AgBioForum, 26(1): 32-48. ©2024 AgBioForum Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Muhammad Awais Bhatti* Department of Management, College of Business Administration, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia. Email: mbhatti@kfu.edu.sa Veera Pandiyan Kaliani Sundram RIG-Sustainable Supply Chain Logistics/ Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, UiTM Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA Email: veera692@uitm.edu.my This study explores the intricate dynamics of date palm farming and sustainable supply chain initiatives in Saudi Arabia. Through the assessment of stakeholder perspectives and their effect on industry practices, this study aims to examine how technological integration, supply chain efficiency, and economic considerations affect sustainable cultivation practices. For this qualitative study, fourteen semi-structured interviews including industry experts, supply chain managers, and farmers were undertaken. Using a three-step coding approach, thematic analysis found and classed significant subjects on supply chain efficiency, economic consequences, and sustainable practices. Digital management systems and precision agriculture have immense potential, but research demonstrates that industry adoption varies. Stakeholders acknowledge the importance of modernisation, despite their strong cultural attachment to traditional practices. Profiting is tough due to economic factors like fluctuating markets and rising input costs, yet value-added products can enhance profits. Infrastructure issues and poor supply networks keep the business floundering. This study sheds light on date palm cultivation's combination of technology and traditional practices, emphasizing the necessity for targeted support and infrastructure. The findings can help governments and industry leaders improve date palm sustainability and efficiency for long-term growth and resilience. Keywords: Dates Palm, Cultivation, Sustainable Supply Chain Practices, Technological Integration, Economic Considerations. 1. Introduction Even in the current fast-growing world the arid locations, especially the Middle East and North Africa, have long grown date palms. Date palms are important for regional economies, food security, and environmental sustainability beyond their cultural and nutritional importance (Hamriri et al., 2024). Sustainable date palm agriculture is a key research field as climate change intensifies and agricultural methods alter (Pandey et al., 2024). Scholars are actively studying how traditional practices might be adapted to modern agriculture's water constraint, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss (Arkeman et al., 2024). Date palm planting has long been linked to local ecological and cultural activities, making it a good place to study sustainable agriculture (Junaidi et al., 2024). Organic farming, water conservation, and natural fertilisers strengthen date palms and lessen environmental effect. Date palm trees are drought-resistant and beneficial in desert and semi-arid environments (Chu & Pham, 2024). Sustainability concerns have arisen as traditional farming methods are replaced by intensive ones (Dhakal et al., 2024). In many areas, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, and excessive irrigation have degraded the environment and lowered soil fertility (Tang et al., 2024). Dates, a staple food with considerable export potential, boost producing countries' economies. Due to health awareness and nutritional value, date demand has grown worldwide (Pereira, 2024). This tendency has led to more effective supply chain management to reduce post-harvest losses, improve storage and transportation, and ensure quality. Thus, Degli Innocenti (2024) has broadened to encompass date palm supply chain efficiency and farming techniques. Technological integration in date palm cultivation and supply chain management is another promising study field (Hariyanti & Syahza, 2024). Precision farming, blockchain, and the IoT are explored to boost the supply chain in terms of productivity, traceability, and transparency. It is expected that these types of technologies will contribute to solving some of the issues related to date palm cultivation, particularly those dealing with water constraints and insect management (Chatha et al., 2024). Especially in areas with strong traditional customs, these technologies are hardly embraced. Empirical studies have shown that the sustainability, economic viability, and technical adoption of supply chain activities pertaining to date palm production are a complex function of interacting variables (Yamoah & Kaba, 2024). Organic farming is clearly relevant for date palm production based on several studies. For example, Cricelli et al. (2024) found that organic fertilisers raised date palm quality and production as well as soil fertility. For long- term survival, the study underlined the need of balancing conventional knowledge with contemporary farming methods. Given the crop requires a lot of water, several studies have looked at the efficiency of irrigation mailto:%20mbhatti@kfu.edu.sa mailto:veera692@uitm.edu.my AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 33 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia technology (Sarker et al., 2024) crucial are data on date palm water management. According to Parthasarathy et al. (2024), drip irrigation methods lowered water use and raised yields when compared to flood irrigation. In places with limited water, modern irrigation systems can increase water use efficiency a vital need. Research has also looked at how sustainability of date palm farming is affected by water-saving technologies such rainwater collecting and treated wastewater (Mendel et al., 2024). Empirical study has revealed different problems in supply chain efficiency. Many studies have pointed out that the post-harvest losses of the date palm are a major problem, at least in underdeveloped countries where infrastructure and storages are not good (Rajakal et al., 2024). Hiloidhari et al. (2023) discovered that strengthening cold storage and transportation facilities might cut post-harvest losses by 30%, making date palm cultivation more profitable. Technology in supply chain management improves traceability and reduces fraud, which is crucial for export quality requirements (Soomro et al., 2023). Date palm farming technology integration has been the focus of recent empirical research. Precision agriculture uses remote sensing and drones to optimise resource utilisation and productivity (Castillo et al., 2023). Drones can monitor crop health and detect pest infestations early, reducing the need for chemical interventions, according to (Cruz et al., 2023). Blockchain technology has also been considered for supply chain management to improve transparency and stakeholder trust. Gharye Mirzaei et al. (2023) showed that blockchain could monitor dates from farm to market, eliminating fraud and ensuring international quality standards. While date palm farming and supply chain techniques have been extensively studied, numerous gaps exist (Sporchia et al., 2023). The socioeconomic effects of sustainable cultivation practices are understudied. Many studies have explored the environmental benefits of organic farming and water-saving measures, but few have examined how they effect farmers, particularly smallholders (Grass Ramírez et al., 2023). Although organic farming can improve soil quality and productivity, it can also be costly and labour- intensive, which would impede farmers with little resources (Khan et al., 2023). Date palm farming's gender relations are hardly researched. Studies on supply chain management and agriculture have mostly concentrated on technical aspects and have not given women much attention (Burezq & Davidson, 2023). Women are absolutely essential for the agricultural sector, particularly in value addition and post-harvest processing, hence this is a serious error (Beguedou et al., 2023). Future research should aim to address this gap by examining how technical advancements and sustainable cultivation practices affect gender roles and labour dynamics in the date palm industry (Mulyasari et al., 2023). Technical adoption in supply chain management and date palm farming reveals several uncharted territory. Although blockchain and precision farming show potential, not much is known about their acceptance challenges (Foong et al., 2023). Commonly seen but rarely investigated include the great cost of technology, lack of technical knowledge, and farmer hostility to change (Rosdin et al., 2023). Besides, not much is known about small-scale farmers who might be resource- poor. This, therefore, calls for more research into socio- economic and cultural factors driving the acceptance of date palm technologies (Akhtar et al., 2023). While some of their environmental advantages are negated, drones and remote sensing tools may increase energy use and electrical waste (Lubis et al., 2023). Future studies should assess how date palm farming technologies affect the surroundings and identify ways to minimise them (Heldt & Beske-Janssen, 2023). This work relies on a theoretical base comprised of theories of technological innovation, supply chain management, and the sustainable approaches to agriculture. Sustainable cultivation practices can be a strategic resource for competitive advantage, according to the Resource-Based View (RBV) paradigm (Abid & Ammar, 2022). Value, rare, inimitable, and non- substitutable (VRIN) resources, RBV claims, can help to retain competitive advantage (Abid & Ammar, 2022). The adoption of water management and organic farming within the VRIN resources enables the profitability and sustainability of the date palm cultivation. The study mostly borrows from institutional theory in trying to understand the diffusion of acceptance of sustainable technologies. This paper discusses some of the sustainable farming practices adopted in date palm cultivation and how these contributions add value to the economic viability, efficiency of supply chains, and profitability of date palm farming. It further looks at how technological integration increases the sustainability and profitability thereof. The present study attempts to fill this literature gap through assessing socioeconomic outcomes of sustainable practices, gendered nature of date palm farming, and the barriers to technological adoption. The present study, therefore, embarks on perceiving the aspects of date palm sector sustainability and shall put forward implementable recommendations for improving the production and supply chain practices by combining these theoretical viewpoints. 2. Literature Review Date palm output is growing in relevance in sustainable agriculture given their long history in Middle Eastern and North African agriculture (Zahraee et al., 2022). The research on date palm farming emphasises its capacity to flourish in arid environments, so it is a necessary crop in nations with limited water supply (Zahraee et al., 2022). Various agronomical practices recommended in the literature are useful in date palm cultivation. Modern drip irrigation and other irrigation technologies work effectively for sustainable utilisation of water. These techniques enhance agriculture's output and quality and AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 34 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia conserve water simultaneously (Nupueng et al., 2022). Furthermore, under research for environmentally sustainable date palm production are organic fertilisers and insect control techniques limiting chemical inputs. Furthermore stressed is the need of combining modern technologies with traditional agricultural expertise (Nupueng et al., 2022). This enables the development of a farming system more resistant to climatic change. From planting to market exit, sustainable date palm supply chains include the whole product lifetimes (Nupueng et al., 2022). Because supply chain management helps to lower environmental impact and boost economic advantages, it is under great research. Developing environmentally friendly packaging and lowering carbon emissions by means of effective transportation constitute this aim (Nupueng et al., 2022). Maintaining the quality and safety of produced goods, a requirement expressed by consumers worldwide, depends also on traceability systems (Nupueng et al., 2022). Fair trade and local farmer empowerment which enhance supply chain social sustainability also appear in scholarly literature. In the date palm company, sustainable supply chain methods help to increase social, financial, and environmental sustainability (Abdallah et al., 2022). These techniques strike a compromise between customers' needs, farmers' rights, and others'. 2.1 Sustainable Cultivation Practices Given Saudi Arabia's limited resources and arid climate, sustainable date palm growing methods have attracted a lot of interest in the nation (Abdallah et al., 2022). The literature claims that as date palms are a crop needing a lot of water, water management is absolutely crucial. Particularly drip irrigation, advanced irrigation methods are much sought for their capacity to sustainably lower water use without compromising agricultural yields (Abdallah et al., 2022). According to a recent study, drip irrigation systems when correctly maintained may save 60% of the irrigation-needed water when compared to conventional flooding techniques (Sakai et al., 2022). Furthermore, there is evidence that utilising organic farming methods that is, compost and organic fertilizers may increase soil fertility and promote better development of dates palm (Foong & Ng, 2022). The implementation of sustainable methods that lower the demand for chemical inputs and support the long-term soil sustainability will determine the fate of date palm farming in the area (Latino et al., 2022). Effective control of pests and illnesses is absolutely crucial for sustainable development of Saudi Arabia. Much debate in the literature surrounds integrated pest management (IPM) techniques, which mix limited chemical inclusion with biological control strategies (Hamriri et al., 2024). Natural predators and pheromone traps have been demonstrated to be beneficial in controlling pests including the red palm weevil, therefore lowering agricultural losses without compromising the ecology (Hamriri et al., 2024). Furthermore well accepted is the protection and spread of traditional agricultural knowledge passed down through generations as a vital component of sustainable food production (Chu & Pham, 2024). Combining this knowledge with modern scientific techniques generates an agricultural system more robust and flexible. Studies on the topic mostly aim to identify a middle ground whereby date palm farming in Saudi Arabia can remain economic and successful without endangering the environment (Tang et al., 2024). 2.2 Supply Chain Effici6ency Supply chain efficiency is a top priority for the Saudi date palm industry (Degli Innocenti, 2024). From farm to market, this sector wants to lower waste and raise product value. Date perishable is a supply chain problem according to scientific study (Chatha et al., 2024). This calls for efficient standards of transportation, storage, and date handling. According to scientific research, date quality and shelf life depend critically on cold chain logistics storing and moving dates in a cool environment (Chatha et al., 2024). These methods guarantee that fruit is in best condition when it reaches consumers, therefore reducing supply chain post-harvest losses. Modern packaging methods like modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) could increase commercial competitiveness and date lifetime (Parthasarathy et al., 2024). This is particularly crucial in foreign markets where visits could span longer periods. Academic research underlines supply chain integration and cooperation among several players, including wholesalers and farmers (Rajakal et al., 2024). Good supply networks need great cooperation and communication. These two features help to match output to market demand, hence reducing waste and overgeneration (Rajakal et al., 2024). Saudi Arabia recognises the need to increase supply chain efficiency by utilising digital technologies. Blockchain for traceability, IoT for real-time monitoring, and data analytics for demand forecasting help to maximise operations, save money, and enhance supply chain performance (Rajakal et al., 2024). As customers grow more worried about food sources and handling, these technologies enhance supply chain transparency and efficiency and help to develop customer confidence (Rajakal et al., 2024). 2.3 Economic Impact The economy of Saudi Arabia and the welfare of rural areas depend much on date palm farming and its distribution (Khan et al., 2023). Academic research highlights the date palm industry as a significant agricultural sector providing employment for many people, particularly in rural areas with limited economic alternatives (Beguedou et al., 2023). Saudi Arabia depends on date exports for income since it is the biggest exporter and producer of dates worldwide (Foong et al., 2023). Dates' health advantages and natural and organic food appeal are driving increasing demand for them internationally, therefore enhancing their economic value (Foong et al., 2023). Scholarly studies suggest that AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 35 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia date syrup, paste, and snacks increase profitability and create fresh national economic possibilities (Heldt & Beske-Janssen, 2023). Furthermore becoming financially feasible is environmentally friendly date palm farming. Sustainable farming has long-term financial advantages since lower water and chemical inputs (Almutawa, 2022). Improving agricultural infrastructure and output with these savings will boost economic gains by means of enhanced production (Almutawa, 2022). The literature also emphasises how sustainable date palm farming can draw funding and investment, mostly from overseas companies and investors engaged in sustainable agriculture. Funding can strengthen date palm, agro-processing, transportation, and tourism sectors (Almutawa, 2022). Given these factors, Saudi Arabia's date palm industry has different effects on the national income and sustainable development as well as on the state of the economy (Almutawa, 2022). 2.4 Technological Integration Improving Saudi Arabia's date palm output and supply chain management calls on technological integration (Abdallah et al., 2022). Academic publications highlight farmers' use of technology to monitor and manage their date palm farms more precisely. Among these technologies are remote sensing, GIS, and other ones (Sakai et al., 2022). These technologies offer focused treatments meant to increase resource economy and agricultural productivity. These instruments offer essential information about soil, moisture, and insects (Latino et al., 2022). Remote sensing points up grove locations under water stress. Farmers can so save water and enhance irrigation. Disease and pest outbreaks can also be tracked using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), so allowing quick and exact treatment and so lowering chemical inputs (Pandey et al., 2024). These technologies are needed to modernise date palm cultivation and increase its sustainability in response to resource limits and climate change (Junaidi et al., 2024). The use of digital technologies to improve date palm supply chain efficiency and transparency is highlighted in academic publications (Dhakal et al., 2024). This role complements the engagement of agricultural technologies in transformation. Blockchain technology can, for example, increase traceability. This approach would let users confirm their dates (Pereira, 2024). In worldwide markets where food authenticity and safety are of great importance, this is absolutely vital. Sensors of the Internet of Things allow real-time storage monitoring. This guards dates both during storage and transit (Hariyanti & Syahza, 2024). Demand prediction and inventory control among other supply chain activities are being enhanced by data analytics and artificial intelligence. By reducing waste and resource consumption, these solutions enable sustainable practices and help to increase operational efficiency (Yamoah & Kaba, 2024). Many agree that technology integration in supply chain activities and farming determines the profitability and competitiveness of the Saudi date palm sector (Yamoah & Kaba, 2024). 2.5 Stakeholder Perceptions Stakeholder opinions will determine Saudi Arabia's sustainable date palm output as well as supply chain management (Mendel et al., 2024). The key players in the field, farmers, are reportedly finding more and more advantages from sustainable farming methods including long-term profitability and resource economy (Mendel et al., 2024). Among the concerns are technical issues with implementing new technology and procedures and upfront expenses. Extension groups and government initiatives have to give farmers money and instruction so they may choose more environmentally friendly practices (Castillo et al., 2023). Rising awareness of climate change and its consequences among farmers is also driving environmental preservation and social responsibility (Gharye Mirzaei et al., 2023). Local sustainability depends on this kind of mental change being promoted. Future of Saudi Arabia's date palm economy relies on customers as vital players. Literature indicates that demand exists for sustainable date production. Consumer knowledge of ethical and environmental concerns is driving demand (Grass Ramírez et al., 2023). This shift in consumer tastes is driving manufacturers and supply chain players to use environmentally friendly solutions to satisfy local and worldwide market needs (Burezq & Davidson, 2023). Customers also are starting to equate sustainable dates to better quality and health advantages. Since consumers link sustainability to safety and quality of products. To please customers, retailers and exporters give sustainability certifications and traceability systems top priority (Mulyasari et al., 2023). These certifications and systems highlight supply chain sustainability. Stakeholder viewpoints have to be in line with sustainability if the Saudi date palm firm is to grow and compete sustainably (Rosdin et al., 2023). 3. Methodology The present qualitative research investigates the supply chain efficiency and sustainable cultivation practices of the date palm sector in Saudi Arabia. Given the intricate and profound nature of the topic, a case study design was selected to investigate the factors influencing sustainable practices, economic consequences, and technological incorporation in the organisational context. The case study design is well-suited for providing a contextual framework for real-life events, in order to uncover the perspectives of key stakeholders on date palm farming and supply chain management. A diverse cohort of 14 stakeholders in the date palm industry was deliberately selected for the study. Participation was sought from farmers, supply chain supervisors, and industry experts possessing substantial research knowledge. Logistics supervisors oversee the transportation and warehousing of dates from the field to AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 36 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia the market, while farmers are selected based on their expertise in date palm cultivation and environmental practices. Agronomists and economists among other professionals provided more all-encompassing views on the technology and financial sides of the agriculture business. Table 1: Demographic of Interviewees Respondent ID Role Experience (Years) Location Educational Background Specialization 1 Farmer 20 Al-Ahsa High School Date Palm Cultivation 2 Supply Chain Supervisor 15 Riyadh Bachelor's Degree in Logistics Supply Chain Optimization 3 Industry Expert 25 Al-Ahsa Master's Degree in Agronomy Sustainable Agricultural Practices 4 Farmer 12 Al-Qassim High School Organic Farming 5 Supply Chain Manager 18 Dammam Bachelor’s degree in business administration Logistics and Distribution 6 Industry Expert 30 Makkah Ph.D. in Agricultural Engineering Technological Integration 7 Farmer 10 Khobar High School Traditional Cultivation Methods 8 Supply Chain Manager 20 Al-Ahsa Master's Degree in Supply Chain Management Inventory and Logistics 9 Industry Expert 22 Medina Bachelor's Degree in Horticulture Crop Management 10 Farmer 15 Al-Ahsa High School Integrated Pest Management 11 Supply Chain Manager 17 Riyadh Bachelor's Degree in Economics Supply Chain Coordination 12 Industry Expert 28 Jubail Master's Degree in Environmental Science Sustainable Practices 13 Farmer 8 Al-Ahsa High School Date Palm Breeding 14 Supply Chain Manager 12 Al-Ahsa Bachelor's Degree in Agribusiness Supply Chain Efficiency Semi-structured interviews conducted throughout Saudi Arabia, including areas growing date palms, The semi- structured interview approach was used for adaptability in looking at study themes while addressing all significant concerns. The interview guide encompassed sustainable cultivation practices, supply chain efficiency, economic impact, technological integration, and stakeholder views in accordance with the study's objectives. Depending on participant availability, each 60–90 minute interview was either in person or by video conference. For analysis, participants agreed to have their interviews audio recorded and transcribed. The interview rules guaranteed that important topics were addressed and let participants express freely and give careful comments. Interview data was analysed using three coding techniques—axial, selective, and three-fold. This approach helped one to identify, classify, and understand the salient interview themes Table 2: Analysis Process Step Description Process Outcome Open Coding Initial stage where raw data is broken down into discrete parts and concepts. 1. Data Collection: Conducted 14 semi-structured interviews with farmers, supply chain managers, and industry experts. Generation of preliminary codes and themes. 2. Transcription: Transcribed interview recordings verbatim. 3. Preliminary Coding: Identified and labelled initial concepts from the data (e.g., “traditional methods,” “supply chain bottlenecks”). Axial Coding Intermediate stage that involves re-organizing codes into broader categories and identifying relationships. 1. Categorization: Grouped preliminary codes into broader themes (e.g., “Sustainable Practices,” “Supply Chain Efficiency”). Development of refined themes and sub-themes. 2. Theme Development: Analysed relationships between themes to identify sub-themes and patterns (e.g., relationship between “Resource Management” and “Precision Agriculture”). 3. Theme Refinement: Refined categories based on emerging patterns and stakeholder perspectives. Selective Coding Final stage where core themes are integrated to form a comprehensive narrative and to address research questions. 1. Integration: Synthesized refined themes into core categories (e.g., “Technological Integration,” “Economic Impact”). Formation of a cohesive analysis narrative. 2. Narrative Construction: Developed detailed narratives that explain how the core categories address the research questions. 3. Validation: Ensured the coherence and relevance of the categories by cross-referencing with original data and stakeholder input. Software for qualitative data analysis let data be accessed and arranged while coding. The last study clarified the sustainability problems of Saudi Arabia's date palm sector and offered a strong understanding of the research themes. The interview guide addressed all necessary elements of a study theme. The table below illustrates the interview subjects and questions: AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 37 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Table 3: Interview Guideline Research Theme Variables Interview Questions Sustainable Cultivation Practices Farming Methods Can you describe the methods you use in cultivating date palms? How do these methods contribute to sustainability? Organic Farming Practices What is your experience with organic farming? What are the benefits and challenges of using organic methods? Water Management How do you manage water resources for date palm cultivation? What strategies do you use to conserve water? Supply Chain Efficiency Post-Harvest Management What challenges do you face in the post-harvest management of dates? How do you ensure the quality of the produce? Storage and Transportation How are dates stored and transported after harvest? What measures are taken to prevent spoilage and maintain quality? Technology in Supply Chain What role does technology play in your supply chain management? How has it impacted efficiency? Economic Impact Profitability How has the profitability of date palm farming changed over the years? What factors have influenced these changes? Market Access What are the main markets for your dates? How do you ensure access to these markets? Cost of Production How do production costs impact your farming practices? How do you manage these costs? Technological Integration Precision Agriculture Have you implemented precision agriculture techniques? If so, how have they impacted your farming practices? Adoption of New Technologies What new technologies have you adopted in recent years? What has been the impact on productivity and sustainability? Stakeholder Perceptions Perception of Sustainability How do you perceive the concept of sustainability in date palm farming? What practices do you consider most sustainable? Challenges and Opportunities What are the main challenges you face in adopting sustainable practices? What opportunities do you see for improvement? Government and Policy Influence How do government policies influence your farming practices? What changes would you like to see in these policies? This guideline guided the interviews, covering all pertinent issues and allowing participants to expound on their comments based on their experiences and viewpoints. 4. Analysis and Findings The detailed description of findings can be seen below in sections. 4.1 Sustainable Cultivation Practices In the date palm industry, stakeholders showed a strong dedication to sustainable cultivation practices in the interviews. The need of agricultural sustainability and environmental integrity underlined by the participants. Many farmers preserve soil health and date palm resilience to environmental pressures by using organic farming techniques including natural fertilisers and integrated pest management. Though modern agricultural technologies are joining them, sustainable farming depends on traditional techniques usually handed down through generations. Water management became essential to sustainable agriculture. The arid climate of Saudi Arabia necessitates water efficiency. Drip irrigation and treated wastewater were suggested as water conservation methods. These technologies have greatly decreased water use and increased date yields. Such practises demonstrate the date palm farming community's resilience to climate change and water scarcity. Participants also noted the difficulties of going green. Many found organic farming and sophisticated irrigation systems expensive, requiring major investment in new technologies and training. These expenses were outweighed by long-term benefits including soil fertility and chemical input reduction. There was also a consensus that government subsidies and technical aid are essential to this shift. Another finding showed that communal knowledge-sharing promotes sustainability. Many farmers shared effective organic farming, pest control, and water management methods. This collaborative approach has spread excellent farming practices, making agriculture more sustainable. These strategies were also questioned for scalability, especially in larger farms where traditional methods may not work. Participants' viewpoints on sustainable cultivation practices are illustrated by the following quotes from the interviews: Farmer interviewee 3 Since using natural compost for years, my soil has become richer. Dates are better and trees are healthier. It takes more labour but pays off." Farmers view organic farming as beneficial. The focus on soil health and fruit quality supports sustainability. The farmer's desire to work harder shows a commitment to long-term agricultural viability. The literature shows that organic farming improves soil structure and fertility over time. Supply Chain Manager (Interviewee 7) "Water is our main concern. We use half the water since switching to drip irrigation. It's a tremendous savings, but we need it to maintain farming." In sustainable cultivation practices, water management is crucial. Drip irrigation is a smart reaction to water constraint, showing farmers and supply chain managers' resilience to environmental challenges. This supports research showing that drip irrigation can boost water use efficiency in arid settings. Industry expert interviewee 12 We have a long history of adopting natural approaches, but we're now seeing increased interest in AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 38 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia merging them with technology. This must be done without sacrificing established techniques' benefits." This expert's insight shows the continual conflict between traditional and new technology. Modern agricultural techniques and traditional knowledge must be integrated for sustainability, but careful management is needed to maximise their benefits. The literature emphasises the necessity for balanced approaches that use both traditional and modern methods for sustainable agriculture. Figure 1: Weightage Analysis of Sustainable Cultivation Practices This study supports and expands on prior arid region sustainable farming practices investigations. Organic farming practices, such as using natural fertilisers, have been shown to improve soil health and crop production over time. For instance, Lubis et al. (2023) found that organic farming increases soil fertility and crop resilience to pests and diseases. This study supports farmers' claims that natural compost and organic farming methods benefit them. Water management is another important area where this study agrees with the literature. Drip irrigation techniques, noted by the respondents, are commonly used to conserve agricultural water, especially in arid and semi- arid countries. Abid and Ammar (2022) showed that drip irrigation may save 50% more water than regular irrigation without affecting crop output. The supply chain managers and farmers in this study who utilised drip irrigation to solve water constraint agree. Sustainable agricultural research has examined the blending of traditional and modern methods. According to Zahraee et al. (2022), combining traditional knowledge with modern agricultural practices can create more sustainable and resilient farming systems, especially in locations where traditional methods are well-adapted to local environmental conditions. Table 4: Thematic Analysis of Sustainable Cultivation Practices Step Description Codes/Themes Open Coding Initial categorization of raw data into basic concepts. Traditional methods, Organic practices, Resource management, Soil conservation, Pest control Axial Coding Grouping related codes into broader themes and identifying relationships. Traditional vs. Modern practices, Effectiveness of organic methods, Resource optimization, Soil and pest management strategies Selective Coding Integration and synthesis of themes to form comprehensive categories. Sustainable Practices: Integration of traditional and modern methods, Optimal resource use, Effective soil and pest management 4.2 Supply Chain Efficiency The date palm supply chain efficiency interviews revealed a complex connection between conventional customs, logistical challenges, and the increasing use of technology. From harvest to sale, participants underlined the need of a good supply chain in date quality. From the farm to consumers, dates are picked, gathered, sorted, packed, stored, and transported. Supply chain efficiency and profitability may be impacted at each level by specific problems. Participants pointed out the dearth of modern storage facilities, which usually results in post-harvest losses. Many producers utilise conventional preservation techniques that might not preserve dates fresh for very long. If improperly kept, Saudi Arabia's high temperatures can hasten date degradation. Supply chain managers also concerned about the lack of refrigerated cars. This limits date quality and access to distant markets with higher pricing. Despite these obstacles, technology was recognised as a supply chain efficiency tool. Digital inventory tracking and management technologies have improved coordination between farmers, distributors, and retailers, according to several participants. These technologies have improved supply chain monitoring, waste reduction, and shipment timing to match market demand. Larger enterprises are more likely to use advanced technologies, whereas smaller farms continue to use traditional methods. The interviews also stressed the necessity of government support and infrastructure development for supply chain efficiency. Participants called for greater cold storage and better transportation to boost the date palm business. The conclusion was that supply chain efficiency could be increased with the correct infrastructure and technology, increasing profitability and reducing losses. The government and commercial sector parties knew these changes would need significant investment and collaboration. AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 39 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Interviewee 4 (Farmer) "No appropriate storage causes us to lose many dates after harvesting. The dates don't last long with traditional methods. It's frustrating since we work hard to grow them." Farmers struggle to preserve date quality after harvest due to poor storage facilities. In Saudi Arabia's hot environment, typical storage methods often fail, resulting in severe post-harvest losses. This issue emphasises the necessity for advanced storage techniques to extend date shelf life and prevent waste. Interviewee 9 (Supply Chain Manager) "We struggle with transportation. Due to a lack of refrigerated vehicles, dates aren't as fresh when they reach the market. This impacts their price." Transporting dates in a hot climate without refrigeration is difficult, as the supply chain manager noted. Lack of refrigerated transportation lowers date quality during transit, affecting market prices. This exposes a key supply chain infrastructure deficiency that must be addressed to boost industry efficiency and profitability. Industry expert 13 interviewed We've made progress with digital inventory systems. These tools improve date tracking and waste reduction, but few people use them. Smaller farmers stick to tradition." This expert notes uneven technological use in the date palm supply chain. Digital inventory management technologies improve cooperation and reduce waste, but their use is limited. Smaller farms may not have the resources or skills to implement these technology, reducing industry efficiency. Figure 2: Weightage Analysis of Supply Chain Efficiency Date palm supply chain efficiency findings are comparable with agricultural supply chain research in similar scenarios. The literature has extensively documented post-harvest losses due to poor storage. Studies like Nupueng et al. (2022) reveal that standard storage methods typically fail to preserve perishable agricultural products, especially in hot areas. Farmers interviewed indicated severe losses owing to the lack of contemporary storage systems, supporting this research. Past studies supports refrigerated transportation. In developing regions, the lack of cold chain logistics hinders perishable commodities delivery, according to (Dhehibi et al., 2022). This study's supply chain managers agreed, emphasising how poor transportation infrastructure affects date quality and value. This emphasises the need for better logistics to increase date palm supply chain efficiency. Technological advances, notably digital inventory systems, have improved supply chain efficiency. Shaheen et al. (2022) found that digital technologies reduce waste and increase agricultural supply chain cooperation. According to past studies, smaller farmers are slow to adopt these technology. This report emphasises the need for focused support to spread such technologies across the sector. Table 5: Thematic Analysis of Supply Chain Efficiency Step Description Codes/Themes Open Coding Initial categorization of raw data into basic concepts. Inventory management, Transportation logistics, Storage facilities, Supply chain bottlenecks, Technology use Axial Coding Grouping related codes into broader themes and identifying relationships. Inventory vs. technology, Logistical challenges, Storage and transportation issues, Technology adoption impact Selective Coding Integration and synthesis of themes to form comprehensive categories. Supply Chain Optimization: Efficient inventory and transportation management, Overcoming logistical and storage challenges, Impact of technology on efficiency 4.3 Economic Impact The economic impact of date palm cultivation was the subject of a variety of opinions among participants, which was indicative of the opportunities and challenges faced by industry stakeholders. Participants observed that the economic benefits of date cultivation, which are relied upon by many, are gradually influenced by market demand, production costs, and global competition. Farmers and supply chain administrators are concerned about the increasing costs of production, particularly fertilisers, water, and labour. These rising prices are reducing profit margins and making it harder for smaller farms to survive. AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 40 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Due to overproduction, market saturation, and rivalry from other date-producing countries, date prices might fluctuate, causing another economic worry. Many attendees commented that while high-quality dates are in demand, the market is getting more competitive, especially with Tunisian and Algerian dates. This rivalry has forced local farmers to cut prices or enhance quality, frequently at the risk of profits. Along with these problems, the interviews revealed a good trend: the increased identification of value- added products as a way to boost economic returns. Many participants mentioned turning dates into date syrup, date paste, and other products to diversify their income. This value addition shift is intended to boost profits and lessen dependence on the volatile raw date market. Not many farmers can afford the investment in processing facilities and marketing to produce value-added goods. Some participants questioned the efficacy of government policies and subsidies. Some farmers liked government subsidies, while others believed they weren't enough to balance rising production costs. Concerns also existed that larger, more established farms received a disproportionate amount of subsidies. This perceived unfairness has worsened industry economic imbalances, making smaller farms less competitive. Farmer 2 said, “The cost of fertilisers has almost doubled in the last few years. Making a profit is harder, especially when date prices aren't rising. We're cutting prices as much as possible, but quality must be sacrificed.” This quote illustrates farmers' economic stress from growing input costs. Despite their best attempts to cut costs, many are struggling to stay profitable, especially when market prices are flat or falling. The farmer's struggle to minimise costs while preserving quality is a recurring issue in agricultural economics, underlining the constraints of global competition. North Africa, notably Tunisia, is a growing competitor, said Interviewee 8, a supply chain manager. They offer affordable, good dates. We've lowered prices to compete, but it's affecting our profits.” As the global date market becomes more competitive, Saudi Arabian manufacturers are experiencing severe competition from other regions. Local producers struggle to survive because they must cut prices to stay competitive, especially in price-sensitive markets. Interviewee 11, an industry expert, said, “Value-added products have great potential, but starting is difficult. The cost of processing equipment is significant, and market development takes time. However, those who can handle it can reap substantial rewards.” This expert discusses value-added product diversification's pros and cons. Processing and selling derivative items can boost profits, but entry is difficult. Many farmers, especially those with low resources, struggle with high initial costs and market development. Figure 3: Weightage Analysis of Economic Impact This study supports previous studies on agricultural sector economic challenges and potential, particularly in emerging countries. Studies like Goh and Potter (2022) show how growing input costs, especially for fertilisers and water, can hurt farming profitability. Farmers in this survey are battling to stay profitable due to growing costs. Agricultural economics also addresses market volatility and competition from other producing regions. Global competition and price volatility affect agricultural producers' economic sustainability, especially in niche markets like date farming, according to (Foong & Ng, 2022). This study's supply chain managers and farmers, who are under pressure from North African competitors, support these findings and emphasise the importance of competitive pricing and product uniqueness in market share. The literature also supports value-added products as a way to boost economic returns. Table 6: Thematic Analysis of Economic Impact Step Description Codes/Themes Open Coding Initial categorization of raw data into basic concepts. Production costs, Market volatility, Profit margins, Value-added products, Financial support Axial Coding Grouping related codes into broader themes and identifying relationships. Cost management, Impact of market fluctuations, Profitability strategies, Investment in value-added products, Need for financial support Selective Coding Integration and synthesis of themes to form comprehensive categories. Economic Viability: Managing production costs and market risks, Enhancing profitability through value-added products, Importance of financial support and investment AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 41 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia 4.4 Technological Integration Increasing awareness of the benefits of new technologies in agricultural practices and supply chain efficiency was evident in the technological integration interviews conducted by the date palm industry. Stakeholders observed that technology is being employed to resolve concerns regarding cultivation, production, and distribution. Examples include automated irrigation, digital inventory management, and precision agriculture. The date palm industry's production must be Modernised and Increased by the Integration of Such Technologies. Precision agriculture, which optimises agricultural practices through the use of sensors and data analytics, was a significant advancement. According to interviewees, precision agriculture enhances soil monitoring, water management, and crop production prediction. This method reduces waste and environmental effect, improving resource efficiency and farming sustainability. Larger farms and commercial owners are more likely to invest in modern systems than smaller, traditional farms. Technology is also changing digital inventory and supply chain management. Several individuals described tracking dates from farms to markets using internet networks. These systems increase stakeholder cooperation, logistical efficiency, and inventory accuracy. Digital tools have many benefits, but the cost and training required to adopt them are still holding farmers back. Interviews highlighted automated irrigation systems as a major technological achievement. These drip irrigation and smart irrigation controller systems optimise water utilisation and irrigation efficiency. Automated systems have reduced water and labour use, but farmers may find the installation and maintenance costs exorbitant. This has caused farming operations to adopt these technologies differently. Most interviewees agreed that technological integration may assist the date palm sector. Technology is expensive, requires technical expertise, and farmers have unequal resources, which hinders wider adoption. These hurdles must be overcome to maximise technology benefits and allow all stakeholders to participate in industry modernisation. “We’ve started using precision agriculture tools to monitor soil moisture and nutrient levels,” said farmer interviewee 5. We've become incredibly efficient. This is expensive, and we need more support to completely integrate these tools.” This quote shows how precision agriculture improves farming efficiency and resource management. Due of its exorbitant cost, the farmer is hesitant to accept the technology. The literature often discusses the difficulty of combining the benefits of modern technology with their financial costs. Supply chain manager Interviewee 10 said, “Digital inventory systems have really helped us streamline our operations. We can track shipments live and avoid bottlenecks. However, not all farmers use these methods, thus efficiency is still low.” This statement highlights how digital inventory management improves supply chain efficiency and reduces logistical concerns. However, the technology adoption gap amongst stakeholders suggests uneven access and the need for wider deployment to maximise efficiency. According to interviewee 14, an industry expert, automated irrigation has transformed water management for many farms. Our water and labour use has decreased. Smaller farms are hindered by high beginning expenditures, which we must address.” The expert emphasises automated irrigation systems' water conservation and labour savings. To provide equal access to these breakthroughs, the financial barrier to implementing such technology for smaller enterprises must be addressed. Figure 4: Weightage Analysis of Technological Integration This research on technological integration in agriculture matches previous findings. Precision agriculture improves resource management and efficiency, as proven in the literature. Precision agriculture can increase crop yields and reduce environmental impact by optimising water and fertiliser use, according to (Lombardo et al., 2022). This supports the farmers' excellent experiences with precise tools, who reported large efficiency gains. Previous study shows that digital inventory and supply chain management systems improve agricultural supply chain efficiency and coordination. Digital tools can streamline processes and improve transparency, improving inventory and logistics management, according to (Anugerah et al., 2022). Supply chain managers in this study reported similar benefits, but inconsistent adoption of such technologies suggests broader implementation. Automation in irrigation systems has been shown to save water and labour in agriculture. Studies like Lubis et al. (2023) show that automated AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 42 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia irrigation can reduce water use and boost crop production. Industry experts' insights in this study support these findings, however the literature notes that these technologies' high starting costs remain a major impediment. This research on technological integration highlights the date palm industry's potential benefits from modern technologies but also their adoption hurdles. The findings support precision agriculture, digital management systems, and automated irrigation literature, emphasising the need for sustained investment and assistance to fully realise their benefits. Table 7: Thematic Analysis of Technological Integration Step Description Codes/Themes Open Coding Initial categorization of raw data into basic concepts. Precision agriculture, Digital systems, Automation, Technology adoption barriers, Cost vs. benefit Axial Coding Grouping related codes into broader themes and identifying relationships. Benefits of technology, Barriers to adoption, Cost considerations, Impact on productivity and sustainability Selective Coding Integration and synthesis of themes to form comprehensive categories. Technological Adoption: Benefits and barriers, Cost- effectiveness, Impact on productivity and sustainability 4.5 Stakeholder Perceptions Stakeholder assessments of the date palm industry's current situation and future prospects were complex. Farmers, supply chain managers, and industry professionals discussed date palm cultivation, from existing practices to future development. These ideas were formed by the surroundings, technology, and market forces. Common opinions of the economic and cultural relevance of the date palm were positive. There are many stakeholders who described date palms as playing an important role in the agriculture legacy and economy of Saudi Arabia. The cultural importance of dates to the local diet and customs was encouraging for many growers. This cultural link enables stakeholders in date palm production to invest time and capital even when conditions are not good for this type of farming. Questions emerged with regard to the future of this industry and the sustainability of current methods of production. Nevertheless, climate change, resource scarcity, and competitiveness made several stakeholders question the long-term feasibility of date palm production. Some players were suspicious whether the sector would be able to react quickly enough to fit changing circumstances, while others believed that technical developments and better procedures could help counterbalance these challenges. The interviews also showed divergent opinions on institutional and government support. While some have hailed government programs and supports as positive, others have found them too diffused or wholly insufficient. There was consensus on the need for better infrastructure, financial support for small growers, and dedicated research and development to back up the date palm company. Overall, the opinions of stakeholders reflected an industry standing at a crossroads where a rich tradition meets modern agricultural technique and market reality in date palm farming. The complex nature of the sector, along with the need for a balanced approach that addresses both the cultural and practical problems of date palm farming, leads to divergent opinions among the different stakeholders. "Growing dates is part of our heritage, not just a business," the first farmer interviewed noted. We are resolved to carry on this tradition and improve our methods in spite of several challenges. Many farmers have great cultural connection to date palm farming. Not only a business, but also part of their culture and legacy, they view the sector. This drives them to get over challenges and forward the sector. "We're witnessing a lot of changes in the industry and technology," said Interviewee 6, a supply chain manager, "while some are helpful, there's a lot of ambiguity about how they will play out in the long run. A combination of hazards and possibilities. This statement shows cautious optimism among stakeholders about technical and market changes. Recognising both opportunities and threats shows the industry's complexity and the uncertainty that comes with rapid change. Interviewee 13, an industry expert, said, “The government's support has been helpful, but it often favours larger operations. Small farmers are hurting, and we need targeted support to level the playing field." The expert's insight highlights a concern regarding government support's adequacy and fairness. Some stakeholders welcome the aid, but they want more equitable and targeted steps to help smaller farms, who may have more trouble accessing resources and opportunities. Figure 5: Weightage Analysis of Stakeholder Perceptions AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 43 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Existing literature on agricultural practices' cultural and economic relevance supports stakeholder perceptions. Foong et al. (2023) found that communities have strong cultural attachments to traditional agricultural techniques like date palm planting. This study's farmers agree that date farming's cultural history is important to their dedication to the sector. Previous study supports concerns about present practices' sustainability and the industry's adaptability. Studies like Heldt and Beske-Janssen (2023) have examined how climate change and resource scarcity affect conventional agricultural sectors, particularly those that depend on specific environmental conditions. These broader issues reflect stakeholder perceptions of the industry as being inadaptability and pinpointed needs for proactive risk mitigation. Governments' support has been criticized, and the urge is to give way to more equal and focused policies, something supported by research into agricultural policy and support mechanisms. Some criticise government subsidies and support programs for favouring larger farms over smaller ones (Dhehibi et al., 2022). By this study, the concerns of the industry expert with regard to balanced support underline the establishment of policies addressing the interest of all stakeholders in particular vulnerable ones. In conclusion, the date palm industry stakeholder perceptions are many and varied. Such findings highlight cultural significance, market and technical changes, as well as equitable ways of support. These reveal the industry's current position and provide strategic improvements. Table 8: Thematic Analysis of Stakeholder Perceptions Step Description Codes/Themes Open Coding Initial categorization of raw data into basic concepts. Cultural significance, Economic concerns, Technological expectations, Government support, Market competition Axial Coding Grouping related codes into broader themes and identifying relationships. Cultural vs. economic priorities, Impact of technology on perceptions, Adequacy of government support, Competitive pressures Selective Coding Integration and synthesis of themes to form comprehensive categories. Stakeholder Views: Balancing cultural values with economic and technological needs, Evaluating government support and market pressures 5. Discussion The future of date palm farming depends on a combination of factors: practices of sustainability, supply chain efficiency, economic impact, technological integration, and stakeholder input being at the forefront. Quite a brilliant future is ahead of the date palm planting industry. It holds cultural and economic significance by being an important part of Saudi Arabia's agricultural heritage. Reasons one and two are so crucial for Saudi Arabia. Like worldwide agriculture, the industry faces opportunities and challenges as it brings together the traditional and the modern. The effects of such influences in date palm cultivation will be discussed in this section. Here we take a look at the sector through the lens of technology, stakeholder viewpoints, and economic factors, with further understanding how the company internally works to find out about the most critical projects it is dealing with in terms of development and sustainability. To enable this, the data coming from different domains are integrated. Date palm cultivation and sustainable supply chain practices in Saudi Arabia have been researched on different platforms, covering major topics related to supply chain efficiency, economic effect, and sustainable cultivation practices. The complex dynamics and interdependencies of each of these places affect the date palm industry in the area. This session develops a synthesis of these concerns, identifying drivers in the business and indicating ways to grow and improve. Such is the date palm industry born both of modern and traditional methods as illustrated in sustainable agricultural practices. Conventional farming was found to give way gradually to more environmentally friendly methods in the area. Precision agriculture can be used to maximize efficiency, minimize environmental impact and enhance confidence in harvest foresight. Larger farms are thus more likely to invest in such technology, as traditional and smaller farms lack the resources or expertise to do so. This discrepancy underlines the need for support policies that would encourage sustainable practices throughout the firm (Akhtar et al., 2023). While technologies can make farming more viable, new research suggests that sometimes the benefits will not be equally distributed, leading to more inequality in income. However, environmental conservation and the long-term viability of date palm growing under the changes in climate and limitation of resources call for a sustainable approach. The results on efficiency in the value chain show a sector with potential and issues in the optimization process of transporting dates from farms to final markets. The work found that efficiency has improved due to the adoption of digital inventory systems and automated irrigation, but significant challenges lie ahead. Poor storage, refrigerated transportation, and logistical inefficiencies affect date quality and profitability (Almutawa, 2022). The market is becoming more competitive, with international competition pressuring producers. The results imply that while technology integration into the supply chain has improved, a more holistic strategy is needed to solve infrastructure shortages and improve stakeholder coordination. According to agricultural supply chain research, technological solutions can speed processes, but they need infrastructure and training to be fully effective. A more robust and effective supply chain requires government, business, and technology collaboration to address supply chain efficiency issues. Date palm AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 44 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia production affects producers financially and offers value- added options. Farmers and supply chain managers worry about increased production costs and market instability, according to the report. Increased fertiliser and water costs and shifting market prices are compressing corporate margins and causing economic instability. Developing value-added goods like date syrup and paste could boost profits and reduce dependence on raw date markets. Not often accessible to smaller businesses, value-added production calls for large investment and knowledge. This economic situation fits earlier studies on the control of production expenses and limits in market dynamics in the agriculture industries (Khan et al., 2023). These findings underline the need of using financial systems and supportive policies to lower economic constraints and let farmers to seize growing possibilities. Technological integration in the date palm sector shows great advancement but also certain difficulties. Notwithstanding the general acceptance of automated irrigation, computerised inventory systems, and precision agriculture, the study shows that their benefits are not evenly dispersed across the sector. Precision agriculture's resource efficiency and production could be improved with advanced data analytics and sensor technology. This method has helped farmers to properly manage soil and water consumption, therefore supporting the body of research emphasising the need of technology in improving agricultural output and sustainability. Most larger commercial farms that have the means to make investments in these technologies are seen to have adopted them. Smaller, conventional farms are hampered from fully capitalising on modern developments by limited financial resources and inadequate technological knowledge (Cruz et al., 2023). The resultant gap leads to economic unsustainability, problems of industrial production, and inefficiency in agriculture. It is deduced from the research that more aid and resources have to be focused on improving the availability of these technologies so that the technical development will be beneficial to all parties concerned. The new directions within the date palm industry are considered by its stakeholders with both hope and anxiety. Palm farming in their homelands is linked with historical development and subsistence means for the stakeholders. This close relation alone has promoted the conservation and improvement of traditional practices despite market turbulence and environmental issues. Nevertheless, the advent of new technological breakthroughs with fierce market competition has raised doubts over whether such an industry would be able to survive. Perspectives held by each of the various stakeholders underpin the need for an integrated approach, one that considers both pragmatic concerns and the maintenance of cultural values. Previous studies have shown that there is a need to marry traditional knowledge with contemporary methodologies in achieving sustainable development (Hiloidhari et al., 2023). Further, the report draws attention to government financing problems, as certain stakeholders claim this is biased or is insufficiently strong for more ambitious programs. The study points out agricultural policy research issues that point out the need for special and fair support to be provided to smaller and less-resourced farmers. The date palm cultivation financial outcomes signal the requirement to properly regulate the market forces and production expenses. Producers are challenged by the increasing fertilizer and water costs combined with fluctuating market prices. Adding to these economic stresses are overseas suppliers of products that compete with the local producers in the global date market. Despite these challenges associated with diversification, value-added products have the potential to improve revenue and reduce dependence on raw date markets. Most small-scale producers are constrained by financial resources and expertise required to shift towards value-added farming (Cricelli et al., 2024). The present set of research on issues in agricultural economic and future perspectives emphasizes the importance of using financial instruments and supportive policies in enabling farmers to keep expenses under control and benefit from the advantages of emerging market growth. Unless the government, business, and financial institutions collaborate to resolve these economic problems, a much more even-handed and favourable environment for all concerned would thus preserve the date palm sector. A review of different aspects relating to methods of sustainable agriculture, effectiveness of the supply chain, economic impact, incorporation of technology, and stakeholders' perspective-these all put up a multi-faceted yet interesting perspective of the date palm industry. Distinct yet all of them connect to reveal the delicate balance between innovation and tradition. The research findings indicate that a holistic approach would be most suitable for addressing the diverse challenges and opportunities found within the industry. The company development will be based on equable support systems, improvements in supply chain efficiency, and technology breakthroughs applied. Results provide a concrete base for the understanding of the dynamics at present and specific recommendations that will help ensure the long-term viability and profitability of date palm farming. These findings can help stakeholders cooperate to promote the expansion and preservation of the sector by means of efficient management of tradition and innovation, therefore supporting both. 6. Research Implications This result has broad theoretical consequences especially in the domains of agricultural economics, supply chain management, and sustainable development. The study reveals how contemporary innovations may be included into conventional farming methods, therefore blending innovation with history. Improving agricultural technology AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 45 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia diffusion theory, the research reveals how precision agriculture, digital management systems, and automated irrigation influence the date palm industry. The paper also looks at stakeholder opinions and how industrial policies are influenced by cultural values and financial restraints. This supports stakeholder theory debate and highlights inclusive and contextually sensitive stakeholder interaction and policy making in agriculture. Agriculture sustainability and profitability theories are advanced by economic analysis of production costs, market volatility, and value- added possibilities. Research develops theoretical models that handle modern agricultural system complexity by emphasising technological integration, economic feasibility, and cultural value. These contributions help us balance technological, economic, cultural, and environmental factors, laying the groundwork for sustainable agricultural and supply chain management research and practice. Date palm stakeholders benefit from this research's operational efficiency and sustainability insights. Farmers need support to adopt precision agriculture instruments and automated irrigation systems. Targeted subsidies, training, and technical assistance from policymakers and industry leaders can help smaller and traditional farmers adopt technology. Minimising waste and maximising input utilisation improves resource management, productivity, and sustainability. The analysis also stresses the necessity for comprehensive initiatives to rectify technological advantages' uneven distribution to assure industry-wide access. Practical methods can improve farming and date palm sector resilience and growth. The research focusses supply chain management infrastructure and collaboration to streamline operations and reduce logistical inefficiencies. Modern warehouses, refrigerated transport, and computerised inventory systems can improve supply chain efficiency and meet market deadlines. Producers require supportive financial systems and laws to address rising input costs and market volatility. Price stabilisation, low-interest financing, and value-added product investment alleviate economic pressures and improve earnings. These practical strategies can help stakeholders develop a more resilient supply chain that can adapt to market and environmental changes. These practical consequences could improve industry operations, growth, and sustainability. 7. Limitations and Future Research Directions This research on sustainable supply chains and date palm cultivation is beneficial; however, it has certain limitations. First, while detailed in Saudi Arabia, the study may not apply to other regions with different climates, economies, and cultures. Saudi Arabian agricultural methods, supply chain dynamics, and stakeholder opinions may differ from other date-producing countries or regions with differing environmental or socio-economic conditions. Researchers can better understand how different factors affect date palm cultivation and supply networks by comparing many countries or regions. Comparing regional best practices and issues may make conclusions more applicable to varied agricultural scenarios. A small sample of stakeholders was contacted for qualitative data, limiting the study. The in- depth qualitative method provided rich, nuanced insights, although the sample size and selection may not fully represent date palm industry viewpoints. Under- represented industrial participants and smallholder farmers may be under-represented. A larger and more diverse stakeholder sample and quantitative techniques like surveys could validate and enhance qualitative findings in future studies. This would improve data and industry dynamics and stakeholder viewpoints. Rapidly changing technology and market factors hampered the study. Rapid technological and commercial changes may date this research. Longitudinal study should track technological uptake, supply chain behaviour, and economic impacts. This approach would reveal how innovations and market changes affect the industry, enabling trend identification and strategy adaptation. At last, the studies revealed significant themes on technological integration, supply chain efficiency, and economic impact; yet, they did not assess their interactions or total influence on the industry. Using contemporary analytical techniques, future research might assess the relationships among these elements and their consequences on sustainability and profitability. This more research could highlight the industry's potential and expose how improvements in one area influence others, therefore highlighting its difficulties as well. Studies on institutional support for these interactions and legislative interventions could help create resilience plans and whole date palm sector efficiency. 8. Conclusion The date palm industry in Saudi Arabia is examined in this study, along with sustainable cultivation practices, supply chain efficiency, economic impact, technological integration, and stakeholder viewpoints. The findings reveal both progress and challenges by exhibiting a dynamic link between old techniques and new innovations. Although technology has enhanced sustainable agricultural methods, the adoption difference between large and small- scale businesses emphasises the need of focused support to increase acceptance. Although supply chain technologies have improved efficiency, logistical and infrastructure problems still limit the industry's ability to meet consumer expectations. With value-added products providing a possible but underused way to increase profitability, the economic analysis emphasises the difficulties of controlling manufacturing costs and market volatility. The studies highlight the complex opinions of stakeholders, therefore exposing a careful balance between cultural AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 46 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia values and pragmatic concerns. Date palm farming is very culturally significant, hence even if players understand the need of innovation and adaptation, they are dedicated to traditional techniques. In order to solve logistical and financial problems, this paper suggests better infrastructure, support systems, and strategic investments. Combining technology developments with supporting policies and fair resource distribution helps stakeholders in the date palm industry create more resilience. This research guarantees that tradition and innovation coexist and prepares the basis for next projects and pragmatic efforts to develop and protect the sector. Acknowledgment This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [Grant KFU241003]'. References Abdallah, S. B., Parra-López, C., Elfkih, S., Suárez-Rey, E. M., & Romero-Gámez, M. (2022). Sustainability assessment of traditional, intensive and highly- intensive olive growing systems in Tunisia by integrating Life Cycle and Multicriteria Decision analyses. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 33, 73-87. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.06.022 Abid, W., & Ammar, E. (2022). Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) wastes valorization: A circular economy approach. In Mediterranean Fruits Bio- Wastes: Chemistry, Functionality and Technological Applications (pp. 403-430). Springer. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- 84436-3_17 Akhtar, M. N., Ansari, E., Alhady, S. S. N., & Abu Bakar, E. (2023). Leveraging on advanced remote sensing-and artificial intelligence-based technologies to manage palm oil plantation for current global scenario: A review. Agriculture, 13(2), 504. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020504 Almutawa, A. A. (2022). Date production in the Al-Hassa region, Saudi Arabia in the face of climate change. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 13(7), 2627-2647. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2022.461 Anugerah, A. R., Ahmad, S. A., Samin, R., Samdin, Z., & Kamaruddin, N. (2022). Modified failure mode and effect analysis to mitigate sustainable related risk in the palm oil supply chain. Advances in Materials and Processing Technologies, 8(2), 2229-2243. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2021.1898180 Arkeman, Y., Kailaku, S. I., Hidayah, N. J., & Saefurahman, G. (2024). Application of advanced digital technology for green and circular agroindustrial supply chain management. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2957(1), 020002. doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0184725 Beguedou, E., Narra, S., Afrakoma Armoo, E., Agboka, K., & Kongnine Damgou, M. (2023). E-Technology enabled sourcing of alternative fuels to create a Fair-Trade circular economy for sustainable energy in Togo. Energies, 16(9), 3679. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093679 Burezq, H. a., & Davidson, M. K. (2023). Biochar from date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) residues—a critical review. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 16(2), 101. . doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517- 022-11123-0 Castillo, A. B., Cortes, D. J. D., Sorino, C. F., Soriño, C. K. P., El-Naas, M. H., & Ahmed, T. (2023). Bioethanol production from waste and nonsalable date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruits: Potentials and challenges. Sustainability, 15(4), 2937. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15042937 Chatha, K. A., Jajja, M. S. S., Gillani, F., & Farooq, S. (2024). Examining the effects of technology– organization–environment framework on operational performance through supply chain integration of the firm. Benchmarking: an international journal, 31(5), 1797-1825. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-10-2022-0665 Chu, T. T., & Pham, T. T. T. (2024). Vertical coordination in agri‐food supply chain and blockchain: A proposed framework solution for Vietnamese cashew nut business. Regional Science Policy & Practice, 16(3), 12576. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12576 Cricelli, L., Mauriello, R., & Strazzullo, S. (2024). Technological innovation in agri-food supply chains. British Food Journal, 126(5), 1852-1869. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-06-2022-0490 Cruz, P. L., Martín-Gamboa, M., Hnich, K. B., Dufour, J., & Iribarren, D. (2023). Effect of improvement actions on the life-cycle environmental and economic performance of synthetic biofuels from date palm waste in Tunisia. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 7(12), 2873-2882. doi: https://doi.org/10.1039/D3SE00188A Degli Innocenti, E. (2024). Vertical integration of the palm oil sustainable global value chains in Indonesia and Thailand: sustainability frameworks, local dynamics, material and information flows in the global-local nexus (Doctoral dissertation, Wageningen University). doi: https://doi.org/10.18174/649693 Dhakal, H. N., Khan, S. H., Alnaser, I. A., Karim, M. R., Saifullah, A., & Zhang, Z. (2024). Potential of Date Palm Fibers (DPFs) as a Sustainable Reinforcement for Bio‐Composites and its Property Enhancement for Key Applications: A Review. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 2400081. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202400081 Dhehibi, B., Salah, M. B., Frija, A., Aw-Hassan, A., Al Wahaibi, H., Al Raisi, Y., Dewidar, A. Z., Al https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.06.022 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84436-3_17 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84436-3_17 https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020504 https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2022.461 https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2021.1898180 https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0184725 https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093679 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-11123-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-11123-0 https://doi.org/10.3390/su15042937 https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-10-2022-0665 https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12576 https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-06-2022-0490 https://doi.org/10.1039/D3SE00188A https://doi.org/10.18174/649693 https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202400081 AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 47 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Fuhaid, Y., Nejatian, A., & Niane, A. A. (2022). Economic and environmental evaluation of different irrigation systems for date palm production in the GCC countries: the case of Oman and Saudi Arabia. Desalination and Water Treatment, 263, 116-124. doi: https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2022.28215 Foong, S. Y., Chan, Y. H., Lock, S. S. M., Chin, B. L. F., Yiin, C. L., Cheah, K. W., Loy, A. C. M., Yek, P. N. Y., Chong, W. W. F., & Lam, S. S. (2023). Microwave processing of oil palm wastes for bioenergy production and circular economy: Recent advancements, challenges, and future prospects. Bioresource Technology, 369, 128478. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2022.128478 Foong, S. Z. Y., & Ng, D. K. S. (2022). A systematic approach for synthesis and optimisation of sustainable oil palm value chain (OPVC). South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, 41(1), 65-78. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-chemeng-v41- n1-a8 Gharye Mirzaei, M., Gholami, S., & Rahmani, D. (2023). A mathematical model for the optimization of agricultural supply chain under uncertain environmental and financial conditions: the case study of fresh date fruit. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-34. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03503-7 Goh, C. S., & Potter, L. (2022). Bio‐economy for sustainable growth in developing countries: The case of oil palm in Malaysia and Indonesia. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 16(6), 1808-1819. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.2381 Grass Ramírez, J. F., Muñoz, R. C., & Zartha Sossa, J. W. (2023). Innovations and trends in the coconut agroindustry supply chain: a technological surveillance and foresight analysis. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, 1048450. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1048450 Hamriri, K., Atmani, M., Abidar, A., Aziz, L., Fagroud, M., & Bouamri, R. (2024). Sustainable oases agriculture: A journey through Morocco’s date palm production system. Journal of Water and Land Development, 1-11. doi: https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2023.148457 Hariyanti, F., & Syahza, A. (2024). Economic transformation based on leading commodities through sustainable development of the oil palm industry. Heliyon, 10(4), e25674. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25674 Heldt, L., & Beske-Janssen, P. (2023). Solutions from space? A dynamic capabilities perspective on the growing use of satellite technology for managing sustainability in multi-tier supply chains. International journal of production economics, 260, 108864. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2023.108864 Hiloidhari, M., Sharno, M. A., Baruah, D. C., & Bezbaruah, A. N. (2023). Green and sustainable biomass supply chain for environmental, social and economic benefits. Biomass and Bioenergy, 175, 106893. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2023.106893 Junaidi, A., Mashar, A., Basrowi, B., Muharomah, D., Situmorang, J., Lukas, A., Asgar, A., Herlina, L., Manalu, L., & Payung, L. (2024). Enhancing sustainable soybean production in Indonesia: evaluating the environmental and economic benefits of MIGO technology for integrated supply chain sustainability. Uncertain Supply Chain Management, 12(1), 221-234. doi: https://doi.org/10.5267/j.uscm.2023.10.003 Khan, M. R., Khan, M. R., & Nallaluthan, K. (2023). Blockchain Supply Chain Management and Supply Chain Sustainability. In Blockchain Driven Supply Chain Management: A Multi- dimensional Perspective (pp. 155-180). Springer. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0699- 4_10 Latino, M. E., Menegoli, M., Lazoi, M., & Corallo, A. (2022). Voluntary traceability in food supply chain: a framework leading its implementation in Agriculture 4.0. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 178, 121564. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121564 Lombardo, L., Farolfi, C., Tombesi, S., Novelli, E., & Capri, E. (2022). Development of a sustainability technical guide for the Italian olive oil supply chain. Science of the total environment, 820, 153332. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153332 Lubis, Z., Zarlis, M., Arifin, A., & Aulia, M. R. (2023). BARCODE SYSTEM MANAGEMENT MODEL ON OIL PALM COMPANY PERFORMANCE: FIT VIABILITY APPROACH. Journal Research of Social Science, Economics & Management, 2(9), 2116- 2133. doi: https://doi.org/10.59141/jrssem.v2i09.441 Mendel, Z., Voet, H., Nazarian, I., Dobrinin, S., & Ment, D. (2024). Comprehensive Analysis of Management Strategies for Red Palm Weevil in Date Palm Settings, Emphasizing Sensor-Based Infestation Detection. Agriculture, 14(2), 260. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14020260 Mulyasari, G., Djarot, I. N., Sasongko, N. A., & Putra, A. S. (2023). Social-life cycle assessment of oil palm plantation smallholders in Bengkulu province, Indonesia. Heliyon, 9(8) e19123. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19123 Nupueng, S., Oosterveer, P., & Mol, A. P. J. (2022). Governing sustainability in the Thai palm oil- supply chain: the role of private actors. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 18(1), 37-54. doi: https://doi.org/10 .1080/15487733.2021.2021688 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2022.28215 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2022.128478 https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-chemeng-v41-n1-a8 https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-chemeng-v41-n1-a8 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03503-7 https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.2381 https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1048450 https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2023.148457 https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2023.148457 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25674 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2023.108864 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2023.106893 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2023.106893 https://doi.org/10.5267/j.uscm.2023.10.003 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0699-4_10 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0699-4_10 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121564 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153332 https://doi.org/10.59141/jrssem.v2i09.441 https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14020260 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19123 https://doi.org/10%20.1080/15487733.2021.2021688 https://doi.org/10%20.1080/15487733.2021.2021688 AgBioForum, 26(1), 2024 | 48 Bhatti & Sundram — Dates Palm Cultivation and Sustainable Supply Chain Practices in Saudi Arabia Pandey, N., Tripathi, P., Pandey, N., Nakum, H., & Vala, Y. S. (2024). Advancements in Date Palm Genomics and Biotechnology Genomic Resources to the Precision Agriculture: A Comprehensive Review. Preprints, 2024061327. doi: https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202406.1327.v 2C Parthasarathy, P., Tahir, F., Pradhan, S., Al-Ansari, T., & McKay, G. (2024). Life cycle assessment of biofuel production from waste date stones using conventional and microwave pyrolysis. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 21, 100510. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100510 Pereira, L. S. (2024). Analyzing the Impact of Technological Innovations on Smallholder Farmers Within Ivory Coast’s Cocoa Supply Chain. Law and Economy, 3(3), 1-11. Retrieved from https://www.paradigmpress.org/ le/article/view/1039 Rajakal, J. P., Ng, F. Y., Zulkifli, A., How, B. S., Sunarso, J., Ng, D. K. S., & Andiappan, V. (2024). Analysis of current state, gaps, and opportunities for technologies in the Malaysian oil palm estates and palm oil mills towards net-zero emissions. Heliyon, 10(10), e30768. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30768 Rosdin, R., Cheah, W. Y., & Moslim, R. (2023). Systematic Literature Review on the Social and Economic Impacts of Palm Oil Certification on Smallholders. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 8(3), e002148. doi: https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v8i3.2148 Sakai, K., Hassan, M. A., Vairappan, C. S., & Shirai, Y. (2022). Promotion of a green economy with the palm oil industry for biodiversity conservation: A touchstone toward a sustainable bioindustry. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 133(5), 414-424. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2022.01.001 Sarker, S., Rashidi, K., Gölgeci, I., Gligor, D. M., & Hsuan, J. (2024). Exploring pillars of supply chain competitiveness: insights from leading global supply chains. Production Planning & Control, 35(10), 1025-1042. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2022.2145246 Shaheen, J., Fseha, Y. H., & Sizirici, B. (2022). Performance, life cycle assessment, and economic comparison between date palm waste biochar and activated carbon derived from woody biomass. Heliyon, 8(12), e12388. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12388 Soomro, A. H., Marri, A., & Shaikh, N. (2023). Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera): A review of economic potential, industrial valorization, nutritional and health significance. Neglected Plant Foods Of South Asia: Exploring and valorizing nature to feed hunger, 319-350. Springer. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_13 Sporchia, F., Patrizi, N., & Pulselli, F. M. (2023). Date fruit production and consumption: a perspective on global trends and drivers from a multidimensional footprint assessment. Sustainability, 15(5), 4358. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054358 Tang, A., Tchao, E. T., Agbemenu, A. S., Keelson, E., Klogo, G. S., & Kponyo, J. J. (2024). Assessing blockchain and IoT technologies for agricultural food supply chains in Africa: A feasibility analysis. Heliyon, 10(5), e34584. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34584 Yamoah, F. A., & Kaba, J. S. (2024). Integrating climate- smart agri-innovative technology adoption and agribusiness management skills to improve the livelihoods of smallholder female cocoa farmers in Ghana. Climate and Development, 16(3), 169- 175. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2021.2024125 Zahraee, S. M., Shiwakoti, N., & Stasinopoulos, P. (2022). Agricultural biomass supply chain resilience: COVID-19 outbreak vs. sustainability compliance, technological change, uncertainties, and policies. Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain, 4, 100049. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clscn.2022.100049 https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202406.1327.v2C https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202406.1327.v2C https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100510 https://www.paradigmpress.org/%20le/article/view/1039 https://www.paradigmpress.org/%20le/article/view/1039 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30768 https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v8i3.2148 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2022.01.001 doi:%20https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2022.2145246 doi:%20https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2022.2145246 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12388 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_13 https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054358 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34584 https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2021.2024125 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clscn.2022.100049