest price by the richest people. Besides, tigers are also one of the most endangered wildlife species in the world (Abbott & Van Kooten, 2011; Begum & Gill, 2014), with the number of wild tigers decreasingfrom 100,000 in the turn of 20th century to about 3,000-5,0000 tigers today (Worden & Rees, 2011). ADB (2014) emphasized that wildlife trafficking is a transnational and organized crime. Therefore, countries need to seek comprehensive measures including policy and market tools to protect their own wildlife resources as well as the biodiversity of local ecosystems (Agarwal, 2015; Azam, Jayasuriya, Musthafa, & Marikar, 2016). The solution to reduce consumer demand in countries that are major importers of wildlife products is one such initiative (Hanley et al., 2016; Lyons & Natusch, 2013; Wyatt, 2017). Besides, for tigers, the establishment of tiger farms in China to meet the needs of the market (Abbott & Van Kooten, 2011) or the protection of wild tigers in India can be conducted by local communities (Begum & Gill, 2014). Similarly, hunting tourism in Namibia (Schmitt & Rempel, 2019) is also another solution proposed by researchers to limit hunting and illegal trading of wildlife products. 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Data Collection Collecting and surveying primary data for this study is a potentially danergous and controversial process. Researchers and interviewers have to plays the role of consumers in the interview (real bargaining, buying, eating, and so on). Hot spots on illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam have been surveyed. The provinces with borders with Cambodia, Laos, and China such as Can Tho, Ha Tinh, Nghe An, Quang Nam, Lang Son, Lao Cai, and Quang Ninh are also investigated and consumed channels. In addition, the Customs of the two border gates of two large airports from abroad to Vietnam and from Vietnam to foreign countries are also explored and investigated, namely Tan Son Nhat and Noi Bai airports. To investigate the channels, where living wildlife and wildlife products are traded through the sea, Hai Phong and Vung Tau harbors have been investigated. For the domestic markets and domestic wildlife trade channels, most of the main data are collected from wildlife wholesalers and retailers, hunters, consumers, Forest Protection Department staff, police officers, customs officers, and market management, and in research areas through individual interviews using a structured interview schedule. Data is also collected from Vietnamese traditional medicine stores, tourist souvenir shops, traditional medicine manufacturers, hotels, restaurants serving wildlife dishes, and middlemen. The two major markets for wildlife consumption and wildlife products are Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities. In addition, scientists, drivers, biologists, heads of CITES, World Wildlife Fund, TRAFFIC, International Animals and Plants, United Nations Development Program Staff, and authorities, etc. are also interviewed for necessary information. The volume of product “j” is obtained by multiplying the number of traders of live wildlife/number of restaurants in local areas/number of stuffed wildlife shop in the street with the average amount of product “j” sold per period of time (daily, monthly). The total amount of respondents is 171 interviewees of 20 wildlife hot-spot provinces or cities. 3.2 Estimated approaches a) Estimated total supply of illegal live and wildlife products TSj = ∑ Tij 𝑛 𝑖=1 Where: i = 1 . . . n (number of traders on the market) j = 1 . . . m (number of wildlife species on the market) TSj is the total existing supply of illegal live wildlife or dry products (j) in the markets (in unit, head, or kg) Tij is a wildlife product or a live wildlife “j” sold by trader “i” (live wildlife trader, souvenir shops, and medicine AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 37 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia shops). Note: Total supply of illegal live and wildlife products are estimated daily, and then converted to yearly. b) Estimated total supply of wildlife meat in the markets 𝑇𝑀𝑆 = ∑ (𝑁𝑅𝑖 ∗ 𝑆𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑖=1 ) Where: i = 3 (small, medium, and large restaurants); TMS refers to the total wildlife meat supply per day of the market (kg); NRi is number of restaurants with scale (i); AMi is average amount of wildlife meat sold per day (kg). c) Estimated total revenue from live wildlife, wildlife meat, dry, and stuffed products in the markets 𝑇𝑅 = ∑ TSj ∗ APjn j Where: TR is the total revenue from live species or wildlife meat restaurant, dry product, or stuffed product(s) in the market in a period of time; TSj is the total existing supply of illegal live wildlife or meat wildlife or dry products (j) in the markets (in unit, head, or kg); APj is the average price of live species, wildlife meat, or dry product (j). Note: Total revenue from live wildlife, wildlife meat, dry, and stuffed products are estimated daily, and then converted to yearly. d) Estimated total profit from live, wildlife meat, souvenir, and stuffed wildlife markets Due to the nature of illegal wildlife trade and the limited data available, the method used to estimate the profit of live, wildlife meat restaurant, souvenir, and stuffed wildlife markets is as follows: PR = TR*ARP Where: PR is the profit of live wildlife/wildlife meat restaurant/ wildlife souvenir/and stuffed wildlife markets; TR is the total revenue of live species/wildlife meat restaurant/wildlife souvenir/and stuffed wildlife markets in a period of time (per day and per month for souvenir and stuffed markets); ARP is the average rate of profit (in percent) of the product ar the market obtained from key informants. Note: Details on costs could not be obtained from the traders. Note: Total profit from live wildlife, wildlife meat, dry, and stuffed products is estimated daily, and then converted to yearly. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Violation and confiscated cases, amount of illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam from 2013 to 2017 According to the collected and synthesized results, for the years 2013 to 2017, competent authorities have detected and seized 1,504 offenses with 1,461 offenders to wildlife protection laws. Many wildlife species have been illegally transported and traded during this period. Total revenue of fine for wildlife violations is 16,000 million VND (about 700,000 USD) (Table 1). Table 1. Wildlife Crime in Vietnam in the period of 2013 - 2017 Discription Unit Amount Violation cases Case 1,504 Amount wildlife and products from wildlife were confiscated kg and Head 41,328 Offenders of wildlife regulations Violated Person 1,461 Monetary fine for wildlife violations Million VND 16,000 Source: Wildlife Conservation Society Vietnam (WCS) (2018) Exchange rate: 23,200 VND = 1USD A large proportion of endangered species has been identified, including pangolins, snakes, birds of all kinds, and turtles. Offenses particularly related to exotic animal species brought to Vietnam such as rhinos, elephants, pangolins account for 13.5% (203/1,504) of the total offenses; 7.43% (1,949/26,221) of the total number of wildlife individuals are seized and 44.64% (18,450/41,328 kg) of the total wildlife volume has been confiscated AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 38 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia (Figure 1 and Figure 2). Data on the types of crimes related to illegal wildlife trading, illegal wildlife captivating, illegal wildlife poaching, and illegal wildlife transporting are shown in Figure 3. This study finds that most of the violations are involved in transportation and illegal trade in wildlife species. Illegal trading (25.6%) and transportation (59.27%) account for 85% of violations (Figure 3). 5 5 % 1 2 .1 0 % 1 0 .3 1 % 8 .5 8 % 7 .9 8 % 7 .5 1 % 7 .3 8 % 7 .3 1 % 7 .0 5 % 3 .3 9 % 2 .7 3 % 1 .6 6 % 1 .5 3 % 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 S n a k e, p y th o n O th er s T u rt le s B ir d s P ri m at es V iv er ri d s, M u st el id ae P an g o li n s S m al l m am m al s L ar g e m am m al s E le p h a n ts R h in o s T ig er s W il d c at s 2 3 .5 5 % 2 0 .1 7 % 1 6 .6 9 % 1 0 .6 7 % 9 .4 2 % 5 .4 9 % 3 .3 2 % 2 .9 6 % 2 .2 8 % 1 .9 7 % 1 .1 1 % 0 .9 2 % 0 .5 8 % 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 Figure 2. Total weight of seized species from 2013 to 2017 in Vietnam Source: Wildlife Conservation Society Vietnam (WCS) (2018) N u m b er o f ca se s Figure 1. Amount and percentage of violation case, in terms of wildlife species Source: Wildlife Conservation Society Vietnam (WCS) (2018) A m o u n t o f w ei g h t (k g ) AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 39 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia The majority of the penalties are suspended sentences (57.41%) and imprisonment (37.50%), accounting for 95% of crimes. 12-36 months’ imprisonments made up 53.1% of all the imprisonments (Figure 4). Figure 4. Penalties Source: Wildlife Conservation Society Vietnam (WCS) (2018) The hot spots of wildlife crimes in Vietnam are concentrated mainly in big cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, or border areas such as Mong Cai City in Quang Ninh province (adjacent to China), Que Phong district in Nghe an province and Da Krong district in Quang Tri province (adjacent to Laos), An Giang province and Tay Ninh province (adjacent to Cambodia). Analyses by species shows that pangolin-related crimes are common Suspended sentences 57.41% Non-custodial reform 3.47% Monetary fine 1.62% 12-36 months 53.09% <12 months 41.36% >36 months 5.56% Imprisonment 37.50% Figure 3. Wildlife crimes in first instance courts Source: Wildlife Conservation Society Vietnam (WCS) (2018) AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 40 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia in northern coastal provinces. Meanwhile, rhino horns and ivory are illegally traded in large cities via aircraft or along major border gates adjacent to China. In terms of origin, trafficked wildlife species originating from Africa account for more than 50% (19/38) of the total offenses recorded, of which Angola accounts for the largest 26.32% (5/19). 4.2 Estimated total amount and revenue of wildlife trade in domestic markets 4.3 The Illegal Live Wildlife Trade There are about 90 live wildlife traders in the three subsites. The total estimated revenue and profit of live wildlife markets in the three subsites are VND 200.1 billion (US$8.6 million) and VND 30 billion (US$1.3 million) per year, respectively. Of these, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities have the biggest value of live wildlife trade (Table 2). The best-selling species in Hanoi markets are birds and snakes. An endangered and expensive species in Vietnam is the Golden Turtle, which has a price per kg of VND 140 million to VND 150 million (US$6,000 - US$7,000). However, since this species is also considered critically threatened, this is a higher risk of getting caught. Table 2. The estimated results of illegal live wildlife trade in the three subsites and Vietnam Subsites & Vietnam Number of traders Live wildlife trade Total revenue Total profit Per day (VND million) Per year (VND million) Per day (VND million) Per year (VND million) North 36 205.2 74,898.0 30.8 11,234.7 Central 22 129.0 47,085.0 19.4 7,062.8 South 33 214.2 78,183.0 32.1 11,727.5 Total in Vietnam 91 548.4 200,166.0 82.3 30,024.9 4.4 Meat Wildlife Trade Vietnamese, Chinese, Japanese, and other people in Asian countries are fond of eating. They believe that eating and drinking wildlife as well as taking medicines dervived from wildlife products helps portray them as aristocratic people. There are about 950 wildlife meat restaurants in Vietnam, which consume 2,240 tons of wildlife meat per year. The total revenue and profit are VND 1,142 billion (US$ 49.2 million) and VND 314 billion (US$ 13.5 million), respectively. The north and the south consume higher amounts of wildlife meat than the central. Wildlife meat is mostly brought in from Plateau, Laos, Central, South, Mekong River Delta, Quang Nam province, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Picture 1. Giant bird market in Hanoi city (Source: Tam An, 2019) Picture 2. Bird seller in Mekong River Delta (Source: Ngoc Trinh, 2020) AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 41 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia Table 3. The estimated results of illegal wildlife meat trade in the three subsites and Vietnam Subsites and Vietnam Nunber of restaurants Average amount of wildlife meat comsumed per year (tons) Total revenue per year (VND billion) Total profit per year (VND billion) Sources of wildlife North 306 803 530 136 Plateau; Laos; Central; South; Mekong River Delta; Quang Nam province; Protected areas, Cambodia; Myanmar; Malaysia; and Indonesia. Central 297 647 291 85 South 345 785 321 93 Total in Vietnam 948 2,235 1,142 314 4.5 Dried Wildlife Trade There are about 24 kinds of products made from wildlife parts on sale in Hang Gai and Hang Trong of Ha Noi. The popular “dry products” are tiger teeth, bear teeth, artistic goods, turtle shell artistic products, and sea turtle (Table 4). The estimated revenue and profit from wildlife dry products and artistic shops are VND 787.9 million (US$ 33,961) and VND 94.6 million (US$ 4,078) per year, respectively. At Dong Khoi, which is located near Cau Mong wildlife market, there are about 12 shops that sell wildlife products. The estimated revenue and profit of wildlife products along Dong Khoi Street are about VND 4.457 million (US$ 192,130) and VND 534.9 million (US$ 23,055) per year, respectively. Table 4. The revenue and profit of wildlife dry products on sale in souvenir shops in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities HANOI CITY HO CHI MINH CITY ITEM Price (VND 1,000) TR per year (VND 1,000) TPr per year (VND 1,000) ITEM Price (VND 1,000) TR per year (VND 1,000) TPr per year (VND 1,000) Tiger small teeth 500 31,500 3,780 Tiger teeth 2,000 57,600 6,900 Tiger big teeth 1,000 36,000 4,320 Tiger claws 625 36,000 4,320 Tiger claws 425 31,860 3,825 Tiger skin 18,750 - - Bear claws 225 23,610 2,850 Bear claws 300 15,120 1,800 Bear teeth 500 48,000 5,760 Sorrow horn 18,750 540,000 64,800 Ivory small Buddha statue 1,575 217,350 26,070 Elephant ivory Buddha statue 1,875 697,500 83,700 Ivory medium Buddha statue 1,800 81,000 9,720 Elephant ivory cigarette holder 2,500 24,000 2,880 Ivory small boat 893 13,380 1,620 Elephant ivory bangle 12,500 150,000 18,000 Ivory necklace 4,875 58,500 7,020 Elephant ivory chopsticks (pairs) 3,000 72,000 8,640 Ivory small chimney of lamp 16,875 - - Lizard skin purse 3,750 81,000 9,720 Ivory medium chimney of lamp 29,250 - - Civet skin 8,750 84,000 10,080 Ivory big chimney of lamp 51,750 - - Rhino skin (per kg) 5,250 315,000 37,800 Picture 3. Wildlife meat restausant Picture 4: Wildlife meat restausant Picture 5: Wildlife meat restausant in Ha Noi city in Da Nang city in Thanh Hoa province (Source: My Hang, 2020) (Source: Chi Nhan, 2020) (Source:Quach Du, 2021) AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 42 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia Turtle big bangle 225 27,000 3,240 Leopard skin 21,250 102,000 12,240 Turtle small bangle 175 18,390 2,220 Suitcase, part in leopard skin 8,750 252,000 30,240 Turtle women comb 300 22,500 2,700 Turtle bangle 938 315,000 37,800 Turle men comb 175 7,890 960 Turtle Spectacle frames 9,000 475,200 57,030 Turtle knife 250 15,000 1,800 Turtle cigarette hold box 1125 121,500 14,580 Turtle earring 88 11,010 1,320 Turtle comb 350 142,800 17,130 Turtle mouse tail long necklace 500 22,500 2,700 Turtle knife 375 27,000 3,240 Turtle mouse tail short necklace 425 25,500 3,060 Turtle fan with shell ribs 9,375 810,000 97,200 Turtle big hair-pin 113 4,050 486 Turtle cigarette lighter 825 23,760 2,850 Turtle small hair-pin 63 2,820 330 Turtle glasses frame 863 115,920 13,920 Whole dry small sea turtle 2,500 15,000 1,800 0 - - Whole dry medium sea turtle 5,000 75,000 9,000 0 - - Total 787,860 94,581 4,457,400 534,870 The results in Table 5 show that the estimated total revenue and profit of illegal dry wildlife products trade are about VND 1,093 billion (US$ 47.1 million) and VND 273 billion (US$ 11.8 million). Most of these products are brought in from Plateau, Laos, Mekong River Delta, Quang Nam province, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, European countries, African countries, and Russia. Table 5. The estimated results of dry wildlife products trade Market Kind of product and place TR per year (VND billion) TPr per year (VND billion) Source of products Hanoi souvenir 24 7.88 1.97 Plateau; Laos; Central; South; Mekong River Delta; Quang Nam; Protected areas, Cambodia; Myanmar; Malaysia; Indonesia; European countries; African countries; Russia. HCMCT souvenir 21 44.57 11.14 Hanoi 22.05 5.51 Tiger bone balm Vinh 10.25 2.56 HCMCT 36.00 9.00 Bear bile Hanoi 468.75 117.19 Vinh 400.00 100.00 HCMCT 103.13 25.78 Total 1,092.63 273.16 Table 6 shows that the estimated total revenue and profit of illegal stuffed wildlife trade are about VND 15.2 billion (US$655,170) and VND 3.68 billion (US$158,620), respectively. The total profit from live, meat, dry, and stuffed markets in Vietnam is estimated at VND 621 billion (US $ 27 million) (Table 7). Of which, the meat wildlife market and dry wildlife market account for 95% (587/621). Compared with the fine for five (5) years from 2013-2017, VND16 billion (US$ 690,000) (Table 1), the profit from the domestic wildlife trade is 188 times that of the fine. This is evidence of why the phenomenon of illiegal wildlife trade remaisn widespread and popular despite the efforts undertaken by the Vietnamese government to prevent and control the practice. Picture 6. Tiger skill trade in Nghe An province Picture 7: Dry and Stuffed wildlife trade in Dak Nong province (Source: Duc Ngoc, 2017) (Source: Thu Hanh, 2013) AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 43 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia 4.6 Stuffed wildlife trade Table 6. The estimated results of stuffed wildlife in Hanoi, Hai Phong, and HCMCT Market Quantity (Pecies) TR per year (VND billion) TPr per year (VND billion) Source of products Hanoi 420 5.77 1.44 Plateau; Laos; Central; South; Mekong River Delta; Quang Nam; Protected areas, Cambodia; Myanmar; Malaysia; Indonesia; European countries; African countries; Russia. Hai Phong 396 4.28 1.07 Ho Chi Minh City 516 5.17 1.29 Total 1,332 15.22 3.68 Table 7. Summed up estimated profit of live, meat, dry, stuffed markets in Vietnam Market Profit per year VND million US$ Live wildlife market 30,100 1,297,414 Meat wildlife market 314,000 13,534,483 Dry wildlife market 273,160 11,774,138 Stuffed wildlife market 3,680 158,621 Total 620,940 26,764,656 4.7 Routes of Illegal Wildlife Trade in, out Vietnam By roads, the targets of the wildlifes transport directions are Hanoi City and Ho Chi Minh City. The transportation routes from Laos and Cambodia all cross the northwestern borders of Vietnam, follow the trails Highway 1 and then transport goods to major cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hai Phong, Da Nang for domestic consumption, or onward shipping to East Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, Taiwan and China. By air, wildlifes are transported mainly with processed products or dried products; these products are brought in from abroad through Noi Bai airports in Hanoi, and Tan Son Nhat airport in Ho Chi Minh City, and then consumed domestically or shipped to China or East Asian countries such as Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. By the sea, wildlifes transported by the sea can be live wildlifes or their products. These wildlifes’ products are shipped to Hai Phong, Da Nang, Cam Ranh, and Vung Tau ports; and then, they are shipped to the North or to China or to East Asian countries. (Figure 5) 4.8 Causes for the Intensification of Illegal Wildlife trade First, high benefit from wildlife trade: Consumption demand for wildlife and wildlife products has increased due to the economic development of Asian countries, which leads to an increase in the prices and profits associated with wildlife trade. Second, many issued policies but the enforcement process was ineffective: Vietnam as well as international organizations have issued many policies to limit illegal wildlife trade; however, the enforcement process remains ineffective due to many reasons including overlapping policies. Third, lack of resources for enforcement: although many policies have been enacted, only limited resources are available for implementation of these laws and policies. For example, lack of rangers oroutdated monitoring tools. Fourth, inefficiency of cooperation between neighboring countries and international organizations It is important to ntoe that thereis not only ineffcienct cooperation among inspection forces and local government with FPD staff but also a lack of international cooperation on reducing illegal wildlife trade between Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Singapore, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, and China. Some national and international organizations in Vietnam share an objective to combat trade in endangered wildlife; however, there is a glaring lack of integral and well- coordinated efforts in this regard. In particular, there is no close connection between policymakers and policy performers regarding wildlife protection. Fifth, government bureaucracy, and corruption: It is not clear who is responsible for managing a particular area. For example, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Develoment usually manages protected areas but local government units (commune, district, and provincial, military) also carry the mandate to manage the land falling under their jurisdiction. There are also a number of different government departments that can influence them (e.g., for tourism, road construction, army). AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 44 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia Therefore, many different institutions and offices have different, someyimes overlapping, powers over a particular area (e.g., protected areas). Thus, there are many government departments with vague responsibilities. This creates opportunities for corruption and may lead to a wastage natural resources such as common property rights or public goods. The large illegal wildlife trade networks are helped by influential people. These individuals areinvolved in the legal procedure for the confiscated goods and can acquit or interfere with the illegal cases. In early July 2014, the Police Department of Kbang district – Gia Lai province caught the ranger illegal transporting timber for loggers (Dac, 2014). Sixth, habit and culture: The wildlife eating and drinking culture in Vietnam or South East Asian Countries, in terms of the wildlife eating and drinking and customary use of wildlife in disease treatment characteristic of the of Confucianistic culture of Asian countries such as Vietnam, China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore, are important factors that contribute to an increased demand for, and higher profitability from, wildlife trade in the region. Seventh, poverty factors: The vice chief of Ha Tinh, Nghe an FPD said that 30% of the local people depend on the forest for their livelihood. A local hunter in nature- protected areas in Ha Tinh, Quang Nam, Nghe an said that if he did not hunt wildlife, he would not be able to earn a living. The manager of Vu Quang protected area in Ha Tinh province said that hunters and traders’ priority is to ensure that their children does not die of starvation as opposed to worrying about whether trees should be cut or wildlife should be killed. 4.9 Economic Regulatory Measures and Policy Recommendations 4.9.1 Economic Regulatory Measures Economic regulations (e.g., penalty, taxation, and others) should be applied simultaneously. Quota on illgal wildlife trade: Quota regulations should be applied only if there is a proper legal regime and monitoring system to regulating wildlife trade in Vietnam. In Vietnam’s case, the quantity control regulations may not be efficient because of these reasons: sources of wildlife traded in Vietnam are from various regions and countries (Plateau; Laos; Central; South; Mekong River Delta; Quang Nam; Nuture - protected areas, Cambodia; Myanmar; Malaysia; Indonesia; European countries; African countries; and Russia). The second reason is that CHINA CHINA CHINA EAST SEA EAST SEA EAST SEA HANOI HCM CITY Figure 5. Routes of Illegal Wildlife Trade in, into, out Vietnam by roads by airlines by sea AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 45 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia wildlife trade is not only focused on live wildlife but also on wildlife meat, dry wildlife products, and stuffed wildlife products. Therefore, defining the efficiency of the wildlife population in the region is particularly challenging. Taxations: The estimated profit from domestic illegal wildlife trade (Table 7) is estimated at 188 times higher than the fine collection (Table 1). This means that even if the fine is doubled from its current rate, the illegal traders may still find it profitable. Therefore, high taxes will not discourage traders in the illegal wildlife trade. The penalty regulation: In recent years, the government has imposed a strict fine (Figure 3 and Figure 4 of section 4.1). However, even with these strict penalties (Figure 4), there is little incentive to control illegal activities because only a small rate (3.1% of illegal trade can be captured- Nguyen, 2008). Therefore, there is a need to increase efforts to capture more illegal operations and to increase fines in order to deter offenders. 4.9.2 Policy Recommendations First, completing and ensuring the consistency of the legal document systems, mechanisms, and policies in wildlife protection; and reviewing, amending and supplementing legal and policy frameworks to eliminate the inadequacies and inconsistencies between legal documents pertaining to wildlife protection. Second, strengthening the implementation of penalties and enhanced monitoring and enforcement capacity can play a key role in the prevention and control of illegal wildlife trade. It has been shown in the current study that economic measures such as taxation, quota, legalization, and ownerships may not be appropriate to control illegal wildlife trading. The handling of material evidence of wildlife products remains inadequate. Law enforcement agencies are not equipped with the right facilities and specialized preservation equipment such as freezers to preserve the exhibit of meat, bone and horn. This issue may be addressed by increasing the level of training, manpower, funding, and equipment for checkpoints and patrol forces. This study shows that Mong Cai - Quang Ninh, Lang Son (exit points), Ninh Binh (bottleneck), Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh City are critical nodes and markets for illegal wildlife trade in and out of Vietnam. Therefore, the patrol force should be given priority in terms of strengthening manpower, funding, and equipment. Third, FPD, policemen should pay more attention to wildlife meat restaurants in domestic markets and the border between Vietnam and China: There are more than 3,500 tonnes of live wildlife traded in and out of Vietnam per year (Nguyen, 2008), of which about half is consumed domestically. Fourth, using education and awareness campaigns to influence the wildlife eating and drinking culture of the Vietnamese people. In the long run, reducing the illegal wildlife trade depends on a combination of law enforcement to reduce supply and public education campaigns to decrease demand. Information campaigns to discourage wildlife trade should be targeted at people who set bad examples by patronizing the trade. Chiefs of communes and border policemen also participate in illegal wildlife hunting and trading. The media should be used to reach out to citizens and communities with a view to reduce the demand for wildlife products. Sixth, law enforcement agencies should work closely to develop an interdisciplinary cooperation mechanism, enhance the exchange of information and participatory roles, and coordinate to implement conservation laws and policies through law enforcement activities working against wildlife trade. This should also involve efforts to strengthen cross-border cooperation between Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and China on local, regional, and international levels to mitigate the problem. This study shows that most of the wildlife traded in or through Vietnam to China has actually been taken from countries such as Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar. Dialogs on cooperation to limit smuggling along borders should be held between neighboring countries and followed up by concrete actions. Policies to support such actions should be formulated, duly signed, and approved by all countries concerned. This action can be done through CITES. Seventh, mobilizing domestic and international resources to enforce international treaties and conventions seeking to regulate wildlife conservation through regional and global cooperation. This entails strengthening manpower, generating funding, and providing equipment to monitor and control illegal trading during the peak season: The peak season for wildlife trading is from August to March, when the volume of illegal wildlife increases 2 to 3 times. Eighth, using wildlife farming/culture as one way to reduce prices of wildlife products: To reduce the demand for wildlife products, the authorities could encourage farming of more common species of wildlife (such as crocodile, soft-shell turtle, and common snakes) that can can stay healthy and reproduce in man-made conditions. However, keeping and extracting wildlife that cannot reproduce in man-made conditions, including endangered turtle species, bears, and tigers, needs to be strictly prohibited. Ninth, creating sustainable livelihood for local communities to reduce pressure from poaching, shooting, catching and trapping wildlife species, especially for those who live near forest areas, which is the initial step of illegal wildlife trade. Simultaneously, guiding and encouraging local communities living in buffer zones of national parks, nature reserves and protection forests to engage in wildlife protection, contributing to in - situ conservation of wildlife species. Tenth, using incentives (both cash and non-cash) for regulators, patrol officers, and informants to intensify efforts against illegal wildlife trading: The average salary of FPD staff ranges from US$200 to US$450 per month. AgBioForum, 21(3), 2019 | 46 Song, Huyen, Tien, Ha, Phuong, Oanh, Huyen and Thuy. — Vietnam, the big market and cross bridges of illegal wildlife trade in Asia On average, each FPD staff and direct FPD staff have to be responsible for 1,000 and 1,500 ha of forest, respectively. It is impossible to cover such a vast area effectively. This is an important factor that is encouraging not only illegal traders but also inspectors to violate wildlife protection policies and join hands with illegal traders. 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Vietnam is not only a big market but also a corss-bridge of illegal trade. Illegal wildlife trade is continuing unabated and affects neighboring countries. The total revenue generated from fines imposed against wildlife violations is 16,000 million VND (about 700,000 USD). It merits to note that the largest volume of illegal wildlife trade is through the Vietnam-China border. Most of the wildlife live and wildlife products are passed though China via Mong Cai border, Quang Ninh province. The total profit from live, meat, dry, stuffed markets in Vietnam is estimated at VND 621 billion (US $ 27 million) per year. Of which, meat wildlife market and dry wildlife market account for 95%. Compared with the fine for five (5) years from 2013-2017, VND 16 billion (US $ 690,000), the profit from the domestic wildlife trade is 188 times that of the fine. The routes of illegal wildlife trade in and out Vietnam are by roads, by airlines and by sea. However, the most important route is by road, accounting for about 90% of illegal wildlife trade in, and out of Vietnam. Road 1A from Ho Chi Minh city to Hanoi and from Hanoi to Mong Cai and Lang Song customs gates is the most important route of illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam and to China. International routes of illegal wildlife trade from Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, European countries, African countries, Russia into Vietnam are through air and sea. Most wildlife trade amounts by air or sea are dry wildlife products. 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